South Africa is a water-stressed countrywhere water planners and managers arefaced with increasingly complex issues.

The country is largely semi-arid and prone toerratic, unpredictable extremes in the form ofdroughts and floods. Water is most abundantin the geographically small escarpment areas,which run in a narrow strip from the north-east of the country down the eastern andsouthern seaboards, remote from the majordemand centres in the hinterland. Many largestorage dams have been constructed to regu-late the natural variable flow of rivers and tofacilitate water transfers between catchments.

Rivers are the main source of water in SouthAfrica. Country-wide, the average annualrainfall is less than 500 mm, compared with aworld average of about 860 mm. On average,only some 9% of rainfall reaches the rivers.Sixty-five percent of the country receives lessthan 500 mm, which is generally accepted asthe minimum required for successful dry-landfarming. Twenty-one percent of the country,mainly in the arid west, receives less than 200mm a year.

The Orange River Basin is the largest river basin in South Africa with a totalcatchment area of 1 million km2, almost600 000 km2 of which is inside South Africa,the remainder being in Lesotho, Botswanaand Namibia.

Every year, South African rivers receive 50 billion m3 of water with a further 6 bil-lion m3 available from underground aquifers.This translates into 1 400 kilolitres per personper annum. Of this 56 billion m3, 21 billion is utilised. Of this volume, 52% is used for agri-culture and irrigation, 8% for forestry, 11%for industry, 10% for domestic use, with19% allocated to ensure sustainable environ-ment.

Apart from erratic rainfall and the lowratio of run-off, which affects the reliabilityand variability of river flow, the averageannual potential evaporation is higher than the rainfall in all but a few isolatedareas where rainfall exceeds 1 400 mm peryear. Only about 32 000 million kilolitres ofthe annual run-off can be economicallyexploited using current methods. Usablerun-off is further reduced by land uses suchas commercial afforestation and sugar cane,and by high evaporative losses from thenumerous storage dams throughout thecountry.

Farm dams, of which there are a largenumber, can seriously reduce the flow ofrivers and streams during the dry season and

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On 1 July 2001, South Africa reached a historicalmilestone with more than 50% of the South Africanpopulation receiving 6 000 free litres of basic water permonth. The programme will be implemented by smallerand lesser resourced municipalities over a period of twoyears.

also delay the run-off water at the onset ofthe rainy periods.

Furthermore, rainfall, and to a greater extentrun-off, is poorly distributed in relation to theareas of greatest economic activity. Accordingly,water is transported over great distances fromareas of relative abundance to areas of increas-ing demand. For instance, water supplies in thepopulous and economically important indus-trial hub in Gauteng are supplemented bytransfers from the better-watered east.

The aim of the Department of WaterAffairs and Forestry is to ensure the availabil-ity and supply of water on a national level andto promote forestry development.

The past few years have seen a number ofachievements in the management of waterresources in South Africa, and the implemen-tation of the internationally-acclaimed Na-tional Water Act, 1998 (Act 36 of 1998). Keyachievements include:• development, with stakeholders, of water

conservation and demand-managementstrategies for the industrial, agriculturaland domestic sectors.

• a drive to register all significant users ofraw water for the proper management ofscarce water resources and for the imple-mentation of the national pricing strategyas promulgated in 1999.

• the introduction of the new licensing sys-tem, under the National Water Act, 1998,for abstraction and effluent discharge.

• the initiation of a project to develop a pri-cing strategy for waste discharges.

• the completion of a strategic environ-mental assessment for water use for theMhlatuze catchment, as a pilot in thedevelopment of a strategic environmentalassessment.

• the development of policy and guidelinesfor the establishment of catchment-man-agement agencies, and the initiation ofconsultative processes for the establish-ment of such agencies in a range of water-management areas.

• the creation of work opportunities for 20 000 people under the poverty-reliefprogramme of the Working for Water Pro-gramme.

• the further development of progressiveapproaches to the control of alien invasivespecies.

• the establishment of an interdepartmentalcoordinating committee focusing on theprovision of general and financial supportto small-scale and emerging farmers.

Water for all

According to the Constitution of SouthAfrica, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), it is every per-son's right to have access to clean water.Since 1994, approximately 6,5 million people

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Major dams of South Africa

Full Supply RiverCapacity (106m3)

Gariep 5 340 OrangeVanderkloof 3 171 OrangeSterkfontein 2 616 NuwejaarspruitVaal 2 603 VaalPongolapoort 2 445 PhongoloKatse 1 518 MalibamatsoBloemhof 1 240 VaalTheewaterskloof 480 SonderendHeyshope 451 AssegaaiWoodstock 380 TugelaLoskop 361 OlifantsGrootdraai 354 VaalKalkfontein 318 RietGoedertrouw 304 MhlatuzeAlbert Falls 288 MgeniBrandvlei 284 BrandvleiSpioenkop 277 TugelaUmtata 253 MtataDriekoppies 250 LomatiInanda 241 MgeniHartbeespoort 212 CrocodileErfenis 207 Groot VetRhenosterkop 204 ElandsMolatedi 200 Groot MaricoNtshingwayo 198 NgaganeZaaihoek 192 SlangMidmar 175 Mgeni

Source: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

have been provided with basic water supply,at an average per capita cost of R607.Construction has been completed on 323water supply projects, creating 73 000 tem-porary jobs, and 42 water schemes have beentransferred.

In the area of sanitation, 178 000 peoplebenefited from the Health and Hygiene Edu-cation and Awareness Creation phase of 182projects. Only 13 projects have been com-pleted in the second phase (infrastructureprovision), providing a total of 17 991 toiletssince 1997.

The outbreak of cholera has underlined theneed for rapid delivery of basic sanitation ser-vices. A new strategy has been developed thatwill integrate the above phases.

In September 2000, it was announced thatpoor families would be provided with 6 000free litres of water per month. Following theinstruction to assist local governments toimplement a free basic water programme,several actions were undertaken, including:• establishing a task team to manage the

process• producing training and information docu-

ments and holding workshops• creating a user-friendly interactive financial

model for local government• creating a website dealing with free basic

water.On 1 July 2001, South Africa reached a his-torical milestone with more than 50% of theSouth African population receiving free basicwater.

A survey done by the Department of WaterAffairs and Forestry showed that 51% of allSouth Africans – or 23 million people – livedin areas where municipalities had committedthemselves to supplying a basic amount ofwater free of charge every month.

Implementing Sustainable WaterServices Institutions Programme(ISWIP)The ISWIP is a selection of pilot projects toinvestigate various institutional arrangementsfor the provision of water services, specific-ally for the rural areas. Projects are under wayin KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, NorthernProvince and Mpumalanga. Valuable lessonsfrom these are being used as input for design-ing the institutional development parts of theMasibambane Programme.

Late in November 2000, the EuropeanUnion (EU) committed about 75 million Euros(R500 million) for water and sanitation pro-jects in three provinces in South Africa. Closeto 2,4 million people from the NorthernProvince, the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natalstood to benefit. The donation would beadded to government funds and bring theamount allocated for supplying water and san-itation over the next three years to R2,2 billion.The project, dubbed Masibam-bane (a Zuluword meaning let us work together) wasexpected to start on 1 April 2001. The contri-bution was for infrastructural and policy dev-elopment as well as institutional support to various levels of government. The first phasewas valued at around R301 million, and the re-mainder would be subject to a positive reviewof the first phase. A sanitation strategy hasbeen developed to fast-track sustainable sani-tation services delivery in the country based ona study carried out in these three provinces.

Community Water Supply andSanitation (CWSS) ProgrammeThe Department of Water Affairs and For-estry's CWSS Programme was initiated in1994 to achieve the constitutional objectiveof ensuring that all South Africans haveaccess to sufficient water and a healthy living

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In November 2000, the Minister of Water Affairs andForestry, Mr Ronnie Kasrils, signed an agreement onregional co-operation in the use of water from the OrangeRiver. The establishment of the Orange-Senqu RiverCommission took place in Windhoek, Namibia, and wasattended by representatives from South Africa, Lesotho,Botswana and Namibia. The Commission will study thefuture uses of a shared river system called a 'river basininstitution'. Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia and SouthAfrica share the Orange River, the largest watercoursesystem south of the Zambezi. The main tributaries to thesystem are the Molopo in Botswana, the Malibamatso inLesotho, the Fish in Namibia and the Vaal in South Africa.The Commission will develop a comprehensiveperspective of the Orange Basin and determine therequirements for flow monitoring and flood management.

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environment, with the focus on rural areas.One aim of the CWSS Programme is tocapacitate local government and promote thesustainability of water-services projects.During 1999/00, R75 billion was spent onsanitation. New projects are identified at locallevel and prioritised by the provincial planningfora, in which provincial and local govern-ments are active participants. Close co-ordination is promoted with the MunicipalInfrastructure Programme, which has focusedprincipally on providing for new develop-ments in urban areas. The Department ofWater Affairs and Forestry provides ongoingtechnical support for the assessment of pro-ject viability.

Where capacity exists, the operation ofexisting water-supply schemes at local level –particularly in the Northern Province andMpumalanga – will be handed over to localgovernments or water boards. Programmesare under way to ensure effective operation ofexisting schemes and to promote regionalwater supply. Structures to steer and facilitatethe transfer of water-services works have beenset up. These structures will take over theresponsibility for the transfer of assets fromthe Department. These structures are the:• Interdepartmental Transfer Committee• National Transfer Steering Committee• National Transfer Task Team. Part of this process is an initiative to reviewand reposition the functions of water boardswith the South African Local Government,Association, the Department of Provincial andLocal Government and the South AfricanAssociation of Water Boards. As required bythe Water Services Act, 1997, the Depart-ment has commenced a process to monitorthe viability of existing boards. In line with theGovernment's policy of co-operative gov-

ernance, the Department is developing aframework for water services capacity-build-ing and training in the local government sec-tor, which will form part of the Department ofProvincial and Local Government's LocalGovernment Transformation Programme.

The Minister of Water Affairs and Forestryhas initiated a sanitation project in Nkowa-nkowa in the Northern Province; a water-sup-ply project in Matsulu, Mpumalanga; the Ing-wavuma community water-supply project inKwaZulu-Natal; the Rustfontein water workssupplying ThabaNchu and Botshabelo; andthe Baviaanspoort waste water works servingMamelodi, Gauteng.

In January 2001, in response to the choleraepidemic in KwaZulu-Natal, the Ministerannounced that a minimum of R15 millionwould be made available from the nationalreprioritisation of funds to the former UguRegional Council to be spent in 2000/01.

These funds would provide 65 000 peoplewith sanitation and 30 000 people with waterin five communities. Additional funds will beallocated on the basis of progress. The Uguinitiative will also serve as an important kick-start for acceleration of the rural sanitationprogramme in the province.

In addition to the R15 million, the Depart-ment re-allocated a further R20 million to theUthungulu region and other affected areasfor the provision of sanitation and waterbefore the end of the 2000/01 financial year.

A further R100 million will be made avail-able over the next three years for the deliveryof water and sanitation services in cholera-affected areas in KwaZulu-Natal.

With the help of a R320-million EU grant,the total allocation over the next three yearsfor the provision of water and sanitation toKwaZulu-Natal will be R670 million. This rep-resents a 50% annual increase on the currentexpenditure.

Water policy

South Africa is developing a multidisciplinaryapproach to managing the country's scarcewater resources, based not only on technical

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In November 2000, the Minister of Water Affairs andForestry, Mr Ronnie Kasrils, signed a partnershipagreement with Roundabout Outdoor and the UnitedStates' Kaiser Family Foundation for the installation of100 merry-go-rounds, which use the energy of childrenat play to pump water to rural communities.

Information

considerations, but also on economic, social,political and environmental considerations.This new approach to integrated water-resources management will be enshrined in aNational Water Resources Strategy.

Sanitation Policy Review ProgrammeThe Department of Water Affairs and Forestryis leading a process of reviewing the DraftNational Sanitation Policy with a view to sub-mitting it to Cabinet as an updated WhitePaper. It is taking this process forward in part-nership with the other members of theNational Sanitation Task Team which includesthe departments of Health, Education, Prov-incial and Local Government, EnvironmentalAffairs and Tourism, and Housing as well asthe Mvula Trust and the Development Bankof Southern Africa.

The Review was deemed necessary to con-sider the lessons learnt, other related policyand legislative developments, and sanitationexperiences over the past five years. Thecholera epidemic has also compelled stake-holders in the sanitation sector to reconsiderimplementation strategies.

Water Services Act, 1997The Water Services Act, 1997 (Act 108 of1997), aims, among other things, to• ensure and define the rights of access to

basic water supply and basic sanitationservices

• set out the rights and duties of consumersand those who are responsible for provid-ing services

• allow the Minister of Water Affairs andForestry to set national standards (includingnorms and standards for tariffs) to ensuresufficient, continuous, affordable and fairwater services

• promote the effective and sustainable useof financial and natural resources

• regulate contracts for the provision of waterservices to promote their fair and transpar-ent provision

• create effective and financially viable stat-utory institutions to assist local governmentto fulfil its obligations under the Act.

The following sets of regulations have beendeveloped, and are awaiting approval of theMinister prior to promulgation:• Regulations under Section 9 (1) of the Act,

dealing with compulsory national standards• Regulations under Section 10 (1) of the Act,

dealing with norms and standards for tariffs• Regulations under Section 19 (5) of the

Act, dealing with contracts for water-services providers.

National Water Act, 1998The National Water Act, 1998 provides for• integrated management of surface water

and groundwater• sustainable use of groundwater within the

average annual replenishment rates• devolution of groundwater management to

local level• the Government to play a support role

through functions such as awareness, in-formation provision and capacity-building.

The Act does not differentiate between sur-face water and groundwater with respect toallocation, protection and conservation. TheAct aims to control the use of water re-sources, protect them from being abused andpolluted, and ensure that every person hasequitable access to water resources.

On 1 October 1999, the Department ofWater Affairs and Forestry started a registra-tion drive for users of large amounts of un-treated raw water.

The new measures will not apply to usersof borehole water for domestic purposes,those who use it to grow food for sub-sistence, or those who use it to water a fewhead of cattle. It will affect those who drawwater from a dam, stream or undergroundaquifer and use it for irrigation, mining,industrial use and feedlots.

Water users had to register before 30 June2001 or faced paying a late registration penal-ty of the greater of R300 or 10% of out-standing water charges. The registration ofusers of raw water will for the first time pro-vide the knowledge base needed to managethe country's water resources more effectively.The process will also see the management

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charges levied on commercial users of waterfrom 1 April 2002.

Water resources quality management

Water resources management in South Africahas undergone major revision along with thereform of water policy and legislation.TheNational Water Act, 1998, provides the prin-ciples for water resources management. Theobjective of this policy is to manage waterresources in an integrated manner that willensure a healthy, stable water-resource baseto meet the current and future needs ofSouth Africa.

The definition of water quality has beenextended to a more comprehensive considera-tion of water-resources as dynamic aquaticecosystems, including indicators such as bi-otic diversity and the status of river-bankhabitat. Water-resource quality provides anindication of the status of water resourcesand the ability of the resources to provide sus-tained access for use. Recognising that pro-tection and conservation are not goals inthemselves, the policy reflects the reality thatimpacts are associated with water use.

Water-resources management provides aprotective framework that is intended to safe-guard water-resource quality against unsus-tainable practices, through a system of sourcecontrols and resource protection measures.Source-directed measures include a range ofregulatory controls aimed at the sources ofimpacts on water resources, such as • limitations on abstractions• prescribed volumes and quality of waste

water discharges that may take place.Resource-directed measures focus on thewater resource as an ecosystem, and providemeasures designed for the required level ofprotection for that resource, such as• minimum flow conditions that must be

maintained• provision for biotic mobility.A classification system will provide the basisfor setting appropriate resource quality ob-jectives and source controls for the manage-

ment of the resource. Water use is allocatedaccording to the resource class, including theuse of certain water resources for disposal ofwaste discharges. Water resources classified assensitive or environmentally important may bestringently controlled, with water use alloca-tions limited to minimise detrimental impacts.

While recognising that water resources arenot freely available for uncontrolled impacts, itis not realistic to prevent all impacts in eco-nomically important water resources. Con-trolled impacts will be permitted and managedwithin a system of waste minimisation tech-nologies, pollution prevention, recycling and re-use of water. A system of economic incentiveswill form part of the management approach,through the introduction of waste-watercharges in a phased manner intended to fosteruse of low-water or zero-waste technology.

Voluntary as well as mandatory measuresfor water conservation are intended to ensurethat water is used efficiently, as are demand-ing management strategies, which increas-ingly form part of water supply, managementand development decision-making. Theestablishment of formal structures for integ-rated management of water resources atcatchment and local level will bring a newdimension to the management of waterresource quality. Stronger user representationof all interest groups will ensure equitableallocations among the user groups, as boththe costs and benefits of utilising waterresources are realised by the stakeholders.Decision-making will be devolved to theappropriate level, allowing those most affect-ed by the decisions to provide primary inputthrough catchment agency structures.

There has been significant progress in theestablishment of catchment managementagencies. These will play an important role inthe execution of policy on water-resourcemanagement. The country has been dividedinto 19 water-management areas.

Working for Water ProgrammeThe Working for Water Programme is alabour-intensive initiative to clear invadingalien plants. These introduced species are

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having a negative impact on South Africa'swater security, biological diversity, the ecolo-gical functioning of natural systems, the pro-ductive use of land, and the intensities of firesand floods.

Estimates are that over 10 million ha – big-ger than the size of KwaZulu-Natal – isalready invaded by alien plants, and thatthese invaders are spreading and growing ata rapid rate. They are estimated to be usingabout 7% of the country's mean annual run-off of water. In terms of fires, it has beenreported that every house that burned downin the January 2000 fires along TableMountain – which gave birth to theSantam/Cape Argus Ukuvuka: OperationFirestop Campaign – was surrounded byinvading alien plants.

The Programme is having a marked in-fluence on employment opportunities, train-ing and capacity-building, community em-powerment, social development and the creation of secondary industries. It focuses onthe most marginalised – the poor, rural com-munities, women, the disabled, and those living with Acquired Immune DefiencySyndrome (AIDS).

The Working for Water Programme is amultidepartmental initiative led by thedepartments of Water Affairs and Forestry,Environmental Affairs and Tourism, and Agri-culture. It started in 1995 with a budget ofR25 million and has grown into one of theGovernment's key Poverty Relief Fund initi-atives. Its direct budget through governmentfunding for 2000/01 was R230 million fromthe Poverty Relief Fund, R87 million from theDepartment of Water Affairs and Forestry,and R6,5 million from the Department ofSocial Development. Indications are that upto 90% of the budget was spent in almost300 projects across the country, employingover 18 000 people. These figures excludethe contributions being made through part-nership programmes, such as those being runthrough Rand Water and the UkuvukaCampaign.

About 250 000 ha was cleared of invadingalien plants during 2000/01.

Flood and drought managementIn terms of the South African Disaster Man-agement Policy, there is a major move infocus from reactive to preventive disastermanagement. This will inevitably move theSouth African flood management focus fromstructural to non-structural, such as attachingspecial value to floodplain zoning and floodwarnings.

Dams and water schemesA number of new projects are being under-taken by the Department of Water Affairsand Forestry. It is departmental policy toensure that water-demand management pro-grammes are implemented before embarkingon new infrastructure development.

Construction of the Injaka Dam is takingplace in Mpumalanga on the Marite River, amajor tributary of the Sabie River. The Damwill augment the water supply to the ruralcommunities of Mapulaneng, Mhala and Nzi-kazi North, and its capacity will be sufficientto supply domestic water to the area for thenext 15 to 20 years.

Work is progressing on the construction ofthe R1,1-billion Maguga Dam on the KomatiRiver in Swaziland as the second subphase ofthe first phase of the Incomati River Basindevelopment. The Dam will be completed in2002.

One of the most ambitious binationalwater projects ever to be undertaken is theLesotho Highlands Water Project by SouthAfrica and Lesotho. The completion of thefirst phase was celebrated in January 1998.The first phase of the project is composed of1A and 1B. The main components of 1A aredams at Katse and Muela, an 82-km watertransfer tunnel, and a hydroelectric plant atMuela. Phase 1B will include the constructionof the Mohale Dam and tunnel and theMatsoku tunnel and weir. Phase 1B wasexpected to deliver its first water from theMatsoku River Diversion into the Katse Damby mid-2001. The Mohale Dam will be com-pleted in 2003.

Planning studies and environmental impactassessment have been compiled on the pro-

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posed Skuifraam Dam on the Berg River nearFranschhoek. The Dam was also reviewedagainst the World Commission on DamsGuidelines with satisfactory results.

The Levuvhu Water Scheme will providenine million people in the Northern Provincewith drinking water. The Scheme will also sta-bilise the water supply for irrigation, and alle-viate water shortages in the Kruger NationalPark. It will be run through the Department ofWater Affairs and Forestry's CWSS Pro-gramme while municipalities gain the experi-ence and capacity needed to handle the pro-vision of services.

Construction of the Nandoni Dam startedin May 1998, and it will store water fromJanuary 2003. The total cost of the projectwill be R750 million.

Progress is being made on the implementa-tion of a Commission in the Orange-SenquBasin between Lesotho, Namibia and SouthAfrica. The country is also engaged in a num-ber of collaborative projects with Mozam-bique and Swaziland. It is working with theseneighbours to establish an interim water-sharing agreement as a first step towards theimplementation of full basin managementarrangements as provided for in the SouthAfrican Development Community (SADC)Protocol on Shared Rivers.

South Africa is also giving specific supportto Swaziland to promote the Lower UsutuIrrigation Scheme, which is part of theLubombo regional SDI.

Drainage and hydrologyWorldwide, 31% of all rainfall returns to thesea by way of rivers. In South Africa, with itsabundant sunshine and high evaporationrate, the figure is a mere 9%.

The combined annual run-off of all SouthAfrican rivers amounts to 53 500 million m3.This is only half the run-off of the ZambeziRiver and roughly equal to that of the NileRiver at Aswan in Egypt or the Rhine River atRotterdam in the Netherlands. South Africalies in a drought belt. Rainfall is seasonal andis influenced by topography. The slopes of theeastern plateau, which cover 13% of the sur-

face area of South Africa, account for nearly43% of the total run-off. The Orange RiverSystem, which drains almost the entire plateau – 48% of the total surface area of thecountry – accounts for only 22,5% (about 12 060 million m3) of the total annual run-offto the sea.

Truly perennial rivers (those that flow allyear round) are only found over one quarterof South Africa's surface area – mainly in thesouthern and south-western Cape and on theeastern plateau slopes.

Rivers that flow only during the rainy sea-son are found over a further quarter of thesurface area. Rivers in the western interior areepisodic, that is, they flow only sporadicallyafter infrequent storms, while their beds aredry for the rest of the year.

Research on river ecosystems is funded bythe Water Research Commission and theNational Research Foundation. (See chapter:Science and Technology.)

Lakes and pansExcept for Lake Fundudzi, which was formedby a huge landslide in the Soutpansberg inthe Northern Province, there are no trueinland lakes in the country. Coastal 'lakes' arefound at Wilderness on the Cape south coast,and at St Lucia, Sibaya and Kosi Bay on theKwaZulu-Natal coast. Although they are sel-dom without water, lakes Chrissie andBanagher near Ermelo in Mpumalanga differlittle from the innumerable 'pans' to be foundin a wide belt from the Northern Capethrough the western Free State to the North-West.

Groundwater resourcesGroundwater, despite its relatively small con-tribution to bulk water supply (13%), rep-resents an important and strategic waterresource in South Africa.

Owing to the lack of perennial streams inthe semi-desert to desert parts, two-thirds ofSouth Africa's surface area is largely depend-ent on groundwater. Although irrigation isthe largest user, the supply to more than 300towns and smaller settlements is also

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extremely important. Through government'scommitment to meeting basic water needs ofcommunities, groundwater has also becomea strategic resource for village water supply inthe wetter parts of the country, because of itscost-effectiveness in a widely scattered small-scale user situation. Underground watersources also contribute to river flow. This willrequire reserving a significant part of ground-water resources for the protection of aquaticecosystems in terms of the National WaterAct, 1998. The maximum quantity of ground-water that can be developed economically isestimated at about 5 400 million m3 a year. Anational groundwater mapping programmeand the development of a national ground-water information system form part of thenew strategy. A number of important sec-ondary maps such as national exploitationpotential, groundwater importance, classi-fication, and groundwater pollution vulnera-bility maps have also been produced.

Forestry

Indigenous forests are indispensable to thecountry's heritage, beauty, wildlife and en-vironment, while commercial forests providejobs and economic opportunities for manypeople in the rural areas. Forestry represents amassive investment in the country, and couldplay an important role in the rural develop-ment strategy. South Africa has developedone of the largest man-made forestry re-sources in the world. Production from theseplantations approached 16 million m3, valuedat almost R2,3 billion in 1998/99. Togetherwith the products processed from it, the totalindustry turnover was around R11,8 billion in1998/99, including R4 billion worth of paper.More than 8,7 million t (pulpwood, miningtimber, matchwood and charcoal) and 5,1 million m3 (sawlogs, veneer and poles)were sold in this period.

Collectively, the forestry sector employsabout 125 000 people. An equivalent ofabout 75 000 full-time staff is employed inthe primary sector (growing and harvesting)while the balance is employed in the process-

ing industries (sawmilling, pulp and paper,mining timber and poles, and board prod-ucts).

About half of the 1 100 indigenous treespecies found in South Africa grow along thesouth and east coasts and on the southernand south-eastern slopes of inland moun-tains. The other half is spread over the inter-ior plateaux.

The yellowwood tree (Podocarpus species)is South Africa's national tree. Yellowwoodtrees can grow to a height of more than 40 mwith a girth of eight metres, and can live upto 800 years. The Big Tree near the StormsRiver Bridge (46 m), the King Edward VII inthe Knysna forest (46 m) and the EasternMonarch in the Amatola Mountains (44 m)are the best-known giants.

Two different Trees of the Year are nom-inated annually: a common variety and ascarcer, possibly endangered, species. The2000 Trees of the Year were the wild willowand the African wattle. Trees of the Year for2001 were the Wild Pepper tree (Loxystylisalata) and Sneezewood (Ptaeroxylon obliqu-um).

National Arbor Week is celebrated at thebeginning of September every year to encour-age the greening of South Africa. In 2000,Arbor Week was held from 1 to 7 Septemberwith the theme Trees heal our land.

The launch of the 2000 Arbor Week in-cluded the Remembrance Campaign, whichentailed the planting of trees to rememberfallen heroes. This was followed by theestablishment of a remembrance registerwhich will include the names of people com-memorated through tree-planting events.The theme of 2001 Arbor Week was Treesare life.

Managing the forestsThe Department of Water Affairs and Forestryis pursuing a reform programme in the for-estry sector which will eventually see theGovernment leasing State-owned forest landto private-sector operators.

The Department will move from the man-agement of plantations towards promoting,

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regulating and developing the forest industry.The forestry policy of the Department focuseson several elements:• overall policy on the place of forestry in the

management of land, water and other nat-ural resources

• industrial forestry• community forestry• the conservation of natural forests and

woodlands• South Africa's response to global concerns

about forests• research, education and training• South Africa's relationship with SADC mem-

bers and bilateral relations with countriesbeyond the SADC.

The policy has been applied, tested and dev-eloped in accordance with the following prin-ciples:• sustainable forest development• forests and forest resources are to be

treated as national assets• democratisation• gender equity• people-driven development• recognition of the scarcity of water

resources• a competitive and value-adding forest sector• decent employment conditions.The overall goal of the Government is to pro-mote a thriving forestry sector, to be utilisedfor the lasting benefit of the nation anddeveloped and managed to protect the en-vironment. Forestry is moving away frombeing an operational function towards policyand regulation. Policy and regulatory divisionshave now been established. Significant pro-gress has been made in transferring part ofthe commercial forestry function to otheragencies. Cabinet has approved the transferof a large portion of commercial forests toSouth African Forestry Company Limited (SAFCOL) and private companies.

In addition, a pilot project on the transferof small plantations to communities is nearingcompletion. Progress has also been made inimproving the management of indigenousforests with the active involvement of localcommunities.

In September 2000, the Ministers of PublicEnterprises and Water Affairs and Forestryannounced substantial progress in the re-structuring of the State's forest assets. Accor-ding to the announcements:• Forestry will be phased out of 12 000 ha on

the eastern and western shores of Lake StLucia. The land will be transferred to theGreater St Lucia Wetland Authority, andwill be incorporated into the conservationarea falling under the World Heritage Site.Forest plantations will be phased out with-in five years, after which the land will beincorporated into the Greater St LuciaWetland Park. This reflects the Govern-ment's commitment to the environment,and will encourage tourism investmentthrough the Lubombo SDI.

• The remaining 20 000 ha of forest planta-tion in the KwaZulu-Natal package will besold to the Siyaqhubeka Consortium com-prising Mondi Limited and ImbokodvoLemabalabala, a black-empowermentcompany representing communities livingnear the forest plantations. This area will besold for a consideration of R100 million inaddition to the lease rentals, which are val-ued at R48 million. The bidders haveagreed to take over all operational staffand have undertaken not to retrench anyof these staff for a minimum period ofthree years. The transaction is subject toCompetition Board approval.

• The Eastern Cape North package will besold for a total of R45 million to SingisiForest Products, which is a consortiuminvolving Hans Merensky Holdings andcommunity groups living in the areas adja-cent to the forest. The involvement of thecommunities has been facilitated by theEastern Cape Development Corporation.The bidders have agreed to take over allstaff and have undertaken not to retrenchany of these staff for a minimum period ofthree years. The transaction is subject toCompetition Board approval.

• Three parties have been shortlisted to bidfor the Mpumalanga/Northern Provincearea, which has been consolidated into a

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single package. The three short-listed bid-ders are GMO Renewable Resources of theUnited States, Pahapur of India and theAfrican Forest Consortium of South Africa.These parties will enter a bidding process.

• An in-principle agreement has been reached between South African NationalParks and the management of SAFCOL thatthe Tokai and Cecilia plantations situatedwithin the Table Mountain area will beincorporated into the Cape PeninsulaNational Park. The areas will, however, con-tinue to operate as commercial timber plan-tations, and SACFCOL will manage theseon an agency basis. Tourism facilities willoperate under the National Park, and theplantations will continue to serve as impor-tant public recreational areas. The partieswill work on a detailed agreement, whichwill involve the Department of Water Affairsand Forestry, the Department of Environ-mental Affairs and Tourism, SAFCOL andthe Cape Peninsula National Park.

• Forestry will be phased out of 15 000 ha inthe Boland area of the Western Cape and30 000 ha in the southern Cape currentlymanaged by SAFCOL. These plantationsare not commercially viable, and timber nolonger represents the best land-use optionin these areas. This will open opportunitiesfor other land uses including agriculture(particularly fruit and grapes), tourism andconservation. The process of conversionwill be carefully managed over a period of10 to 15 years. Various studies are underway to examine the best mechanisms formaking this land available. The remainingforestry areas (3 000 ha in the WesternCape and 30 000 ha in the southern Cape)will be managed by SAFCOL and may bere-offered in coming years.

The Department still controls 70 000 ha offorest, which had not been put up for sale,while 61 000 ha remains with SAFCOL.

SAFCOLThe main objective of the State-owned enter-prise SAFCOL is the development of theSouth African forestry industry and the opt-

imising of its assets and land value accordingto accepted commercial management prac-tice and conservation principles. The mainfunctions of the Company are:• timber growing and harvesting as well as

the growing and harvesting of otherforestry-related products

• sawmilling and timber processing, includingthe manufacture of timber and timber-derived products

• marketing of raw and processed timber in allits forms, both locally and internationally

• developing and managing of ecotourismactivities and facilities and agro-forestry pro-jects.

SAFCOL’s annual production of 3,2 million m3

of logs for sawmilling, pole-treating and pulpcomprises almost 20% of South Africa's pro-duction. The Company's share in its core busi-ness, namely softwood sawlog production,comprises more than a third of the country'stotal output.

In 2000, SAFCOL’s five sawmills processed300 000 m3 of round logs. This is almost 9%of South Africa's annual round wood intakefor the production of sawn timber.

Industry and exportsThe industry was a net exporter to the value ofalmost R3,4 billion in 1999, over 98% of whichwas in the form of converted value-addedproducts. The forest products industry currentlyranks among the top exporting industries in thecountry, contributing an estimated 4,03% tothe overall exports of manufactured goods in1999, and 2,2% of total imports.

Exports are dominated by the pulp andpaper sector (68% of all timber industry ex-ports), the balance being made up of exportsof sawn lumber, value-added solid woodproducts, wood chips, wattle extract and avariety of other products.

Capital investment in the industry amountsto some R33 billion, having grown at anannual real rate of close to 5% since 1980.The turnover of the industry amounts to anannualised R11,8 billion.

Stringent environmental codes of practiceare implemented in all plantation and pro-

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cessing activities. The Chief Directorate: For-estry of the Department of Water Affairs andForestry promotes optimal development offorestry and arboriculture in South Africa.

The National Forests Advisory Council(NFAC) was established in terms of theNational Forests Act, 1998 (Act 84 of 1998).It advises the Minister of Water Affairs andForestry on all aspects of forestry in the coun-try. The NFAC is actively involved in, amongother things, developing local criteria, indic-ators and standards for Sustainable ForestManagement (SFM), and how public accessto State-owned forests can be improved.

Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)The commercial forestry industry in SouthAfrica is committed to practising SFM. This isdemonstrated by the fact that today almost 1 million ha, or over two-thirds of the entirearea of commercial forestry plantations inSouth Africa, are certified by the ForestStewardship Council (FSC) and the ISO 14001certification schemes as being sustainablymanaged. South Africa now has the largestarea of FSC-certified plantations of any coun-try in the world. This is a remarkable achieve-ment considering that there were no certifiedplantations in 1996. Although not all theseforests are owned by the large forestry com-panies, the rapid expansion in this certifiedarea has been facilitated by the fact that allthese large companies have their own spe-cialist environmental departments whichensure, among other things, that their land ismanaged according to their own stringentenvironmental codes of practice. To promotetransparency, members of the public are in-vited to join company staff when these regu-lar audits are done. The commercial forestryindustry is also actively involved in the NFAC'sCommittee for SFM, whose primary job it isto develop criteria, indicators and standardsfor SFM which suit South African conditions.Despite the fact that these criteria and indica-tors have still to be developed, the industryhas developed a set of environmental guide-lines for the sustainable management ofcommercial timber plantations in South

Africa. The first edition of these guidelineswas published in 1995 and is widely used.The second edition was expected to be pub-lished in 2001.

LegislationThe restructuring of the forestry sector is sup-ported by two pieces of legislation, namelythe National Forests Act, 1998 (Act 84 of1998), and the National Veld and Forest FireAct, 1998 (Act 101 of 1998).

The National Forests Act, 1998, provides aframework for the development of principles,criteria, indicators and standards for SFM.Once these are in place, they will becomerequirements for the management of bothcommercial and indigenous forests. The Actwill also ensure that the public has reasonableaccess to State forest land for recreational,cultural, spiritual and educational purposes.In addition, provision is made for the protec-tion of indigenous forests as well as supportfor community forestry.

The National Veld and Forest Fire Act, 1998bans open-air fires when the risk of veld blazesin an area is high. It also introduces the con-cept of voluntary fire protection associationsformed by landowners. It furthermore obligesthe Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry tooperate a national fire-rating system in con-sultation with the South African WeatherService and fire associations. The Act alsoallows the Minister to impose minimum fire-fighting requirements on landowners.

Indigenous high forestHigh forest covers only about 900 000 ha ofthe country's surface. The Department isresponsible for the management of about350 000 ha of these forests, which occurmainly on the eastern and southern slopes ofmountain ranges from the Cape Peninsula inthe Western Cape to the Soutpansberg in theNorthern Province. High forest is normallyfound in isolated pockets, varying in size fromonly a few hectares to several thousands.

The largest area of high forest (35 000 ha)lies within a strip some 180 km long and 16 km wide between the Outeniqua and

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Tsitsikamma mountain ranges and the sea,extending from Mossel Bay in the WesternCape through Knysna to the Humansdorpdistrict in the Eastern Cape. High forest hasvirtually disappeared from the mountainranges from Mossel Bay westwards, andoccurs only in patches in mountain kloofs. Inthe Eastern Cape, indigenous forests occuralong the coast and on the Amatola andTranskei mountain ranges.

Forests in KwaZulu-Natal and the formerTranskei area of the Eastern Cape are gener-ally small, and those that are easily accessiblehave been heavily exploited in the past.

Although similar in composition to those ofthe Keiskamma area, these forests alsoinclude some of the tropical tree species fromthe northern parts of South Africa.

In Mpumalanga and the Northern Province,high forest occurs in patches in the mountainranges along the eastern edge of the Highveldplateau, while the largest areas are in theWoodbush and Soutpansberg ranges.

The single largest part of the indigenoushigh forest (some 43%) is managed by theChief Directorate: Forestry. Indigenous forestsare managed according to certain multiple-use objectives.

Systematic timber harvesting occurs inareas of the production management class.Harvesting is concentrated on over-maturetrees, with logs being sold by tender and/oron public auction. On average, 3 750 m3 ofround logs are harvested annually (150 m3 ofstinkwood, 750 m3 of yellowwood, 2 500 m3

of Australian blackwood and 350 m3 of otherspecies). Another valuable product of theindigenous forests of South Africa is theseven-week fern (Rumohra adiantiformis),which is harvested in the Knysna and Tsitsi-kamma forests.

Scrub forest and woodlandsThis vegetation covers extensive areas in thelow-lying, drier areas of the NorthernProvince, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga.Some areas of savanna and woodlands havebeen denuded for agriculture and firewood.Most tree species of the scrub forests and

woodlands grow slowly and do not reachgreat heights. The woodlands are, however, avaluable source of fuel, fencing material andother products. They provide protection forthe soil, and shelter and fodder for stock. Thetree growth along much of the coast is classi-fied as coastal scrub, with the exception ofpatches of high forest along the Transkeicoast and at Alexandria in the Eastern Cape.

Exotic plantationsDuring the thirties, the Government startedto establish extensive plantations to makeSouth Africa self-sufficient in its timberrequirements and to provide more job oppor-tunities in a diversified economy during thedepression years. Commercial plantations ofexotic species proved to be a sound invest-ment, and the private sector has establishedlarge plantations of pine, eucalyptus and wat-tle trees. The private sector now owns 987 016 ha of plantations or 70% of the totalplantation area, as well as virtually all the pro-cessing plants in the country.

The forestry industry is promoting ruraldevelopment and economic empowermentthrough a small-grower afforestation pro-gramme. Currently, there are more than 12 000 small emergent black timber growers,the majority of whom operate through schemes run under the auspices of SappiForests (Project Grow), Mondi Forests(Khulanathi) and the wattle industry (SouthAfrican Wattle Growers Union).

Plantation yieldsOf the 1 401 800 ha of plantations in 1999,52% were softwood species and 48% hard-wood species. Thirty-five percent of the plan-tation area was managed mainly for sawlogproduction, 42% for pulpwood and 17% formining timber, while the balance of 6% isgrown for the production of poles, match-wood (poplar) and other minor products.Plantation yields vary from an average of 16 m3

per ha per annum for softwood to 21 m3 perha per annum for eucalyptus and 10 m3 perha per annum for wattle (timber and barktogether). Likewise, the rotation ages vary

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from a maximum of 30 years in the case ofpine sawlogs, to six to 10 years in the case ofeucalyptus pulp and mining timber. The pro-duction from plantations amounted to some15,9 million m3 in 1999.

Primary wood processingSouth Africa currently has 138 primary wood-processing plants, 126 of which are ownedby the private sector. Of these, some 88 aresawmills, 10 mining-timber sawmills, 21 pole-treating plants, 14 pulp, paper and boardmills, two match factories and three charcoalplants. The total roundwood intake duringthe year was 16 789 872 cm3. The value ofsales of timber totalled R11 813 million. Anamount of some R9 745 million was investedin primary roundwood processing plants.

The two main pulp and paper-manufactur-ing companies in South Africa, Sappi andMondi, rank among the largest in the south-ern hemisphere and own assets in many partsof the world.

Research and trainingSouth Africa has world-class forestry researchinfrastructures and personnel, with almost2% of the forestry industry (private and pub-lic sector) turnover devoted to research. Thepriority fields of research range from tree-breeding through applied silviculture, climateand soils, environmental impact and manage-ment solutions, and forest biology to hydro-logy and forest protection.

Forestry research is undertaken by theInstitute for Commercial Forestry Research,Environmentek of the Council for Scientificand Industrial Research, the Plant ProtectionResearch Institute, the University of Stellen-bosch, and the Forestry and Agricultural Bio-technology Institute at the University of Pre-toria. All major forestry companies also havewell-established, in-house applied researchdivisions.

Degrees in forestry are offered by theFaculty of Agricultural Forestry Sciences at theUniversity of Stellenbosch, the University ofNatal (Pietermaritzburg) and the University ofVenda. Diplomas and limited degree courses

in forestry disciplines are also offered at thePort Elizabeth Technikon, George (SaasveldCampus). The Natal Technikon offers a dip-loma in Pulp and Paper Technology. Fort CoxCollege of Agriculture and Forestry offers adiploma in social forestry.

Skills training is provided by a number ofindustry-sponsored and in-house trainingcentres. Industry-sponsored bursaries areavailable, as are company-sponsored burs-aries for study at these institutions.

Forest Industries Education and Training Authority (FIETA)On 20 March 2000, FIETA was formally estab-lished after two years of negotiations be-tween employer and trade unions involved inthe forestry, wood products, furniture, andpulp and paper industries. Its main functionsare to perform Education Training QualityAssurance functions, to develop and runleadership programmes and to manage thedisbursement of training grants.

Community forestryIn South Africa, wood is the primary source offuel for some 12 million rural and urbandwellers. More than 10 million m3 of fire-wood is chopped annually in South Africa forfuel, some 2,8 million m3 of which is used inKwaZulu-Natal.

According to the White Paper on Sustain-able Forest Development in South Africa,community forestry is forestry designed andapplied to meet local social, household andenvironmental needs and to favour local eco-nomic development. It is implemented bycommunities or with the participation ofcommunities, and includes farm forestry,agroforestry, and tree planting in urban andrural areas, woodlots and woodland manage-ment by communities and individuals. TheWhite Paper states that community forestrywas neglected in South Africa in the past,when the Government focused on woodlotsfor fuel and construction.

Commercial farm forestry, in the form offarm wind-rows, shelter belts and woodlots,has proved quite successful, and no longer

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needs much support. Lately, community for-estry has gained impetus through changes inthe core functions of the Department ofWater Affairs and Forestry.

Food and Trees for Africa (FTAF)FTAF is the sub-Saharan African partner of theinternational Global Releaf greening organ-isation.

In August 2000, the Minister of WaterAffairs and Forestry launched the National Urban Greening Fund by handing over acheque of R1,2 million to FTFA, formerly Treesfor Africa. A national Urban GreeningStrategy has been prepared by the Depart-ment. The Urban Greening Fund will forgelinks between communities and local govern-

ments in their efforts to plant street trees, anddevelop parks and food gardens. FTFA's pro-jects have overseen the planting of more than1,2 million trees, and involved thousands ofcommunities in food gardening and othergreening activities.

EduplantEduPlant, the national schools programmefunded by the Eskom Development Founda-tion, contributes to the upliftment of schoolsthroughout South Africa by assisting disad-vantaged schools to grow their own food andto provide greener environments conduciveto learning. It focuses on permaculture andreceived a R2-million donation from theDepartment of Water Affairs and Forestry.

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Acknowledgements

Department of Water Affairs and ForestrySAFCOLThe Forest Owners’ AssociationWater Research Commission

Suggested readingDavies, B.R. and Day, J. Vanishing Waters. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press, 1998.Van Wyk, B. and Van Wyk, P. Field Guide to the Trees of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Struik, 1997.Venter, F and Venter, J. Making the Most of Indigenous Trees. Pretoria: Briza Publications, 1999