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S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Designing information architecture: theory and practice
I. IA as theory
• Information interaction as a basis for IA
• Information shape and semantic space
• Cognitive work analysis
II. IA practice
• What do IAs do?
• What do IAs have to know?
• IA deliverables
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Information interaction: Providing a framework for information architecture
Toms believes that there is a gap in our understanding of how we interact with information technologies
The model of information interaction can address this gap and provide a theoretical basis for IA
~What is an example of a way in which a web interface enhances the information task? Of an interface that hinders an information task?
~Apply the concept of information interaction to your use of a web site - what happens?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Toms argues that the initial focus should be how people interact in information-rich environments
Interaction: situated action with an IS involving querying, browsing (filling a gap in HCI)
Primarily use of GUI with some command line work
We “immerse ourselves” in info
IA enables access by providing a systematic and primarily visual approach to the organization of
content
IA facilitates the quest for informationToms, E.G. (2002). Information interaction: Providing a framework for information architecture. JASIST, 53(10), 855-862.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
How information interaction (II) occurs
We can come to a system with an “information task”
Problem-solving: we go through a patterned process and end with a relevance judgment
We can also have chance encounters, encounters with information, scanning activities
These are less patterned but still end with some type of judgment
Then we browse, navigate, search, evaluate…
II is the basis of the person’s use experience and is shaped by web technology
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
A model of information interaction
Formulate goal: object or purpose
Select category: approach system and select search term
Note cues: landmarks
Extract information
Integrate information
EvaluateToms (2002; 658)
I. IA as theory
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Spatial semantics and individual differences in the perception of shape in information space
Dillon argues that information spaces have shape, meaning that we perceive these spaces using a combination of structural cues
Using a sociocognitive approach, IAs can improve the design of these spaces by attending to spatial and
semantic affordances that are relevant for the audience
~ In what ways do you interact with the semantics of digital information spaces?
~ Based on this article, what should IAs do to improve the design of information spaces?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Problem: users experience disorientation in navigating large digital spaces to locate and use information
Complexity can overwhelm users’ abilities to filter and represent spaces in ways that allow navigation, seeking and use
The primary response has been to focus on visual display and the manipulation of interface variables
This is good for building usable artifacts but does not explain why interface characteristics produce the results that emergeDillon, A. (2000) Spatial semantics and individual differences in the perception of shape in information space. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(6), 521-528
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
A major source of cognitive overhead for users is the need to navigate complex information spaces
We use knowledge of genre and semantics to infer structure
This ability varies with expertise and experience
Semantics are crucial to the process through which a discourse community learns to shape its interactions over time
Design solutions attempt to reduce the load on short term memory with visual cues
They should also focus on semantic space because it is also important for users
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
A better approach focuses on spatial and semantic information, particularly on individual differences
Because when tasks are computerized, differences between users are increased, not reduced
Differences that matter
Deep, relatively constant psychological processes
Spatial ability or memory span
Knowledge-base differences are more transient and subject to alteration with training and experience
These interact to affect the user’s ability to perceive structure or shape in information space
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
How it works
A user perceives an information display and creates a dynamic working model of the information space based on current contents and format
Relevant spatial attributes combine with activated memories of just-processed information
Semantic attributes of the information genre applied top-down
Result: a continuously updated and modifiable dynamic representation of the space for a task
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
A case study of collaborative information retrieval
Fidel et al use a “cognitive work analysis” approach to conduct a case study of collaborative IR to uncover the factors that influence people's information behaviors
After contrasting psychological, social, and multidimensional approaches to information
behaviors they focus on the human-information interactions that occur in people's routine work activities
~ How does collaboration in the workplace influence people's information behaviors?
~ What is the advantage of using cognitive work analysis to study ways people use information in the workplace?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Recent activity has focused on theoretical development in human-information interaction
Critical: what is the set of variables that matter when considering this interaction?
Prior work as focused on a single dimension
They use a naturalistic approach to uncover the factors that make a difference in this type of II
They found that the factors that influence CIR are in different dimensions that interact with each otherFidel, R., Pejtersen, A.M., Cleal, B. and Bruce, H. (2004). A multidimensional approach to the study of human-information interaction: A case study of collaborative information retrieval. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 55(11), 939 - 953.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
The prevailing approach in information behavior research in LIS is psychological
It focuses primarily on cognitive factors and less on others, such as affective and perceptual factors
How cognition shapes IB
Allows quantification and measurement, and prediction
The objects of study are cognitive states and processes in relation to information behavior
Important concept is “information need”
Problem: ignores sociocultural, organizational, and technical dimensions
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
The social approach focuses on social, organizational, and political states and processes as impetus for IB
Focuses on the social context, interactions, and discourse through which II occurs
Does not consider “information need” as central to the understanding of IB
The study of IB cannot be based on isolated individuals, or outside a specific context
Problem: research with the social approach offers few descriptive generalizations about information behavior
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Multidimensional approach assumes IB takes place in complex contexts
Also that we are goal driven
The better this complexity is understood and analyzed, the more relevant the outcomes of research will be to the design of information systems and services
Requires flexible methods to understand information seeking and use in context
Studies using this approach typically focus on a specific group of people, in a certain context, performing a particular task
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
They use “cognitive work analysis”
Based on general systems thinking, adaptive control systems, and ecological psychology
Focus on work activities, organizational relationships, and constraints of the work place
Also actors’ cognitive and social activities and values, priorities and personal preferences performing tasks on the job
It is a holistic approach that makes it possible to account for several dimensions of IB and CIR
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
I. IA as theory
Component used here is the “decision ladder”
First: analyze the situation to understand problems and circumstances involved
Second: evaluate options, considering possibilities and consequences of each option
Third: make a decision and plan how to carry it out
Dimensions
Environment, work domain, organizational analysis
Task analysis in work domain terms; in decision making terms; in terms of strategies that can be used
Actor’s resources and values
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Designing information architecture: theory and practice
I. IA as theory
• Information interaction as a basis for IA
• Information shape and semantic space
• Cognitive work analysis
II. IA practice
• What do IAs do?
• What do IAs have to know?
• IA deliverables
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Information architecture without internal theory: An inductive design process
Haverty argues that IA as a profession is characterized by a lack of theory and that because of the way peoples work, the process must be inductive
This approach better allows the IA to understand the relationship between site structure and the user experience
~ What does it mean to describe IA as constructive induction?
~ In what ways would IA benefit from theory?
II. IA practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Haverty argues that IA must be inductive
It does not have an existing body of theory which typically guides the work of a field
Theory constrains acceptable solutions through formal validation
Without it, IAs tend to treat each problem as novel
Also, it supports emergent phenomena
The IA domain has a small set of initial components and a relatively simple set of rules
These lead to a large number of complex patternsHaverty, M. (2002). Information architecture without internal theory: An inductive design process. Journal of the ASIST, 53(10), 839-845.
II. IA practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
IA as constructive induction
This is a process for generating a design solution using two intertwined searches
First: identify the most adequate representational framework for the problem
Second: locate the best design solution within the framework and translate it to the problem at
hand
CI is useful when existing theory cannot adequately explain the object of study
II. IA practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Steps of CI
1. What are the basic design problems for the system?
Determine goals, vision, business and other requirements
Decompose the problem
Each requires a design solution
Haverty 2002, 841.
II. IA practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Steps of CI
2. Find a framework for each design problem
Identify a solution within the framework
May involve looking at work in other fields
Each requires a design solution
Haverty 2002, 841.
II. IA practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Steps of CI
3. Translate solution into a context of the current design problem
This is a creative step
Involves understanding the original concept and knowing how to repurpose it
Haverty 2002, 841.
II. IA practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Steps of CI
4. Integrate solutions into an overall IA
Validate the solutions against the original high level goals and objectives of the site
May involve member checking and usability work
•Haverty 2002, 841.
II. IA practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA practice
How has the job of the web administrator has changed over time
Several years ago, a “webmaster” would
Plan and develop the site
Design web pages
Hand code HTML
Write scripts and programs
Create content
Configure, maintain, and secure the web server
Today, these tasks are a smaller part of the jobhttp://www.boyscouttroop261.org/Webmaster.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
These days
Coders mark up the pages
Content developers write the pages
Graphic designers create the images
Programmers and database designers manage the back end
Technicians configure, maintain, and secure the computer equipment
http://jceo.org/_uploads/web%20team.JPG
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
And the web site administrator
Describes how the site should be organized
Describes what a web site ought to look like
Explains how it integrates into an overall management or marketing strategy
Manages web designers and developers
The job has evolved into more of a management position
What has it become?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
These days most large scale information design projects are done by teams
In the team, the IA plays a key role
IAs are deeply involved in web design but can work with any type of information design project
Software, game design, educational CDs
It is a professional role in web design and the design of digital media collections
IAs are responsible for developing and selling the overall structure and organization of the site
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
http://www.xmlbystealth.net/images/NY-69194-full.jpg
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
The evolution of the web site development has been in the direction of greater specialization
Technical
Managerial
Conceptual
Database designer
Programmer
HTML coder
Graphic designer
Content developer
Information architect
The company
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
It is a professional role in web design and the design of digital media collections
IAs are responsible for the overall structure and organization of the site
Involves organizing a site’s content into categories and creating an interface to support those categories
Also designing navigation and searching systems to help people find and manage information
A systematic, user-centered question-based process for creating digital products to communicate meaning and improve users’ performance
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
What should an IA know?
LIS: information organization and access
Computer science: programming and databases
Usability engineering: how people use the site
Graphic design: developing imagery to support the site’s mission
Writing: to explain to peers and decision makers
Psychology: understanding the intended audience
Marketing: developing the site so it can be sold to its intended audience
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
What else does an IA have to know?
Interaction design: creation and maintenance of tasks and processes that users will encounter in an information space
Project management: strategies, skills, and procedures to organize, lead and bring tasks to closure
Content management: processes, policies, and procedures governing the creation and
transfer of content
Knowledge management: processes, policies, and procedures that govern the organization’s
use of its “intellectual capital”
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
What does an IA do?
Planning: what are the main goals and strategy for the site?
Given the constraints what can be done?
What are the relevant content domains?
How are these domains related to each other?
What is the structure of these relationships?
Designing: what arrangement best supports the structure and organizational requirements?
Managing: what people, tools, resources are available?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Basic activities of IA
Structuring information
Data (facts and figures) to which we give meaning
Knowledge: Internalized and interpreted information
Structuring information spaces
Levels of granularity of different elements
Organizing content
Arranging these elements into meaningful categories and establishing relations among them
Labeling content and naming categories
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
A broad view of IA work
It involves developing and communicating a holistic view of a web site
It includes the overall social and technical structure of the site and the relationships among its elements
It requires the classification of site goals and objectives
IA places the web site into a larger social context
How will it affect the work flow, communications patterns, and distribution of power in the
organization?
How will it appear to its users?
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
What IAs do:
Illustrate key concepts or steps through graphics
Design site maps
Create metaphors to brand content and promote navigation
Develop style and formatting templates for elements of information
Conduct user analyses and test user experience
Create scenarios and storyboards
Build taxonomies and indicesDillon and Turnbull, 3
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Becoming an information architect
Versatility is important
Expect to be a project manager, a designer or both
Become familiar with the various tasks that must be accomplished by a web team
“Typically, IAs collaborate with a variety of people, [Garrett] notes, from marketing and design pros to business executives and customers. In some ways, they serve as the linchpin between various groups.”Hoffmann, A. (2007) Information Architects: Web Builders with a Sales Bent http://career-advice.monster.com/job-industryprofiles/technology/Information-Architects/home.aspx
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
In a typical project you can expect to:
Gather information from end-users and stakeholders
Design and conduct online surveys, interviews and the ethnographic technique of contextual inquiry and
analysis
Test the system in a manner with experts
Run usability tests in the lab
Encourage people to use the prototype
Solicit feedback, analyze search logs and continually learn from personal interaction with employees requesting information and research
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
An IA helps clients define their Internet strategies
Research, design, architect, develop and implement solutions that execute those strategies
Typically involves defining and documenting a site’s structure, navigation and interactivity
Based on translating client business rules and user needs into web structures and processes
The work becomes a blueprint contributing to the overall strategic direction, vision and scope of a
project
The IA works with “user experience modelers” to analyze and model user tasks and usage scenarios
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Model development requires attending to several perspectives
Content: features of the information space
Users: the common tasks and uses of the data
Organization: the constraints and requirements of stakeholders providing the data
Technical: the most appropriate standards and technologies
A workable model must balance internal organizational aspects (types of information and resources available) with external aspects (user and technical perspectives)
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Checklist: a mechanism for reminding and prompting attention to issues or topics
General: outlining the steps in a process
Specific: listing detailed items to be addressed
Find design problems early
Manage and leverage software and hardware infrastructure
Identify technology gaps
Enable most productive use of information assetsDowney, L. and Banerjee, S. (2011). Building an Information Architecture Checklist: Encouraging and Enabling IA from Infrastructure to the User Interface Architecture. Journal of Information Architecture 2(2)
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Purpose: remind reviewers of pertinent areas and specific issues to be addressed during systems design
IA checklists focus more on process, design, and design review
Do not include issues of infrastructure, platform, services, technology, policy, and standards
Exception: an informal search checklist
Includes system architecture, performance, access control, relevance tuning, federated search and analytics
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Purpose: remind reviewers of pertinent areas and specific issues to be addressed during systems design
Focus on process, design, and design review
Preparing and organizing information
Architecture: structure and composition of repository, information collection or individual document
Intelligence: content, metadata, categorization
Accessing information
Search and retrieval: querying information and obtaining matching results
Findability: quality of being locatable or navigable
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Revised checklist
Information organization: Taxonomy, modeling, structure, semantics
Information generation: content, user experience, system interface, scalability, standards
Information integration: analytics, search, composition
Information consumption: search, metrics, monitoring
Information governance: stewardship, master data management, reuse, policy
Information quality of service: security, availability, reliability, usefulness
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Design of social space
http://www.susqu.edu/campus_activities/Images/Social_Space/blueprint.jpg
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Design of information space
http://www.prosight.com/files/screenshots/solutions-architecture-overview.jpg
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Design of information space
http://www.chathamanimalrescue.org/images/site2.gif
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
Another view
http://www.mnsu.edu/its/web/wtf/categories1.jpg
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Site map for DoD Information Analysis Centers
http://iac.dtic.mil/site_map.html
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
UN Environment Program: Division of Technology, Industry and Economics
http://www.uneptie.org/energy/site_map/index.htm
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
http://knowledgefoundry.unc.edu/Webpage_for_Russian/Russian_Content_Map_v3_ch2.jpg
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Prototypes
An outline or storyboard of a functional prototype
Could also be a working prototypes with HTML, Flash, Director, or PowerPoint
Written reports
A narrative description of the site linking it to organizational mission, messages, and
marketing constraints
Change management
How will the site grow and change over time?
What will be involved in maintenance?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
To evaluate the visitor’s experience, use search, access and error logs
To check on search terms, where people go, and places where problems occur
To evaluate the site
Competitor analysis and comparison with previous versions
Have typical visitors do card sorts to assess chunking
Assess completeness of content and functionality: can you do what you are supposed to be able to do?Toub, S (2000). Evaluating information architecture: A practical guide for assessing web site organization. Argus Associates.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
To evaluate the site
Assess how the component parts are organized and interlinked
Determine the parent-child relationships and look for similar siblings grouped together
Determine degree of overlap among sections
A good hierarchy has both high within-category similarity and low between-category
similarity
A bad one has too much overlap between categories
This can be done by inspection
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
To evaluate the site
Evaluate the labeling scheme
How predictable are they?
How well do they reflect major categories and labels used in the site’s sector?
How effective are they?
Other criteria for evaluation
Does the site use language that visitors can understand?
How does the site handle errors?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Other criteria for evaluation
How often does the navigation require that the visitor return to the home page to go elsewhere in the site?
How effective is the use of icons?
How well are the forms constructed?
Is the design consistent throughout the site?
How well do the help file, site map or other finding tools work?
Is there a site map or other help function?
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
The elements of user experience: User-centered design for the web
Garrett argues that IAs must attend to the elements of the user experience when designing a digital space
The focus is on the five planes: strategy, scope, structure, skeleton and surface
Goal: take all aspects of the user experience into account
~ What are three main design scenarios and what are the problems with each?
~ How can an IA understand user needs better than the users?
II. IA as practice
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
The key to a successful web site is a successful user experience
This produces value in some way for the site’s owners
Increased sales, conversion rate, decreased abandonment
The goal is to improve efficiency
Helping them work faster or make fewer mistakes
There is a conceptual framework that can be used to deconstruct the elements of the user experienceGarrett, J.J. (2003). The elements of user experience: User-centered design for the web. Boston, MA: New Riders.
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
The planes of user experienceThe surface plane
Web pages, text, images, multimedia + functionalities
The skeleton plane
Buttons, tabs, blocked out space (for text/images etc)
The structure plane
The hierarchical organization of the information chunks
The scope plane
The range of content on the site
The strategy plane
What the site is supposed to do
S510: Introduction to Information Science Fall ‘14
II. IA as practice
Garrett’s model of the user experience
Web as interface
Web as hypertext
http://www.cmsreview.com/Resources/images/JJGElements.gif