S13-PostIndependenceIndiaPart-1 S14

S13-PostIndependenceIndiaPart-1

S14-PostIndependenceIndiaPart-2

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Post-Independence India Part - 1

By Dr. Roman Saini

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Topics To Be Discussed1. Consolidation of India

a. Political and Territorial Integrationb. Tribal Integration

2. Reorganisation of states

3. Problems with North-East Region

4. Early Political Developments

5. Economic Model and Planning

6. Green Revolution & Operation Flood

7. Economic & Banking Development





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1.Consolidation of India

Political & Territorial Integration





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Plan Of Consolidation ● After handling the worst nightmare of partition and its after

effects, Indian leadership strived hard to consolidate India as a single political unit and look after its internal affairs.

● The broad strategy for national consolidation after 1947 involved the following elements:

1. Territorial integration,2. Mobilization of political and institutional resources,

3. Economic development, and

4. Adopting policies that would promote social justice, remove glaring inequalities, and provide equal opportunities.





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● Unifying post-partition India and the princely states under one administration was perhaps the most important task faced by the political leadership.

● In colonial India, nearly 40% of the territory was occupied by 565 small and large states ruled by princes who enjoyed varying degrees of autonomy under the system of British Paramountcy.

● British crown protected them, from their own people and from external aggression, as long as they did British bidding.

● After the exit of British from India, many among 565 princely states began to dream of independence.

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● They claimed that they are not going to transfer their paramountcy to the new states of India and Pakistan.

● The ambitions of Princely states were fuelled by the then British PM Clement Attlee’s announcement on Feb 20, 1947, that stated, "His Majesty's Government does not intend to hand over their powers and obligations under paramountcy to any government of British India".

● With great skill and masterful diplomacy and using both persuasion and pressure, Sardar Patel succeeded in integrating the hundreds of princely states.

● Few princely states joined Constituent Assembly with wisdom, realism, and patriotism but other princely states still stayed away from joining it.





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● Princely states of Travancore, Bhopal, and Hyderabad publicly announced their desire to claim independent status.

● On June 27, 1947, Sardar Patel assumed additional charge of the newly created states department with V.P. Menon as its Secretary.





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Government’s Approach ● The government's approach was guided by the following three

considerations:

1. The people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to become part of the Indian Union.

2. The government was prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions. The idea was to accommodate plurality and adopt a flexible approach in dealing with the demands of the regions.

3. In the backdrop of partition, the integration and consolidation of the territorial boundaries of the nation had assumed supreme importance.





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● As the first step, Patel appealed to the Princes whose territories fell inside India to accede the supremacy of the Indian Union in three subjects which affected the common interests of the country, namely,

1. Foreign Relations, 2. Defence and 3. Communications.

● He also gave an implied threat that he would not be able to restrain the impatient people post-August 15, 1947.

● An appeal was issued to States with an implied threat of anarchy and chaos.

● Next step of Patel was to convince Mountbatten.





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● 25th July speech of Mountbatten to the Chamber of Princes finally persuaded the Princes.

● This speech ranked as the most significant Act of Mountbatten in India.

● After this, the rulers of most of the states signed a document called the "Instrument of Accession" which meant that their state agreed to become a part of the Union of India.

● Virtually all the states except three signed the instrument of accession:

1. Travancore2. Jodhpur3. Bhopal





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● Above three states later signed due to both public and political pressure.

● The accession of the following princely states proved more difficult than the rest such as

1. Kashmir (October 1947)

2. Junagadh (February 1948)

3. Hyderabad (September 1948)

4. Manipur





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1. Accession of Kashmir● In the state of Kashmir, the Hindu ruler of the state Hari Singh

did not wish to merge with India and tried to negotiate with India and Pakistan to have an independent status for his state.

● Since the majority population of the state was Muslim, the Pakistani leaders thought the Kashmir region 'belonged' to them.

● The popular movement in the state led by Sheikh Abdullah of the National Conference wanted to get rid of the Maharaja but was against joining Pakistan.

● On 22nd October 1947, several Pathan tribesmen unofficially led by Pakistan’s army officer invaded the state from north and reached up to Baramulla, were further advancing towards Srinagar.





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● On 24th October 1947, Hari Singh demanded military assistance from the Indian government.

● Mountbatten pointed out that under international law India can send its troops only after the state sign a formal instrument of accession.

● V. P. Menon went to Kashmir to resolve the issue.

● On 26th October 1947, Maharaja signed the instrument of accession.

● And also agreed upon Abdullah being appointed as the Head of the State administration.

● Pakistan army left the main valley region but continue to occupy a large chunk of the territory of Gilgit, Baltistan region.





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● In 1948, after the end of this proxy war, India lodged the complaint against Pakistan for their illegal action in the UN.

● Instead of getting justice at the UN, Western powers backed Pakistan.

● Both the USA and Britain supported Pakistan and even Nehru accepted that they were playing a dirty game.

● India also accepted the UN resolution on a ceasefire in spite of its advantageous position and agreed for plebiscite in Kashmir which laid down two conditions for holding plebiscite:–

1. Pakistan should withdraw its forces from the state of J&K.

2. The authority of the Srinagar administration should be restored over the whole state.





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● Above mentioned first conditions were never fulfilled so there was no plebiscite there.

● Finally, after a security council resolution, there was a ceasefire from 1st Jan 1948 and India and Pakistan agreed upon ceasefire line as Line of Control (LoC).

● After some days in 1951 constituent assembly met in Srinagar to formulate a constitution for the state and constituent assembly of state also ratified the accession in 1954.





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2. Accession of Junagadh● Junagadh was a small state on the coast of Saurashtra

surrounded by Indian Territory without any geographical contiguity with Pakistan.

● Yet its Nawab Mohabbat Khan announced the accession of his state to Pakistan on August 15, 1947.

● Even though the majority of the people, overwhelmingly Hindu, desired to join India.

● People of the state organized a popular movement and a group of Junagarhi people forced the Nawab to flee and formed Arzi Hukumat (a temporary government in exile).





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● It was led by Samal Das Gandhi.● The Dewan of Junagadh, Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the father of the

more famous Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto now decided to invite the Government of India to intervene.

● Indian troops marched into the state. ● Later, a plebiscite was held in the state in February 1948 which

favoured joining India.





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● Hyderabad the largest of the princely states and it was surrounded entirely by Indian Territory.

● Some parts of the old Hyderabad states are today parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

● Its ruler was called "Nizam" and one of the richest men of his time.

● Nizam Mir Osman Ali wanted an independent status for Hyderabad.

● Hence, he entered into the standstill agreement with India in November 1947 for a year while negotiations with the Indian Government were going on.

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● People's movement against Nizam's rule gathered momentum.

● Particularly the peasants of the Telangana region and women who had seen the worst of this oppression joined the movements in great numbers.

● Hyderabad town was the nerve centre of this movement.

● The communists and Hyderabad Congress were at the forefront.

● The Nizam retaliated on popular movement by unleashing a paramilitary force, Razakars on the people.

● The atrocities and communal nature of the Razakars knew no bounds.

● The murdered, maimed, raped and looted, targeting particularly the non-Muslims.





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● The central government had to order the army to tackle the situation.

● On 13th September 1948, Indian army under operation Polo (Code name of the Hyderabad Police Action) invaded the Hyderabad state and overthrew its Nizam, annexing the state merged it into the Indian Union.





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● Maharaja of Manipur Budhachandra Singh signed the Instrument of Accession with the Indian government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of Manipur would be maintained.

● Under the pressure of public view, the Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948 and thus the state became a constitutional monarchy.

● Manipur was the first part of India to hold an election based on universal adult franchise.

● There were some differences over Manipur's merger with India.

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● The state Congress was in favour but other political parties opposed this view.

● The government of India succeeded in pressurizing the Maharaja to signing a Merger Agreement in September 1949 without consulting the popularly elected Legislative Assembly of Manipur.

● It caused a wave of great anger and resentment in Manipur, the consequences of which are still being felt.





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French & Portuguese Possessions● After the integration of princely states, two issues were still

waiting to be sorted out:

1. French settlement (1954)

2. Portuguese settlements (1961)

● After prolonged negotiation, Pondicherry and other French possessions were handed over to India in 1954.

● Portuguese were not ready to hand over their areas.

● Its NATO allies supported Portugal’s position and India supported peaceful means.





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● There was an independence movement in Goa.● India was not involved but in 1961 when the popular movement

demanded support, Indian troops marched in Goa under Operation Vijay and Portuguese did surrender without any fight.





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● Smaller states were either merged with the neighboring states or merged together to 'form centrally administered areas'.

● A large number of states were consolidated into five new unions, forming

1. Madhya Bharat, 2. Rajasthan,

3. Patiala and East Punjab States Union [PEPSU],

4. Saurashtra and 5. Travancore-Cochin.

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● Mysore, Hyderabad, and Jammu and Kashmir retained their original form as separate states of the Union.

● Princes surrendered of all power and authority, in return to this, rulers of major states were given privy purses guaranteed by the constitution.

● The rulers were allowed succession to the gaddi and retained certain privileges such as keeping their titles, flying their personal flags, and gun salutes on ceremonial occasions.





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Tribal Integration





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● The uphill task of integrating the tribal population into the mainstream was extremely difficult given the diverse conditions.

● Under which they dwell in different parts of the country, having different cultures and speaking varied languages.

● The tribal population was spread all over India, their greatest concentration lies in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, North-eastern India, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan.

● Except for the North-East, they constitute minorities in their home states.

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● Residing mostly in the hills and forest areas, in colonial India they lived in relative isolation and their tradition, habits, cultures, and ways of life were exceptionally different from that of their non-tribal neighbours.

● Radical transformation and penetration of market forces integrated the isolated tribal people with the colonial power.

● A large number of money lenders, revenue farmers, traders, and other middlemen and petty officials invaded the tribal areas and disrupted the tribe's traditional way of life.

● The colonial authorities brought large tracts of forest lands under forest laws in order to conserve forests and to facilitate their commercial exploitation.





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● These laws forbade shifting cultivation and put severe restrictions on the tribal’s use of forest and their access to forest products.

● Following factors were to lead a series of tribal uprisings in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,

○ Loss of land, ○ Exploitation by middlemen,

○ Indebtedness, ○ Denial of access to forests and forest products,

○ Oppression and extortion by policemen, forest officials, and other government officials.





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● The preservation of the tribal people's rich social and cultural heritage lay at the heart of Government of India's policy of tribal integration.

● Jawaharlal Nehru has the main influence in shaping the government's attitude towards the tribals.

● Nehru stood for socio-economic development of the tribal people in multifarious ways, especially in the fields of communications, modern medical facilities, agriculture, and education.

● Nehru approach was based on the nationalist policy towards tribes.

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● There were certain broad guidelines laid down by Nehru which was called as "Tribal Panchsheel".

● They are the following:

1. People should develop along the line of their own genius and we should avoid imposing anything on them.

2. Tribals rights to land and forest should be respected.3. We should try to train and build up a team of their own

people to do the work of administration and development in the tribal areas.

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4. We should not over administer these areas or overwhelm them with a multiplicity of schemes.

5. We should not judge results by statistics or the amount of money spent but by the quality of human character that is involved.

● In spite of the constitutional safeguards and the efforts of central and state governments, the tribals progress and welfare have been very slow and even dismal.

● Except the North East, the tribals continue to be poor, indebted, landless, and often unemployed.

● The problem lies in weak execution of even well-intentioned measures.





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● Quite often the funds allocated for tribal welfare are not spent or are spent without corresponding results and sometimes funds are even misappropriated.

● The watchdog of tribal interests, Tribal Advisory Council has not functioned effectively.

● Administrative personnel is either ill-trained or prejudiced against tribals.

Reasons For Dismal Performance of Tribal Policy





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● A major handicap from which tribes suffer is the denial of justice, often because of their unfamiliarity with the laws and the legal system.

● Violation of strict land transfer laws for tribals, leading to alienation of land and eviction of tribals.

● The rapid extension of mines and industries has worsened their conditions of life in many areas.

● The progress of education among the tribal people has been disappointingly slow.

● Exploitations from the forest officials and unsympathetic attitude of officials.





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● Certain positive developments in the tribal sphere have occurred since 1947 such as

○ Legislation to protect tribal rights and interests, ○ Activities of the tribal welfare departments, ○ Panchayati Raj System, ○ Spread of literacy and education, ○ Reservations in government services and in Parliament,

state assemblies, ○ Reservation in higher education institutions, ○ Repeated elections

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2. Reorganization

Of States





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Background● India is a land of many languages, each with its distinct script,

grammar, vocabulary, and literary tradition.

● In 1917, the Congress Party had committed itself to the creation of linguistic provinces in a Free India.

● After Congress Nagpur Session in 1920, the principle was extended and formalized with the creation of provincial Congress Committee by linguistic zones.

● The linguistic reorganization of Congress was encouraged and supported by Mahatma Gandhi.





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● After the bitter partition on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of dividing country further on the basis of language.

● During that time some Marathi speaking Congress members raised the pitches for separate Maharashtra State.

● Following this demand, other language speaking people too demands a separate state for them.

● Hence, Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces Commission, headed by Justice S.K. Dhar, to enquire into the desirability of linguistic provinces.

● The Dhar Commission advised against this because at that time it might threaten national unity and also be administratively inconvenient.





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● After some time the clamor for linguistic states again got momentum.

● To appease the vocal votaries of linguistic states, Congress appoints a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Nehru, Sardar Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to examine the question afresh.

● This JVP Committee revoked the seal of approval that Congress has once put on the principle of linguistic provinces.

● The demands for a separate state on a linguistic basis didn't subside.

● There were renewed movements aimed at linguistic autonomy in later years.





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● There was the campaign for Samyukta Karnataka, uniting Kannada speaking spread across the states of Madras, Mysore, and, Hyderabad.

● There was also Mahagujarat movement in 1956. ● In the case of Punjab, struggle brought together both the factors

language and religion (Sikh).

● On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over the demand for a separate Andhra and expired after fifty-eight days.

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● After his death, people were agitated and it was followed by rioting, demonstrations, hartals, and violence all over Andhra.

● The Visalandhra movement (as the movement for a separate Andhra was called) turned violent.

● Finally, the then PM, Nehru announced the formation of a separate Andhra State in December 1952.

● The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the struggle for making other states on linguistic lines in other parts of the country.

● Hence, Nehru appointed in August 1953 the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) with justice Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar, and Hridaynath Kunzru as members.





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● It was formed to examine "objectively and dispassionately" the entire question of the reorganization of the states under Union.

● The SRC submitted its report in October 1955. ● It recognized for the most part on the linguistic principle and

recommended redrawing of state boundaries on that basis. ● The then government accepted the SRC's recommendations.● Finally, the States Reorganization Act was passed by parliament

in November 1956. ● It provided for fourteen states and six centrally administered

territories.

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● SRC opposed the splitting of Bombay and Punjab. ● Therefore, the strongest reaction against SRC's report came

from Maharashtra, where widespread rioting took place.

● To fulfill their demand for separate Marathi speaking people's state, there was the broad-based Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti.

● And on the other hand in Bombay state, there was Mahagujarat Janata Parishad led the movement for Gujarati people.

● After four years of the Reorganization of States Act, the government finally agreed in May 1960 the bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra and Gujarat.

● And Bombay city was included in Maharashtra and Ahmedabad being made the capital of Gujarat.





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1. Chhattisgarh● The present state of Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya

Pradesh and become the 26th State of India on November 01, 2000.

2. Uttarakhand● Uttarakhand, earlier known as [Uttaranchal] was carved out of

Uttar Pradesh on 9th November 2000, as the 27th state of India.

● It was the successful culmination of 70-year-old struggle of the people of the hilly region for a separate state.

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3. Jharkhand● Jharkhand was the tribal area of Bihar, consisting of Chota

Nagpur and the Santhal Pargana for decades showed movements for state autonomy.

● In the area, there is a concentration of several major traditional tribes like Santhal, Ho, Oraon, Munda, etc.

● Finally, after a prolonged struggle for their separate state demand, the central government made Jharkhand 28th state of India on November 15th, 2000.





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4. Telangana● On September 17, 1948, Hyderabad state which included

Telangana was merged into the Indian Union.

● It is well-known fact that the States Reorganization Commission did not favour the idea of merging Telangana with Andhra Pradesh.

● And it provided various safeguards to protect the interests of the people of the region for some years to come.

● Finally, in 2014, their demand got accepted after a long struggle.

● It became the 29th State of India on 2nd June 2014.





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● There are still long pending demands for state formation on a different basis viz. ethnicity, lack of development, administrative inconvenience, etc.

● These separate statehood demands are

○ Gorkhaland (WB),

○ Kamatapur state for Koch Rajbongshi (Assam),

○ Bodoland (Assam),

○ Vidharbha (Maharashtra),

○ Saurashtra (Gujarat),

○ Fourfold division of Uttar Pradesh in the form of Harit Pradesh, Awadh Pradesh, Purvanchal, and Bundelkhand (some parts of UP and MP).





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Year States1954 Andhra Pradesh

1956 Karnataka, Kerala, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal

1960 Gujarat, Maharashtra

1963 Nagaland

1966 Haryana, Punjab

1971 Himachal Pradesh

1972 Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura

1975 Sikkim

1987 Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Goa

2000 Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand

2014 Telangana





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3.Problems With

North-East Region





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Background● The regional aspirations of the North-east region became more

focal and prominent in the 1980s.● The princely states like Manipur, Tripura, Khasi Hills of

Meghalaya had merged with India Post Independence.

● The whole North-East region has witnessed altogether different political reorganization.

● Earlier the partition of India turned the North-East region into a landlocked region and affected it economically.

● Due to this isolation from mainstream India, the region remained backward in terms of developmental parameters.





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● Following were major reasons that fuelled the anger and soured the relationship between centre and this region,

○ The isolation of the region,

○ Its complex social character due to different ethnic tribes and their culture,

○ Lack of development, and

○ Weak communications between the north-east region and the rest of India.

● Due to this delicate relationship, people aspired for their autonomy, secessionist movements and strict opposition to an outsider from entering into their region.





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● Nagaland state was created in 1963, Meghalaya, Manipur and Tripura in 1972 and Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram became a separate state in 1987.

● Meanwhile, following the large scale reorganization of the region in 1972, a regional body, the North-Eastern Council (NEC) was set up.

● NEC was set up in order to provide a forum for inter-state coordination, regional planning, and integrated development of the region to avoid intra-regional disparities.

● However, this NEC couldn't control their feelings for autonomy and violent secessionist movements for that cause.

● Now let’s discuss the different demands emanating from different parts of the North-East region:





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● After the independence, except Manipur and Tripura entire north-east region comprised the state of Assam.

● Due to the presence of different cultures and tribes, non-Assamese felt alienated with the Assamese and Bengali residents of the plain.

● In addition to this, the Assam Government imposed the Assamese language on them.

● These non Assamese people protested against this move violently and tribal leaders started demanding separation from Assam.

● To consolidate their voice for the separation, the tribal leaders formed the Eastern Indian Tribal Union which later transformed into a comprehensive All Party Hill leaders Conference in 1960.

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● Their demands were fulfilled later and several states were carved out of one Assam.

● This fulfillment of demands couldn't stop some tribes from aspiring a separate state only for their tribal communities like Bodos, Karbi, and Dimasas.

● They drew centre's attention towards their demand for autonomy.

● They mobilised public opinion through popular movements and insurgency.

● It was not possible for the centre to fulfill all the regional aspirations and create smaller and smaller states.

● So, the centre devised some other alternative to fix this demand, such as the grant of Autonomous District for such tribes.





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● The demands of autonomy can be fulfilled with the constitutional provisions but when someone demands a separate country from a sovereign country, then the issue gets complicated.

1. Mizoram:● Mizo People never considered themselves as a part of the

British Union. ● So, they refused to consider themselves as Indian after

India's Independence.

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● Later in 1959, during the Famine in Assam, the then government didn't take care of Mizo people and shown apathy towards them.

● The negligence made anger the Mizo people and they formed Mizo National Front (MNF) under the leadership of Lal Denga.

● Mizo people led MNF took an armed campaign against the Indian army through a guerrilla war.

● They were also aided by Pakistan government and secured their leader in the then East Pak.

● Pakistan was aiding all such secessionist movement in India to destabilize India through different means.





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● The Union government didn't budge to such guerrilla war and used their armed and air forces well and defeated them handsomely.

● But at the end of this war, after two decades each side was loser due to loss of human lives and economic resources.

● After realising the futility of war, Lal Denga started negotiations with the Indian Government.

● In 1986, Rajiv Gandhi and Lal Denga reached for an agreement.

● As per the peace agreement, Mizo Peace Accord, Mizoram was granted a full-fledged statehood with special powers.

● Finally, MNF gave up its secessionist movement.





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2. Nagaland● The story of Nagaland was not different from Mizoram. Above

all, the demand for a separate country was declared much earlier in 1951.

● The leader of Nagas was Angami Zapu Phizo. ● His organisation Naga National Council (NNC) declared its

armed struggle for a sovereign country of Nagas. ● For a prolonged period, NNC carried out its armed campaign

against the Indian government. ● In 1975, NNC moderates accepted the Indian Constitution and

signed a ceasefire agreement with the Government of India in 1975.





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● This came to be known as the Shillong Accord.● Radical leaders in the NNC called as total betrayal including

Isak Chishi Swu, Th Muivah, and Khaplang.

● However, NNC radicals subsequently formed the National Socialist Council of Nagalim (NSCN) in 1980 demanding a greater Nagaland encompassing all Naga-inhabited areas in India's northeast.

● They started an underground Naga Federal government having both Civil and Military wings.

● It again split into two factions in the late 1980s such as

○ NSCN-Isak & Muivah (NSCN-IM) ○ NSCN-Khaplang (NSCN-K)





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● Earlier Government of India had tried to quell such movements with limited success by bringing many Naga areas within an autonomous framework (1957) and the formation of the state of Nagaland (1963).

● Still, the main aim of the NSCN is to establish a sovereign state, "Nagalim" unifying all the areas inhabited by the Naga people in Northeast India and Burma.

● A cease-fire was initiated between GOI and NSCN-IM in 1997 but negotiations have not progressed significantly.

● In April 2000, the NSCN-Khaplang (NSCN-K) declared a ceasefire but no productive talks have resulted.

● Hence, the problem in Nagaland still awaits a final resolution.





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● The migration of people from other parts of the country to the North-east region for its rich resources created lots of problems and increased the tension between 'local' and 'outsiders'.

● The migrant people were seen as encroachers who would snatch away their scarce resources like land, employment opportunities, and political power and render the local population without their legitimate due.

● To drive the outsiders away from the region, there was one Assam Movement from 1975 to 1985.

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● In 1979, the All Assam Students Union (AASU), a student’s group not related to any political party, led an anti-foreigner movement.

● Their area of focus was illegal migration, the domination of Bengali and other outsiders, against faulty voters register of lakhs of immigrants.

● AASU members used both non-violent and violent methods.● Their violent agitation took human lives and damaged lots of

properties. ● After 6 years of violent turmoil, the then PM, Rajiv Gandhi

negotiated with AASU leaders. ● Both sides, Govt and AASU, signed an accord in 1985, known as

Assam Accord.





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● According to this accord, the foreigners who migrated into Assam during and after the Bangladesh war were to be identified and deported.

● With the success of signing this accord, the AASU and Assam Gana Sangram Parishad came together, formed their political party, named Assam Gana Parishad.

● Assam Gana Parishad won the Assembly elections in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problem and make Assam a "Golden Assam".

● However, the problem of immigration hasn't been resolved yet, but it brought peace to some extent.

● Now, the process of updating National Register of Citizens (NRC) is being undertaken in Assam to help identify the illegal immigrants.





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4.Early Political Developments





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The Congress System● There were many political parties which had participated in

the country's first general elections and state assemblies elections in free India.

● Starting from the Indian National Congress to Socialist Party, Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, Communist and allies, Jan Sangh, Hindu Mahasabha, Ram Rajya Parishad (RRP) other local parties and independents.

● Congress had emerged as the single largest party by winning 364 seats with 45% of total polled votes for Lok Sabha in 1952.





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● The Congress formed all the government in all the states and at the centre too.

● The communist performance was a big surprise and it emerged as the second largest group in the Lok Sabha.

● After 1952, during the Nehru years, two other general elections were held for the Lok Sabha and state assemblies in 1957 and 1962.

● In these two general elections of 1957 and 1962 respectively, Congress had secured 371 and 361 seats out of total 494.

● In both the elections, Congress again emerged as a single largest party and formed government at the centre and at the states level.





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● Therefore, in the initial three general elections, the Congress gained an overwhelming majority.

● Congress won three out of every four seats but it did not manage to win half the total votes polled.

● However, In 1957, the communist was able to form a government in Kerala which was the first democratically elected communist government anywhere in the world.

● In the first decade of electoral competition, Congress acted both as the ruling party as well as the opposition.

● Hence, noted political scientist, Mr. Rajni Kothari termed this period of Indian Politics as “The Congress system".





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● Oppositions played a key role in maintaining the democratic character of the system.

● They offered a sustained and principle criticism of the parties and policies of Congress and policies of the Congress party.

● By keeping democratic political alternative alive, the opposition parties prevented the resentment with the system from turning into anti-democratic.

● At the beginning of the true sense of democracy in India, there was high respect between Congress and the opposition leaders.

Opposition’s Rolefind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● There was the induction of opposition leaders in the interim government before independence.

● And even in the post-independence government, opposition leaders like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee (Jan Jabha) and others were in the Nehru’s Cabinet.





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● The foundation of the socialist party laid before independence when some leaders within the Congress party has sought more radical and egalitarian congress.

● So, they formed the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934.● After independence, Congress party had changed the rule

regarding dual membership and barred the C.S.P members with Congress’s membership.

● This ugly situation compelled CSP leaders to form separate Socialist Party in 1948.

1. Socialist Partyfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● The socialists believed in the ideology of democratic socialism which distinguished them both from Congress and the Communists.

● Socialist party leaders criticized Congress for favouring capitalists and landlord and ignoring masses like workers, peasants, labourers, etc.





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● BJS was formed in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee and trace its roots with R.S.S (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) and the Hindu Mahasabha before independence.

● The BJS emphasised the idea of “one country, one culture, and one notion”.

● It believes that the country would become modern, progressive, and strong on the basis of Indian culture and traditions.

● BJS leaders were Shyama Prasad Mukharjee, Deen Dayal Upadhayaya, and Balraj Madhok.

● In contemporary times, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) traces its roots to B.J.S

2. Bhartiya Jan Sangh (BJS)find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● Taking inspiration from the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, there emerged lots of communist groups advocating socialism is the solution to the problems affecting the notion in 1920s.

● The communists worked mainly within Congress fold but they had separated themselves from the Congress when they supported the British in WWII.

● It had well organized dedicated cadre and healthy machinery to run a political party.

● The communist believed in the violent uprising as they thought the transfer of power was not genuine.

3. Communist Party Of India (CPI)find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● Very few people believed in their ideology and they got crushed by the armed force.

● They later abandoned violent means and participated in general elections and emerged as the second largest opposition party.

● The party’s support was more concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, and Kerala.

● The CPI was split up in 1964 and the pro-China faction formed the CPI (Marxist).

● Now, the base of both has shrunk a lot and their presence concentrates in very few states of the country.





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● Their stalwart leaders included

○ A.K. Gopalan,

○ S.A. Dange,

○ E.M.S. Namboodiripad,

○ P.C. Joshi,

○ Ajay Ghosh and

○ P. Sundarayya.





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● The Swatantra party was formed in August 1959 after Nagpur resolution of Congress which called for land ceilings, takeover of food grain trade by the state, adoption of cooperative farming, etc.

● They didn’t believe this resolution.● The party believed lesser involvement of the government in the

economy. ● It opposed the development strategy of state intervention in the

economy, central planning, nationalization, Public sector, etc. ● They opposed the progressive tax regime, demanded the

dismantling of license Raj.

4. Swatantra Partyfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● It was critical of non-alignment policy and friendly relations of India with the Soviet Union and advocated closer ties with the U.S.A.

● The industrialist and big landlords had supported this party.

● This party has very limited influence, lacked dedicated cadres, so it didn’t perform well.

● The main leaders of the party were the following

○ C. Rajagopalachari,

○ K.M. Munshi,

○ N.G. Ranga and

○ Minoo Masani.





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5.Economic Model &

Planning





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● Post-independence, apart from extreme poverty, illiteracy, ruined agriculture, and industry, the structural distortions created by colonialism in the Indian economy and society made the future transition to self-sustained growth much more difficult.

● India had to abandon the colonial style of functioning for commercial gains only and to strive for poverty alleviation and social-economic redistribution was the primary responsibility of the then government.

● Therefore, India adopted the mixed model of economic development which has features of both the capitalist and socialist models.

Mixed Economic Model (Socialism)find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● The factors that helped the Indian economy to revive itself after years of exploitation were the following:

○ There was a mature indigenous entrepreneurial class (Birlas, Tatas, Singhanias, Dalmia-Jains) that developed an independent economic base which was an asset for post-independence planned development.

○ There was a wider societal consensus on the nature and path of development.

● Everyone from the staunch Gandhian to the Socialists, the capitalists as well as the communists were more or less agreed on the following agenda:

Revival of the Indian Economyfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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○ Multi-pronged strategy of economic development based on self-reliance.

○ Rapid industrialization based on import-substitution including capital goods industries.

○ Prevention of imperialist or foreign capital domination.

○ Land reforms involving tenancy reforms.

○ Abolition of Zamindari system.○ Introduction of cooperatives especially of service

cooperatives like marketing, credit, etc.

● A section of big industrialists came together in 1944 and drafted a joint proposal for setting up a planned economy in the country.

● It was called the Bombay Plan.





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● After the Independence, the Planning Commission was set up in March 1950 by an executive resolution of the Government of India.

● It has an advisory role and its recommendation become effective only when the Union cabinet approves these.

● The scope of the resolution by which the Planning Commission was formed:

1. Every individual should have the right to an adequate means of livelihood.

2. Material resources of the community, their ownership, and control should serve the common good.

Planning Commissionfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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3. The economic system should operate in such a way that use of ‘means of production’ and ‘wealth’ should not result in well being of a particular community and to the detriment of the society.

● Like the then U.S.S.R, the Planning Commission of India opted five-year plan.

● Accordingly, the budget of the central and all the state governments were divided into parts such as

1. Non 'Planned' Budget – This is spent on routine items on a yearly basis.

2. Planned Budget – This is spent on a Five-year basis as per the priorities fixed by the plan.





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● Mahalanobis was the ‘Architect of Indian Planning’. ● Planning, in the real sense, began with the Second Five Year

Plan.● The Second Plan was based on the ideas of Mahalanobis. ● In 1946, he was made a Fellow (member) of Britain’s Royal

Society, one of the most prestigious organisations of scientists.

● Mahalanobis established the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) in Calcutta.

● He also started a journal names as Sankhya which still serves as a respected forum for statisticians to discuss their ideas.

Mahalanobis find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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6.Green Revolution &

Operation Flood





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● The focus of Indian agriculture was only on institutional reforms, not on the technological base for agriculture.

● Despite the very credible growth of agriculture output from 1949 to 1965 was very low, 3% per annum.

● India had been facing food shortages since the mid-1950s.● The massive jump in population growth rates after

independence, steady rise in per capita income, huge outlays towards planned industrialisation put long term pressures on Indian agriculture which resulted in massive demand.

Prevailing Conditions Before Green Revolution





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● To meet food shortage, India was forced to import food in greater amount.

● Two wars, one with China (1962) and another with Pak (1965) and successive drought in years 1965–1966, led to falling in agriculture output massively. Food prices shot up.

● Arm twisting policies of the U.S. Government due to India’s stand on Vietnam and India's denial of accepting an economy policy package were also obstacles.

● During the shortage of food, India was importing food from the U.S.A. under the PL-480 Scheme.





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● Green Revolution in India is known to reduce the dependence of India on foreign aids for the supply for good grains during the agricultural crises like droughts, floods, etc.

● And envisaged making India self-dependent and self-sustained nation in terms of food grains availability.

● Green Revolution took place in three different phases in India in various regions of the country at different point of time.

○ I Phase - 1962-65 to 1970-73

○ II Phase - 1970-73 to 1980-83

○ III Phase - 1980-83 to 1992-95

Green Revolution In Indiafind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● First phase of the Green Revolution: ○ This happened from 1962–65 to 1970-73 with the sharp

increases in yield in wheat in the north-western region of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh.

● Second phase of the Green Revolution: ○ This happened from 1970-73 to 1980-83 with the extension of

HYV [High Yielding Variety] seed technology from wheat to rice.

○ This time the technology was spread in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh particularly the coastal areas, parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and soon regions like Maharashtra and Gujarat improved their production too.





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● Third Phase of the Green Revolution: ○ Third phase was from 1980-83 to 1992-95 showed very

significant and encouraging results. ○ This time the Green Revolution spread to the low growth areas

like Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.● During the last phase, the Southern region registered a higher rate

of growth than the Northern region.

● By the end of this phase, the ‘coefficient of variation’ of the output growth levels and yield [per hectare] level between the various states dropped down substantially compared to earlier decades.

● By the end of the last phase, there was a considerable reduction in regional inequality by an increase in the prosperity in rural India.





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● Food grain production rose significantly and by 1980's not only India was self-sufficient in food with buffer food stocks of over 30 million tonnes but also it was exporting food to pay back its earlier loans and to loan to deficit countries.

● The critical impact of the Green Revolution was it maintained the agricultural growth rates plus it generated a rapid increase in the marketable surplus of food grains.

● The liberation from dependence on PL–480 or other imports was a major step in the direction of self-reliant independent development for India.

Positive Impact of Green Revolutionfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● The Green Revolution not only generated employment in agriculture but also non-agricultural rural and semi-urban employment through the development of agro-industries, transport industry, and other agriculturally allied sectors.

● Increase in income of farmers led to the demand for factory produced consumer durables like radios, watches, TVs, Sewing machines, etc.

● The surplus stocks of food-grain helped the government to launch employment generating, poverty alleviation programmes in backward areas.

● In conclusion, the Green Revolution had a major impact on rural poverty level which declined sharply through food availability and generating employment in the agricultural sector.





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● Huge disparity and polarization between classes and regions resulted in favourable conditions for left-wing organisations to organise the poor peasants to follow extreme paths (seeds of Left Wing Extremism) for their rights.

● The green revolution also resulted in the rise of the middle peasant sections.

● The negative environmental impact of excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides as well as plateauing of the growth rates in areas like Punjab.

Negative Impacts of Green Revolutionfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● The excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation in many areas without adequate recharging of the subsoil aquifers is environmentally unsustainable.

● Tenants and sharecroppers who did not have the security of tenure were perhaps the only losers.

● In order to appease the Farming Community in Green Revolution belt, many political parties provided either subsidised electricity or totally free which led to misuse of it and adversely affected the overall health of the Indian economy.





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● Peasants of Kaira [Kheda] district, Gujarat which supplied milk to Bombay, felt cheated by the milk traders and then they met Sardar Patel to redress their grievances.

● At the initiative of Patel and Morarji Desai, the farmers organized themselves into a cooperative union, pressurize the Bombay government with “Milk Strike” to buy milk directly from their Union.

● These farmers registered themselves in Anand, Gujarat in 1946.● Gandhian freedom fighter Tribhuvandas K.Patel, convinced the

farmers to form milk cooperatives, later became its chairman and remained so for 25 years.

Operation Flood (1970)find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● Dr. Verghese Kurien was CEO of this Union from 1950 to 1973.

● Meanwhile, in 1955, the Union chose "Amul" the name for its range of products which competed with MNC companies of dairy products like Glaxo and Nestle.

● The "Anand Pattern" of Kaira cooperative union gradually spread to other districts in Gujarat in 1974.

● The Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation Ltd- Anand was formed as an apex organisation of the unions in the district to look after marketing.

● According to one estimate, due to the activities of cooperative, 48% of the income of rural households came from dairying.





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● The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) launched "Operation Flood", a programme to replicate the "Anand Pattern" in other milk shed of country.

● Operation Flood had organised cooperatives of milk producers into a nation-wide milk grid with the purpose of increasing milk production.

● It also brought the producers and consumers closer by eliminating middlemen and assuring the producers a regular income throughout the year.

● It was not just a dairy programme but a path to development, generating employment, and income of rural households and alleviating poverty.





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7.Economic & Banking

Development





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Nationalisation of Banks● The measure of bank nationalisation came into effect on 19 July

1969 under the Banking Companies (Acquisition and Transfer of Undertakings) Ordinance (later became act).

● 14 major commercial private banks were estimated to be controlling 70% of the deposits in the country.

● Their ownership was transferred to the government.● Till 1969, the State Bank of India (SBI) was the only Public bank

which was called as the Imperial Bank before its nationalisation in 1955.

● There are 19 nationalised banks in India presently.





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● There were two important reasons why the ownership of these 14 banks was transferred to the government such as

a. First, from 1947-1955 more than 361 private banks failed across the country, translating to an average of over 40 banks per year.

This resulted in depositors losing all their hard-earned money as they were not offered any guarantee by their respective banks.

b. Second, these commercial banks were seen as catering to the businesses and large industries while ignoring the agricultural sector.

Reasons Behind the Nationalizationfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● In 1950, only 2.3% of the bank loans were channelled to farmers with the figure declining to 2.2% by 1967.

● Hence, the stated motive of this measure was to make credit availability easy for the “priority sector” constituting agriculture, small industries, traders, and entrepreneurs.

● Moreover, the focus was also on opening up of bank branches in the rural and backward areas.

● During the second wave of bank nationalisation in 1980, six privately owned commercial banks were nationalised and almost 91% of bank’s assets were now controlled by the Nationalised banks.





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● This particular move failed to eradicate poverty and decreasing inequalities of income, wealth and entitlements, especially in rural India.

● The performance of nationalised banks, based on the parameters of branch expansion and also increasing the number of deposits, never surpassed that of private banks.

● Moreover, even while it did serve the agriculture sector, the ones who reaped the maximum benefits in terms of borrowings were the well-off farmers, with the poorer and the needy ones being excluded.

● The same trend applied in the case of traders, businesses, etc.

Consequences of Nationalizationfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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Abolition of Privy Purse● On September 6, 1970, the President of India passed a laconic

order in respect of each of the Rulers of former Indian States.

● In exercise of the power vested in him under Article 366 (22) of the Constitution, the President directed that with effect from the date of his Order all rulers ceased to be recognised as the Rulers.

● They resulted in the stoppage of the Privy Purses received by the Rulers and the discontinuance of their personal privileges.

● The writ petitions under Article 32 of the Constitution were filed by some of the Rulers as to test cases of question the orders and the apex court ordered in favor of Rulers.





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● It was again proposed before Parliament in 1971 and was successfully passed as the 26th Amendment Act to the Constitution of India in 1971.

● As per the 26th Constitutional Amendment, article 363-A was inserted in the Constitution.

● This amendment is best known for the abolition of Privy Purse.● Then Prime Minister argued the case for abolition based on

equal rights for all citizens and the need to reduce the government's revenue deficit.





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MRTP Act● MRTP Act (Monopolistic and Restrictive Trade Practices Act)

was the first-time ever, competition law in India, that came into force in the year 1970.

● However, it underwent an amendment in different years.

● It aimed at the following:

a. Controlling and regulating the centralization of economic power.

b. Controlling monopolies, restrictive, unfair trade practices.

c. Prohibit monopolistic activities.





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● Further, the Act makes a distinction between Monopolistic Trade Practices and Restrictive Trade Practices summarized as under:

1. Monopolistic Practices: The practices adopted by the undertaking, on account of their dominance which harm the public interest.

It includes the following practices:

● Charging unreasonably high prices,● Policy of the lessens existing and potential competition,● Restricting capital investment and technical

development.





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2. Restrictive Practices: Acts that prevent, distort or restrict competition comes under restrictive practices.

These are adopted by a few dominant firms with an agreement to hinder the growth of competition, called as cartelization.

It includes the following practices:

● Restricting the sale or purchase of goods to/from specified persons.

● Tie-in-sale i.e. forcing the customer to purchase a particular product so as to purchase another product.

● Restricting areas of sale, Boycott, and Formation of cartels





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● Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices (MRTP) Act, 1969 was revoked and replaced by Competition Act, 2002.

● MRTP Act was enacted to deal with monopolistic, restrictive, and unfair trade practices.

● But due to certain limitations, the Competition Act was introduced which changed the focus from curbing monopolies to promoting competition.





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Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) ● FERA was a law passed in 1973. ● It imposed severe restrictions on the types of payments and

the transactions in foreign exchange and securities.

● And those transactions that impacted the foreign exchange as well as currency import and export indirectly.

● The purpose behind the FERA was to regulate payments and foreign exchange.

● It also intended to conserve foreign exchange in order to boost the country’s economic development.

● In 1998, the Indian government repealed FERA and replaced it with the FEMA or the Foreign Exchange Management Act.





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Thank you!





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Post-Independence India Part - 2

By Dr. Roman Saini





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Topics To Be Discussed1. India’s Foreign Policy

2. India's External Relations

3. India’s Nuclear Policy

4. Era of Emergency

5. Early Social Developments

6. Land Reforms

7. Early Environmental Movements





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1.India’s

Foreign Policy





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India's Foreign Policy● India's efforts to pursue an independent foreign policy were the

highlight of post-1947 politics.

● Nehru used foreign policy as an instrument to defend and strengthen India's independence and to safeguard her national interests,

● To develop the self-reliance, self-confidence, and pride of the masses while serving the cause of world peace and anti-colonialism.

● India decided to conduct its foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty of all other nations and to achieve security through the maintenance of peace.





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● This aim finds an echo in the Directive Principles of State Policy of the constitution such as:

Article 51: "Promotion of international peace and security"The state shall Endeavour to:

1. Promote international peace and security.

2. Maintain just and honourable relations between nations.

3. Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised people with one another.

4. Encourage settlement or international disputes by arbitration.

Constitutional Provisionfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● The three major objectives of Nehru's foreign policy were the following:

1. To preserve hard-earned sovereignty.2. To protect territorial integrity.3. To promote rapid economic development.

● During Nehru's era, a basic objective of India's foreign policy was extending support to colonial and ex-colonial countries in their struggle against colonialism.

● Another objective was that of promoting peace.

Foreign Policy In Nehru Erafind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● Nehru constantly emphasized that peaceful co-existence of countries with different ideologies, differing systems was a necessity and believed that nobody had a monopoly on the truth and pluralism was a fact of life.

● In this context, he outlined five principles which were called "Panchsheel" of India's Foreign Policy. These were

1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty,

2. Non-aggression,

3. Non-interference in each other's internal affairs,

4. Equality and mutual benefit, and

5. Peaceful co-existence.





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Policy of Non-Alignment ● India’s attainment of independence coincided with the beginning

of the Cold War era.● This period was marked by the political, economic, and military

confrontation at the global level between the two blocs led by the superpowers, the US and the USSR.

● The same period also witnessed developments like the establishment of the UN, the creation of nuclear weapons, the emergence of Communist China, and the beginning of decolonisation.

● So India’s leadership had to pursue its national interests within the prevailing international context.





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● India wanted to keep away from the military alliances led by the US and Soviet Union against each other.

● India advocated non-alignment as the ideal foreign policy approach.

● Therefore, Non-alignment as a strategy evolved in the Cold War context.

● It was in this context that nonalignment offered the newly decolonised countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America a third option—not to join either alliance.





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● The roots of NAM went back to the friendship between three leaders — Yugoslavia’s Josip Broz Tito, India’s Jawaharlal Nehru, and Egypt’s leader Gamal Abdel Nasser — who held a meeting in 1956.

● Indonesia’s Sukarno and Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah strongly supported them.

● These five leaders came to be known as the five founders of NAM.

● The first non-aligned summit was held in Belgrade in 1961.

Non-Alignment Movement (NAM)find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● Therefore, this was the culmination of at least the following three factors:

1. Cooperation among these five countries,

2. Growing Cold War tensions and its widening arenas, and

3. The entry of many newly de-colonised African countries into the international arena.

● As non-alignment grew into a popular international movement, countries of various different political systems and interests joined it.

● This made the movement less homogeneous and also made it more difficult to define in very neat and precise terms.





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NAM is what not?● It was not about being a member of an alliance.● The policy of staying away from alliances should not be

considered isolationism or neutrality. ● Non-alignment is not isolationism since isolationism means

remaining aloof from world affairs.

● The non-aligned countries, including India, played an active role in mediating between the two rival alliances in the cause of peace and stability.

● Their strength was based on their unity and their resolve to remain non-aligned despite the attempt by the two superpowers to bring them into their alliances.





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● Non-alignment is also not neutrality since neutrality refers principally to a policy of staying out of the war.

● Non-aligned states, including India, were actually involved in wars for various reasons.

● They also worked to prevent war between others and tried to end wars that had broken out

● As a leader of NAM, India’s response to the ongoing Cold War was two-fold: ○ At one level, it took particular care in staying away from the

two alliances.

○ Second, it raised its voice against the newly decolonised countries becoming part of these alliances.





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● India’s policy was neither negative nor passive. ● As Nehru reminded the world, nonalignment was not a policy of

‘fleeing away’. ● On the contrary, India was in favour of actively intervening in

world affairs to soften Cold War rivalries.

● It is important to remember that India chose to involve other members of the non-aligned group in this mission.

● During the Cold War, India repeatedly tried to activate those regional and international organisations which were not a part of the alliances led by the US and USSR.

India’s Approachfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● India’s policy of non-alignment was criticised on a number of counts.

● There were mainly following two criticisms such as:

○ First, India’s non-alignment was said to be ‘unprincipled’. In the name of pursuing its national interest, India, it was said, often refused to take a firm stand on crucial international issues.

○ Second, it is suggested that India was inconsistent and took contradictory postures. Having criticised others for joining alliances, India signed the Treaty of Friendship in August 1971 with the USSR for 20 years.





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● Finally, with the disintegration of the USSR and the end of the Cold War in 1991, non-alignment, both as an international movement and as the core of India’s foreign policy, lost some of its earlier relevance and effectiveness.

● However, nonalignment contained some core values and enduring ideas that still have relevance for India’s foreign policy.





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2.India’s

External Relations





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1. Relations with Pakistan● In the case of Pakistan, the conflict started just after partition

over the dispute on Kashmir. ● A proxy war broke out between the Indian and Pakistani armies in

Kashmir during 1947 itself.

● But this did not turn into a full war. The issue was then referred to the UN.

● Pakistan soon emerged as a critical factor in India’s relations with the US and subsequently with China.

● The Kashmir conflict did not prevent cooperation between the governments of India and Pakistan.





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● Both the governments worked together to restore the women abducted during partition to their original families.

● A long-term dispute about the sharing of river waters was resolved through mediation by the World Bank.

● A more serious armed conflict between the two countries began in 1965.

● Though India could inflict considerable military loss on Pakistan, the war of 1965 added to India’s already difficult economic situation.





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● The India Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub Khan in 1960.

● Despite all ups and downs in the Indo-Pak relations, this treaty has worked well.

● The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) deals with river Indus and its five tributaries which are classified into two categories:

○ Eastern Rivers: Sutlej, Beas, Ravi.

○ Western Rivers: Jhelum, Chenab, Indus.

● According to the treaty, all the water of eastern rivers shall be available for unrestricted use in India.

Indus Water Treaty (1960)find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● India should ensure unrestricted flow of water from western rivers to Pakistan.

● But, the treaty says that India can use the water in western rivers for fulfilling its “non-consumptive” needs.

● Here, non-consumptive needs are irrigation, storage, and even for electricity production.

● So far, India has not completely utilized this provision.

● The treaty allocates almost 80% of the water from the six-river Indus water system to Pakistan.

● A bilateral body, the Permanent Indus Commission was set up to implement and manage the Treaty.





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Pakistan War (1965) ● Pakistan still desired for the accession of Kashmir, even after

its debacle by Indian troops in 1947.

● Pakistan launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat, later it launched a bigger offensive in J&K in August and September in 1965.

● Pakistan thought that this time the local population would support the cause of Pakistan but this thought again failed to convince the local people and Pakistan couldn't get the local support.

● Meanwhile, in order to ease the pressure from Kashmir front, the then PM Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch counter-offensive on the Punjab border.





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● In a fierce battle, the Indian army reached close to Lahore.● The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention. ● Later, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s

General Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, brokered by the Soviet Union, in January 1966.

● The Third Plan (1961-66) was affected and it was followed by three Annual Plans.

● And the Fourth Plan could be initiated only in 1969.





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Bangladesh War (1971)● The ruling party of Zulfikar Bhutto emerged as the winner in

West Pakistan while in their Eastern Part Sheikh Mujib-Ur Rehman's Awami League won the seats with great margins.

● The strong and powerful western establishment wasn’t ready to accept the democratic verdict and it also didn't accept the League's demand for federation.

● Instead of responding to their demands in a gentle manner, Pakistan army arrested Rahman and unleashed brutality on eastern Pakistan, in order to suppress their voices.

● To end these atrocities, people of Eastern Pakistan initiated the struggle for the liberation of Bangladesh from Pakistan.





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● Due to the huge influx of refugees from Eastern Pakistan, India deliberated on the issue and extended its support to people's cause which was assumed by Western Pakistan as Indian conspiracy to break Pakistan into two parts.

● USA and China supported Pakistan in order to quash the people's movement in the east.

● In order to ensure its safety from the attacks of America and China who were supporting Pakistan, India signed 20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union.

● Full-scale war broke out in December 1971 on both the western and Eastern front, after the failure of deliberations.





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● With the support of the local population in the form of "Mukti Bahini", Indian army made rapid progress and compelled the Pakistani troops to surrender within 10 days.

● With the emergence of Bangladesh as an independent country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire.

● Later Shimla Agreement of 1972 between Indira Gandhi and Zulfikar Bhutto brought back the peace between two nations.

● India’s defence expenditure increased enormously after the wars.





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Shimla Agreement (1972)● The Simla Agreement signed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi

and President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan on 3rd July 1972.

● It was much more than a peace treaty seeking to reverse the consequences of the 1971 war i.e. to bring about withdrawals of troops and an exchange of PoWs.

● It was a comprehensive blueprint for good neighbourly relations between India and Pakistan.

● Under the Simla Agreement, both countries undertook to abjure conflict and confrontation which had marred relations in the past and to work towards the establishment of durable peace, friendship, and cooperation.





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● The Simla Agreement contains a set of guiding principles mutually agreed by India and Pakistan which both sides would adhere to while managing relations with each other.

● These emphasize the following:

○ Respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty;

○ Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs;

○ Respect for each others unity, political independence; ○ Sovereign equality; and

○ Abjuring hostile propaganda.





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● The following principles of the Agreement are, however, particularly noteworthy:

○ A mutual commitment to the peaceful resolution of all issues through direct bilateral approaches.

○ To build the foundations of a cooperative relationship with a special focus on people to people contacts.

○ To uphold the inviolability of the Line of Control in Jammu and Kashmir which is a most important Confidence Building Measure (CBM) between India and Pakistan and a key to durable peace.

● India has faithfully observed the Simla Agreement in the conduct of its relations with Pakistan.





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● India had the following three primary objectives at Shimla

1. A lasting solution to the Kashmir issue or, failing that, an agreement that would constrain Pakistan from involving third parties in discussions about the future of Kashmir.

2. It was hoped that the Agreement would allow for a new beginning in relations with Pakistan based upon Pakistan’s acceptance of the new balance of power.

3. It left open the possibility of achieving both these objectives without pushing Pakistan to the wall and creating a revanchist anti-India regime.

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Kargil Conflict 1999● After the debacle of 1971 war, Pak army never tried to fight with

Indian army directly and started the proxy war by sending the terrorists trained by their secret agencies with the intention to create havoc and panic in Kashmir and India.

● In 1999, so-called Mujahideens occupied several points on the Indian side of LOC in the Mashkov, Dras, Kaksar, and Batalik.

● Suspecting Pakistan's hand behind such activities, Indian forces immediately started reaching to such proxy war which is known as "Kargil conflict".

● This conflict got worldwide attention because of the nuclear capabilities attained by these countries in 1998.





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● However, this wasn't used in the war and without it Indian troops regained their points with the help of their courage, bravery, and conventional war tactics only.

● There was huge controversy surrounding this Kargil conflict, that, the then PM of Pakistan was kept in the dark of such move.

● Later, the then Pakistan Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf took over as its President.





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2. Relations with China● India adopted a policy of friendship towards China since the

beginning.

● India was the first to recognize the new People's Republic of China on January 01, 1950.

● Nehru also supported the representation of China in the U.N.S.C.

● Moreover, Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signed the "Panchsheel "Treaty.

● At the same time, India recognized China's right over the disputed territory of Tibet and approved the Chinese control over it.





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● Two developments strained this relationship. China annexed Tibet in 1950 and thus removed a historical buffer between the two countries.

● The Tibetan spiritual leader, the Dalai Lama, sought and obtained political asylum in India in 1959.

● China alleged that the government of India was allowing anti-China activities to take place from within India.

● A little earlier, a boundary dispute had surfaced between India and China.

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● China claimed two areas within the Indian territory:

○ Aksai-chin area in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and

○ Much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in what was then called NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency).

● Between 1957 and 1959, the Chinese occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road there.

● Relations of India with China turned soured in 1962 when Chinese forces attacked the Thagla ridge and dislodged troops which were the initial spark for ensuing massive attack.





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● In October 1962, the Chinese army launched a massive attack and overran India posts in the eastern sector in NEFA [now Arunachal].

● The Indian army commander in NEFA fled without resistance and left the door wide open for the Chinese personnel to attack India.

● In the western sector, Chinese captured 13 posts in the Galwan Valley and the Chushul airstrip was threatened.

● India was apprehensive of such move by China and sought American and British help later.

● However, the Chinese themselves declared a unilateral withdrawal but soured the relationship between the two nations.





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● The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad. ● It induced a sense of national humiliation. ● The resources for the economic development and third

five-year plan were diverted for defence and India faced a very difficult situation.

● In August 1963, Nehru faced his first and the last no-confidence motion of his life in Parliament.

● Nehru was severely criticised for his naive assessment of the Chinese intentions and the lack of military preparedness.

● The Sino-Indian conflict affected the opposition as well.

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● Sino-china conflict and the growing rift between China and the Soviet Union created irreconcilable differences within the Communist Party of India (CPI).

● The pro-USSR faction remained within the CPI and moved towards closer ties with the Congress.

● The other faction was for some time closer to China and was against any ties with the Congress.

● The party split in 1964 and the leaders of the latter faction formed the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M).

● The war with China alerted the Indian leadership to the volatile situation in the Northeast region.





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● The process of its reorganisation began soon after the China war.

● Nagaland was granted statehood.

● Manipur and Tripura, though Union Territories, were given the right to elect their own legislative assemblies.

● Relations between the nations remained cold till 1976. ● Normal relations resumed in 1976 and later the then Foreign

Minister A.B. Vajpayee was the first top-level leader to visit China in 1979.





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3.India’s

Nuclear Policy





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India’s Nuclear Policy● A significant component of Nehru’s industrialisation plans was

the nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s, under the guidance of Homi J. Bhabha.

● India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful purposes.

● Nehru was always against the use of nuclear weapons.● So he pleaded to all the superpowers for complete nuclear

disarmament. ● But the race for nuclear arsenal didn't stop rather rising.

● In 1974, India conducted its first nuclear explosion tests.





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● India termed it a peaceful explosion and argues that it was committed to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.

● Earlier the five permanent members of UNSC such as U.S, U.S.S.R. France, U.K. China, also the five nuclear weapon powers tried to impose NPT [Non-Proliferation Treaty] in 1968 on the rest of the world.

● India considered such move as discriminatory and refused to adhere to it.

● India always maintained that treaties like NPT was selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimized the monopoly of the Five Nuclear weapon holding powers.





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● In 1998, India again conducted a series of nuclear test after 1974, displaying its capacity to use nuclear and energy for military purposes.

● After some time, Pakistan too conducted such test and increases the vulnerability of the region to a nuclear exchange.

● Unhappy with moves of both India and Pakistan, the International community imposed harsh sanctions which were later waived when India assured no first use of a nuclear weapon and maintained its stand of peaceful use of nuclear energy.

● India also reiterated its commitment to global verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a nuclear weapon free world.





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Sanctions on India after Nuclear tests● USA did not elaborate on what specific actions would be taken

against India but imposed the sanctions which are mandatory under U.S. law such as:

○ End all U.S. assistance to India except humanitarian aid. U.S. economic and humanitarian aid amounts to about $142 million a year.

○ Bar the export of certain defense and technology material.○ End U.S. credit and credit guarantees to India.○ Require the United States to oppose lending by

international financial institutions to India which borrowed about $1.5 billion from the World Bank in 1997.





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● They also pressurized India to sign the CTBT and to adhere to the following:

○ Halting production of fissile material

○ Strategic restraint○ Strengthening export control regimes○ Normalisation of relations with Pakistan

● These were strongly rejected by India.





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● India refused to sign the CTBT but declared a unilateral moratorium on nuclear testing

● India agreed to join the Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty negotiations without halting fissile material production.

● India reaffirmed to the global community about its minimum deterrent policy without giving any number of warheads

● Agreed to strengthen export controls.● Additionally, India declared no-first-use and commitment to

disarmament.

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Nuclear Doctrine of India● Two key features of India’s nuclear doctrine are the following:

1. As per "No First Use" policy, Nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation against a nuclear attack on Indian Territory or on Indian forces anywhere; and

2. Nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be massive and designed to inflict unacceptable damage.





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4.Era of Emergency

Total Revolution





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JP Movement - Total Revolution (1974-75)

● The JP Movement was not a spontaneous movement against the government of the day.

● Discontent in the nation had been gathering for long.

● Main causes for its emergence were the following

● Social Causes○ People’s expectations remained unfulfilled from Indira

Gandhi’s Government

○ There was no decrease in urban or rural poverty as promised before the polls.





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● Economic Causes○ There was severe deterioration of the nation’s Economic

Situation.

○ Failure of Monsoon rains for 2 years in a row. (1972-1973)

○ Three things that plagued the economy: Unemployment, Recession, and High Inflation.

○ Then there was the scarcity of food grains due to drought as well as a huge influx of Bangladeshi Migrants.

○ 1971 War had drained the financial resources of the country.





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● Political Causes● Congress was no more regarded as a party with a vision for

social transformation. ● It was reduced to a party with the sole motive to capture

political power.

● There was a severe breakdown of law and order situation in several places.

● There was a mutiny in the Provincial Armed Constabulary, in Uttar Pradesh, making the government weak day by day.

● International Reasons● Crude Oil prices had quadrupled, leading to an increase in

both the import bill for petroleum and fertilizer.





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● Finally, the following events led to chaos in the country

1. There were food riots in the country due to the above-mentioned reasons.

2. There was Industrial unrest due to MRTP, high taxation, etc.

3. All India Railway Strike took place in 1974 which would paralyse the entire country’s movement.





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● The students of Gujarat protested vigorously in January 1974 against the rise in prices of food-grains, cooking oil and other essential commodities. Later other political parties too joined the protest.

● The police administration responded with excessive force, indiscriminate arrests and used lathi charge.

● Later union government dissolved the Gujarat assembly and announced new elections to the assembly.

● Inspired by the efforts and success by Gujarat student's movement, similar agitation was initiated in Bihar by students in March 1974.

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● Jayaprakash Narayan came out of his political retirement and provided the perfect leadership to these students.

● He gave a call for "Sampoorna Kranti" (Total Revolution) against the immense corruption to defend democracy from the authoritative personality of Indira Gandhi.

● During the JP Movement, people set up parallel governments all over the state, didn't pay the taxes, etc.

● The J.P. Movement attracted wide support from students, middle classes, traders, and a section of the intelligentsia.

● The J.P. Movement also got the backing of nearly all the non-left political parties.





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● However, by the end of 1974, the JP Movement’s fervor got down because of the absence of organizational structures of the movement.

● Most of his student followers resumed their classes.

● The movement had failed to attract the rural and urban poor both in Gujarat and Bihar.





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● In the meanwhile, Allahabad High Court was hearing the plea of socialist leader Raj Narain on the validity of victory of Indira to Lok Sabha election.

● Subsequently, Allahabad HC ruled in his favour and set aside her victory and directed her election invalid on the grounds of abuse of power.

● However, the SC tater granted a partial stay on this order and allows her to remain MP but said that she can't participate in proceedings of the house.

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● Due to the Allahabad HC judgement and later SC opinion and just partial stay on earlier order, all the political parties under the leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan demanded her resignation on moral grounds.

● But Indira Gandhi resisted such demand and in response government declared a state of emergency on June 26, 1975, on the grounds of the threat of internal disturbances, invoked Article 352 of the constitution.





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● Once an emergency is proclaimed, the federal distribution of powers remains suspended and all the powers get concentrated in Union government.

● Even the Fundamental rights get curtailed during such period.

● The fundamental right of constitutional remedies to move the court for restoring their fundamental rights to got suspended.

● The Union Government misused its all powers like the electricity of the newspaper houses got disconnected, leaders of opposition parties were arrested.

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● Government curtailed the freedom of press via "Press Censorship" and made it mandatory to get its approval before publishing it.

● Protests, strikes, and public agitations were illegal.● A religious and cultural organisation like R.S.S.,

Jamaat-E-Islami were banned on the apprehension of disturbance to social and communal harmony.

● Government misused the provision of preventive detention and arrested the political workers of opposition parties.

● Under preventive detention, arrested persons can't challenge such move as the right to constitutional remedies gets suspended.





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● Due to such harsh conditions during the emergency regime, people who were awarded honours like Padma Shri and other awards returned these honours in the protest against suspension of democracy.

● Torture and custodial deaths occurred during Emergency, arbitrary relocation of poor people, the imposition of compulsory sterilisation to control population, etc.

● People without official position misused the powers of administration and interfered in the functioning of the government.





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Twenty Point Programme (1975)Background

● The TPP was announced in 1975.

● It was first re-structured in 1982. ● Subsequently, second re-structuring was done in 1986.

● TPP-86 is presently in operation.

Objective● The basic objective of the programme is to improve the

quality of life of the poor and the underprivileged population of the country.





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Scope and Coverage● The programme covers various socio-economic aspects like

poverty, employment, education, housing, health, agriculture and land reforms, irrigation, drinking water, protection and empowerment of weaker sections, consumer protection, environment, and responsive administration, etc.

● TPP consists of 119 items out of which 65 items are monitored against physical targets.

● And 54 items are monitored on the evaluatory basis.





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Implementation of TPP 86● There is three-tier monitoring mechanism for implementation.

● At the District Level, the Programme is monitored by District Planning Board, Panchayati Raj Institutions and other agencies.

● At the State Level, the Programme is monitored by different line Departments and also by the State Level Monitoring Committee.

● At the Central Level, the Programme is monitored by the Central Administrative Ministries/Departments concerned with their respective schemes/programmes.

● The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation monitor the programme in its entirety.





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Twenty Points:1. Attack on Rural Poverty2. Strategy for Rainfed Agriculture3. Better Use of Irrigation Water4. Bigger Harvest5. Enforcement of Land Reforms6. Special Programmes for Rural Labour7. Clean Drinking Water8. Health for All9. Two Child Norm

10. Expansion of Education





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11. Justice to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes12. Equality for Women13. New Opportunities for Youth14. Housing for the People15. Improvement of Slums16. New Strategy for Forestry17. Protection of the Environment18. Concern for the Consumer19. Energy for the Villages20. A Responsive Administration





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5.Early Social

Developments





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● The Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are those who are as deprived as the SC’s but without the stigma of untouchability.

● Andre Beteille, says "The OBC Constitute a congeries of communities of rather an uncertain status".

● The Kaka Kalelkar Commission appointed by the Government of India that identified more than 3000 castes or communities as OBC in 1956.

● The Mandal Commission (1980) calculated that 52% of the population including non-Hindus constitutes OBCs.

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● Almost all commissions except the Rane Commission in Gujarat (1983) used social, educational, and economic criteria for identifying 'backwardness'.





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● It was set up in 1978 by Govt. of India to investigate the extent of educational and social backwardness among various sections of Indian Society and recommend ways of identifying these "backward classes".

● After a decade, in August 1990, the National Front Government decided to implement one of the recommendations of Mandal Commission pertaining to reservations for OBCs in the job in the central government and its undertakings.

● This decision sparked agitations and violent protests in many cities of North India.

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● Since the Mandal Commission found that the backward caste had a very low presence in both educational institutions and in employment in public services.

● Hence, it had recommended reservations of seats in educational institutions and a government job for these groups.

● The Mandal Commission also made many other recommendations like land reforms, to improve the conditions of the OBCs, etc.





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SC Directions● In 1992, the Supreme Court upheld the Mandal

Commission's 27 % quota for backward classes.

● SC also held that the combined scheduled-caste, scheduled-tribe, and backward-class beneficiaries should not exceed 50% of the total reservation quantum.

● The Supreme Court also ruled that "caste" could be used to identify "backward classes" on condition the caste was socially backward as a whole.

● And the "creamy layer" of the backward classes could not receive backward-class benefits.





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Kothari Commission on Education● It was an ad hoc commission set up by the Government of India

with the following terms of references

○ To examine all aspects of the educational sector in India.

○ To evolve a general pattern of education and

○ To advise guidelines and policies for the development of education in India.

● It was formed on 14 July 1964 under the chairmanship of Daulat Singh Kothari, then chairman of the University Grants Commission.





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● The educational system up to Master's degree was categorized such as

○ First level - Primary education,

○ Second level - Secondary education up to XII and

○ Third levels - Higher studies.

● It further stressed the need to make work experience and social/national service as an integral part of education.

● Specialization of subjects was advised to be started from higher secondary levels.

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● The days of instruction were recommended to be increased to 234 for schools and 216 for colleges.

● Similarly, working hours to be fixed at not less than 1000 hours per academic year, preferably higher at 1100 or 1200 hours.

● It also advised for reduction of national holidays.● It also emphasized on free education up to and including the

lower secondary level of education.● Commission laid stress on women education and advised

setting up of state and central level committees for overseeing women education.





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● It suggested establishing schools and hostels for women and urged to identify ways to find job opportunities for women in the educational sector.

● Two sets of curriculums were prescribed, one at the State level and one at the national level.

● The schools were recommended to experiment with the curriculum.

● It put forward the suggestion that State and National boards of examination be set up and State level evaluation machinery be put in place.





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● The commission recommended the establishment of Indian Education Service on the lines of Indian Administrative Service to bring in professional management to the education sector.

● It proposed standardization and revision of the pay scales of the teaching, non-teaching and administrative staff and prescribed minimum pay levels based on their locations.

● Formulation of a National Policy on Education was one of the important recommendations of the commission.





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● The NEP covered many recommendations of the Kothari Commission such as free and compulsory education, Status and pay scale revision of teachers, equalization of educational opportunity and science education

● Another recommendation of the commission for the alignment of the educational system on 10+2+3 pattern has been achieved by the government on a national level.

● The education has been modeled as per the commission's recommendation to stratify the sector with State and National bodies.

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● A Central board, Central Board of Higher Secondary Education, was set up in 1986.

● Kothari commission was the fourth education commission in independent India.

● Its recommendations are also reported to have influenced the 1986 revision of the National Policy on Education by the Rajiv Gandhi government.

● The guidelines laid out by the commission were revisited by the National Knowledge Commission headed by Sam Pitroda in 2005.





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6.Land Reforms





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Land Reforms After Independence● The land is an important basis of all economic activity in a

largely agrarian society like India.

● Indian rural society consists of a rich landowning minority of zamindars/landlords and an impoverished landless majority like peasants & sharecroppers etc.

● Therefore, land reform is a vital step towards achieving Socio-economic equality.





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● Redistribution of land resources across society so that land holdings are not concentrated in the hands of a few people.

● Land ceiling to identify and redistribute surplus land amongst landless, small, and marginal farmers.

● Removal of rural poverty.● Abolition of intermediaries.

● Tenancy reforms.● Increasing agricultural productivity.

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● Consolidation of land holdings and therefore preventing fragmentation of land.

● Promoting cooperative farming.● To ensure social equality by achieving economic parity.

● Protection to Tribals by ensuring their traditional rights over the land so that it is not taken over by outsiders.

● Land reforms were also aimed at non-agricultural purposes like promoting development and manufacturing.





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● In India, the abolition of intermediaries like Zamindars, who existed under the various British Land revenue systems has largely been successful.

● The other objectives have yielded mixed results and vary both spatially and temporally.

● Subject ‘Land reforms’ is placed under the State List and therefore, the success of land reforms varies from state to state.

● The most comprehensive and successful reforms were implemented in the communist strongholds of Kerala and West Bengal.

● Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Bihar witnessed inter-community clashes as a result of land reforms.

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● India has seen numerous ‘experiments’ since independence to redistribute the land holdings. They are the following:

1. Reforms through legislation,2. Reforms from the government coupled with mobilisation of

peasants; like in West Bengal and Kerala where land was seized and redistributed,

3. Naxalite movement and also the ‘land grab’ movement.4. Reforms through voluntary donations by landlords and

peaceful processions by farmers like the Bhoodan movement and the Gram Dan.

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1. Bhoodan Andolan (1951)● The Bhoodan Movement or Land Gift Movement was a voluntary

land reform movement in India.

● It was started by Acharya Vinoba Bhave in 1951 at Pochampally village which is now in Telangana and is known as Bhoodan Pochampally.

● The mission of the movement was to persuade wealthy landowners to voluntarily give a percentage of their land to the landless people.

● They did Padyatras and asked rich peasants to donate 1/6th of their land with an aim to collect 50 million acres of land.





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● But despite their best efforts, they could only collect 8.7 lakh acres of land which they distributed among the poor and the landless.

● However, this land could not be sold. Finally, landless labourers were being given a small plot of land on which they can settle as well as grow some food for their sustenance.

● The Government of various Provinces passed Bhoodan Acts which mandated that the beneficiary had no right to sell the land or use it for a non-agricultural purpose- including forestry.

● The movement though independent of government had the support of Congress.





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● JP Narayan withdrew from active politics to join the Bhoodan movement in 1953.

● By 1960s, the movement had lost its flame despite its considerable initial promise.

● Yet the movement made a significant contribution towards creating a moral ambiance, putting pressure on landlords and created conditions favorable to landless.

● Vinoba Bhave attempted to bring about a “non-violent revolution” in India’s land reforms programme.

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● Vinoba Bhave walked across India barefooted, strived hard to persuade landowners to give up a piece of their land.

● Vinoba Bhave was deeply influenced by the Sarvodaya movement of Gandhi.

● The Sarvodaya Samaj did succeed partially in building an active large scale mass movement that would generate irresistible pressure for social transformation in large parts of the country.

● Later, Bhoodan gave way to the Gramdan movement which began in 1952.





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● This movement was started in Orissa in 1952. ● This was also based on the Sarvodaya philosophy of Mahatma

Gandhi.● The objective of the Gramdan movement was to persuade

landowners and leaseholders in every village to renounce their land rights.

● And all the lands would become the property of a village association for egalitarian redistribution and joint cultivation.

● A village is declared as Gramdan when at least 75% of its residents with 51 % of the land signify their approval in writing for Gramdan.

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● The first village to come under Gramdan, was Magroth, Haripur, Uttar Pradesh.

● The movement received widespread political patronage.

● Several state government passed laws by aimed at Gramdan and Bhoodan.

● The movement reached its peak around 1969. ● In reality, it met with limited success as most of the people who

owned the land were not ready to either distribute or donate their land.

● Thus very little land could be collected and distributed.





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● It is important to note here that land reform movements were successful in three states in particular across India.

● These include West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir, and Kerala. ● In Kashmir, the Sheikh Abdullah led government distributed land

among the people during the 1950s.

● The communists during the decades of 1970s and 1980s were successful in distributing the land in the states of West Bengal and Kerala.

● Operation Burga was a very successful initiative in West Bengal.

Assessment of Movementsfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● The success of land distribution in West Bengal can be attested by the fact that around 25% of the total land distributed in India was from West Bengal alone.

● After 1969, Gramdan and Bhoodan lost its importance due to the shift from being a purely voluntary movement to a government supported programme.

● In 1967, Vinoba Bhave withdrew from the movement, therefore it lost its mass base.

● It was realized in the later period that the landlords had mostly donated land under dispute or unfit for cultivation.





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● Initially, when these acts were passed in various states, they were challenged in the courts as being against the right to property enshrined in the Indian Constitution.

● So, Constitutional amendments were passed in the Parliament to legalise the abolition of landlordism.

● By the year 1956, Zamindari Abolition Acts were passed in many states.

● The Constitution (Forty-Fourth Amendment) Act, 1978, signifies the demise of the fundamental Right to Property.

● Article 31 with subheading “Right to Property” has been omitted by the Constitution Forty-Fourth Amendment Act 1978.

Zamindari Abolition Actsfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● Article 31(1) has been shifted to article 300A as a new insertion in Chapter IV in part XII of the constitution.

● The shifting of Article 31(1) and omitting Article 31 signify that fundamental right to property is abolished.

● As a result of this measure, about 30 lakh tenants and sharecroppers acquired ownership rights.

● Total of 62 lakh acres of land all over the country was redistributed.





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Land Ceilings Act● Land ceiling refers to fixing a cap on the size of land holding a

family or individual can own.

● The surplus land was distributed among landless individuals like marginal farmers, tenants or agricultural labourers.

Tenancy Reforms● This focused on three areas such as

1. Rent regulation2. Tenure security3. Conferring ownership to tenants





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7.Early

Environmental Movements





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1. Chipko Movement (1973)● Chipko movement in the central Himalayas is one of the most

famous movements in India.

● It began in Uttarakhand when forest department had refused permission to villagers to fell ash trees for making agricultural tools and allotted the same patch of land to sports manufacturer for commercial use.

● The villagers demanded that no forest exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders.

● And local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land, water, and forests.





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● Women's active participation in the Chipko agitation was a very novel aspect of the movement.

● Villagers in general and women in particular thwarted commercial felling of trees by hugging the trees to prohibit their cutting and the name ‘chipko’ originates from this very practice only.

● The movement achieved a victory when the then government issued a ban on the felling of trees in the Himalayan regions for fifteen years until the green cover was fully restored.

● Gaura Devi, a middle-aged widow of the village, was a prominent figure of this movement along with Sunderlal Bahuguna.

● After this movement, the Chipko movement inspired many environmental movements.





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● An ambitious developmental project was launched in the Narmada valley of central India in the early 1980s.

● The project consisted of 30 big dams, 135 medium-sized and around 3000 small dams to be constructed on the Narmada and its tributaries that flow across three states MP, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

● Sardar Sarovar Project in Gujarat and Narmada Sagar Project in MP were the two most important biggest, multipurpose dams planned under the projects.

2. Narmada Bachao Andolan (1989)find on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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● They aimed to provide drinking water and water for irrigation, generation of electricity and increase in agricultural production.

● The project required relocation of about two and a half lakh people and 245 villages were expected to get submerged.

● A comprehensive National Rehabilitation Policy formed by the government in 2003 can be considered as an achievement of the movements like NBA.

● NBA used every available democratic strategy to put forward its demands like Pradarshan, Dharna, Gherao, Rasta Roko, Jail Bharo Andolan, Bhook Hartal, etc.

● The prominent face of the movement was Medha Patkar, a social activist.





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● This environmental movement aimed at the protection of silent Valley an evergreen forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala.

● “Save silent valley” movement was started after the announcement of imminent dam construction on Kunthipuzha river as an ideal site for electricity construction in 1973.

● Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (K.S.S.P) effectively aroused the public opinion to save the Silent Valley.

● The protesters were successful in 1985 when the then PM Rajiv Gandhi inaugurated Silent Valley National Park.

● The park was designated as the core area of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

3. Silent Valley Movementfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideosfind on telegram @unacademyplusvideos




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Thank you!





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Documents

S13-PostIndependenceIndiaPart-1 S14