shhspsychologyprogram.weebly.comshhspsychologyprogram.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/0/... · Analogies of Psychology Sterling Heights High School McLane 2 History of Psychology 1. What

ANALOGIES OF

PSYCHOLOGY

Michael McLane

Sterling Heights High School

Psychology Program

AP Psychology: Volume I

Analogies of Psychology Sterling Heights High School McLane

1

History of Psychology

Chapter 14


2


1. What are the two components of the definition of psychology?

A. Identify the two roots for the definition of psychology?

2. Who believed that the mind and body are separate; supported the nature side of the

argument?

A. How did Aristotle disagree with Socrates and Plato?

B. Who stated, “That the mind is but a white paper that we write experiences on?”

1. Which argument did this support?

C. Who mediated and said the mind and body do interact and what his approach called?

3. Define Nature:

A. Define Nurture:

4. Which term refers to the premise that science should be based on the idea that knowledge

should come from direct experience or observation?

A. What did this idea separate psychology from?

Contributions of Wilhelm Wundt

5. How did Wilhelm Wundt separate psychology from philosophy?

A. What was the name of the book that helped to explain this notion?

B. What was Wundt’s educational background?

C. In what year and where did Wundt begin lay the foundation for the birth place of

psychology?


3

D. Define introspection:

School of Structuralism

6. Who was a student of Wilhelm Wundt’s and initiated the school of Structuralism?

A. Why is this school considered important?

B. What was the rationale to the school of structuralism?

C. What was a problem with the methods they used to study conscious experience?

Gestalt psychology

7. Who studied how we perceive or organize mental processes?

A. How did the Gestalts disagree with the Structuralists?

B. What did they believe about perception?

William James and the School of Functionalism

8. Where did William James study and what was his educational background?

A. What was the title of his book that helped to popularize psychology in America?

B. Define James’s school of Functionalism:

C. How did Charles Darwin influence the school of Functionalism?

D. Structuralism implemented introspection; what did the Functionalism rely on?


4

Legacy of William James

9. Identify some of the achievements of G. Stanley Hall.

10. Why should Mary Whiton Calkins be upset and disappointed with the field of psychology?

A. What were some of her accomplishments later in career?

11. How was Margaret Floy Washburn treated differently than Mary Whiton Calkins?

A. How did she influence the school of behaviorism?

Sigmund Freud

12. How did Freud believe personality and behavior; normal and abnormal could be

explained?

A. Define the unconscious:

B. How can the unconscious be accessed?

C. What did Freud’s study of the unconscious lead to?

D. Identify the name of Freud’s viewpoint that all behavior can be traced to the

unconscious and early childhood experiences?

John B. Watson and Behaviorism

13. In the early 1900s how did the study of psychology shift?


5

A. Define overt behavior:

B. Whose work did the Behaviorist based their work on?

C. Who in American championed the ideas of Behaviorism and what did he focus on?

D. What was B.F. Skinner’s role in furthering the ideas of Behaviorism?

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow the Humanistic Approach

14. When did the Humanistic approach emerge? And what is it referred to?

A. What was the focus of the Humanistic approach?

B. What did Carl Rogers and Maslow believe?

C. From working with Freud, how did Rogers disagree with him concerning their work?

D. How did Rogers differ from the Behaviorists?

E. What did Abraham Maslow support?

STOP COMPLETE Table 1 PAGE 8

Psychological Perspectives

15. What is a psychological perspective?

A. Identify the buzz words for the following psychological perspectives:

a. Biological:


6

b. Behavioral-genetics:

c. Psychodynamic:

d. Behaviorism:

e. Humanistic:

f. Cognitive:

g. Cross-cultural:

h. Evolutionary:

Different area and Specializations in Psychology

16. What is the main difference between basic research and applied research?

A. Which type of psychologists examines how people change over their lifetime?

B. Which type of psychologists would be interested in improving people’s health, for

example in stressful situations?

C. Which type of psychologists looks at maximizing the workplace and helping people

work better at their job through finding methods that help them work better with

technology and human factors?

D. What is the difference between a clinical psychologists and a psychiatrist?

E. What is psychometrics?

F. What is the main initiative of community psychologists?

STOP COMPLETE TABLE 2 PAGE 11


7

1. Psychology originated from philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle) and physiology (brain

and body)

2. Behavior genetics- perspective of psychology studied influences of nature (genetics) vs.

nurture (environment)

3. Behaviorism- observable (overt) behavior- in order to be studied behavior must be based

on observable and identifiable behavior- John B. Watson (founder of American

behaviorism)

4. Structuralism- Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener- first school of psychology that

believed conscious experiences could be broken down into simplest components like

feelings, thoughts/ introspection- technique used by structualists to look inward at the

parts of consciousness but proved to be unreliable as subjects reported different answers

on different occasions.

5. Empiricism- knowledge has to come from experience or direct observation supported by

John Locke who stated the mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) that we write our

experiences on- supports nurture side of the argument. Critical thinking- thinking that

includes scientific reasoning or empirical evidence (provided by Wilhelm Wundt who

introduced experimental design separating psychology from philosophy in 1879 in

Leipzig Germany, and questioning- not assuming or speculating

6. Mary Whiton Calkins- first women to finish requirements for PhD. but was denied by

Harvard

7. Margaret Floy Washburn- first women to be awarded PhD

8. Francis Sumner- first African American to be awarded PhD

9. William James- supporter for Functionalism- first American school of psychology that

applied Darwin’s thoughts in terms of how an organism adapts (natural selection) and

functions in its environment. Evolutionary perspective- viewpoint that suggests all

organisms will do whatever necessary to survive which include mating and defending

their young or offspring.

10. Historical order: Structuralism then Functionalism then Psychoanalytical then

Behaviorism


8

Key Terms Definition Analogy

Psychology The scientific study of mental

processes and behavior

Psychology’s roots are from

philosophy and physiology

Science The utilization of systematic

methods to study and conclude

behavior and phenomenon

What separated psychology from

philosophy- scientific proof rather

than just ideals

Behavior Information that can be directly

observed

Overt behavior is behavior that

can be measured and observed

Mental processes Thoughts, feelings, and motivations

that cannot be directly observed

What you CANT observe/

psychology started out just as the

study of mental processes

Plato and Socrates Supported dualism belief mind and

body are separate and distinct

Led to the nature vs. nurture

debate

Aristotle Believed that the mind and body are same

Nature vs. Nurture Nature refers to genetics and

nurture refers to environment

Nature= NATURAL Behaviors-

did not have to learn

NURTURE stands for U R a

product of what happens to you in

the environment

Rene Descartes Believed in “interactive dualism”

that the mind and body are separate

but interact to produce conscious

experiences

Nature and nurture are responsible

for who you are and what you do

John Locke Supported “tabula rasa” the notion

that the mind is but a white paper

on which people add experiences

Supported nurture side of the

argument- a blank book that you

are born with and each day fills up

the pages

Critical thinking Thinking that is not limited to

speculation or assumptions, but the

consideration of all factors

Backbone for scientific thought

Empirical data Belief data come from direct

observation or experimentation

You don’t believe your friends

until provide you PROOF

Wilhelm Wundt Considered the “father of

psychology” credited with opening

first psychology laboratory in

Leipzig, Germany in 1879,

authoring Principles of

Physiologically Psychology, and

separate philosophy from

psychology

Separated psychology from

philosophy through providing

EMPIRICAL EVIDINCE through

his EXPERIMENTATION of

reaction time to sensory stimuli

Edward Titchener A student of Wundt, initiated the school of Structuralism

Structuralism An early school of psychology that

stressed conscious experiences

could be broken into parts or

structures

A good day can be broken down

into happy emotions,

interpretation, people/ similar to

PIECES of a puzzle


9

Introspection A technique used by structuralists

to look inward and study the

elements of consciousness

Was not reliable because each day

participants saw the stimuli

different because each day they

felt different which affected what

they observed

William James Credited with “father of American

Psychology,” wrote the book,

Principles of Psychology, and

influenced the ideals of the school

of Functionalism

Think of “Jamestown” as the first

American colony and William

James the first American

psychologist

Functionalism An early American school of

psychology that focused on how

organisms function and adapt to

their environment

Americans have always

emphasized what you DO or

FUNCTION rather than what you

KNOW or HOW you know it-

Structuralists’ point of view

Natural selection Charles Darwin’s belief that nature

selects organisms that are best

suited to survive in a particular

environment

We are in a place for a reason

G. Stanley Hall A student of William James, he was the first American to earn his Ph.D.,

and initiated the American Psychological Association (APA), and

American Journal of Psychology

Mary Whiton

Calkins

Was the first woman to finish all

of her requirements for her Ph. D

but was not awarded because of

her gender, did later become the

first woman president of the APA

Think of Mary stating, “Y (Whi-

ton) did I not get my Ph.D.?”

Margaret Floy

Washburn

First woman to receive her Ph. D

and became the second woman

president of the APA

Margaret experience JOY (FLOY)

because she did get her Ph.D.!

Sigmund Freud Initiated the psychodynamic

perspective focusing on the effects

of early childhood and

unconscious determinants through

the use of case studies

UNCONSCIOUS

EARLY CHILDHOOD

John B. Watson A Behaviorists who focused on

measurable and overt behavior

Sherlock Holmes and WATSON

looked for OBSERVED clues

Carl Rogers A Humanistic psychologist who

disagreed with Freud’ emphasis

on the unconscious and rather in a

person’ unique characteristics and

growth

Think of Mr. ROGERS- he wanted

to make people FEEL GOOD on

his talk show

Abraham Maslow Humanistic psychologist who

believed people motivated to

reach self-actualization

Think of Abraham Maslow’s

initials AB- we are always trying to

get As and Bs


10

___ 1. Psychology originated from which two

areas of study.

A) Empiricism

___ 2. John Locke's belief that the "mind is

but a white paper that we write

experiences on."

B) John B. Watson

___ 3. A technique used by Structuralists that

means to look inward at conscious

experiences.

C) Margaret Floy Washburn

___ 4. The belief that science should be based

on knowledge taken from experience or

observation.

D) Sigmund Freud

___ 5. William James's ideals led to which

school of thought that emphasizes how

an organism functions and adapts to its

environment.

E) Natural selection

___ 6. According to Charles Darwin, nature

selects organisms best suited for

survival in its environment.

F) Functionalism

___ 7. The first woman to finish the

requirements for a Ph.D. in psychology

but was not awarded because of her

gender.

G) Tabula rasa

___ 8. The first woman to actually be awarded

her Ph.D. in psychology.

H) Philosophy and Physiology

___ 9. Emphasized the role of the unconscious

and early childhood experiences in the

development of personality and

psychological disorder.

I) Mary Whiton Calkins

___ 10. Believed that psychology should focus

on overt or observable behavior which

led to the school of Behaviorism.

J) Introspection


11

Key Term Definition Analogy

Perspective of

psychology

A particular viewpoint and approach to

studying various phenomenon and

behavior

Everyone has a perspective

or opinion of how things

happen

Cognitive perspective Focused on the study of how the brain

processes, stores, and retrieves

information

Thinking

Biological

perspective

The study of the nervous systems, parts

and functions of the brain, and neural

communication’s via their influences on

behavior

Brain and Body

Social-cultural

perspective

The study of how social and cultural

factors affect people’s behavior and

viewpoints

Where you live and cultural

heritage

Psychodynamic

perspective

The study of how early childhood

events and unconscious determinants

affect people’s thoughts, feelings, act

Unconscious and Early

Childhood

Behavioral

perspective

The focus of overt or observable

behavior and how that is affected by

learning and social situations

How you act or behave

from what you learn

Evolutionary

perspective

The study of how species adapt and

survive in particular environments

Natural Selection and

Charles Darwin

Humanistic

perspective

The beliefs that behavior is affected by

free will and decision-making, and the

pursuit of human satisfaction and

potential

Be the best HUMAN you

can be

Behavioral-genetics

perspective

Studied the role of nature vs. nurture

and the effects it has on development

Nature vs. Nurture

Positive psychology The focus of human strengths and

potential

Feel good- Do good

Industrial-

organizational

psychology

A field of psychology that focuses on

improving worker performance and

productivity at the workplace

Also called consultants and

human resources or

personnel directors

Health psychologist A field of psychology that studies how to improves the lives of others

Psychiatrists Treat people often with psychotic disorders utilizing medications-

which they are qualified to prescribe


12

___ 1. A perspective of psychology that

emphasizes the brain, nervous system,

and the endocrine system.

A) Biological


examines the role of nature vs. nurture

on development.

B) Behavioral genetics

___ 3. A perspective of psychology that Carl

Rogers and Abraham Maslow focused

on human potential and free will.

C) Evolutionary


examines mental processes, thinking,

and problem-solving.

D) Psychiatrist

___ 5. A perspective of psychology developed

by Sigmund Freud that focused on the

unconscious and early childhood

experiences.

E) Industrial-organizational psychologist


emphasized the study of overt or

observable behavior.

F) Psychodynamic


emphasized the ideals of Charles

Darwin and focused on the survival of

species.

G) Behavioral

___ 8. A type of psychologist that focuses on

the improvement of working conditions

and work productivity.

H) Cognitive

___ 9. A type of psychologist who can

prescribe medications for psychological

disorders.

I) Health psychologist

___ 10. A type of psychologists that focuses on

improving the well-being and health of

people.

J) Humanistic


13

Term “Buzz word(s)” Term “Buzz word(s)”

John Locke Tabula rasa, blank

slate Rene Descartes Interactive dualism

Nature Genetics, natural Nurture Environment, work,

learn

Wilhelm Wundt Experimental,

Germany Structuralism Parts, Titchener

Introspection Inward, unreliable William James American,

Functionalism

Functionalism Adapts, functions Natural selection Darwin, survival,

nature, instincts

G. Stanley Hall First Ph.D., president

APA Mary Whiton

Calkins

No Ph.D. woman

Margaret Floy

Washburn

Ph. D. first woman Sigmund Freud Unconscious, early

childhood

Psychodynamic Perspective, Freud,

unconscious Psychoanalysis Treatment,

unconscious

Behaviorism Overt, observable

behavior John B. Watson American Behaviorist

Humanistic

perspective

Free will, human

potential Carl Rogers Humanistic, self-

worth

Abraham Maslow Self-actualization-

potential Cognitive

perspective

Thinking,

remembering

Biological

perspective

Brain, nervous

system Behavioral-genetics Nature vs. nurture

Evolutionary Darwin, survive,

mating, instincts Community

psychologists

Need, impoverished

Industrial-

organizational

psychologist

Workplace, job

satisfaction Psychiatrists Medical degree,

prescriptions


14

States of

Consciousness

Chapter 7


17

States of Consciousness

1. What is conscious awareness?

2. What is the level just below the level of consciousness for which it is easy to retrieve this

information?

3. What is the level of consciousness that includes material absent from conscious awareness,

but still can influence personality and behavior?

Exploring Levels of Consciousness

4. What is dualism?

5. What refers to the mind and the body are of the same?

A. How is materialism supported?


6. What is a state of consciousness?

A. Who believed that consciousness is like a stream that always is changing but keeps

flowing?

B. What is an example of a stream of consciousness?

Circadian Rhythms

7. What are circadian rhythms?

A. What is considered the internal clock that is located in the hypothalamus that receives

information from the retina in response to lighting conditions?

B. In response to light what does the suprachiasmatic nucleus instruct the pineal gland to

release?

C. What happens when melatonin is released? Suppressed?

D. When external cues are not present how does this affect circadian rhythms?


16

E. How does jet lag occur?

Stages of Sleep

8. How are researchers able to study sleep?

A. Define beta brain waves:

B. Alpha brain waves:

C. Theta brain waves:

D. Delta brain waves:

9. Which brain waves are present in NREM stage 1 of sleep?

A. How long does NREM stage 1 last?

B. What are vivid sensory experiences, like falling in NREM stage 1 called?

C. What is a myoclonic jerk in NREM stage 1 characterized by?


A. What is a characterization of NREM stage 2?


A. What is NREM stage 3 of sleep referred to?

12. Which brain waves are present during REM sleep?

A. Where do most dreams occur?

B. What refers to muscle activity that is nonexistent or suppressed?

C. What is occurring to physiological activity during REM sleep?

D. What refers to the brain being awake and the body experiencing muscle atonia during

REM sleep called?


17

Sequence of Sleep Stages

12. How many cycles of sleep does a person normally experience?

A. List the Sequence of a sleep cycle:

Begins with _________________________ that lasts a few minutes then is followed by about 20

minutes in ____________________. Roughly the next 40 minutes are spent in ______________

Once a person is relaxed and sleeping deeply the sequence ___________________ and the

person goes back to NREM stage 2 then the person enters ___________________ which lasts

about 5-15 minutes.

B. As sleep throughout the night continues how is REM sleep, NREM stage 2 and

NREM stage 3 sleep affected?

C. As a person gets older what is occurring to NREM stage 3 sleep?

i. Give an example:

Functions of Sleep

13. How does not getting enough sleep affect a person?

A. What occurs when a person does not get enough REM sleep?

i. What is REM rebound?

Sleep theories

14. Which neurotransmitters and associated with sleep?

A. Which area of the brain is in charge of attention and arousal?

B. Which system is comprised of nerves that run through the reticular formation that

affect our level of arousal?

C. Which areas of the brain is responsible for REM sleep?

15. What does the restorative theory of sleep suggest about the need for sleep?

A. Which type of sleep allows the brain to improve the functioning of neurons especially

with forming new memories?

B. Which parts of the brain are active during REM sleep?


18

C. What does NREM sleep allow; which is why NREM occurs in the beginning of

sleep?

16. What does the Adaptive theory of sleep suggest?

A. How does the evolutionary perspective influence the adaptive theory of sleep?

17. Which theory of sleep suggests that we sleep because there is nothing to do?

Sleep Disorders

18. What is the most common sleep disorder?

A. When is help required for most sleep disorders?

B. What is the sudden falling asleep into REM sleep without warning at non opportune

times?

C. What is sleep apnea?

D. When does sleep walking or somnambulism occur?

i. What is usually the cause associated with sleep walking?

E. When does nocturnal enuresis or bed wetting occur?

F. What is the difference between night terrors and nightmares?

G. How is REM sleep disorder characterized?

i. Why and when does this disorder occur?

H. What sleep disorder refers to grinding one’s teeth during sleep?

Dream Theories

19. What is lucid dreaming?

20. How is the brain affected during REM sleep?


19

A. Which neurotransmitters are reduced during REM sleep?

21. Who suggested that thoughts, feelings, and wishes are repressed into the unconscious?

A. What is the goal of dream analysis?

B. In his book, Interpretation of Dream, how did Freud refer to dreams?

C. According to Freud, what is the remembered content or meaning of a dream?

D. What is the symbolized part of the dream; the deep seated wishes of the unconscious?

22. Describe the Activation-synthesis theory of dreaming:


Hypnosis

23. How is hypnosis described?

A. What are the two most popular reasons why someone would seek hypnosis?

B. What refers to suggestions that maybe carried out after a person is hyptonized?

C. What refers to the absence of memory that occurs when a person can’t remember the

process of being hypnotized?

24. Who belied that hypnosis is a splitting of consciousness called “dissociation”?

A. Describe the neodissociation theory of hypnosis:

B. Which stream of consciousness refers to a stream that is distinct that the person being

hypnotized is not aware of?

25. Which theory of hypnosis believes that hypnosis is not an altered state but rather a role

one believes he or she play?

A. Who supported the Role and Belief expectancy theory?

Psychoactive Drugs

26. Which area of psychology studies that effects of drugs?

A. How does a drug affect the brain?


20

B. What refers to a drug mimics or excites a neurotransmitter?

i. What refers a drug that blocks or inhibits a neurotransmitter?

Effects of Drugs

27. What occurs when a drug interferes with personal and social meaning?

A. When does psychological dependency occur?

B. What is the body’s need for a drug called?

i. What occurs when a body does not receive the required amount of the drug one

is addicted to?

ii. What refers to the more of a drug a person consumes the more of the drug is

needed?

Types of Drugs

28. What are physiological effects of taking depressants?

A. What are some examples of depressants?

29. Which group of drugs speed up in the central nervous system and increase the release of

norepinephrine and dopamine?

A. What are some examples of stimulates?

B. What could occur that is comparable to schizophrenia from the abuse of stimulants?

30. Which type of drugs are agonists for endorphins that cause sleepiness and relieve pain?

A. What are some examples of opiates?

31. Which neurotransmitter does hallucinogens or psychedelics affect?

A. What are some examples of hallucinogens?



21

1. An EEG measures brain activity- alpha waves- alert but drowsy could fall asleep/ beta

waves- is wide awake/ delta waves- deep sleep during NREM stage 3/ Reticular

formation part of the brain in charge of arousal (ARAS- ascending reticular activating

system- comprised of afferent nerves that run through reticular formation in charge of

arousal)

2. Circadian rhythms- occur every 24 hours based on environmental cues- if no

environmental cues have a tendency to drift toward a 25 hour schedule; monitored by the

suprachiasmatic nucleus- sensor in the hypothalamus- which receives input from the

retina about lightness which based on this instructs the pineal gland to either release or

decrease that amount of the hormone melatonin – increase when dark then become tired/

; could be affected by jet lag

3. Each sleep cycle (stage 1 – 2 – 3 - 2- REM (does not go back into stage 1 which is just

falling asleep) is 90 minutes- last four hours of sleep mainly spent in REM and Stage 2

NREM sleep.

4. Restorative sleep theory- Stage 3 NREM (deep sleep); body repairs itself

(physical/muscle damage) delta waves are produced here- no brain activity;

sleepwalking, sleep talking, bed wetting, and night terrors occur here (due to immaturity

of nervous system and babies tend to spend the most of sleep in Stage 3/ REM sleep is

when the brain repairs itself

5. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep –occur in the pons and midbrain- vivid dreams

occur; also known as paradoxical sleep - muscles are paralyzed, relaxed but other

systems (the brain and autonomic nervous system) working, nightmares occur here / as

night progresses more time is spent in REM

6. Freud’s view of dreams – wrote book titled Interpretation of Dreams / manifest content-

remembered part of a dream / latent content- underlying meaning of dream - what Freud

was interested in as it describes unconscious conflicts (dream analysis)

7. Activation-synthesis model of dreaming (Hobson and McCarley) – dreams are nothing

more than neural bursts (activation) and our brain puts these bursts together to form a

story (synthesis)

8. Insomnia- most common sleep disorder- inability to fall asleep and stay asleep/

narcolepsy- sudden falling asleep when should not/ Night terrors- occur in Stage 3


22

NREM / Nightmares occur in REM sleep/ REM rebound- when not get enough sleep go

right into REM sleep instead of normal sleep cycle

9. Tolerance- more you do the more you need/ withdrawal symptoms associated with

physical addiction/ Alcohol- affects GABA- neurotransmitter that calms brain down/

stimulants affects dopamine- pleasure neurotransmitter associated in the hypothalamus

of the limbic system- cocaine can cause induced psychosis- because of too much

dopamine activity/ Opiates are agonist or mimic endorphins- body’s natural painkillers.

10. Hypnosis- state theory- during hypnosis an altered state of consciousness is produced

(unconscious) as described by Ernest Hilgard dissociation theory of hypnosis which

involves tapping into the unconscious or hidden observer/ role theory- a person just acts

as if they were hypnotized based on what others tell them they should feel or act


23


Conscious awareness The mental processes a person is

aware of at present moment

You are CONSCIOUS or aware of

your surroundings

Preconscious or

subconscious level

Located just below conscious

awareness making it relatively

easy to access

What you had for dinner the

previous night- not consciously

thinking about it at the time asked

but easy to remember

Unconscious level Information not retrievable into

conscious awareness, but still can

influence thoughts and behavior

Unconscious- you are UNAWARE

Dualism Belief that the mind and body are

separate

TWO people dual against each

other in a match

Materialism Mind and body are the same

Stream of

consciousness

According to William James,

thoughts, perceptions, feelings

are continuously flowing through

conscious awareness

Like a river that is continuously

flowing towards you

Theory of mind The understanding that themselves and others have thoughts, feelings,

and experiences unique to themselves

States of

consciousness

Mental awareness at a particular

moment

Your PRESENT state of mind-

presently thinking about

Automatic processes State of consciousness that

requires little attention but still

aware of what is going on around

you

Sitting in a classroom you are

aware who is sitting around you

even though you are not paying

attention to them

Circadian rhythms Repeated fluctuations within the

body over a 24 hour period

Circadian is like a circle

Suprachiasmatic

nucleus

An “internal clock” located in the

hypothalamus receives

information from the retina about

light/ darkness- this input then

causes pineal gland to produce

melatonin making one tired or

decrease causing to wake

This is like a sensor for outdoor

lights that detects when it is getting

dark or light out then responding by

turning off or on your outdoor

lights

EEG Measures brain activity: beta waves- wide awake/ alpha waves- awake

but tired/ theta waves- ready to fall asleep/ delta waves- low brain

activity, deep sleep

NREM sleep (non

rapid eye movement)

Stages of sleep 1-3 one ends up in

deep sleep stage 3

N means you are NOT aware that

you are sleeping

Hypnagogic

hallucinations

Vivid sensory experiences, like

falling, in NREM stage 1

You often observe someone nod off

and quickly pop up

Mycoloinc jerk Involuntary muscle spasm that

occurs in NREM stage 1

When a person leg or arms shakes


24

REM sleep (rapid eye

movement)

Brain becomes active, dreams

occur, also called paradoxical

sleep as brain is awake but body

is asleep

You are R(em) dreaming in REM

sleep/ but your body is asleep

which is why you don’t fall out of

bed

REM rebound Entering right into REM sleep

instead of normal sleep cycle

because of a lack of REM sleep

People that fall asleep and instantly

start dreaming

Ascending reticular

system (ARAS)

Nerves that run through the

reticular formation affecting level

of arousal

Pay particular-reticular attention

Pons/ Midbrain Responsible for REM sleep

Serotonin/ GABA Neurotransmitters responsible for cycle of sleep

Restorative theory of

sleep

REM restores brain, NREM

restores the body

Restoring your brain and body

because you are tired

Adaptive theory of

sleep

Sleep is necessary for survival

according to the evolutionary

perspective

Bad things happen at night so you

adapt and spend that time safe in

bed

Behavioral theory of

sleep

People sleep because there is

nothing more to do

If there is nothing on TV you

basically give up and go to bed

Insomnia Most common sleep problem

preventing people from falling

asleep or staying asleep

I for insomnia- “I can’t sleep!”

Narcolepsy Suddenly falling into REM sleep at improper times

Sleep apnea Difficult breathing periods during sleep

Night terrors Very frightening experiences that

occur during NREM stage 3 of

sleep

Very frightening because the child

can’t remember the dream

Nightmares Conscious recalls of scary events

that occur during REM sleep

REM means you REMEMBER the

dream or nightmare

REM sleep behavior

disorder

Physically acting out dreams

during sleep

Dogs are prone to act out their

dreams like stimulating running

Sleep bruxism Grinding teeth during sleep You grind your teeth you won’t

have any left to BRUSH

Lucid dreaming One believes can control their dreams/ lucy controls her dream

Interpretation of

Dreams

A book by Sigmund Freud that

suggests dreams are “a royal road

to the unconscious mind”

In therapy, Freud would use a

person’s dreams as a road map to

their unconscious

Manifest content According to Freud, the

remembered story of a dream

MAN I had a crazy dream- which

you remember to tell

Latent content According to Freud, the symbolic, unconscious part of the dream

Activation-synthesis

theory of dreaming

Dreams result from random

neurons that fire while amygdala

(emotion) and hippocampus

(memory) try to make sense

Like a fireworks show- you are

making sense out of the lights

which often shows images


25

___ 1. Suggested that consciousness is like a

stream that always changes but keeps

on flowing.

A) Circadian rhythms

___ 2. Repeated fluctuations within the body

that occur over a period of 24 hours.

B) Beta waves

___ 3. Referred to an internal clock within the

hypothalamus that receives information

from the retina concerning lighting

conditions.

C) William James

___ 4. A hormone produced by the pineal

gland that when released will cause a

person to become tired.

D) Manifest content

___ 5. Brain waves that indicate a person is

awake but drowsy.

E) Suprachiasamatic nucleus

___ 6. Stage of sleep where delta waves

exceed 50% resulting in the person not

experiencing any sensory stimulation

and very hard to wake up.

F) NREM stage 3 and REM

___ 7. Stage of sleep that is referred to as

paradoxical sleep when the brain is

awake but the body is asleep; where

most dreams occur.

G) Night terrors

___ 8. Last few cycles of sleep are mainly in

_________ and________

H) Melatonin

___ 9. Type of sleep disorder that can be very

frightening and often occurs in NREM

stage 3 not allowing the person to

remember the content or imagery of the

dream.

I) NREM stage 3

___ 10. According to Sigmund Freud, the

remembered portion of the dream.

J) REM sleep


26

Key term Definition Analogy

Hypnosis An altered state of consciousness that may make a person more

susceptible to suggestion that could affect thinking and behavior

Posthypnotic

suggestion

Suggestions that could be carried

out after the person is hypnotized

Post means AFTER

Posthypnotic amnesia Events that cannot be recalled during hypnosis

Neodissociation theory

of hypnosis (divided

consciousness view

hypnosis)

According to Ernest Hilgard,

people experience multiple

streams of consciousness during

hypnosis, including “hidden

observer” unattainable to hypnotic

suggestions

Like someone putting a wall in

the middle of a stream producing

two different streams

Role and belief

expectancy theory of

hypnosis

Hypnosis is just a person playing a

role expected by the hypnotist

Like an actor or actress playing a

ROLE

Psychopharmacology The study of how psychoactive drugs affect a person’s thoughts and

actions

Blood-brain barrier A protective barrier that prevents

certain substances from entering

the brain

Like a pool filter that does not

allow harmful agents that could

ruin the filter

Agonist Drugs that mimic a

neurotransmitter

Like a duplicate key that fits a

lock and opens the door

Antagonist Drugs that block the effects of a

neurotransmitter

Like a key that fits the lock but

does not open door preventing

real key from entering

Psychological

dependency

A person’s belief and reasons to

take a drug

A PERSON’S reasons why he or

she needs a drug

Physical dependency A body’s need to take a drug due

to continued consumption

The BODY’s reasons why it

needs a drug

Withdrawal symptoms Intense cravings for drug resulting

in unpleasant feelings and

symptoms if not consumed

The body DEMANDING it

needs a drug

Tolerance Increased amount of drug needed

to produce an effect

The more you do the more you

need

Depressants Slows down the central nervous

system, increases NT GABA,

slows down brain activity

GABA- g for go to sleep which

eventually happens when you

take depressants/ alcohol

Stimulants Speeds up activity in the central nervous system, increase NT’s

norepinephrine and dopamine linked to pleasure and arousal

Nicotine, caffeine, cocaine/ S for speed up

Opiates Causes sleepiness, relieve pain through mimicking the NT endorphins/

Motrin

Hallucinogens Also called psychedelics, distort perceptions and moods/ LSD


27

___ 1. A theory of hypnosis that suggests

people experience distinct multiple

streams of consciousness.

A) Blood-brain barrier

___ 2. A second stream of consciousness that

is so distinct from consciousness that it

is unattainable by the subject.

B) Hidden observer

___ 3. Refers to the understanding that people

who are hypnotized will not be able to

remember the hypnotic session.

C) Posthypnotic amnesia

___ 4. A theory of hypnosis that suggests it is

not an altered state of consciousness

but rather an expected role one should

entail under hypnosis.

D) Depressants

___ 5. An area of the brain that protects and

prevents harmful substances from

passing through.

E) Tolerance

___ 6. A type of drug that mimics a

neurotransmitter producing similar

effects.

F) Opiates

___ 7. The more a drug is consumed the more

of the drug is needed to produce an

effect.

G) Agonist

___ 8. A type of drug that affects the NT

GABA and slows down activity in the

central nervous system.

H) Hilgard's neodissociation theory of

hypnosis

___ 9. A type of drug that affects the NT

dopamine and speeds up activity in the

nervous systems.

I) Role and belief expectancy theory

___ 10. A type of drug that serves as an agonist

for endorphins.

J) Stimulants


28

Term “Buzz Word (s)” Term “Buzz Word (s)”

Consciousness Aware Preconscious/

Subconscious

Just below/ accessible

Unconscious Unaware, Freud Dualism separate

Materialism Same States of

Consciousness

Present state of mind

William James Stream of

consciousness Circadian rhythms 24 hours, fluctuations

Suprachiasmatic

nucleus

Sensor, internal clock Pineal gland Melatonin release

Melatonin Hormone, Tired EEG Identify brain waves

Beta waves Wide awake Alpha waves Drowsy

Theta waves Beginning sleep Delta waves Deep sleep

NREM stage 1 First few minutes Hypnagogic

hallucination

falling

Myoclonic jerk Muscle spasm NREM stage 2 Sleep spindles, bursts

NREM stage 3 Deep sleep REM sleep Dreams, beat waves

Paradoxical sleep Brain awake/ body

asleep/ REM Muscle atonia Body sleeping

Sleep cycles 4-6 REM sleep/ NREM 2 Longer night goes on

REM rebound Right to REM sleep Serotonin, GABA NTs for sleep

Reticular

formation

Attention, arousal Ascending reticular

activating system

Nerves in reticular

formation

Pons, Midbrain REM sleep Restorative sleep

theory

REM- brain/ NREM

body

Adaptive theory

of sleep

Survival best in day/

evolutionary theory Insomnia Most common, can’t

sleep

Sleep apnea Stop breathing Narcolepsy Sudden sleeping

Night terrors NREM, no memory Nightmares REM, memory

Sleep walking NREM stage REM sleep disorder Act out dreams

Lucid dreaming Control Interpretation of

Dreams

Freud’s book royal road

Manifest content Remembered portion Latent content Symbolic, unconscious

Activation-

synthesis theory

Neurons firing in

pons Hypnosis Altered state

Posthypnotic

suggestion

After hypnosis Posthypnotic

amnesia

Can’t remember

hypnosis

Ernest Hilgard Neodissociation ,

separate streams Hidden observer 2nd stream, unaware,

unconscious

Role/belief theory Acting out hypnosis Psychopharmacology Study drugs

Agonist Mimics NTs Antagonist Blocks NTs

Withdrawal

symptoms

Body needs,

headache Tolerance More do more need

Depressants GABA,slows, alcohol Stimulants Speeds up, dopamine

Opiates Agonist endorphins Hallucinogens Serotonin, altered


29

Personality

Chapter 10


30

Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach

1. How did Freud’s personality development begin?

A. How did Freud believe that personality was influenced?

B. What are wishes, inner conflicts, and memories that are not consciously present but

could affect personality/behavior?

The Development of Personality: Id, Ego, Superego

2. What did Freud believe personality is the result of?

A. Which component is present at birth and is completely unconscious; not affected by

morals or values?

B. Where does the Id’s psychological energy come from?

i. Which part is to preserve life like getting hungry?

ii. Which part is responsible for aggressive and destructive behaviors?

C. What governs the Id and demands immediate gratification?

3. Which component emerges from the psychological energy of the Id and is partly conscious

and represents the rational, decision-making part of personality?

A. What does the ego rely on in terms of delaying gratification of the Id until a more

appropriate time?

4. When does the superego emerge?

A. What does the Superego represent?

i. What does one experience if they don’t live up to the demands of the superego?

Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms

5. What does the ego use to mediate intrapsychic conflicts from the urges of the id and

demands of the superego with the hope of reducing anxiety?

A. Describe the following defense mechanisms:

1. Repression:

Example:


31

2. Rationalization:

Example:

3. Projection:

Example:

4. Reaction formation:

Example:

5. Sublimation:

Example:

6. Displacement:

Example:

7. Compensation:

Example:

8. Denial:

Example:

9. Regression:

Example:

Stages that Occur Through Personality Development

6. How did Freud believe that personality develops?

A. How is each stage characterized?

B. What occurs if the unconscious is not able to adequately satisfy the needs associated

with that particular stage?

D. How does fixation affect people later in life?


32

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

7. What is possible fixation associated with the oral stage (0-1 age)?

8. Which activity is occurring during the anal stage (2 years)?

A. What is a possible fixation of this stage?

9. Which defense mechanism is occurring during the phallic stage (3-5 age)?

A. What does this lead to the start of?

10. Which defense mechanism is occurring during the latency stage (late childhood)?

11. What starts during the genital stage (adolescence)?


Neo-Freudians View of Psychology- Carl Jung

12. How did Carl Jung disagree with Freud?

A. What did he believe people are instead of progressing through developmental stages?

B. How did he define the personal conscious?

i. What is the collective unconscious?

ii. What are generational symbols or perceptual themes contained in the

collective unconscious?


33

Neo-Freudians

13. What did Alfred Adler believe people desire?

A. What does childhood inferiorities lead to later in life?

14. What did Karen Horney believe could lead to anxiety and defensive personality traits?

A. Define moving toward relationships:

B. Moving against:

C. Moving away:

Evaluating Psychodynamic Approach

15. What is the main criticism of the psychodynamic approach?

A. What did Freud primarily use to study people and what is the problem?

B. What cultures did he only focus on?

Trait theories

16. What are internal characteristics that are stable, consistent over time?

A. What do trait theories provide?

B. What is the difference between personality traits and personality types?

Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory

17. Who was one of the first researchers to identify over 18000 traits?

A. What is a cardinal trait?


34

B. Which traits do most people have that are easily identifiable and have a strong

influence on personality?

C. Which traits are more isolated to specific situations and change over time?

Trait theorists

18. Who developed a questionnaire that used a factor analysis, a mathematical formula that

explains how traits are related to other traits?

A. What did he find through a factor analysis?

i. As a result, what did he identify?

19. Who believed that people could be described through introversion-extroversion and

emotionality-stability of which are inherited or born with?

A. Define introvert:

B. Extrovert:

C. Emotionality:

D. Stability:

The Big-Five Model of Personality

20. Who used a factor analysis to identify five central or source traits?

A. Define the five traits:

1. Openness:

2. Conscientiousness:

3. Extraversion:

4. Agreeableness:

5. Neuroticism:

Evaluation of the Trait Approach

21. What is trait theory good at?


35

A. What does the trait theory lack?


Social-Cognitive Approach

22. What did Social-cognitive approach suggest about personality?

A. What did Julian Rotter believe shaped personality?

i. What refers to when a person believes he or she has control over their

environment?

ii. What refers to when a person believes he or she has not control and their

environment dictates their outcome?

Albert Bandura

23. Who believed in reciprocal determinism that cognitive, behavior, and environment

interact to shape personality?

A. How did Bandura define self-efficacy beliefs?

Identify the parts of Bandura’s Reciprocal Determinism:

Larry has high self-efficacy or confidence pertaining to tonight’s basketball game

__________________ he shows up to practice early ____________________ and as a result the

rest of the team feeds off of his energy and plays better ____________________.

Walter Mischel

24. How did Walter Mischel define cognitive personal variables?

A. What did he conclude about personality?


36

Evaluation of the Social-Cognitive Approach

25. What is an advantage of the social-cognitive approach?

A. However what does it not address?

Humanistic Approach

26. How does the humanistic approach explain personality?

A. What did the Humanistic approach believe about people?

B. What does phenomenology refer to?

Humanistic Theorists

27. Who believed that people have an actualizing tendency or an innate drive that motivates a

person to reach their full potential?

A. What is a self-concept?

B. What is the acceptance of a person for who they are instead of what they do?

i. What does this lead?

C. What refers to affection based on meeting a conditions or rules?

i. What does this lead to?

Abraham Maslow

28. According to Maslow, what is deficiency orientation?

A. Which orientation occurs when people focus on what they have, how they perform,

and the importance of achievements?

Evaluation of Humanistic Perspective

29. What is a criticism of the humanistic approach?

Assessing Personality

30. Objective/ Self-report Personality Tests: Multiple Choice- True False/ NEO-PI=

measures the Big 5 personality traits/ MMPI- most widely used personality test- 500 True-False

Questions (originally designed to measure mental health problems)

A. What are some of the advantages of using a self-report objective test?


37

B. What are some of the disadvantages associated with this these test?

31. Projective Tests- unstructured stimuli- subjective scoring on interpretation/ Thematic

Apperception Test (TAT) ambiguous scenes/ Rorschach inkblot test- a series of 11 inkblots

A. What are some of the advantages associated with a projective test?

B. What are some of the disadvantages associated with a projective test?



38

1. Psychodynamic approach (Sigmund Freud) / Unconscious - not aware but controls

personality / Preconscious or subconscious - easy to retrieve- memories; thinking about

what you had for dinner last night / Id – present at birth located in the unconscious and

demands immediate gratification because it operates on pleasure principle/ Ego – the

decision maker; largely conscious and operates on reality principle; tries to find ways to

satisfy the Id while being realistic. Superego - morals and ethics; formed through

defense mechanism of identification with same sex parent that arises from resolving

Oedipus complex in the psychosexual phallic stage

2. Defense mechanisms - ego uses to reduce anxiety caused by conflicts between the id and

superego / Repression - found in all defense mechanism; automatic unconscious

ejection/rejection of traumatic desires, thoughts / Regression - retreat back to infantile

reaction / Denial- don’t accept truth / Reaction Formation- say or do opposite of

unacceptable urge / Projection- mentally putting weakness onto other people; I’m

overweight, now I will say everybody else is overweight to make feel better /

Rationalization- justify behavior through excuses / Displacement - taking out physical

anger on less threatening person or object especially when having a bad day /

Sublimation - substituting acceptable actions or thoughts for unacceptable unconscious

thoughts or actions; playing football instead of displaying aggression/ Compensation-

doing something nice to make up for doing something bad

3. Neo-Freudians- followers of Freud- Alfred Adler - Inferiority complex - motivation to

become superior by overcoming childhood inferiority or being dependent on parents /

Karen Horney- thought Freud was too male dominated; believed social relationships

responsible for personality development / Carl Jung- collective unconscious-

generational knowledge that is passed down through generations- information contains

archetypes which are universal symbols- snakes are evil- passed down from past

ancestors that help promote survival by providing bad feelings also believed personality

comes from energy of being an introvert- keeping to oneself or extrovert being around

other people and social situations.

4. Humanistic perspective - emphasized free will and self-growth and awareness that is

thought to be innate / Carl Rogers- self-concept - beliefs about oneself that are influenced

by conditional positive regard- the belief that you are only loved when you meet their


39

expectations or rules which leads to distorting self-concept or lying/ or unconditional

positive regard- no matter what you do or who you are people will love you which leads

to a healthy self-concept or congruence// Rogers also believed in the actualzing

tendency- the innate and internal motivation to be competitive and succeed

5. Trait theory – a description of behavior like a personal ad / Gordon Allport researched

traits- believed people have one cardinal trait- the most influential trait that determines

personality (not present in everyone) and also source traits or central traits- very few-

building blocks of personality/ surface traits or secondary traits- what other people can

see often based on the social setting / cardinal trait= caring like MLK/ source traits=

kind, trusting, dependable/ surface traits- impatient in stressful situations

6. Hans Eyensck- certain traits are inherited like: extraversion or introversion/ emotionality

(neuroticism) or stability and a person’s level of psychoticism- are welfare or caring for

other people

7. Raymond Cattell – used a Factor Analysis - mathematical formula that shows how

certain traits or items are related to other traits which resulted in 16 source traits in people

/ Paul Costa and Robert McCrae narrowed the 16 down to the Big Five Traits- Openness

or curious, Conscientiousness or organized, Extraversion or outgoing, Agreeableness or

forgiving, Neuroticism or anxious (OCEAN)

8. Social-cognitive perspective- Albert Bandura- Reciprocal determinism- personality

results from 3 parts: cognitive (self-efficacy beliefs- our thoughts about how we will do at

a task our confidence), behavior, and environmental factors which means each part can

influence the other part / Julian Rotter- stated our expectations of events or outcomes

determine our personality- external locus of control – other people and situations control

you / internal locus of control- you control your life and situations/ Walter Mischel-

believed in cognitive personal variables- and believed that expectations about a situation

dictate personality and that because of this personality is not as consistent as people

believe

9. Measuring personality- Projective personality tests- tests to assess the unconscious that

are left for interpretation by tester; Rorschach inkblot test- comprised of 11 inkblots /

TAT thematic apperception test- ambiguous scenes or pictures requiring a participant

to tell a story- also used to measure a person’s need for achievement motivation-


40

problems with projective tests is that they are vague and require interpretation by tester

which maybe biased/ Objective personality or self-report inventories test are multiple-

choice or have a specific question and answer- easy to grade but participants can’t

explain their answers- the MMPI is the most widely used objective personality test that

was originally designed to measure abnormal behavior

10. Barnum effect- people believe that everything they hear or read describes themselves

like a horoscope. Halo effect- we believe if someone is good at something or attractive

then they are good at everything- one good quality equals many good qualities/ Horn

effect- one bad quality equals many bad qualities


41


Personality Unique and consistent patterns of thinking, behavior, and feeling

Sigmund Freud Through treating people with disorders felt

that not all symptoms had physical causes

leading to the development of his theory of

personality development and the

psychodynamic approach

Stressed the unconscious and

early childhood experiences

in the development of

personality

Unconscious Contains wishes, inner conflicts, and

memories that are not attainable by

conscious awareness

U for unconscious U are not

aware of the unconscious

Preconscious or

subconscious

awareness

Memories and information that are not

presently in conscious awareness but can

be easily accessed- memories

What had for dinner the last

night- even if not thinking

about easy to retrieve

Id Component of personality is present at

birth, primarily unconscious, operates

according to the pleasure principle, and is

not affected by ethics and morals

Id stands for I DO whatever I

want whenever I want

Pleasure

principle

Governs the id and demands immediate

gratification

Responsible for temptation

Libido An individual’s psychological energy provided by sexual energy

Ego Component of personality that emerges

from the energy of the id, partly conscious,

operates on reality principle, and represents

the decision-making part of personality

The ego GOES and makes a

decision

Reality principle Delays the demands and needs of the id

until a more appropriate and better time

“The REALITY of the

situation is that it is wrong”

Superego Component of personality that develops

around age 5 or 6 and represents a person’s

ethics, reasoning, and morality of right vs.

wrong

SUPERMAN had a

SUPEREGO

He always did good

Defense

mechanisms

According to Freud, the demands of the id

and reasoning of the superego cause

“intrapsychic” conflicts for which defense

mechanisms used to mediate these conflicts

Defense mechanisms

DEFEND your personality by

battling anxiety- the enemy

Repression A defense mechanism involving the

unconscious banning painful and bad

memories from conscious awareness

The P in repression stands for

PRESSING DOWN into the

unconscious

Rationalization A defense mechanism that provides

excuses or explanations that justify

thoughts or behaviors

Telling your parents you

could not concentrate,

teacher

Projection A defense mechanism directs one’s

personal undesirable thoughts and feelings

onto others

To PROJECT is to direct

your thoughts onto another

person

Reaction

formation

A defense mechanism where a person

behaves in a way that is opposite of their

actual thoughts and feelings

To REACT means ME ACT

the OPPOSITE of WHO I

AM


42

Sublimation A defense mechanism that finds an

acceptable behavior to counteract an

unacceptable thought or feeling

You SUBSTITUTE A BAD

THOUGHT with A GOOD

BEHAVIOR

Displacement A defense mechanism that directs anger

away from real threat or target onto a target

that will not cause any harm or threat

TO displace means to

PLACE your anger onto

something won’t fight back

Compensation A defense mechanism makes an attempt to

make up for guilty thought or action

Buying flowers for someone

when you feel bad

Denial A defense mechanism that refuses to accept

the reality or truth of the situation

Deny- “yeah-yeah”

Regression A defense mechanism that occurs during

stressful times and in reaction the

individual reverts back to childish

behaviors and reactions

The G in Regression stands

for GOING back to infancy/

crying when you don’t get

your way

Psychosexual

stages

According to Freud, personality develops through four stages that include

the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stage

Fixation A defense mechanism occurs when the id did not get adequate time to

search a specific erogenous zone (area of the body associated with

pleasure) during a psychosexual stage and becomes fixated with that zone

leading to compensation with the characteristics of that zone

Oedipus

complex

Occurs when son learns attraction t mother

is inappropriate and later through the

defense mechanism of identification sides

with the father allowing the superego to

emerge

When the son can

IDENTIFY with the father or

male role model then the son

will listen and the dad can

teach or model the superego


43

___ 1. A level of awareness that is one is

unaware of that is comprised of wishes,

inner conflicts, and memories.

A) Repression

___ 2. A structure of personality present at

birth, controlled by the pleasure

principle, which seeks immediate

gratification, largely unconscious, and

is not affected by ethics and morals.

B) Id

___ 3. The ego, which is the decision-maker

of personality, relies on what principle

that delays gratification of the id.

C) Projection

___ 4. A type of defense mechanism that

automatically excludes traumatic and

unwanted thoughts into unconscious.

D) Displacement


directs a person's insecurities and

undesirable feelings towards another.

E) Regression


involves reverting back to infantile

types of behavior in certain situations.

F) Reality principle


shifts anger and aggression towards a

target of non-threatening stature.

G) Unconscious


occurs when the individual is stuck or

locked in a particular zone due to the Id

not achieving time to explore.

H) Sublimation

___ 9. Through the defense mechanism of

identification in the phallic stage, a boy

is able to identify with his father who

then is able to teach right vs. wrong

allowing which component of

personality to develop?

I) Fixation

___ 10. During the latency stage, a boy is able

substitute an unacceptable urge for a

productive activity referred to as:

J) Superego


44


Neo-Freudians Followers of Freud who modified and taught his theories

Carl Jung A neo-Freudian who disagreed with

Freud concerning libido and

psychosexual stages, but believed a

person is an introvert (someone who

prefers privacy) or an extrovert (someone

who is social and outgoing)

I for introvert- “I prefer to be

me myself”

The Ex for extroverts prefer to

do EXTRACURRICULAR

events

Personal

conscious

According to Jung, repressed material like Freud’s unconscious

Collective

unconscious

According to Jung, past experiences and

knowledge inherited and passed between

generations

A COLLECTION of GOOD

ADVICE passed down from

ancestors meant to help you

Archetypes Symbols in the collective unconscious A snake is a symbol for evil

Alfred Adler A neo-Freudian who believed people

have innate desire to overcome childhood

inferiorities and as a result develop a

superiority complex

The A for Alfred and A for

Adler means that if you get 2

As in a class you are superior

Karen Horney A neo-Freudian who disagreed with Freud about the development of

women and believed harmony is social relationships affects personality

Personality

traits

Internal characteristics stable and

consistent in many situations

Similar to a description in a

personal ad

Gordon Allport A trait theorist who believed people

possess three traits: cardinal traits- rare

and only present in unique people/ central

or source traits- very influential in their

personality description/ secondary or

surface traits- specific to certain

situations and tend to change over time

Cardinal trait- Martin Luther

King- leadership

Central or source traits- few but

describe who we are

Secondary or surface traits-

traits other people would use to

describe us

Factor analysis A mathematical formula that explains

how traits are related to other traits

Similar to what Match.com

Raymond

Cattell

Through a factor analysis believed certain central traits are related to certain

secondary traits and that people have 16 basic personality factors shown

through the 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire

Hans Eysenck Believed that people could be described

through either introversion-extroversion

and emotionality-stability and

psychoticism dimension all of which are

nature or born with

Introversion- shy

Extraversion- outgoing

Emotionality- dramatic

Stability-doesn’t get upset

Psychoticism- welfare others

Big-Five Model

of Personality

According to Paul Costa and Robert

McCrae, people have 5 central or source

traits: openness, conscientious,

extraversion, agreeableness, and

neuroticism

Remember:

Openness- curious

Conscientiousness- reliable

Extraversion- outgoing

Agreeableness- forgiving

Neuroticism- anxious


45

__ 1. Carl Jung believed that each person has

a personal conscious, similar to Freud's

unconscious, but also suggested that

beneath this is a collection of past

experiences shared by ancestral

backgrounds and containing archetypes

or shared symbols referred to as:

A) Neuroticism

___ 2. Who believed that personality is

affected by one's pursuit to be superior

and overcome childhood inferiorities?

B) Trait

___ 3. A relatively stable, enduring or long-

lasting, predisposition to act a certain

way:

C) Factor analysis

___ 4. Gordon Allport believed that some

people possess a dominating trait that

solely defines who one is referred to as:

D) Secondary or surface traits

___ 5. Traits that are easily recognizable and

have a strong influence on personality:

E) Alfred Adler

___ 6. Traits that are more specific to certain

situations and change over time:

F) Central or source traits

___ 7. Raymond Cattell used a mathematical

formula that explained how certain

traits are related to or can predict other

traits.

G) 16 Personality Factor

___ 8. Who believed that people could be

described along an extroversions-

introversion and emotionality-stability

dimension.

H) Cardinal trait

___ 9. Raymond Cattell administered the

__________ questionnaire to assess

personality.

I) Collective unconscious

___ 10. According to Paul Costa and Robert

McCrae the big five source traits

include openness, conscientiousness,

extraversion, agreeableness, and:

J) Hans Eysenck


46


Julian Rotter Social-cognitive approach who

emphasized people’s expectations

If you EXPECT to have a

bad time you will

Internal locus of

control

A person believes that he or she

could control environment

I for internal “I am IN

CONTROL”

External locus of

control

A person believes he or she has no

control in environment can lead to

learned helplessness

E for external “Everyone and

Everything else is in control”

Reciprocal

determinism

According to Albert Bandura,

personality is interaction of

cognition, behavior, and

environmental factors

How you THINK affects

how you ACT (BEHAVE)

which then affects your

environment

Self-efficacy beliefs Confidence a person has about their

abilities and situations

Similar to the “little engine

that could- I think, I can”

Collective self-efficacy You social support system Friends and family

Cognitive personal

variables

According to Walter Mischel, a

person’s thoughts, emotions, and

expectations affect how people

behave and is responsible for

different personalities

Disagreed with personality

being consistent throughout a

person’s life but more

dependent on present

situations

Humanistic approach

(phenomenological

approach)

Personality is the result of self-

awareness, creativity, personal

responsibility, and free will

Emphasize you being the

BEST HUMAN YOU CAN

BE/ BE ALL YOU CAN BE

Self-concept According to Carl Rogers, how a person describes him or herself

Actualizing tendency According to Carl Rogers, an innate

desire to achieve one’s personal

potential and satisfaction

The “little voice” that tells

you can do one more rep or

run one more mile

Unconditional positive

regard

Acceptance of a person for who they are not necessary what he or

she does “Love you no matter what”

Conditional positive

regard

Affection based on what a person

does instead of who he or she is

“I will love you if you meet

the following conditions”

Deficiency orientation According to Abraham Maslow, occurs when a person loses focus of

self-actualization and strives for materialistic goals

Growth orientation According to Abraham Maslow, occurs when a person focuses on

what they have, their efforts, and pursuit of achievements

NEO-PI test An objective or self-report inventory test that measures and indicates

the Big 5 Personality Traits

MMPI

An objective or self-report inventory and the most widely used

personality test that is comprised of 500 T-F questions

(Like the WAIS is the most popular intelligence test)

Thematic Apperception

Test

A projective test developed by Henry Murray that uses picture

scenes to measure a person’s need for achievement (TAT) test

Rorschach Inkblot test A projective test developed by Hermann Rorschach that instructs a

person to respond to what he or she sees in a inkblot


47

___ 1. According to Julian Rotter, a person's

belief that he or she has control over

their environment and their outcomes.

A) Incongruence

___ 2. Albert Bandura's belief that personality

is the result of cognitive, behavioral,

and environmental factors.

B) Internal locus of control

___ 3. Refers to the confidence a person has

about their abilities to complete or

attempt a task or challenge.

C) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

___ 4. According to Walter Mischel, refers to

a person's thoughts, emotions, and

expectations which show personality

inconsistency and consistency.

D) Carl Rogers


emphasizes an innate drive to reach

potential and be the best human.

E) Cognitive personal variables

___ 6. Believed that people have innate drive

or actualizing tendency to reach their

potential.

F) Self-efficacy

___ 7. The acceptance of a person for who

they are rather than what they do,

which in turn will lead to a healthy self-

concept.

G) Humanistic or phenomenological

perspective

___ 8. Refers to when conditional positive

regard may negatively affect a person's

self-concept through lying and trying to

live up to people's expectations or

conditions

H) Reciprocal determinism

___ 9. A type of self-report or objective test

that includes 500 T-F question to assess

personality and is considered one of the

most popular personality tests.

I) Unconditional positive regard

___ 10. A type of projective test developed by

Henry Murray and Christina Morgan

that uses pictures or scenes to measure

unconscious desires for achievement.

J) MMPI


48

Term “Buzz Word(S)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”

Sub(pre)conscious Memories, just below Id Temptation, aggressive

Pleasure principle Immediate

gratification, Id Ego Decision-maker, adult

Reality principle Mediator, ego Superego Morals, ethics

Defense

mechanisms

Band aids, reduce

anxiety Repression Gone, not aware

Rationalization Excuses Projection Placing blame, faults

Displacement Taking it out on Sublimation A distraction

Compensation Make up for Denial Don’t think about

Regression Go back, infantile Fixation Stuck, make up for

Defense

mechanism

identification

Superego, same sex

parental bonding Neo Freudians Carl Jung, Alfred

Adler, Karen Horney

Collective

unconscious/ Jung

Passed down

unconscious info Archetypes Symbols in the

unconscious

Superiority

complex/ Adler

Not weak anymore Karen Horney Relationships, anxiety

Cardinal Trait

(Allport)

Dominating single

trait, rare Central (source)

traits

Few, building blocks of

personality

Secondary

(surface) traits

Depends on situation Factor analysis Trait math formula

shows connections

16 Personality

Factors (Cattell)

Factor analysis Introversion

(Eysenck)

Born with shy

Extroversion Born with outgoing Emotionality Born with dramatic

Stability

(Eysenck)

Big 5 Traits 1. Openness- curious 2. Conscientiousness- organized

3. Extraversion- outgoing 4. Agreeableness- forgiving

5. Neuroticism- anxious

Julian Rotter Expectations guide

personality Internal /

External locus of

control

I control vs. I don’t

have control

Bandura-

Reciprocal

determinism

Thoughts affect

behavior changes

environment

Self-efficacy Confidence to do well

Cognitive

personal variables

Thoughts, emotions,

expectancies Humanistic- Self-concept (Rogers)

who I am

Unconditional

positive regard

Love you no matter

what Congruence- What I say and what I

do match

Conditional

positive regard

I love you if…… Incongruence What I say what I do

don’t match

Self-report

objective tests

Good- comparison

easy score, people lie Projective tests Freud, interpretation,

unconscious

MMPI objective

test

Most popular

personality test, 500 NEO-PI

objective test

Big 5 personality traits

TAT projective

test

Ambiguous scenes,

achievement Rorschach

projective test

11 inkblots,

unconscious


49

Testing and Individual Differences

Chapter 9


50

Theories of Intelligence

1. What is intelligence?

2. Who was the father of psychometrics, which is the measurement of knowledge defined by

scores on a test?

A. What did he believe about intelligence?

i. Who did he only study?

3. Who used a factor analysis, a statistical method used to show the relationship between

variables to study intelligence?

A What did he believe about intelligence?

B. What did he believe contributed to the g factor?

4. How did L.L. Thurston challenge Charles Spearman’s theory?

A. What did Thurston propose about intelligence?

B. What did J.P Guilford suggest about intelligence?

i. How many types of intelligence did Guilford find through a factor analysis?

5. Who believed that emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive and manage the

emotions of oneself and other?

6. Who developed one of the most popular theories of intelligence?

A. Define the three types of intelligence that Sternberg came up with?

1. Analytical intelligence:


51

2. Creative intelligence:

3. Practical intelligence:

7. Who believed that human beings possess strengths and weaknesses defined in multiple

intelligence?

A. How did Garnder base his theory?

B. Define the different types of multiple and separate intelligences:

1. Linguistic:

2. Logical-mathematical:

3. Musical-compose:

4. Bodily-kinesthetic:

5. Spatial:

6. Interpersonal:

7. Intrapersonal:

8. Naturalistic:

Influences of Intelligence

8. What type of studies have offered support that intelligence is primarily nature or born with?

9. What support or argument offers support that intelligence is more nurture?



52

Testing Intelligence: Individualized Testing

10. Who wrote the first modern intelligence test to assist the French government in

identifying special need students?

A. Describe the mathematical formula that Binet came up with to determine intelligence?

i. What is a potential problem with his method?

11. Who proposed multiplying the score from MA/CA by 100 that would equal the

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)?

12. Who from Stanford University translated Binet’s French test into English resulting in the

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale?

A. What was this test considered?

13. Who developed an intelligence test to be measured in both children (WISC) and adults

(WAIS)?

A. How was the test comprised?

B. How are the scores calculated?

C. Where did most of the scores fall?

D. What did these results indicate?

Aptitude and Achievement Testing

14. Which type of test is designed to measure a person’s performance potential; such as the

SAT?

15. Which test is designed to measure a person’s knowledge of a particular subject or area;

like an AP exam?


53

Advantages and Disadvantages of Individual and Group Testing

16. What are the advantages of an indivualized test?

A. What are the disadvantages of an individualized test?

17. What are the advantages of a group test?

A. What are the disadvantages of a group test?

Measuring Tests

18. What is the test’s ability to yield or give the same results each time given as test-retest

strategy?

A. What is split-half reliability?

19. What refers to how well a test measures what it was designed to measure?

A. What refers to information included on a test in terms of how well the test measures

what it was designed to measure?

B. What refers to the ability of test to predict how well a person will do in the future?

C. What refers to how well a test is designed to measure an outcome?

20. What is the process of setting a common standard by comparing one’s score to those

attained by a pretested group?

Evaluating Intelligence Tests

21. What are some examples of biases that appear on intelligence tests?

Diversity in Cognition and Creativity

22. What refers to the ability to generate novel ideas or products?


54

A. What is the ability to generate multiple solutions to a given problem?

B. What is the ability to narrow down to a single best solution or answer to a problem as

a good test taker is able to do?

Unusual Cognitive Abilities

23. What is considered gifted?

A. Who used a longitudinal study 1500 10 year old gifted children called Terman’s

termites?

B. What did he find?

C. What does the drudge theory suggest about gifted children?

D. What has been sited as saying that intelligence scores have gradually increased over

the last several decades and years?

24. What are the intelligence scores of those that are considered mentally challenged?

A. Mild:

B. Moderate:

C. Severe:

D. Profound:

Factors Associated with Mental Impairment

25. What is a genetic disorder caused by presence on an extra 21st chromosome?

A. Describe fetal alcohol syndrome:

B. What is a genetic disorder caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome causing

cognitive impairment?

C. What is Williams Syndrome?


55

Autistic Spectrum disorder

26. What refers to impairment in social communication and interaction, restricted or

compulsive behavior?

A. When is autism diagnosed?

Savant Syndrome

27. What refers to cognitive impairments in certain areas but has one or more abilities that are

displayed on a genius level?

A. Whose intelligence theory supported cases of Autism?



56

1. Psychometrics- Sir Francis Galton- father of the measurement of knowledge

2. Divergent thinking- discovering or brainstorming as many ideas as possible- important for

creativity/ convergent thinking- narrowing down ideas to overall good choice or idea

3. Intelligence - Charles Spearman - g factor or single gene (general intelligence) responsible

for everything which is determined by a single number like an IQ test/ LL Thurston- believed

were 7 primary mental abilities each independent/ Howard Gardner- people have separate

multiple intelligence which helps to explain savant syndrome when you have a special skill

but are overall mentally challenge/ Robert Sternberg- three types of intelligence- analytical-

problem solving like math and science in school, practical- using information for interacting

in the environment, creative- applying information to different situations like what is learned

in elective courses

4. Emotional Intelligence- Daniel Goleman- interpersonal intelligence- ability to understand

emotions of others/ intrapersonal intelligence- ability to understand one’s emotions.

5. Measuring intelligence: Alfred Binet- designed first intelligence test based on how children

solved problems rather than what they know first used in French schools / David Wechsler-

WAIS test- mostly widely used IQ test based on verbal and performance scores which score

is then based on how you perform COMPARED to other people in your age bracket Wilhelm

Stern- developed the IQ quotient- MA (mental age) divided by CA chronological age

multiplied by 100 equals IQ / Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test to be used in America

called the Standford-Binet Test (good for children but no MA bracket for adults)

6. Test construction - standardization- defining scores by comparing it to a previous group

who took the test / Validity- what does the test measure broken down into content validity-

questions that cover specific material or correct material/ construct validity- how well the test

was written- questions understandable/ criterion (predictive) validity- questions answer a

specific question or theory- questions that are designed to see if students are reading the

book/ Reliability- same results every time the test is given and taken / test-retest is a way to

measure reliability is by giving test over and over and looking for similar results- ACT test is

reliable as students tend to get same scores/ split-half- comparing odd and even questions

also measures reliability

7. Normal curve, also known as a bell-shaped curve; majority falling around average


57

8. Aptitude tests make predictions on how well you will do, such as the ACT / Achievement

test- measure mastery or what you are supposed to know, like the AP Psych test

9. Measures of Central Tendency / mode - most frequently used number / median- middle

number or score / mean- average

10. Skewed distribution - atypical scores that fall away from the average or mean

11. Measures of Variation – Range - difference from lowest to highest score / Standard

deviation- how much scores vary from mean

12. Statistical significance- resulting data is not determined by chance but raw data

13. Inferential statistics- allow the researcher to apply his or her results to the general

population

14. Flynn effect- intelligence scores have risen over the last few decades

15. Savant syndrome- person who has cognitive impairments but excels in one or more abilities

of genius level/ Down syndrome- trisomy 21- extra 21st chromosome/ Fragile X syndrome-

mutated gene on the X chromosome/ Autism- impairment in social communication and

interaction/ 70 IQ indicated mentally challenged/ over 135 IQ genius studied by Lewis Terman-

“terman’s termites.


58


Intelligence The cognitive abilities that a person uses

to think, reason, and for problem-solving

People win on jeopardy know

answer but answer quickly

Sir Francis Galton The father of psychometrics

Psychometrics The measurement of knowledge and ability by using defined tests

Factor analysis Statistical method used to show

relationships between variables used to

study intelligence

Match.com - someone who

likes to be outside is

RELATED to outgoing

G factor According to Charles Spearman, there is

a single intelligence responsible for all

types of thinking

Similar to your GPA- one

number indicates all of your

work

7 primary mental

abilities (PMAs)

According to L.L. Thurston, 7 sets of

independent intellectual abilities

Similar to your grade for

each class in schedule

Emotional

intelligence

According to Daniel Coleman, the ability to perceive and manage the

emotions of oneself and others /Important for therapists

Triarchic theory of

intelligence

According to Robert Sternberg, 3 types

of intelligence: analytical intelligence- a

person’s accumulated knowledge at

school, creative intelligence- ability to

generate new ideas, and practical

intelligence- ability to interact

successfully with one’s environment

Sternberg wore thinking CAP

C- creative- thinking outside

of the box A- analytical-

math and science grades P-

practical- working well with

other

Multiple

intelligence

According to Howard Gardner, human

beings possess separate multiple

intelligences: linguistic, logical-

mathematical, musical, kinesthetic,

spatial, interpersonal (emotions of

others), intrapersonal (emotions of

oneself), and naturalistic

Like a GARDEN has

MULTIPLE items in the

garden


59

___ 1. According to Sir Francis Galton, the

measurement of knowledge and ability

by using defined tests.

A) Psychometrics

___ 2. Believed through a factor analysis that

there is a single intelligence called the

g factor responsible for areas of

intelligence.

B) Howard Gardner

___ 3. Believed that each person has 7

primary mental abilities (PMAs) which

are sets of independent intellectual

abilities that each person possesses.

C) Robert Sternberg

___ 4. According to Daniel Coleman, the

ability to perceive and manage the

emotions of one and others.

D) Emotional intelligence

___ 5. Discovered through a factor analysis

that there are over 180 types of

intelligence.

E) J.P. Guilford

___ 6. Developed the Triarchic theory of

intelligence that persists of analytical,

creative, and practical intelligence.

F) Creative intelligence

___ 7. Component of the Triarchic theory of

intelligence that persists of a person's

accumulated knowledge gained through

school; school smarts.

G) Analytical intelligence


intelligence that refers to the ability to

generate new ideas.

H) Practical intelligence


intelligence that is a person's ability to

interact with one's environment; street

smarts.

I) L.L. Thurston

___ 10. Believed that human beings possess

independent strengths and weaknesses

referred to as multiple intelligence.

J) Charles Spearman


60


Mental Age According to Alfred Binet,

mental age abilities of certain

age determined: wrote the first

intelligent test

“he is 6 years old (chronological

age) but he reads at an 8th grade

level(mental age)

Intelligence Quotient

(IQ)

According to Wilhem Stern, a formula that divides mental age by

chronological age then multiply by 100 equaling IQ

Normal distribution bell-shaped curve majority of scores falling around middle average

Aptitude test Designed to measure a person’s

performance potential

The P stands for- A-

PREDICTION test

Achievement test Designed to measure a person’s

knowledge of particular topic

The C in achievement stands

for “C what I have learned”

Reliability Giving a test multiple times and receiving the same results through

test-retest procedure

Split-half reliability Assessing reliability where odd and even questions are compared

Validity How well a test measures what

that test is designed to measure

To validate means to make sure

its real- like a valid license

Content validity The material on a test matches the material meant to be tested

Criterion (predictive)

validity

The ability of test to make predictions about future performances

Construct validity How a test is designed written How the test is Constructed

Standardization Process comparing a score with

previous scores administered

under identical conditions

A good basketball player sets the

STANDARD for future

basketball players to meet

Creativity Ability to generate new and novel ideas

Divergent thinking Ability to generate multiple

solutions to a problem

The D stands for DISCOVER

new ideas/ like brainstorming

Convergent thinking Narrowing down to one best

alternative for a problem

To converge means to CLOSE

in on one good idea

Mental impairment IQ that generally falls below a score of 70

Giftedness IQ that generally is above 135

Autism Impairments of social and communication skills

Asperger syndrome Display very attentive skills and sometimes obsession with routines

Savant syndrome Cognitive impairments, but possesses abilities at genius level

Stanford-Binet

Intelligence scale

Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test

to be used in the United States

Lewis Terman was

DETERMINED to bring

Binet’s test to the USA

Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale

(WAIS)/Wechsler

Intelligence Scale

Children (WISC)

Written by David Wechsler,

intelligence tests based on verbal

and performance tests where scores

are compared to people of the same

age

This is the most popular

intelligence test because

scores can be compared to

people of the same age/ not

tied to mental age


61

___ 1. Wrote the first modern intelligence test

that was designed to assist the French

government in identifying special need

students.

A) Standardization

___ 2. Developed the formula for the

intelligence quotient (IQ)- mental age

(MA) divided by chronological age

(CA) multiplied by 100.

B) Wilhelm Stern

___ 3. Adopted Alfred Binet's test for use in

America and called it the Stanford-

Binet test.

C) David Wechsler

___ 4. Developed a way to measure

intelligence in children and adults

through the development of two tests:

verbal and performance test that then

could be compared to people of the

same age; called the WAIS and WICS.

D) Lewis Terman

___ 5. Tests that are designed to measure a

person's performance potential on

future tasks.

E) Alfred Binet

___ 6. Tests that are designed to measure a

person's knowledge of a particular

subject or area.

F) Reliability

___ 7. The tests ability to yield consistent

results after repeated testing or test-

retest or split-half procedures.

G) Content validity

___ 8. A type of validity that dictates if a test

measures what it is designed to

measure.

H) Criterion/predictive validity

___ 9. A type of validity that measures a

specific measurement or a future type

of ability or performance.

I) Achievement tests

___ 10. The process of setting a common

standard by comparing one's scores to

those attained by a previous group.

J) Aptitude tests


62

Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)

Intelligence Cognitive abilities Sir Francis Galton Father of tests

Charles

Spearman

G factor one single L.L. Thurston 7 primary mental

abilities

J.P Guilford 180 types of

intelligence Daniel Coleman Emotional

intelligence

Robert

Sternberg

3 type of intelligence

thinking CAP Howard Gardner Multiple and

separate

Alfred Binet First test Wilhem Stern IQ- MA/CA times

100

Lewis Terman Stanford-Binet test David Wechsler

(WAIS, WISC)

Age comparison

test

Verbal test Definitions, math,

memory Performance test Manipulation,

assembling

Aptitude test Potential Achievement test What you know

Reliability Same results Test-retest Give it twice

Validity Test does what it is

supposed to do Content validity Questions match

what was studied

Criterion

validity

Makes predictions Construct validity Well written

Standardized Same conditions,

comparison Divergent

thinking

Brainstorming

Convergent

thinking

One best idea Gifted child 135 Lewis Terman

Mentally

challenged

Below 70 Down syndrome Extra 21st

chromosome

Fetal alcohol

syndrome

Alcohol Fragile X

syndrome

Mutated X

chromosome

William’s

Syndrome

PKU toxins Drudge theory Hard work and

nature

Flynn effect Scores going up Autism Communication

impairment

Savant

syndrome

Special ability Cultural and SES

bias

testing


63

Quarter Midterm 1

Review


64

History of Psychology 1. Who believed in dualism, that the mind and body are separate through ideas being innate or a

person being born with? Socrates and Plato

a. Who believed that the mind was connected to the body and that ideas came from

experience? Aristotle

b. Rene Descartes believed that the mind and body are separate entities, but do interact

to produce conscious experiences, which is referred to as Interactive Dualism

2. The modern debate of are we products of heredity or products of our environment is

referred to as the nature vs. nurture/ nature meaning genetics and nurture meaning

environment.

a. If a person was born with an addiction to alcohol this would support which side of

the debate? Nature

b. If a person drank alcohol with his buddies every night and as a result developed

an addiction to alcohol this would then support which side of the debate? Nurture

3. Who was considered one of the founders of modern science and believed that research

should be based on experimental design and experience? Francis Bacon

a. According to John Locke, science should be based on knowledge that comes from

experience and observation referred to as empiricism rather than intuition and

speculation

b. According to Locke, the mind was a blank slate on which people “wrote” their

experiences as they lived them referred to as ___________________

Contribution of Wilhelm Wundt

4. Who was a German physiologist, credited as the founder of modern psychology as he

was one of the first researchers to apply laboratory techniques that helped psychology

separate from philosophy in 1879 through his opening of the first psychology laboratory

in Leipzig, Germany?

___________________________________

a. What technique did Wilhelm Wundt use to look inward into a person’s mind where

he observed and measured people’s conscious experience to the presentation of

stimuli?

__________________________________________

b. What was the name of Wundt’s book, which suggested psychology should be

separated from philosophy? Principles of Physiological Psychology


65

School of Structuralism

5. Which Wilhelm Wundt student started the school of structuralism? Edward Titchener

a. A school of thought that was based on the idea that conscious experiences could be

broken down into structures or parts was called ___________________________

b. What problems did the technique of introspection present?

Introspection did not prove reliable- subjects reported different responses to the same

stimulus, could not be with used with children or animals

William James and the School of Functionalism

6. William James began his career as a physiology teacher at Harvard University, but later

concentrated on aspects of psychology. What was the name of James’s influential

psychology book that helped to popularize psychology in America?

Principles of Psychology

a. James’s ideas and beliefs were important to the formulation of a new

school of thought called ______________________________

7. The study of how an organism functions and adapts to its environment was studied in the

school of Functionalism. This school’s emphasis on observation techniques was different

than the school of structuralism, which relied on introspection that turned out to be

unreliable because subjects often reported different perceptions (did not take into

consideration people’s moods/ and mentally challenged people did not understand what

they looked at.)

a. Functionalism relied on naturalistic observation and could be applied to several areas

of interest: school, work, family

Legacy of William James

8. Which William James student became the first person in the United States to earn a Ph.D.

in psychology, initiate the first psychological journal- American Journal of Psychology,

and started the American Psychology Association?

G. Stanley Hall

a. Which other James student was denied her Ph.D. in psychology, even though she

did finish all of the requirements, but later become the first woman president of

the APA? ___________________________________

b. Which Edward Titchener student actually became the first woman to earn her

Ph.D. in psychology, and later become the second president of the APA?

_________________________________________


66

Sigmund Freud

9. As new ideas challenged the schools of structuralism and functionalism, who believed

that personality and behavior could be explained through the role of the unconscious- the

part of person that he or she is unaware of, but affects personality behavior?

_________________________________________ a. Freud’s theories led to the development of psychoanalysis, which studied the

origins and influences of personality, mental disorders, and the treatment of

disorders.

John B. Watson

10. Behaviorism dismissed the role and study of consciousness (structuralism and Freud) but

instead focused on overt behavior- behavior that could be observed and objectively

measured. Whose work with the digestive system of dogs and later development of

classical conditioning helped lead to the development of behaviorism?

Ivan Pavlov

a. Who, in America, extended the ideas of Ivan Pavlov, and focused on how behavior

developed by behaviors that could be modified through environmental stimuli?

__________________________________________

b. Who agreed with Watson that behavior should be studied overtly, and also that

reinforcement and punishment could affect a person’s motivation and behavior?

B.F. Skinner

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

11. Behaviorism and psychoanalysis dominated psychology during the early 1900s, but what

new school of thought emerged in the 1950s, referred to as the “third force of

psychology,” and believed that not all human behavior and mental processes could be

explained by associations, rewards and punishments, or unconscious conflicts?

______________________________________

a. Who influenced the development of the humanistic thought?

_______________________________________

b. Carl Rogers developed his theory of personality development through his work with

his patients, which led him to disagree with Freud’s viewpoints of the role of the

unconscious, and emphasize more of conscious experiences such as a person’s unique

potential and psychological growth. As a result, he focused instead on how self-

determination and free will affect a person.

a. Which Humanistic psychologist developed a theory of motivation that underlined

psychological growth through a person’s pursuit of self-actualization or self-

mastery?

______________________________________


67

___ 1. Which of the following statement best describes empiricism? *RC: E for evidence E

for experience*

A) Research that is based on speculation and opinions.

B) Research that draws upon replication rather that retention.

C) Research that is based on knowledge and experience through observation.

D) Research that is based on what other researchers have speculated.

E) Research that makes use of pseudoscientific facts

___ 2. Who was credited with separating psychology from philosophy through setting up an

experimental design in Germany? *RC: Look for a German name*

A) William James D) Wilhelm Wundt

B) Mary Whiton Calkins E) Sigmund Freud

C) Edward Titchener

___ 3. Which of the following was one of the first psychological techniques to be used to

study mental processes; but let to be a unreliable measure? *RC: Remember in means

to look inward*

A) Introspection B) Lesioning C) Masking D) Empiricism E) Inquiring

___ 4. Who was responsible for initiating the field and study of Behaviorism in America?

*RC: remember the B stands for Behaviorism*

A) Wilhelm Wundt D) Ivan Pavlov

B) Sigmund Freud E) John B. Watson

C) William James

___ 5. Who was denied a Ph.D. in psychology because of her gender even though she

completed the requirements? *RC: Remember "Whi didn’t I get my Ph.D.!*

A) Margaret Washburn D) Anna Freud

B) Anne Frank E) Betsy Ross

C) Mary Whiton Calkins


68

Psychological Perspectives

1. Identify the following characteristics pertaining to certain psychological perspectives

(viewpoints that explain behavior and thinking)

Perspective Origins of

Influences

Area of Interest

Biological

(Neuroscience)

Physiology Interaction between physical bases- brain,

nervous system, endocrine system and

human behavior

____________

____________

Nature versus nurture

debate

How genes and environment influence our

behavior

_____________

Sigmund Freud Importance of unconscious influences, early

life experiences affecting the unconscious

and personality development and

therapeutic methods designed to show and

resolve unconscious conflicts and

motivations known as psychoanalysis

______________

John B. Watson

B.F.Skinner

Ivan Pavlov

Albert Bandura

Focus on observable behavior through

observation and measurement

Study how behavior develops and how

modified through behavioral techniques

such as reinforcement and punishment

______________

Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow

Importance of the self-concept and how the

self-concept develops through free will,

self-determination, and reaching one’s

potential

Cognitive Jean Piaget

Noam Chomsky

Importance of mental processes that include

thinking, language development, problem-

solving strategies, and memory

Cross-cultural

(Sociocultural)

Emerged in the 1980s

as psychologists

became increasingly

interested in the role

of diversity

Focus on how thinking and behavior are

affected by cultural and environmental

factors such as poverty or environmental

factors such as poverty or environmental

settings

______________

Charles Darwin’s

book, On the Origins

of Species by means

of Natural Selection

How natural selection, innate necessary

characteristics passed from generation to

generation that enable survival


69

Different areas of Specialization in Psychology

2. Identify the subfields of psychology:

Specialty Subfield of

Psychology

Area of Study

Biological psychologist Relationship between the brain and nervous system, how

biological affect behavior

Cognitive psychologist Mental processes- thinking, language, problem-solving, memory

Experimental psychologist Research on psychological topics such as learning, emotion,

memory, etc.

Developmental psychologist Physical, social, and psychological changes over a lifetime

Personality psychologist Origins of personality and why people are alike and different

____________________ Psychological factors that affect a person’s health, immune

system; treatment strategies aimed at improving person’s lifestyle

Educational/ school

psychologist

How people of all ages learn and how a proper educational

environment can lead to improved learning

____________________

___________________

Proper matching of employees with specific jobs; how to improve

working conditions using psychological concepts

Social psychologist How certain social and cultural settings affect thinking- behavior

Clinical psychologist Identifying causes of psychological disorders, and providing

psychological treatments and prevention strategies

Counseling psychologist Helping people improve everyday functioning by providing

productive and positive thinking and acting skills

____________________

Identifying causes of psychological disorders, and providing

treatments and prevention strategies- they have medical degrees in

addition to training in psychology/ clinical psychologists don’t

have medical degrees so they can’t prescribe medication

____________________

____________________

Working to make sure that people who are unable or unwilling to

seek psychological treatment receive it


70

___ 1. Which perspective in psychology stressed the role of the unconscious and early

childhood determinants? *RC: Think Freud*

A) Behaviorism D) Cross-cultural

B) Psychodynamic E) Evolutionary

C) Humanistic

___ 2. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were supporters of which of the following

psychological perspectives? *RC: Think about being the best HUMAN you can be*

A) Behaviorism D) Cross-cultural

B) Psychodynamic E) Gestalt

C) Humanistic

___ 3. Which of the following perspectives did Charles Darwin's research, described in the,

Origins of Species, help to initiate? *RC: Think of Natural Selection- Nature selects*

A) Behaviorism D) Evolutionary

B) Cognitive E) Functionalism

C) Psychodynamic

___ 4. Which type of psychologist focuses on improving working conditions, making

machinery and technology more applicable for people, and helping employees reach

their potential and perform at an optimum level? *RC: How you organize an industry

affects the way the industry runs*

A) Health psychologist D) Cognitive psychologist

B) Psychiatrist E) Industrial-organizational psychologist

C) Community psychologist

___ 5. Which type of therapist possesses a medical degree and is thus able to prescribe

medications to his or her patients? *RC: Think of which profession requires the most

amount of schooling*

A) Clinical psychologist D) Community psychologist

B) Social psychologist E) I/O psychologist

C) Psychiatrist


71

1. The origins of psychology can be traced

to

(A) the unconscious mind

(B) philosophy and physiology

(C) botany and kinesiology

(D) working to reach one’s potential

(E) speculation and hindsight

2. Empiricism refers to

(A) scientific methods based on

information and knowledge derived

from direct observation or

experience

(B) scientific methods based on

speculation and intuition

(C) the wishes and motivations

embedded in the unconscious

(D) reaching and achieving self-

actualization

(E) how nature selects organisms best

suited for survival in a particular

environment

3. The method Wilhelm Wundt used to

study the elements of the mind was

called

(A) observation

(B) case study

(C) introspection

(D) dream analysis

(E) resistance

4. Sigmund Freud believed that

(A) research should be based on

observable and measurable data

(B) reaching one’s potential by

developing a positive self-concept

was important

(C) nature selects organisms best suited

for an environment

(D) cultural and social backgrounds play

a crucial role in development

(E) unconscious motivations and wishes

affect personality and well-being

5. Behaviorism was built around the idea

that

(A) research should be based on

observable and measurable data

(B) reaching one’s potential by

developing a positive self-concept is

important

(C) nature selects organisms best suited

for an environment

(D) cultural and social backgrounds play

a crucial role in development

(E) unconscious motivations and wishes

affect personality and psychological

well-being

6. Who contributed to the ideas of the

evolutionary perspective by suggesting

that nature selects organisms best suited

for survival in a given environment?

(A) Charles Darwin

(B) Sigmund Freud

(C) John B. Watson

(D) William James

(E) Wilhelm Wundt

7. Which school of thought focused on how

an organism adapts to the environment

rather than on the study of mental

components or parts?

(A) Structuralism

(B) Gestalt

(C) Psychoanalysis

(D) Behaviorism

(E) Functionalism

8. The belief that the brain and nervous

system affect behavior is fundamental to

which perspective of psychology?

(A) Evolutionary

(B) Psychodynamic

(C) Behavioral

(D) Cognitive

(E) Biological


72

9. Faris has been conducting research that

may help people improve their ability to

process and retrieve explicit memories.

Which perspective does Faris’ inquiry

support?

(A) Evolutionary

(B) Psychodynamic

(C) Behavioral

(D) Cognitive

(E) Biological

10. A researcher supporting which

psychological perspective might recite

the following quotation: “I believe that

the memories and events of early

childhood contribute to unconscious

development affecting personality”?

(A) Evolutionary

(B) Psychodynamic

(C) Behavioral

(D) Cognitive

(E) Biological

11. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were

influential with the emergence and

development of which psychological

perspective?

(A) Evolutionary

(B) Psychodynamic

(C) Behavioral

(D) Cognitive

(E) Humanistic

12. The ideas of William James agreed with

and founded which psychological school

of thought?

(A) Structuralism

(B) Functionalism

(C) Gestalt

(D) Psychodynamic

(E) Behaviorism

13. For the past several years Jerry has been

conducting research on teenage smoking

and the possible long-term effects that

could later occur in adulthood. Jerry’s

research would coincide with which

subfield’s goals and ideals?

(A) Cognitive psychology

(B) Clinical psychology

(C) Psychiatry

(D) Biological psychiatry

(E) Developmental psychology

14. When describing her job, Jenny says she

makes sure that people who need

psychological care receive it. Jenny is

what type of psychologist?

(A) Cognitive psychologist

(B) Industrial psychologist

(C) Community psychologist

(D) Biological psychologist

(E) Developmental psychologist

15. Which subfield of psychology would

study how a stroke could affect the

functions of certain parts of the brain?

(A) Cognitive psychology

(B) Educational psychology

(C) Community psychology

(D) Biological psychology

(E) Psychometrics

Analogies of Psychology Analogies of Psychology McLane

73

1. Answer: B. The development of psychology was influenced by questions and beliefs of philosophy

and the scientific approach and underlying principles of physiology

2. Answer: A. Empiricists believed in tabular rasa that the mind was a blank sheet on which experiences

were “written” and, as a result, should be based on actual experience and observations. This idea went

against the beliefs of the older philosophers

3. Answer: C. Introspection meant to “look inward” and was a technique relied on by Wundt and the

structuralists

4. Answer E. Sigmund Freud believed that the unconscious contributes to personality development by

providing inner conflicts that must be resolved

5. Answer: A. Behaviorism was developed around the idea that research should be based only on data

that could be observed and measured

6. Answer: A. Charles Darwin theorized natural selection, which is the premise that nature selects

organisms best suited for survival in an environment

7. Answer: E. Functionalism, a school of thought championed by William James, was predicated on the

consideration of how organisms adapt to the environment

8. Answer: E. The biological perspective stated that the brain and nervous system affect the behavior of

an organism

9. Answer: D. The cognitive perspective is based on research that examines how cognitive processes,

such as thinking, remembering, and communicating, occur

10. Answer B. Those supporting the psychodynamic perspective believed that events in early childhood

affect the development of the unconscious, which in turn affects how personality develops

11. Answer: E. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed in free will, self-determination, and the

importance of the self-concept, which gave rise to the humanistic perspective

12. Answer: B. Functionalism was a school of thought that focused on how an organism adapted to

enhance its survival in a particular environment. William James rejected the ideas of structuralism

and instead concentrated his studies on how organisms adapt and function

13. Answer: E. Developmental psychologists study ways in which psychological and physical changes

occur over a lifetime

14. Answer: C. Community psychologists make sure that people who either cannot seek help or are

unwilling to do so receive psychological care

15. Answer: D. Biological psychology studies the functioning of the brain and nervous system and how

that affects functioning and behavior


74


1. The mental processes a person is aware of at any given moment, for example answering this

question, refers to conscious awareness

a. Resides just below the level of consciousness, which makes it easy to access, like a

recent memory is called the preconscious level

b. Absent from conscious awareness, but still could influence a person’s thoughts or

actions. Sigmund Freud was very interested in this area of consciousness as he believed

this to be comprised of wishes, inner conflicts, and memories, which he referred to as the

unconscious level

Exploring the Levels of Consciousness

2. The belief that the mind and body are separate is referred to as dualism.

a. The suggestion that the mind and the body are one and the same is called materialism,

which was supported through damage to one’s brain causing that person’s consciousness

to be affected.


3. Who believed that consciousness is like a stream; always changing but always flowing?

____________________________

Circadian Rhythms

4. Throughout a day, human beings experience fluctuations in their physiological (body

temperature) and psychological processes (alertness.) These repeating fluctuations, such as

sleeping and waking, occur over a 24 hour period are referred to as _____________________

a. What is the “internal clock” located within the hypothalamus that monitors circadian

rhythms? ________________________________

b. Where does the suprachiasmatic nucleus receive information from in terms of whether

it is light or dark out? Ganglion cells of the eye

c. Neurons within the suprachiasmatic nucleus, trigger the decrease or increase of the

hormone melatonin produced by pineal gland. When it starts to become light outside the

suprachiasmatic nucleus recognizes this change and _______________ the production of

melatonin, which helps to wake us up. On the contrary, when it starts to become dark

melatonin production _________________ causing us to become tired.

d. What can possibly also affect circadian rhythms? Give an example:

Environmental factors/ jet lag flying from New York to LA


75

Stages of Sleep

5. What instruments do researchers use to monitor a person’s different stages of sleep and brain

activity? ______________

a. A person who is awake and attentive would be showing __________ waves.

b. A person who is awake but inattentive or staring to become sleepy would be show

________________ waves.

c. Which type of waves follow alpha waves and indicate even slower brain activity?

Theta

d. Which waves show very low brain activity and area associated with deep sleep?

Delta

6. Identify the characteristics of the following sleep stages:

Sleep stage Brain Waves Characteristics

_______________

_______________

_______________

Alpha and

theta waves

Lasts only a few minutes/ Person can quickly gain

consciousness/ Experiences hypnagogic hallucinations- vivid

sensory experiences- sensation of falling- also myoclonic jerk-

involuntary muscle spasm throughout body that often awakes

person

_______________

Theta and start

of delta waves

Start of true sleep/ sleep spindles in EEG patterns- sudden

bursts of brain activity

_______________

Delta waves Considered NREM stage 3 when 20% of brain activity shows

delta waves

______________

______________

Beta waves Brain activity becomes more active, resembling that of an

awakened state; 85% of dreams occur in this stage

Muscle activity is suppressed- called muscle atonia

Physiological arousal is high- heart rate, blood pressure

Eyes move readily back and forth beneath eyelids- Rapid eye

movement- also called paradoxical sleep

Sequence of Sleep Stages

7. How many cycles do people experience of NREM and REM sleep each night?

Four to Six

1) Begins with NREM stage 1: lasts a few minutes

2) Followed by about 20 minutes in NREM stage 2

3) Roughly the next 40 minutes are spent in NREM stages 3

4) Once a person is relaxed and deeply asleep in NREM stage 3 the sequence reverses

5) The person then goes back through NREM stage 2


76

6) After NREM stage 2, the person enters REM sleep (not NREM stage 1), which usually

lasts for about 5 to 15 minutes

a. As sleep continues the periods of ________ sleep get longer and NREM stages 3

become ___________________

b. The last few sleep cycles are primarily NREM stage ____ and REM sleep

c. As a person gets older, what stages of sleep start to gradually decrease?

__________________________

d. As a young child, how much time is usually spent in NREM stage 3?

Two or more hours

Functions of Sleep

8. Studies of sleep deprivation have provided evidence that sleep is necessary for adequate

physiological and psychological functioning. What tasks seem to be affected the most by lack of

sleep?

Tasks are considered boring and repetitive

a. A person who does not get enough REM sleep will experience REM rebound, which is

defined by a person going right into REM sleep instead of the proper sequence of sleep.

Sleep Theories

9. Which theory of sleep suggests that sleep in necessary for the body to repair itself?

_________________________________

a. Which type of sleep allows the brain to improve the functioning of neurons, which are

essential to understanding newly learned material?

______________________

b. What parts of the brain are active during REM sleep?

_______________________________

c. Which type of sleep is necessary for the body to physiologically repair itself?

NREM

10. Theory of sleep that suggests sleep is a behavior that promotes the survival of species and is

based on the evolutionary principles and suggests that humans and animals sleep when it is

dangerous to be awake is called adaptive theory of sleep

11. What theory of sleep suggests that we sleep because there is no more stimulation to keep us

awake? _________________________________


77

Sleep Disorders

12. Fill in the chart explaining the characteristics of sleep disorders:

Sleep disorder Characteristics

Narcolepsy Falling suddenly into REM sleep at any time of the day

Sleep apnea Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep- stop

breathing

Somnambulism (sleep

walking)

Occurs in NREM stage 3

Nocturnal enuresis

(bedwetting)

Occurs in NREM stage 3

_______________ Occurs in NREM stage 3- high physiological arousal/

especially in children/ no recollection of the events

______________ Occurs in REM sleep

REM sleep behavior disorder Acting out your dream; connected with damage to the

lower brain centers/ common in older men

Sleep bruxism Grinding teeth during sleep

Dream Theories

13. What stage of sleep do dreams occur most vividly? __________________

a. People who feel that they can control their dreams in terms of outcomes and decisions

is referred to as __________________

b. During REM sleep which part of the brain is inactive, making it hard to form new

memories? _____________________

c. Sigmund Freud, who was very interested in the content of dreams thought that during

dream analysis he could tap into a person’s unconscious. What was the name of Freud’s

influential book that outlined his approach?

_________________________________

d. According to Freud, dreams consisted of two parts: the __________ content consisted

of the remembered meaning of the dream; and the ________ content was the symbolized

part of the dream that Freud thought represented the deep wishes of the unconscious.

e. The idea that signals within the brain activate other areas of the brain, including the

amygdala an hippocampus, and that the brain synthesizes these signals as it attempts to

provide meaning refers to the activation-synthesis theory of dreaming


78

___ 1. Which part of the brain is responsible for receiving information from the retina

regarding light or darkness; then initiates the pineal gland to release or decrease the

production of melatonin? *RC: think of a light sensor that activates or deactivates the

outdoor lights depending if it light or dark out*

A) Hippocampus D) Fovea

B) Thyroid gland E) Bipolar cells

C) Superchiasmatic nucleus

___ 2. According to an EEG, if a person was wide awake then that person would display

which type of brain waves? *RC: remember you Beta be awake when you take an

exam*

A) Alpha B) Beta C) Delta D) Theta E) Maya

___ 3. Paradoxical sleep is defined as: *RC: remember paradox indicates opposite*

A) REM sleep where the brain is asleep and the body is wide awake.

B) REM sleep where the legs continue to move despite no brain activity.

C) REM sleep that is measured by beta waves in the brain and no movement in the

body.

D) NREM sleep where the brain is wide awake and the body is wide awake.

E) NREM sleep where the brain is asleep and the body is awake.

___ 4. According to Sigmund Freud, the part of the dream that could lead to possible

unconscious conflicts and if often not understand by the person who dreamt it is

referred to as the__________ component. RC: remember man I had a crazy dream-

which means the part of the dream you can remember*

A) Pons B) Symbolic interlude C) Manifest D) Fixated E) Latent

___ 5. Night terrors differ from nightmares because night terrors occur in: *RC: remember

delta waves means deep sleep which means the brain is turned off; not recording*

A) NREM stage 1 D) NREM stage 3

B) REM sleep E) Sleep thinking periods

C) First 20 minutes of NREM stage 2


79

Hypnosis

1. An altered state of consciousness that could produce increased responsiveness to suggestion

that could in turn lead to changes in behavior and thinking is called __________________

Explaining hypnosis

2. Suggestions that are made my hypnotist that maybe carried out after the person has been

hypnotized are called posthypnotic suggestion

a. meaning that can’t be recalled of what took place during the hypnotic session is called

posthypnotic amnesia

b. Who determined that during hypnosis people experience a splitting of consciousness

called “dissociation” referred to the neodissociation theory of hypnosis where a person

experiences distinct multiple streams of consciousness?

___________________

c. The first stream of consciousness is tuned to the hypnotist’s suggestions, while the

second stream is so distinct from consciousness that is unattainable to the subject, which

he called the _________________

d. Nicholas Spanos believed that hypnosis is not an altered state of consciousness as

Hilgard believed, but rather an expected role that a person believed he or she should

perform or act when being hypnotized. This theory is called ______________________

______________________

Psychoactive Drugs

3. An area of psychology that studies the effects of psychoactive drugs on the brain and nervous

system is called psychopharmacology

a. The blood-brain barrier helps prevent certain substances from entering brain tissue,

but if does bypass this barrier will affect the way a person thinks and feels.

b. If a drug mimics/excites it is called __________ versus if a drug blocks/inhibits the

role of a neurotransmitter it is called an ___________________

Effects of Drugs

4. Occurs when a pattern of drug use interferes with personal and social meaning and

functioning is called substance abuse


80

a. When a person chooses to take a drug despite knowing the ramifications it could cause

in other areas of his or her life is called psychological dependency

b. Referred to as addiction, results in the body’s dependence on the drug to function is

called physical dependency and if the body does not get the required drug then a this

person will experience unpleasant headaches, shaking, or intense cravings for the drug

called ______________________

c. The type of a drug a person continuously does; the greater need for the drug which

refers to a person’s ___________________________

Types of Drugs

5. Identify the effects of drugs:

Drug

Classification

Physical effects on the

brain and body

Example Psychological effects

_____________

Slows activity in central

nervous system

Increases GABA-

neurotransmitter that

inhibits brain activity

Alcohol,

barbiturates,

sleeping pills,

tranquilizers,

GHB- club

drugs

Mild euphoria,

talkativeness, friendly,

reduces inhibitions,

aggressiveness, impair

judgments

____________

Speeds activity in nervous

systems

Increases neurotransmitter’s

norepinephrine (arousal) and

dopamine (pleasure)

Amphetamines,

cocaine,

caffeine,

nicotine,

ecstasy

Increased mental

alertness, reduce fatigue,

produces induced

psychosis- schizophrenic

like symptoms-

hallucinations

____________

Causes sleepiness and

relieves pain

Agonist for endorphins

Opium,

morphine,

heroin

Intense rush of euphoria,

feelings of contentment,

severe withdrawal

symptoms

_____________

Also called psychedelics

Similar to nt serotonin-

regulates moods and

perceptions

LSD, ketamine,

mescaline,

marijuana

Loss of contact from

reality, altered emotions,

perceptions,

hallucinations


81

___ 1. Which of the following statements would Ernest Hilgard agree with in terms of

describing his theory of hypnosis? *RC: if a log fell into a stream it would divide or

produce two separate streams; however both streams are still flowing in the same

direction and to the same place*

A) That a person is simply playing a part acting in a way that he or thinks they

should act during hypnosis.

B) That the brain switches from left to right brain causing the power of suggestion to

exist.

C) Mirror neurons are activated which cause a person to feel or sense they are being

hypnotized

D) That during hypnosis a second stream consciousness is produced referred to as

the hidden observer which taps into the unconscious and is subtle to hypnotic

suggestion.

E) That during hypnosis a second stream consciousness is produced referred to as

the partial observer which taps into the unconscious.

___ 2. Motrin’s and Tylenol mimic endorphins through blocking pain signals; this would

classify them as a: *RC: think of a key that is duplicated; not the same but can still

unlock and lock- same as the original*

A) Antagonist B) Mirrors C) Agonist D) Plasticity E) Replication

___ 3. If a person continues to use or expose themselves to a drug; then over time that

person is going to require greater quantities in order to achieve the designer effects of

that drug. This greater need is referred to as: *RC: the more you do; the more you

need- you can tolerate more*

A) Withdrawal symptoms D) Tolerance

B) Dependency E) Resistance

C) Physical need

___ 4. Alcohol, which is classified as a depressant, slows down neural activity and activates

which of the following neurotransmitters that is known to slow down brain activity.

*RC: saying GABA slowly calms you down through slowing down your brain

activity*

A) Serotonin B) Dopamine C) Acetylcholine D) GABA E) Substance P

___ 5. If a person abuses the stimulant cocaine and raise the level of dopamine in their

system then they could experience symptoms comparable to schizophrenia. This is

referred to as: *RC: psychosis means break- break from reality*

A) Pleasure principle D) Induced psychosis

B) Reaction formation E) Lavational psychosis

C) Sublimation


82

1. Susanne is paying close attention to her

teacher as he lectures about the history

of psychology. Which level of awareness

describes Susanne’s attentiveness?

(A) Conscious awareness

(B) Preconscious awareness

(C) Nonconscious awareness

(D) Subliminal awareness

(E) Nocturnal awareness

2. Carlos's friend asks Carlos what he ate

for dinner last night. Carlos hesitates a

few moments and then is able to

remember. Which level of awareness

describes his ability to remember last

night's dinner?

(A) Conscious awareness

(B) Preconscious awareness

(C) Nonconscious awareness

(D) Subliminal awareness

(E) Nocturnal awareness

3. Jen is excited to be taking the AP

psychology exam. She is fully alert and

ready to handle the task at hand. Which

waves of brain activity is Jen displaying?

(A) Delta

(B) Theta

(C) Beta

(D) Alpha

(E) Circadian

4. As Tracy sits in class she grows tired.

She is having a hard time paying

attention to the teacher and often loses

her place in her book. Tracy is

experiencing which type of brain waves?

(A) Delta

(B) Theta

(C) Beta

(D) Alpha

(E) Circadian

5. REM sleep is characterized by

(A) delta brain activity and muscle

atonia

(B) cessation of breathing and heavy

snoring

(C) muscle atonia and high levels of beta

activity in the brain

(D) vivid sensory imagery

(E) myoclonic jerks displayed by the

body

6. As an individual sleeps throughout the

night, which two stages of sleep become

longer?

(A) NREM 1 and NREM 2

(B) NREM 1 and NREM 3

(C) REM and NREM 2

(D) REM and NREM 3

(E) NREM 3 and NREM 4

7. Jon traveled from Nashville to Los

Angeles yesterday. He has had a hard

time adapting to the time change. Last

night he found it hard to fall asleep and

during the day he has had a hard time

staying awake. The time change has

affected Jon’s

(A) circadian rhythms

(B) memory consolidation

(C) adrenal cortex

(D) biopsychological timing

(E) ultradian rhythms

8. What hormone, when released by the

pineal gland, causes a person to become

drowsy and tired?

(A) Adrenaline

(B) Corticosteroid

(C) Catecholamine

(D) Melatonin

(E) Testosterone


83

9. The restorative theory of sleep suggests

that ___ sleep helps the brain to restore

and ___ helps the body to recover.

(A) NREM; REM sleep

(B) REM; NREM sleep

(C) REM; REM sleep

(D) NREM; NREM sleep

(E) NREM Stage 3; NREM Stage 4

10. Jim has reported that he can control his

dreams and affect the content of his

dreams. This is referred to as

(A) wishful thinking

(B) NREM sleep

(C) lucid dreaming

(D) hallucinogenic dreaming

(E) the Muller-Lyer illusion

11. Nate has had problems quitting smoking

in the past. A friend suggested he see a

hypnotist. Nate was a bit reluctant but

agreed. After the hypnotic session, the

hypnotist told Nate that he would no

longer have the urge to smoke. This is

referred to as

(A) posthypnotic suggestion

(B) posthypnotic amnesia

(C) suggestion of the mind

(D) posthypnotic fugue

(E) social conforming

12. The role theory of hypnosis states that

(A) a hypnotist produces a “hidden

observer” unresponsive

(B) people fall into a deep sleep

(C) altered states of consciousness are

produced

(D) a dissociation is produced and

causes multiple streams of

(E) hypnotized people are acting in

accordance with the socially

accepted behavior of what is shown

during hypnosis

13. Which of the following is characterized

by an altered state of consciousness in

which the power of suggestion is able to

affect behavior?

(A) Shock therapy

(B) Operant conditioning

(C) Token economy

(D) Systematic desensitization

(E) Hypnosis

14. Ever since Deb quit smoking, she has

experienced terrible headaches, nausea,

and a tremendous craving for nicotine.

Deb is experiencing what kind of

symptoms?

(A) Toxic

(B) Withdrawal

(C) Hormonal

(D) Synaptic

(E) Distortion

15. Depressants depress activity in the

central nervous system by causing neural

communication to slow down. Which of

the following is an example of a

depressant?

(A) Heroin

(B) Cocaine

(C) LSD

(D) Alcohol

(E) Caffeine


84

1. Answer: A. Conscious awareness describes mental activities a person is aware of at a given moment

2. Answer: B. Preconscious awareness resides just below conscious awareness, which makes it easy to

retrieve the content into conscious awareness

3. Answer: C. Beta waves show brain activity, indicating that a person is awake and attentive

4. Answer: D. Alpha brain waves indicates that the person is awake but drowsy and inattentive

5. Answer: C. REM sleep is characterized by beta brain activity and full relaxation in the body and

muscles

6. Answer: C. A person progresses through NREM Stages 1–4 and then reverses from NREM 4 to 3

and then 2. After NREM Stage 2, REM sleep takes over. As the night goes on, more time is spent in

REM sleep and in NREM Stage 2

7. Answer: A. Jon is experiencing jet lag, and it has affected his circadian rhythms, which cycle periods

of wakefulness and tiredness

8. Answer: D. Melatonin is released by the pineal gland in response to darkness monitored by the

suprachiasmatic nucleus

9. Answer: B. REM sleep is necessary for the brain to revitalize neural communication, and NREM

sleep is necessary for the body to rebuild muscle

10. Answer: C. Lucid dreaming occurs when a person feels that he or she can control the content of his

or her dreams

11. Answer: A. The posthypnotic suggestion refers to the hypnotist’s instruction that is to be carried out

by the subject after the hypnotic session

12. Answer: E. The role theory of hypnosis suggests that people who undergo hypnosis are conforming

to the demands of the expected roles associated with the process of hypnosis

13. Answer: E. Hypnosis uses techniques to help subjects relax, enabling suggestion to cause changes in

behavior

14. Answer: B. Withdrawal symptoms are physiological changes that result from the body’s not being

able to get a drug on which it has depended

15. Answer: D. Alcohol is an example of a depressant. It depresses, or slows down, the central nervous

system


85

Personality 1. The unique and consistent pattern of behavior, thinking, and feeling that makes up an

individual is called personality.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Approach

2. Sigmund Freud believed that personality is influenced by the ______________, which is

comprised of wishes, inner conflicts, and memories that we are unaware of but that still

affect our behavior.

a. All of the mental processes a person is aware of at an given moment is called the

_____________________ awareness

b. All of them memories and information that are not presently in conscious awareness

but can easily be recalled is called the ____________________ awareness

The Development of Personality: Id, Ego, and Superego

3. Freud believed that personality is the result of psychological energy that produces three

distinct components of personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. The unconscious

portion of personality, present at birth, primitive, not affected by values, ethics, or morals

is called the ________________

a. The id’s psychological energy comes from two opposing instinctual drives: Eros and

Thanatos. The nature of the Eros is to preserve life by alerting an individual to hunger,

thirst, and sexuality.

a. Freud believed a person’s sex drive, or libido produces psychological energy.

b. The death instinct, which is responsible for aggressive and destructive behavior

Freud called the Thanatos

c. The id is governed by the ____________________, which demands immediate

gratification- for example a baby that cries until he or she gets taken care of.

b. Which component emerges from the psychological energy of the id?

a. The ego is partly conscious and represents the rational, decision-making part of

the personality. The ego relies, on the ______________ principle, which, when

necessary, delays the demands and the needs of the id until an appropriate time.

c. Emerges at age five or six and represents the internal voice of reason, or the judge and

jury of our behavior is called the ________________. A person who does not live up to

the expectations of the superego experiences guilt and anxiety.


86

Types of Ego Defense Mechanisms

4. Freud believed that urges of the id and the demands of the superego could cause conflicts,

and that the role of the ego is to mediate such conflicts called “intrapsychic.” In order to

reduce this anxiety and protect itself the ego relies on defense mechanisms.

a. Fill out the following chart describing the different types of defense mechanisms:

Defense

Mechanism

Definition

______________

The exclusion from conscious awareness of a painful, unpleasant,

or undesirable memory or urge/ remember suppression is a

conscious decision to forget about something

_______________ Providing excuses or explanations to justify thoughts or behaviors

_______________ Ascribing or assigning one’s undesirable feelings or thoughts to

others

_________________

________________

When a person behaves that contradicts their actual thoughts

________________ Attempting to turn unacceptable thoughts or actions into socially

acceptable behaviors

________________ Shifting anger and hostility to a less threatening target

_______________ Trying to make up for unconscious impulses or fears

_______________ Not being willing to accept the truth

________________ In times of stress, an individual’s reverting to a behavior that is

associated with an earlier stage of development

Stages that occur Through Personality Development

5. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of five distinct psychosexual

stages- each associated with an area of pleasure (erogenous zones) in which the

unconscious searches for satisfaction. IF the unconscious is not able to adequately satisfy

the needs associated within a particular stage then _______ occurs, a defense mechanism

that occurs when the individual remains locked in an earlier developmental stage because

his or her needs were either under- or- over-gratified during that stage.

Freud’s Psychosexual stages

6. Identify the milestones and fixations associated with each stage:

Oral Stage (birth-1 year old)

Pleasure: associated with mouth area

Activities: putting objects in mouth such as a pacifier, biting toys

Fixation: oral fixation- compulsion of oral activates in adulthood- smoking, biting nails

Anal Stage (two years old)

Pleasure: associated with anal area

Activities: proper toilet training: child learning control over bowels


87

Fixation: anal retentive- obsessive neatness or perfection/ anal expulsive- messiness

Phallic Stage (3-5 years old)

Pleasure: associated with genitals (one’s own)

Occurs when the son displays incestuous feelings for his mother and resistance towards

his father is referred to the Oedipus complex

On the other hand, the Electra complex occurs when girls question why boys have certain

body parts that they do not resulting in incestuous feelings for their father and resentment

of their mother.

Boys resolve and reduce the anxiety caused by the Oedipus complex and castration

anxiety by forming an alliance with their father this result in the defense mechanism of

____________________ which involves imitating the father’s attitudes and values

allowing them ___________________ to develop

Latency Stage (late childhood)

Sexual feelings lay dormant as boys emphasize same sex friendships and develop social and

intellectual skills. Through the defense mechanism of ___________________ the child redirects

sexual energy into social and emotional acceptable outlets

Genital Stage (adolescence)

Sexual impulses reemerge with emphasis on genitals- theirs and others with the hopes for

forming loving, intimate relationships


88

___ 1. According to Sigmund Freud, the component of personality that is governed by the

pleasure principle, completely unconscious, and comparable to animal-like behavior?

*RC: think of "I" like to do whatever "I" like*

A) Ego B) Id C) Superego D) Oedipus E) Latency

___ 2. A type of defense mechanism, that involves behaving or thinking in an opposite

manner when compared to the truth or true motivation. *RC: think about whey

people may laugh during a funeral- they ACT in an opposite way*

A) Projection D) Reaction formation

B) Rationalization E) Denial

C) Displacement

___ 3. Which of the following would be an example of projection? *RC: remember when

you project you are displaying your personality onto other people or situations*

A) Lacy slams her pen on the table when she gets a poor test score.

B) Julie does not admit that she cheated on the test.

C) Mario claims that everyone else was cheating on the test.

D) Jim laughs right before he is going to find out if he got into college.

E) Jimmy accuses his girlfriend of cheating when he's been the one cheating.

___ 4. Rachel begins to cry when she gets pulled over by the police for speeding. This

reaction seemed to work when she was an infant in terms of getting her own way.

According to Freud, this is an example of which type of defense mechanism? *RC:

remember the G stands for Going back*

A) Displacement D) Compensation

B) Repression E) Rationalization

C) Regression

___ 5. During which psychosexual stage does the superego develop as a result of the defense

mechanism of identification? *RC: remember when you identify with someone then

he or she can teach you right and wrong; you learn to say P-lease in the P-hallic

stage*

A) Oral B) Latency C) Phallic D) Genital E) Freudian


89

The Neo-Freudian View of Personality

Neo-Freudians were followers of Freud who taught and delivered his theories and ideas, but as

time went on many neo-Freudians developed their own ideals and viewpoints

Carl Jung

1. Carl Jung disagreed with Freud primarily on the role of the libido. He believed that it

was not primarily for sexual interest, but also brings human growth and conflict. He also

did not believe in distinct personality stages, but rather a person is either an

____________, someone who prefers privacy and ponders his or her own actions and

thinking, or an _______________, someone who receives energy through being active

and part of the outside social world.

a. Jung also believed in a collection of past experiences shared by all people that are

inherited from ancestors and passed from generation to generation referred to as

the ____________________________

b. Jung further believed that the collective unconscious contains _______________-

which are generational symbols of perceptual themes and symbols- snake

representing evil

Alfred Adler

2. Adler believed that people have an innate desire to overcome inferioriti3es experienced in

childhood. These _______________________stem from our reliance on others

(primarily parents) in caring for us when we were not able to care for ourselves. This

leads to a desire to be _________________, which results in different personality styles

to achieve this.

Karen Horney

3. Karen Horney was the first female personality researcher and disagreed with Freud that

women experienced penis envy, but rather social restraints made women feel inferior to

men. She believed males experienced womb envy instead. She believed that conflicts

within social relationships could result in personality problems. She identified 3 types of

personality styles:

a. Moving toward need for approval

b. Moving against demand for control

c. Moving away desire for independence

Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach

4. Researchers have given limited support to the psychodynamic perspective with the main

criticism proving the existence and consequent influence of the unconscious. There is

little empirical evidence to back up his theory, and since Freud used case studies it is hard

to generalize his findings to the population. In addition, Freud’s theory was based on

Western European thought not American values.


90

Trait Theories

5. Internal characteristics that are stable, consistent over time, and displayed through

multiple situations are called personality traits. Trait theories predict how people will act

or think in most situations.

Type versus Trait

6. Traits provide a list, or number, of descriptors (quantitative) that are used to describe a

person, whereas types address whether a person “fits” that particular type, or whether he

or she has certain characteristics. Feeling type has the traits: affection, sympathy, and

dependability (qualitative)

Gordon Allport’s Trait Theory

7. Who was one of the first trait theorists to identify traits?

Gordon Allport

a. He grouped the 18,000 traits he identified into 2 groups: central/ source traits and

secondary traits/ surface traits. Easily recognized and have a strong influence on

personality are called _________________________

b. Traits more specific to certain situations and have less of an effect on personality

are called ______________________________

Raymond Cattell

8. Raymond Cattell based his research on Gordon Allport’s research and used a

questionnaire that asked people to rate themselves on a number of traits for which ones

best described them. He then used a technique which is a mathematical formula that

explains how traits are related to one another called a ________________________.

This would show how certain central traits would give rise to certain secondary traits.

a. Through factor analysis, Cattell was able to identify 16 basic personality factors-

he verified his findings through a Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

Biological Trait Theories

9. Who believed that people inherited certain personality factors and could be described

along introversion-extraversion/ emotionality-stability dimensions?

_______________________________

a. People who were moody and worried were characterized as _________________

b. People who were calm and relaxed were characterized as _________________


91

The Big-Five Model of Personality

10. What two researchers believed that Raymond Cattell identified too many traits and Hans

Eysenck identified too few and rather used a factor analysis to develop the big-five model

of personality?

a. What are the big five traits?

1. __________________: curious, insightful, imaginative, creative

2. ___________________: organized, reliable, hardworking

3. _________________: active, energetic, affectionate

4. __________________: forgiving, generous, trusting

5. ____________________: anxious, tense, vulnerable

Evaluation of the Trait Approach

11. The trait theory is good at labeling behavior, but does not explain why a person acts a

certain way. This perspective also does not consider how social situations could affect a

person’s traits. The big-five is accepted by many, but does fail to show why people

possess those traits.


92

___ 1. According to Carl Jung, archetypes or universal symbols are contained in the

___________ which is passed from generation to generation for the purpose of

assisting in healthy development and pursuit of successful outcomes. *RC: think

about a phone that comes equipped with apps already built into the phone that will

help you to use your phone*

A) Personal unconscious D) Personal fable

B) Collective conscious E) Relational information

C) Collective unconscious

___ 2. Which of the following statements would Alfred Adler agree with in terms of

personality development? *RC: think of getting two As- that makes you superior*

A) James gives up half way through his math test because it is too hard.

B) Lacy laughs at a student who fails a test.

C) Rich catches up and passes several contestants at the finish line.

D) Lucy does not study for 3 midterms because she is lazy.

E) Mike can ride his bike with no hands but then falls off.

___ 3. According to Gordon Allport, a person who just gets nervous when he talks in front

of people would be displaying which type of trait? *RC: remember on the surface

refers to how people act some of the time or dependent on the situation but it is not

the source of who they are*

A) Cardinal B) Central C) Source D) Surface E) Primary

___ 4. A mathematical formula that is used to show how traits or factors are related; used by

Raymond Cattell to establish the 16 personality inventory in called a: *RC:

match.com uses a statistical test to show how one trait predicts many traits*

A) PPI D) Programmed inventory

B) Tally and Tell E) MMPI

C) Factor analysis

___ 5. Which of the following is NOT considered one of the Big 5 source traits? *RC:

remember OCEAN or CANOE*

A) Extraversion D) Openness

B) Agreeableness E) Neurotic

C) Revengeful


93

Social-Cognitive Approach

Social-cognitive theorists believed personality to be the interaction of cognitive, behavioral,

and environmental factors.

Social-Cognitive Theorists

Julian Rotter

1. Who believed that people’s expectations shape behavior and personality?

Julian Rotter

a. Those expectations are based on either a person believing he or she could control

environmental influences called ______________________________

b. Or a person believing that he or she cannot control environmental factors called

_________________________________ like surgery

Albert Bandura

2. Who believed that personality is the result of the interaction between thoughts, behavior,

and environmental factors? _______________________ which he referred to as

_________________________________

a. Bandura also believed that the expectations that play a role in how a person

behaves or acts called _____________ are also very important in how people act.

Evaluation of the Social –Cognitive Approach

3. An advantage of the social-cognitive approach is that it includes cognitive, behavioral,

and environmental factors. However, it does not include any information pertaining to

the unconscious.

Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach explains personality by describing how people differ in terms of self-

awareness, creativity, decision-making, and responsibility. A humanistic psychologist believes

that all people have an innate or inborn drive that promotes and directs growth and helps them

achieve the potential.


94

Humanistic Theorists

Carl Rogers

4. Carl Rogers developed his theory based on a belief that people have an innate drive that

motivates a person to reach his or her full potential called the ______________________

a. Rogers termed how a person perceives him or herself as their ________________

b. The acceptance of a person for who he or she is/ is called ________________

____________ which leads to congruence when a person can be him or herself

and not worry about trying to impress others with false beliefs or actions- self-

concept matches or is congruent with reality. This results in an accurate and

healthy self-concept.

c. Rogers believed that conditional love or _______________________ could to an

unhealthy self-concept by the person acting in incongruence when self-concept

does not match reality. This could occur if a person believed that only when

certain conditions are met that love and affection will be shown or given.

Abraham Maslow

5. Abraham Maslow believed the pursuit of fulfilling and realizing one’s potential which he

called _______________________________

a. People may lose focus of self-actualization through focusing on materialistic,

meaningless goals referred to as deficiency orientation

b. When people focus on what they have, how they perform, and the importance of

their achievements they exhibit growth orientation

Evaluation of the Humanistic Perspective

6. The humanistic perspectives see a person as unique, which is based on the importance

they place on events and situations. However, some believe that this perspective is too

optimistic and naïve by believing that every person is good.


95

Assessing Personality

7. Personality tests are either objective (self-report) or subjective (projective tests.)

a. Identify the following characteristics of personality tests:

Type of

test

Format Advantage Disadvantage Example

O

B

J

E

C

T

I

V

E

Self-

report

Multiple-

choice/ true-

false

Questions can be

machine score

saves time and

money- ensures

reliability

A score for each

test can be

interpreted by the

test-giver,

providing a label

that people can

understand

People can fake

responses, answer

how they think they

should answer, rush

through questions,

may not understand

the questions.

maybe cultural bias

with the answers

1. NEO-PI

measures the big

five personality

traits

2. _________ most

widely used

personality tests/

500 TF questions/

originally designed

to measure mental

health

Type of

Test

Format Advantage Disadvantage Example

P

R

O

J

E

C

T

I

V

E

Unstructured

stimuli that

are

subjective

scored

The

psychodynamic

approach uses

projective tests

because vague

stimuli tend to

reveal contents of

the unconscious

making it hard for

a person to fake

responses because

they don’t know

what researcher

is asking

Researcher’s

subjective

interpretation may

not accurately

describe test taker

Tests are not

reliable as daily

emotions play a

factor in answers

1. _____________

_______________ developed by Henry

Murray- picture

scenes to measure

need for

achievement

2. ____________

______________ developed by

Hermann

Rorschach- inkblot

are described by

test taker

Applications of Personality Tests

8. Personality tests are administered for a variety of reasons. Industrial-organizational

psychologists, who try to improve work conditions by improving the ways businesses operate

and by placing people in the right jobs based on their personality.


96

___ 2. According to Albert Bandura, what are the three components of the reciprocal

determinism explanation? *RC: think about a person's bad attitude could change the

way people act which could result in a distrustful classroom*

A) Cognitive, motivation, environment

B) Cognitive, behavioral, parental ok

C) Behavioral, environmental, sibling input

D) Cognitive, behavioral, environmental

E) Attitude, brains, adjustment

___ 3. According to Carl Rogers, which of the following would demonstrate unconditional

love resulting in a healthy self-concept? *RC: remember U are U with

Unconditional*

A) Larry behaves differently with his friends than he does his family.

B) Mitch is afraid to tell his coach he does not want to play soccer any longer.

C) Beth feels that her boyfriend will not like her real aspirations in life.

D) Rick can tell his mother that he failed a test in class.

E) Norman sneaks past his father and out the door.

___ 4. Which type of objective test is comprised of true-false questions originally designed

to test abnormal traits? *RC: if you can't think your more honest in your answers*

A) NEO-PI B) MMPI C) Rorschach D) TAT E) FUN

___ 5. Lindsey was asked to look at a series of inkblots that were supposed to help her

understand why she cannot remember certain events from her childhood. Which type

of subjective test is Lindsey participating in? *RC: remember if you don't know what

you are looking at; you don't know what your expected to report*

A) MMPI B) TAT C) OPER D) Rorschach E) Vagueness

___ 1. Raymond decides to give up trying to study for his AP test; when asked why he

commented, what is the point he does not know how the teacher is going to test.

According to Julian Rotter, what was the reason why Raymond stopped studying?

*RC: remember Ex means extraneous or other factors that determine the outcome*

A) Internal locus of control D) Self-actualization

B) Personal inventory E) Self-fulfilling prophecy

C) External locus of control


97

1. Personality is defined as

(A) infrequent and often omitted

behavior

(B) a unique and consistent pattern of

thinking, feeling, and acting

(C) a universally accepted way of

viewing behavior

(D) a perception based on past

experiences and viewpoints

(E) something that happens by chance or

is based on one’s current situation

2. Which of the following individuals

developed his personality theory from

treating people with symptoms that had

no physical causes?

(A) Gordon Allport

(B) Raymond Cattell

(C) B.F. Skinner

(D) Sigmund Freud

(E) Carl Rogers

3. Sigmund Freud believed that a person’s

thoughts, feelings, and behavior are

determined by

(A) various unconscious influences

(B) the interaction of thoughts, feelings,

and behaviors

(C) central and secondary traits

(D) self-actualization

(E) secondary traits

4. A baby cries hysterically when he or she

can’t reach a toy, not stopping until

immediate gratification is given by his or

her caregiver. Freud would suggest that

this child’s immediate gratification is

based on the

(A) reality principle

(B) pleasure principle

(C) actualizing tendency

(D) moral principle

(E) inferiority complex

5. Suzy was tempted to cheat on her exam,

but quickly remembered that cheating is

wrong and immoral. Freud would say

that the thought that cheating was wrong

came from the

(A) ego

(B) id

(C) superego

(D) collective unconscious

(E) unconditional positive regard she

received as a child

6. Will received an “F” on his exam. He

quickly pointed out to fellow classmates

that certain exam questions were not

covered on the review. Will is exhibiting

which type of defense mechanism?

(A) Compensation

(B) Displacement

(C) Sublimation

(D) Rationalization

(E) Regression

7. During which psychosexual stage does

the defense mechanism of identification

emerge, allowing the superego to

develop?

(A) Anal stage

(B) Oral stage

(C) Genital stage

(D) Phallic stage

(E) Latency stage


98

8. Stan is the youngest in a very

competitive family. As a result, Stan

often does not get attention or succeed in

family activities. Stan’s classmates have

noticed that he strives to win at all

classroom activities to make himself feel

superior to his classmates. Which Neo-

Freudian would state that Stan’s

competitiveness is in response to his

childhood experience?

(A) Carl Jung

(B) Karen Horney

(C) Alfred Adler

(D) Erik Erikson

(E) Carl Rogers

9. Everyone who knows him describes

Tom as a caring person. No matter what

the situation, he is always there to offer

support to those who need it. According

to Gordon Allport, Tom’s display of

caring would be an example of what

trait?

(A) Stable

(B) Central

(C) Secondary

(D) Preferred

(E) Loving type

10. A mathematical formula that is used to

describe the relationships among traits is

called

(A) factor analysis

(B) case study

(C) naturalistic observation

(D) longitudinal study

(E) survey

11. The big-five traits: conscientiousness,

extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism,

(A) optimism

(B) pessimism

(C) openness to experience

(D) happiness

(E) self-actualization

12. According to Albert Bandura, reciprocal

determinism is the interaction of

thinking, behavior, and

(A) environment

(B) verbal skills

(C) stability

(D) optimism

(E) conditions

13. Carl Rogers said that the ___ is (are) an

innate drive that motivates all human

behavior toward growth.

(A) unconscious

(B) central traits

(C) actualizing tendency

(D) wish fulfillment

(E) ego

14. Jane was asked to look at a series of

ambiguous pictures and describe what

she saw. This would be an example of

which type of personality test?

(A) Case study

(B) Naturalistic observation

(C) Surveys

(D) Projective

(E) Factored

15. The MMPI is classified as a(n)

(A) objective or self-report inventory

test

(B) projective test

(C) descriptive study

(D) interview

(E) experiment

Chapter 10 Analogies of Psychology Review

99

1. Answer: B. Personality is a unique pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting and is consistent

in various situations

2. Answer: D. Sigmund Freud believed that some people who displayed neurotic disorders did

not have physical causes to explain their behaviors. He believed that other factors should be

considered such as biological drives and past psychological factors, which also could explain

personality development.

3. Answer: A. Freud believed that unconscious processes, the main influence on a person's

thoughts and behaviors, were the underlying causes of personality

4. Answer: B. Freud believed that the id operates according to the pleasure principle, which

constantly demands gratification

5. Answer: C. Freud defined the superego as the part of personality that tells a person what is

or is not acceptable, thus serving as a moral guide

6. Answer: D. Rationalization provides excuses that justify a wrong decision or act to reduce

anxiety

7. Answer: D. Freud believed that through resolution of the Oedipus complex in the phallic

stage the defense mechanism of identification occurs allowing the superego to develop

8. Answer: C. Alfred Adler believed that people have an innate desire to overcome childhood

inferiorities in order to gain control over their lives

9. Answer: B. Gordon Allport labeled central traits as the traits most easily noticed by others;

these traits are in control of behavior in all situations

10. Answer: A. Factor analysis was used by trait researchers to establish relationships and

predictability among traits

11. Answer: C. Openness to experience is the part of the big-five model. This dimension is

described as curious, imaginative, and original

12. Answer: A. Albert Bandura believed that personality emerges through a combination of

thinking, behavior, and environment

13. Answer: C. Carl Rogers believed that people have an actualizing tendency that is an innate

drive that guides behavior resulting in personality

14. Answer: D. In projective tests subjects look at vague stimuli and report their feelings and

thoughts

15. Answer: A. The MMPI is most commonly used objective test or self-report inventory tes


100

Testing and Individual Differences 1. The cognitive abilities (thinking, reasoning, and problem solving) of a person based on

his or experiences is called intelligence

Theories of Intelligence

2. Who is considered the father of psychometrics, the measurement of knowledge and

ability by using defined tests?

Sir Francis Galton

a. What did Galton believe to be credited for intelligence?

Heredity (nature)

b. What was a criticism of Galton’s work?

He only studied males

c. Charles Spearman was the first to use a statistical method to show the relationship

between variables to study intelligence, which was called a __________________

d. From this type of method, Spearman believed that there was a single intelligence,

which he called __________________ or g factor. If a person was intelligent in one area,

then he or she was intelligent in other areas. He also noted that within the g factor there

exist specific intelligences, or s factors.

e. L.L Thurston believed that Charles Spearman oversimplified intelligence and that one

type of intelligence was not enough. Thurston believed that each person has sets of

independent abilities that each person possesses in varying degrees which he referred to

as _______________________________. He believed that each person has 7 PMAs.

f. Who was the first to suggest that were over 180 different types of intellectual abilities

and thus challenging Thurston and Spearman? J.P. Guilford

g. Robert Sternberg hypothesized that there were there different types of intelligences:

analytical, creative, and practical, known as the ______________________________

i. According to Sternberg, a person’s accumulated knowledge gained through

education or book smarts is called _______________________ intelligence

ii. The ability to generate novel (new) ideas and solutions is called ___________

intelligence

i. The ability to interact with one’s environment or street smarts is called

______________________ intelligence.


101

h. Howard Gardner believed that intelligence tests do no show a person’s true cognitive

abilities. He believed human beings possess numerous strengths and weaknesses, which

he called __________________________ (MI.) These include: linguistic intelligences-

learning a new language, logical-mathematical- math and science, musical- playing

music, bodily-kinesthetic- physical abilities, spatial- using spatial relations to solve

problems, interpersonal- understanding the motives of others, intrapersonal- ability to

understand one’s own emotions, and naturalistic- ability to understand the environment.

i. Gardner based his research on people with traumatic brain injures- one who

suffers brain damage to a specific area of the brain can still perform other

functions of areas not affected, for example those with damage to the Broca’s area

may not be able to speak, but can still tie their shoes.

i. The most recent theory, proposed by Salovey and Mayer, popularized by Daniel

Goleman suggested that the ability to perceive and manage the emotions of oneself and

others, which is referred to as ___________________________, is believed to be the

most important type of intelligence leading to success in life.

Influences on Intelligence

3. Kinship studies, or studies of family members, show that identical twins have a strong

correlation to genetics and intelligences. Siblings tend to have a moderate correlation. But,

adoptive children raised in the same house do also show a moderate correlation lending support

to the nurture or environmental argument. One of the most frequently cited studies on

intelligence the Seattle Longitudinal Study looked at how adult cognitive abilities change over a

span of 40 years, which found little change in intelligence scores, unless Alzheimer’s or other

brain injury, does support the nature theory of intelligence.


102

___ 1. Who believed in a single factor or g factor responsible for overall intelligence? *RC:

remember Spearman was the g man*

A) Howard Gardner D) Robert Sternberg

B) Matt Livington E) Nancy Findow

C) Charles Spearman

___ 2. According to Robert Sternberg, which part of his Triarchic theory included

information that you would use in a math and science course? *RC: remember

Sternberg wore a thinking CAP*

A) Practical B) Analytical C) Creative D) Interpersonal E) Intrapersonal

___ 3. According to Robert Sternberg, which part of his Triarchic theory included

information that you would use for interacting with other people in social situations?

*RC: remember Sternberg wore a thinking CAP*

A) Creative B) Practical C) Analytical D) Linguistic E) Spatial

___ 4. Who challenged Spearman's theory of intelligence by suggesting that people have

multiple and separate types of intelligence; validated with his work with Savants

*RC: A garden has multiple and separate items*

A) Charles Goosman D) Howard Gardner

B) L.L. Thurston E) Maxine Smith

C) Robert Sternberg

___ 5. According to Daniel Coleman, which type of emotional intelligence involves being

able to read one's own emotions and expressions? *RC: remember everyone gives

themselves an A when reading their own emotions*

A) Interpersonal B) Intrapersonal C) Spatial D) Creative E) Linguistic


103

Testing Intelligence

1. Depending on the situation, an intelligence test can be administered on an individual or a

group basis.

Individualized Testing

2. In 1904, Alfred Binet was the first to create a test to measure intelligence to assist the

French government in identifying special needs students. He believed that intelligence

could be determined by dividing mental age (MA) by chorological age (CA.)

________________ of an individual was based on the number of test questions he or she

answered correctly. The problem was chronological age keeps on going up, but mental

age may not also go up creating lower intelligence over time.

a. In 1912, German psychologist Wilhelm Stern proposed multiplying the score derived

from the MA/CA calculation by100. This new formula would be known as the

________________________________ (IQ)

b. Lewis Terman, at Stanford University, was responsible for translating Binet’s work

into English, creating the __________________________(SBIS) the most widely used

intelligence test until David Wechsler created his own.

c. David Wechsler created two intelligence tests for both children and adults known as

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence

Scale (WAIS.) These tests had two separate scales __________, which tested verbal

abilities and ______________________, which tested solving problems divided into 7

subtests. Instead of using the SBIS formula to calculate IQ, he compared the individual’s

score to the scores of people of the same age known as deviation IQ with most scores

falling between 90 and 110.

Aptitude and Achievement Testing

3. Group tests are given to assess either an individual’s readiness to perform at a certain level or

an individual’s knowledge of a particular subject. Tests designed to measure a person’s

performance potential are called ____________ tests, which examples include SAT, ACT, GRE.

a. Tests designed to measure a person’s knowledge of a particular area are called

__________________________ tests, examples include AP exams.

b. Which tests allows the test taker to dictate the flow of questions, establish

greater rapport with the test administrator, but the test maybe more expensive and

more time consuming to give, and can only test one person at a time?

Individualized

c. Which tests are easy to administer, scoring is objective, relatively

inexpensive, but less rapport with test taker, responses are often too restricted,

and the subject can’t dictate the flow of questions?

Group


104

Measuring Tests

4. Fill out the following chart on terminology used to measure tests:

Terminology Definition

________________________ The tests ability to yield consistent results after repeated

testing/ test-retest- giving a twice and comparing results

Validity _______________ How well a test measures what it was designed to

measure

________________ Information included on the test measures what it is

designed to measure- history test has questions on history

__________________

_________________

Ability of a test to predict how well a person will do in

the future/ ACT predicts how well you will do in the

future

_________________

How well the test is designed to measure a specified

theory/ the questions were a little font and so those with

vision problems may have hard times

_________________________ The process of setting a common standard by comparing

one’s score to those attained by a pretested group

Evaluating Intelligence Tests

5. Many factors could affect intelligence tests: cultural, socio-economic status, room

temperature, person’s ability to concentrate.

Diversity in Cognition

Creativity

6. The ability to generate novel ideas or products and possibly goes hand-in-hand with

intelligence is called creativity

a. To examine the relationship between creativity and intelligence psychologists use to

measure a person’s ability to generate multiple solutions to a given problem called

_________________________ thinking. These people who score high on divergent

thinking tests actually score lower on IQ tests.

b. Tests that show how a person narrows down alternatives to a single best solution or

answer is called _____________________ thinking, which these people who do well on

convergent intelligence tests actually score higher on IQ tests.

Unusual Cognitive Abilities

7. Who was one of the first to use a longitudinal study on giftedness and believed that having a

superior IQ, above 135, meant that a person was going to be successful in life?

Lewis Terman

8. Significantly delayed or impaired learning of language or motor skills, and having an IQ

below 70 indicated mentally challenged


105

a. Fill out the following table:

Level IQ Characteristics

Mild 50-70 Approximately 85% fall within this category

May display few physical symptoms

Academic learning is limited to about 6th grade

Moderate 35-49 Display signs of impaired motor and physical symptoms

Live with a caretaker/ Mentally compared to a child of ages 4-7

Severe 20-34 Require constant supervision/ Limited language abilities

Significantly impaired motor abilities

Mentally compared to a child between 3 and 4

Profound Below

20

Struggles to feed oneself/ Language is limited to grunts

May never walk/ Compared mentally to a 3 year old

Factors associated with Mental Retardation

9. Also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra 21st

chromosome resulting is mental retardation known as down syndrome. People with this disorder

are mostly mildly or moderately retarded.

a. Results in permanent physical and cognitive impairment and is the result of the

mother’s consuming alcohol during pregnancy known as fetal alcohol syndrome

b. A genetic disorder that is caused by a mutated gene on the X chromosome known as

fragile X syndrome

Autism Spectrum Disorder

10. Impairment in social communication and interaction, restricted or compulsive behavior, and

is one of the fast growing unusual cognitions is called autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

a. What three main forms of ASD are there?

Autism, Asperger disorder, & pervasive disorder/ not otherwise specified

b. These children are usually diagnosed between ages of 2-4 and show impairment of social

skills and functioning refers to autism

c. These children appear to show no delay in language and communication skills, but they

typically display very narrow, yet highly attentive , preoccupations with subjects to the point of

obsession describes Asperger’s disorder

d. There are numerous studies that show genetically inherited, lack of mirror neurons, result of

certain vaccinations.

Savant Syndrome

2. A person who has cognitive impairments in certain areas but has one or more abilities

that are displayed on a genius level is referred to as savant syndrome. This syndrome has

been used to give Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory validation.


106

___ 1. Who developed the first type of intelligence test based on his work with French

children? *RC: Think about always striving to get an A o a B on your first test*

A) Howard Gardner D) Wilhem Stern

B) Lewis Terman E) Charles Spearman

C) Alfred Binet

___ 2. If a person is 10 years old and scored an 8 on Lewis Terman's Stanford-Binet

Intelligence test then according to Wilhelm Stern what would this child's score be:

*RC: remember MA divided by CA*

A) 8 B) 8.8 C) 5 D) 6 E) 9

___ 3. The two parts of the WAIS test or Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale are: *RC:

Remember there are age divisions because it gives people a better opportunity to win

competing against people their own age- they tend to perform the same*

A) Verbal and emotional D) Creative and Practical

B) Verbal and performance E) Verbal and Creative

C) Performance and emotional

___ 4. A teacher decides to give a test a second time later in the school year to measure if the

students would get the same scores. This teacher is measuring: *RC: remember if a

friend shows up each day on time to pick you up for school then that is a reliable

friend*

A) Validity D) Standardization

B) Content validity E) Predictive validity

C) Reliability

___ 5. Students throughout the county are taking the same test at the same time of the day

under uniform conditions; these results will later be used for comparisons with other

students who will take the same exam. This process is called: *RC: when a good

basketball player leaves a team he or she sets the standard for future basketball

players to be compared to*

A) Reliability D) Predictive validity

B) Split-half reliability E) Standardization

C) Content validity


107

1. Ava excels in her art class, but has

tremendous difficulty in math and English.

According to Robert Sternberg, Ava

displays what type of intelligence?

(A) Analytical

(B) Practical

(C) Creative

(D) General

(E) Emotional

2. The psychologist who developed the first

modern intelligence test used to help the

French government with the placement of

special needs students was

(A) Charles Spearman

(B) Robert Sternberg

(C) Howard Gardner

(D) Lewis Terman

(E) Alfred Binet

3. Anan is taking a final exam in his calculus

class. All of the questions on the exam relate

to material that was covered over the course

of the year. Therefore, the test can be said to

display high

(A) criterion validity

(B) standardization

(C) reliability

(D) content validity

(E) test-retest reliability

4. Garrett scored a 28 the first time he took the

college entrance exam. Six months later, he

took it again and scored a 29. Because his

scores were so close together, the test would

be considered to have strong

(A) content validity

(B) normalization

(C) standardization

(D) reliability

(E) split-half reliability

5. Together with 200 other high school

students, Claude is taking a timed test that is

said to predict how well a person will do in

his or her first semester in college. Claude is

most likely taking what type of intelligence

test?

(A) Individualized

(B) Group

(C) Motivational

(D) Stamina

(E) Interest

6. Which of the following best illustrates

Spearman’s concept of g?

(A) Lisa does well in mathematics, but

poorly in chemistry.

(B) Fatima does not know the capital of her

state but can compose music

successfully.

(C) Quon is an excellent baseball player

who has received a scholarship to play

in college.

(D) Sarah has maintained straight A’s

throughout high school.

(E) Sammi who is a world class artistic

roller skater.

7. Bailee recently took the Weschler

Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and

scored one standard deviation above the

mean. Bailee would most likely have an IQ

of

(A) 115

(B) 85

(C) 130

(D) 95

(E) 100

8. Mr. Trevor believes that students with high

IQs are more likely to succeed in life than

are those with low IQs. Which psychologist

would most likely agree with Mr. Trevor?

(A) Daniel Goleman

(B) Lewis Terman

(C) Robert Sternberg

(D) Noam Chomsky

(E) Leon Festinger


108

9. Professor Yanders recently conducted a

study that examined the IQs of 1000

different families. He concluded that if

parents had high IQs, their children would

also have high IQs. Professor Yanders

believes in which view of intelligence?

(A) Standard

(B) Nature

(C) Nurture

(D) Longitudinal

(E) Factoring

10. Jason received a low score on the Weschler

Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) but is

capable of navigating his way through a

busy city without the assistance of a map.

According to Robert Sternberg, Paul

displays what type of intelligence?

(A) Creativity

(B) Analytical

(C) Practical

(D) Emotional

(E) General

11. Which of the following best illustrates the

concept of divergent thinking?

(A) Mackenzie is good at listening to other

people and helping them with their

problems.

(B) Gloria is an excellent softball player

who receives a scholarship to play in

college.

(C) Tony does extremely well in school, but

has a difficult time making friends.

(D) Richard knows the lyrics of every song

he has ever heard.

(E) Ali designs workplace accommodations

for the physically impaired.

12. Which of the following is not considered an

advantage of individualized intelligence

tests?

(A) They allow good rapport between the

test taker and the person administering

the test.

(B) If a person is having a bad day the test

can rescheduled to accommodate

extenuating circumstances.

(C) They are cheap and easy to administer

to many people at once.

(D) The test taker can help dictate the pace

of the test.

(E) If the test taker has a question, he or she

can ask the test administrator for

clarification.

13. Which of the following would score high on

the emotional intelligence scale?

(A) Jaelyn can complete crossword puzzles

quickly.

(B) Claude is good at interpreting the

emotions of others.

(C) Pauline is good at fixing mechanical

machines.

(D) Marcus knows how to make spaghetti.

(E) Elle has invented a new device to help

others learn to read.

14. Who was the first psychologist to propose

that intelligence is the result of nature?

(A) Robert Sternberg

(B) Howard Gardner

(C) Charles Spearman

(D) Sir Francis Galton

(E) Lewis Terman

15. Bailee takes a test on sensation and

perception on Friday. She then retakes the

same test one month later. The reason why

Bailee is taking two administrations of this

test is to establish

(A) construct validity

(B) criterion validity

(C) achievement motivation

(D) split-half reliability


109

1. Answer: C. According to Sternberg, a person who excels at creating new ideas and products has a

high level of creative intelligence. Analytical intelligence is similar to book smarts, and a person who

has a high level of this form of intelligence generally does well on standardized tests. A person who

has a high level of practical intelligence displays street smarts, is aware of his or her surroundings,

and is able to think quickly to process information

2. Answer: E. Alfred Binet is credited with developing the first modern intelligence test, used to help

identify special needs students in France

3. Answer: D. Any test that includes questions that pertain to the subject matter studied is said to have

content validity. It is valid to ask an algebra question on an algebra test

4. Answer: D. Tests that yield the same results on different occasions are considered reliable. Since the

scores did not very much, could be concluded Garrett’s results would be similar in subsequent tests

5. Answer: B. Group intelligence tests can be administered to a large number of people at the same

time. They are the opposite of an individualized intelligence test, which is given in a one-on-one

situation

6. Answer: D. Spearman’s concept of g states that those who excel in one area excel equally in other

areas. The basic concept is that intelligent people are intelligent in all areas

7. Answer: A. The average IQ for the WISC and WAIS tests are equal to 100, and one standard

deviation is equal to 15 points. Therefore, one standard deviation above the mean would be 115,

while one standard deviation below the norm would be 85

8. Answer: B. Lewis Terman believed that students with above-average IQs would be more successful

in life than those with average or below-average IQs. This led him to conduct a longitudinal study of

1,500 students with above-average IQs

9. Answer: B. The nature view of intelligence states that IQ is the result of genetics or heredity, and

therefore if the biological parents are intelligent, their children will also be intelligent

10. Answer: C. According to Robert Sternberg, there are three types of intelligence: analytical

(book/academic smarts), creative (the ability to generate new ideas), and practical (street smarts)

11. Answer: E. Divergent thinking occurs when a person is able to think of multiple solutions to a

problem. Convergent thinking happens when a person is able to think of one possible answer

12. Answer: C. Individualized intelligence tests are more expensive and time consuming than group

13. Answer: B. Emotional intelligence ability to interpret emotions of others and manage own emotions

14. Answer: D. Sir Francis Galton conducted the first kinship studies in trying to determine the origins of

intelligence. He believed that intelligence is the result of genetics

15. Answer: E. Test-retest reliability is used to measure the reliability of a test administered over two

separate occasions. If the test is reliable, the score should remain similar


110

Motivation, Emotion, & Stress

Chapter 5


111

Theories of Motivation

1. What drives people to do the things they do either from internal or external factors?

2. Which theory of motivation explains motivation through instinctual behavior?

A. What is a not learned, innate, and automatic response to a specific stimulus?

i. Give an example of an instinct:

3. What is the premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal physiological systems

at a constant stable level?

A. Give an example of homeostasis:

4. What is a biological requirement essential for proper bodily functioning?

A. If a need is not being met then what is produced which is a physiological state of

tension or arousal that needs to be reduced?

B. According to Clark Hull, which theory of motivation suggest that a person is

motivated to reduce a drive through satisfaction of a need that is detected through

homeostasis?

i. Give an example:

5. What does curiosity create?

A. Which theory of motivation suggest that people try to maintain a steady or optimum

level of arousal through different types of behavioral activities?

i. Give an example of this theory:

6. When do people perform at their best?

A. What does the Yerkes-Dodson law suggest about when a person performs at their

best?

7. Which theory of motivation suggest that some types of external stimuli push people to

positive stimuli and can also pull people away from negative stimuli

i. Give an example of the incentive theory:

8. Not all motivation can be explained through incentives or biological factors; give an

example:


112

Humanistic Theories of Motivation

9. Which theory of motivation suggest that people seek to make a positive self-concept and

are motivated to reach their potential?

A. What did Humanist believed about potential?

B. Who developed the hierarchy of needs?

C. How is a person motivated to go through the hierarchy of needs?

D. Identify the different levels:

E. What is striving and realization of one’s talent and potential and is at the top of

hierarchy of needs?

i. What plays a role in reaching self-actualization?

F. Who suggest that the needs identified in the hierarchy of needs do not need to be

satisfied in a particular order?

i . Give an example:


Hunger

10. Is there more to hunger than simply “pangs?”

A. Where are the most important s signals for hunger or satiation?

B. Which hormone is released in response to food moving from the stomach to the

bloodstream indicating short-term satiation?

C. Which hormone is released into the bloodstream as fat supplies start to rise indicated

long-term satiation?

D. What is the purpose of glucose?

i. What happens when glucose levels drop?


113

ii. Which hormone is used to convert glucose to energy?

iii. What happens when insulin levels rise and glucose levels drop?

The Brain’s Role in Hunger

11. Which area of the brain is considered the control center for the brain?

A. Which part of the hypothalamus stops hunger?

i. What happens if the ventromedial hypothalamus is destroyed?

B. Which part of the hypothalamus initiates hunger?

i. What happens if the lateral hypothalamus is destroyed?

ii. Which hormone is produced by the lateral hypothalamus that initiates hunger?

Body Weight

12. What regulates the expenditure of energy used to maintain our body’s vital function?

A. Identify factors that affect the BMR:

Set Point Theory

13. What is a person’s ideal weight that is maintained through homeostasis and the BMR?

A. What will eventually cause the set point to rise?

i. What happens to fat cells once they are formed?

Obesity

14. What is the measure of a person’s body weight in proportion to his or her height?

A. Define Normal BMI: Overweight: Obese:

B. What do obese people experience?

C. How do external incentives affect people’s hunger?

i. What does the BMI not consider?


114

Eating Disorders

15. What is an eating disorder characterized by dramatic drop in calories consumed and an

obsession with exercise?

A. What is an eating disorder characterized by period of binging- eating large amounts of

food and purging?

Achievement and Motivation

16. What type of motivation is shown by people who are driven to master a task or achieve a

personal goal like self-actualization?

A. Which type of motivation occurs when people try to outdo or beat other people and

who need recognition?

17. Who was the first psychologists to study people’s need for achievement?

A. How did Murray study achievement needs?

18. Who believed that a person’s level of self-efficacy or level of self-confidence before they

face a task is essential to a person’s level of motivation?

A. What is collective self-efficacy?

19. Which theory, according to Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, suggest that people need to be

competent- good at something, have autonomy- some control, and relatedness- need to be

appreciated in order to perform good at a behavior?

Motivation and Work

20. Which area of psychology applied and studied the psychological concepts to optimize the

workplace as an effective and productive environment?

A. Which division addresses worker satisfaction and productivity?

B. Which division matches the right employee to the right job placement?

C. What does theory Y suggest about worker motivation?

D. What does theory X suggest about worker motivation?

E. What refers to a worker who is completely focused on his or her task and is not

affected by time or distraction?



115

Introduction to Emotions

21. What are emotions based on; identify the 3 parts and give an example?

A. How are emotions different than moods?

Biological Aspects of Emotions

22. Which nervous systems play critical roles in the interpretation of emotions?

A. Which nervous system arouses or excites the body resulting in fight-or-flight

response?

i. What does fight produce?

ii. What does flight produce?

iii. How is fight recorded differently than flight?

B. What are polygraphs or lie detectors designed to measure?

i. Do most people agree that polygraphs can indicate whether a person is lying or

not?

C. Which hemisphere in the brain is associated with the experience and expression of

emotion?

D. Which part of the brain is critical in learning emotions, recognizing emotional

expression, and interpreting emotional stimuli?

E. Which area of the brain plays a role in the expression of emotion?

i. Which motor system forms voluntary facial expressions?

ii. Which motor system forms natural face expressions?

Theories of Emotion

23. Which theory of emotion suggest that emotion is simply the result of changes or

fluctuations in the body?

A. Give an example:


116

24. Which theory of emotion suggest that thalamus receive information about emotional

stimuli and relays the information simultaneously to the autonomic nervous system and cerebral

cortex?

A. Give an example:

25. Which theory of emotion states that it is the result of the interaction of two factors:

physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains why there is arousal?

A. Give an example:

26. Which theory of emotion states is the result of cognitive appraisal of a situation and how

it may affect their well-being?

A. Give an example:

27. Who suggested that some emotional reactions involve no deliberate thinking and cognition

is not always necessary for emotion; we feel before we think- information goes to amygdala

before the cerebral cortex?

A. What does the evolutionary perspective suggest about emotion?

28. Which theory of emotion suggests that facial expressions can affect your emotions?

A. What is a criticism of the James-Lange theory of emotion?

B. What is a criticism of the Schechter-Singer theory (Two-factor) of emotion?

C. What is the difference between the cognitive-mediational theory and Schechter-Singer

theory of emotion?


117

Emotional Expression

29. Who studied facial expressions and when they are displayed? Pain: Smiling:

Sadness and anger: Fear:

30. Who believed that facial expressions are universal but how they differ are within their

cultures?

A. What are display rules or cultural norms?

B. What is the process of letting another person’s emotional state guide your own

behavior?


Introduction to Stress

31. What is characterized by an emotional state in response to circumstances or situations that

exceed a person’s ability to control them?

A. Which field of psychology studied how people interpret stressful situations and how

the stress affects the body?

i. What 3 factors do health psychologist believe stress affects?

Types of Stress

32. What are stressors?

A. What are minor inconveniences that occur throughout the day?

B. What are events and situations that cause a person’s lifestyle to dramatically change?

i. According to the Readjustment Scale what are the hardest life changes?

Causes of Stress/ Conflicts

33. Which type of conflict occurs when a person has to choose between 2 appealing or

favorable choices?


118

A. Which type of conflict occurs when a person has to choose between 2 unfavorable or

negative choices?

B. Which type of conflict occurs when a choice has both a good and bad point and is

considered the most stressful?

C. What is a multiple approach-avoidance conflict?

34. What occurs when a goal is being blocked?

35. What are extreme demands placed on person to perform or conform?

36. How can stress affect the body indirectly?

Stress and the Body

37. Stress directly affects the endocrine and the nervous system through changes in the body

known as fight-flight. Walter Cannon defined this as:

1. Hypothalamus activates-

2. Sympathetic nervous system activates-

3. Adrenal medulla releases-

4. Catecholamine circulate-

38. Who described how stress affected the body through the General Adaptation Syndrome?

A. Which stage is characterized by intense arousal to a threat: fight-or-flight?

B. Which stage is characterized by the body’s fighting the effects of stress through the

release of corticosteroids?

C. Which stage is characterized by the body becoming exhausted or sick due to running

out of corticosteroids?

39. Describe Hans Seyle’s second endocrine pathway for periods of prolonged stress:

1. Hypothalamus triggers:

2. Pituitary gland triggers release of:

3. ACTH triggers adrenal cortex to release:


119

4. Corticosteroids increase release:

The Effects of Stress on the Immune System

40. What protects the body by attacking harmful bacteria and viruses with lymphocytes?

A. What do B lymphocytes do?

B. What do T lymphocytes do?

i. What is the area of psychology that studies how stress affects the

psychological, nervous, and the immune system?

Beating Stress and Promoting Wellness

41. Who was an American Psychologist who developed Positive Psychology to help promote

wellness and handle stress?

A. What is a sense of control which reduces stress?

B. Who tends to explains negative event through specific explanations?

i. Who tends to explain these events with personal vindication or fault?

C. Who researched the effects of Type A an d Type behavior?

i. Who are type A people?

ii. Who are type B people?

Coping Strategies

42. Who believed in catharsis which is the releasing and displacement of emotional tension;

believing it was good to release aggression?

43. What is constructive coping?

A. Problem focused coping involves addressing the problem; confronting.

B.. Emotion-focused coping involves controlling emotions when dealing with a problem.

i. Self-controlling


120

ii. Distancing:

iii. Positive reappraisal:

iv. Accept responsibility

vi. Escape/avoidance:

vii: Downward comparison:

44. What do individualistic cultures, like America who are out for themselves, tend to use

when confronted with a problem?

A. What do collectivistic cultures, like Amish communities and are out for the good of

the group, use when confronted with a problem?



121

1. Homeostasis – the maintaining of a balanced internal state in the body (like body temp) /

Drive-reduction theory - needs like water and food not being met produce internal drives

like thirst and water which motivate a person to reduce the drives and satisfy the needs-

needs are monitored through homeostasis

2. Abraham Maslow - Humanistic Psychology- perspective of psychology that emphasizes a

person’s innate growth and free will through the motivation to reach self-actualization-

reaching fullest potential or being all you can be, (Maslow thought Abraham Lincoln and

Eleanor Roosevelt achieved self-actualization but never met) through addressing and

satisfying levels in the hierarchy of needs – physiological (hunger) first to be satisfied, then

safety, then love, then cognitive, finally self-actualization (very few people ever reach this

level) Clayton Alderfer- did not believe that each level had to be addressed before moving on

as seen with Ghandi- not physiological level to reach self-actualization

3. Optimum arousal theory (Arousal theory) - people are motivated to maintain an optimum

or best level of arousal; explains boredom, boring day you search for something more

exciting at night to make up for boring day/ Yerkes Dodson law of arousal - performance

best when situation offers moderate level of arousal - too boring don’t try, too hard and you

give up

4. Incentive theory - intrinsic motivation- doing tasks for personal reasons or satisfaction /

extrinsic motivation - doing tasks for extra incentives like money, extra credit- over

justification effect- is the result of giving extrinsic motivation for a behavior that was once

intrinsically performed that now is only done if something extra is given like getting paid to

play a sport

5. Industrial-organizational psychology- apply psychological aspects to improve workplace

and employee satisfaction and productivity done through organizational psychology (division

of (I/O) and matching employees with the proper job as administered by personnel

psychology (division of I/O) Theory Y- workers need to be challenged and are best

motivated through intrinsic motivation/ Theory X- workers are lazy and need extrinsic

motivation

6. Competence motivation- need to be best one can be/ Achievement motivation need to

outperform other people measured through the TAT test measured by David McClelland.


122

7. Hunger - controlled by Hypothalamus / lateral hypothalamus starts hunger through the

release of the hormone orexin / ventromedial hypothalamus stops hunger / Glucose- sugar

that circulates through body- used for energy, when glucose is low we feel hungry / Insulin

converts glucose to energy- when goes up glucose does down and you get hungry

8. BMR- basal metabolic rate- rate at which body conserves or burn off calories- obese people

that have a BMI (body mass index of greater than 30 is obese and have a higher BMR.)

CCK short term signals for satiation or fullness/ Leptin- based on amount of fat in blood

stream long-term signals for satiation or fullness- leptin resistance- obese people that have

brains that don’t respond to amount of leptin in blood/ Set point theory- body weight is

maintained through homeostasis- ideal weight affects the way the BRM works

9. Theories of Emotion that involve the right hemisphere- William James and Carl Lange-

James-Lange theory- stimulus (seeing a snake) leads to physiological arousal and from this

arousal a person then experiences emotion (like heart beating then experience emotion of

fear); can’t support spinal cord injuries or that a heart can race for a number of emotions

which explains why polygraphs that just measure changes in the body and not a good device

to determine lying for example being nervous same body response as lying / Walter

Cannon/ Philip Bard- Cannon Bard theory- physiological response and interpretation of

stimuli by the brain occur at the same time through the thalamus relaying signals to the

autonomic nervous system and cerebral cortex resulting in emotion- a snake causes the body

to show change as brain interprets this as a fearful stimulus at the SAME TIME/ Two-factor

theory- Schechter and Singer- consider more cognitive components and suggest

physiological arousal and a cognitive label that explains why there is arousal taking place

“My heart is racing because I am about to take a test” resulting in emotion- often people

mislabel arousal in body, such as loving someone in a scary situation / Richard Lazaras -

cognitive mediational theory; appraisal or the interpretation of a stimuli results in

emotion… the interpretation of leaves starting to blow leads to fear (difference between Two-

factor and cognitive mediational theory is two-factor interprets changes in body and

mediational theory interprets the situation) Robert Zajonic- emotions happen without brain

interpretation; jump which means information goes directly to amygdala- emotional control

center that recognizes face expressions and the proper emotion associated with each/ Zajonic-

information does not first go to cerebral cortex or frontal lobes that interpret information


123

10. Stress: Walter Cannon- Fight-or-Flight response- hypothalamus triggers sympathetic nervous

system which causes adrenal medulla to release catecholamine which include hormones

adrenaline and noradrenaline to be released in the body or through the endocrine system and

neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine to be circulated in brain preparing for a

fight or a flight reaction

11. Reacting to Stress: General Adaptation syndrome (Hans Seyle) - Alarm reaction (fight or

flight reaction), Resistance stage (release of stress-related hormones- corticosteroids which

reduce inflammation in body and provide energy to battle stress but reduces lymphocytes or

our white blood cells of the immune system making us more prone to get sick), Exhaustion

stage (body reserves become low and get sick)

12. Types of Stress: Conflicts - approach-approach- choosing between 2 equally like choices/

avoidance-avoidance- choosing between choices don’t like / Approach-avoidance- one item

has good and bad points- most stressful / Multiple approach-avoidance- 2 items have good

and bad points/ Life changes- according to social readjustment scale- parent die for child or

a spouse for adult is considered most stressful

13. Constructive Coping- emotion focused coping- handling emotions associated with a

problem/ problem-focused coping- addressing and fixing problem associated with problem/

Individualistic cultures, such as America who stresses ourselves, use problem-focusing

coping/ and Collectivistic cultures, that stress the good of the group, use emotion-focused

coping

14. Explanatory style- optimistic- give specific reason for outcome- pessimistic- give usual

negative general, vague explanation for outcome, often attack personally for outcome

15. Type A personality- very competitive and impatient prone to coronary heart disease number

1 killer among humans/ Type B- more relaxed

16. Catharsis theory- according to Freud- people must find socially acceptable outlets for

frustration and release pent up aggression or will self-destruct

17. Acculturative stress- stress trying to assimilate to a new culture

18. Biofeedback- being able to consciously control your autonomic nervous system and calm

yourself down


124


Motivation Factors that drive individuals to

do the things that they do, which

include internal and external

factors

Motivation makes you want to do

something

Instinct theory Motivation occurs through

instinctual behavior

Instinct theory simply provides

labels but not give any explanation

for why motivation is occurring

Instinct An innate, unlearned, and

automatic response to a specific

stimuli

Geese fly South for the winter in

response to colder weather that

causes the instinct

Homeostasis The notion that the body

monitors and maintains internal

physiological systems at a

constant and certain level

Similar to a thermostat- the

thermostat monitors the air

temperature when the temperature

becomes too cold the thermostat

alerts the furnace to turn on

Need A biological requirement that is

necessary for the body to perform

at an optimal and desired level

Your body NEEDS food and water

to survive

Drive A psychological state of tension

or arousal that is produced by a

biological need not being

satisfied which results in a

behavior to reduce the drive

Hunger is a DRIVE that DRIVES

you to get food which is a NEED

that your body NEEDS

Drive-reduction

theory

Motivation is based on

performing behaviors that reduce

drives produced from needs not

being met

The NEED for water DRIVES (or

motivates) you to get out of bed thus

reducing the DRIVE and satisfying

the NEED

Arousal The result of several heightened

physiological states within the

body that include heartbeat,

breathing

Arousal is excitement- we are

motivated to do FUN things

Optimum arousal

theory

Motivation is based on people

trying participating in certain

activities that help to maintain a

steady or optimum level of

arousal within their body

Having a boring day you are

MOTIVATED to go out that night

and have FUN/ have an exhausting

day you are MOTIVATED to do

nothing that night/ thus

EQUALLING out your day

Yerkes-Dodson

law

People perform best in an activity

when the task is moderate or fair;

not too hard or not too easy

Fair is another way to describe the

Yerkes- Dodson law- if the

assignment or game is fair you will

try your best/ too easy don’t put in

your best effort/ too hard and you

give up before even trying


125

Incentive theories Positive or favorable incentives

motivate people to perform the

activity; while negative

incentives push people away

from performing the activity

Incentives are extra things- extra

credit PUSHES you to do it/ while

detentions PUSH you away from

coming to school late

Altruism Motivation is based on helping

others because the effort makes

people feel good

Al-TRUE-ism- you are being a

TRUE and good person when you

help people

Humanistic

perspective

Suggests that people are

motivated to have a positive self-

concept, or beliefs about

themselves, allowing them to

reach their full potential

Humanistic perspective is interested

in making you the best HUMAN

possible through reaching your

potential and being who you really

are

Hierarchy of

needs

According to Abraham Maslow,

people are motivated to progress

through the hierarchy of needs

through satisfying each level

beginning with physiological

needs and ending at self-

actualization

Hierarchy of Needs are like stairs-

you have to step on each stair to get

to the top or the best you can be/ you

can’t study if you are hungry- have

to satisfy hunger before addressing

the next level

Self-actualization The striving for and realization of

one’s potential

The realization or actualization of

being the best you can be


126

___ 1. An unlearned innate and automatic

response to a specific stimulus.

A) Optimum arousal theory

___ 2. The premise that the body oversees and

maintains its internal physiological

systems at a constant level.

B) Physical

___ 3. A motivational theory that suggests that

motivation is based on the desire to

reduce internal tension within the body

that is caused by biological needs not

being met as indicated by homeostasis.

C) Homeostasis

___ 4. A motivational theory that suggests

people try to maintain a steady or

optimum level of arousal or excitement

through various behavioral activities.

D) Incentive theory

___ 5. The suggestion that difficult tasks

cause arousal to be lower and easy

tasks cause arousal to be higher

maintaining that the right amount of

arousal people will perform their best.

E) Humanistic perspective

___ 6. Getting a bonus for working hard

would be an example of which

motivational theory.

F) Drive-reduction theory


suggest that people seek to build a

positive self-concept and are motivated

to fulfill their potential.

G) Yerkes-Dodson law

___ 8. Abraham Maslow suggested that

people are motivated to satisfy each

level of the hierarchy of needs in order

to preach their full potential which he

referred to as:

H) Altruism

___ 9. Some people are motivated to be of

service of others because it makes them

feel good.

I) Self-actualization

___ 10. According to Abraham Maslow,

____________ needs must be satisfied

before psychological needs.

J) Instinct


127


CCK A hormone that is released when

food moves from the stomach

into the bloodstream that signals

to the brain short-term satiation

or fullness

CCK is a very short word just like

short-term signals of satiation/ CCK

is what makes you put the fork

down and state you can’t eat

anymore

Leptin A hormone that is released into

the bloodstream as the fat

content begins to increase

signaling to the brain satiation

L for leptin L for long-term

satiation/ eat a fatty meal you are

going to be full for most of the day

Glucose Sugar that the body uses for

energy

Like gasoline that makes car run-

run out of gas car will stop running/

eat a snickers bar and satisfy your

hunger

Insulin A hormone that is used to

convert glucose to energy; when

insulin rises the glucose

decreases signaling hunger

Similar to a person (insulin)

shoveling coal or sugar into the fire

to make it burn

Ventromedial

hypothalamus

Area of the hypothalamus that stops hunger

Lateral

hypothalamus

Area of the hypothalamus that

imitates or starts hunger

L for lateral/ L for Let’s EAT

Orexin A hormone produced by the

lateral hypothalamus that

initiates hunger

Oreo (orexin) cookies make you

hungry

Basal metabolic

rate (BMR)

Oversees and regulates the use

or expenditure of energy used to

maintain the body’s vital

functions

Women have a slower BMR

As you get older BMR slows down

Obese people have a higher BMR

Set point theory of

hunger

The maintaining of a person’s

ideal weight through increases

or decreases in the BMR that is

monitored by homeostasis

Go above your set point your BMR

will burn calories to bring you back/

go below your set point the BMR

shuts down until you get back-

which is why you don’t eat you will

actually gain weight

BMI (body mass

index)

A person’s weight in relation to

their height; a score of over 30

indicates obese

The BMI does not consider bone

density or muscle mass which is

why may not be entirely accurate

Anorexia nervosa An eating disorder that includes an obsession with one’s weight,

vigorous exercise, and caloric intake

Bulimia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by a binge-and-purge method of

maintaining an unhealthy body weight

Competence

motivation (need

motivation)

A desire or motivation to master

or excel at a task or personal

goal

“I want to be the best I CAN BE”


128

Achievement

motivation

The desire or motivation to

outperform other people

“I want to be the smartest person in

the CLASS”

Self-determination

theory

According to Edward Deci and

Richard Ryan, the need for

competence- being good at

something, autonomy- a sense of

control, and relatedness- need to

belong and appreciate- motivate

a person to perform a behavior.

What determines you are the best?

Being good at something

(competence)

Knowing you have done it on your

own (autonomy)

Other people know how good you

are (relatedness)

Thematic

apperception test

(TAT)

According to David McCelland,

the TAT, which has a person tell

a story of a scene he or she sees,

measures a person’s level for

achievement motivation

You see a picture of a person falling

down before the finish line- do you

say the person should get up or do

you think the person should rest

Self-efficacy beliefs According to Albert Bandura,

self-efficacy beliefs involve a

person’s confidence at

completing or doing a task

Similar to the Little Engine that

Could- “I think I can, I think I can”

Collectivistic self-

efficacy

A person’s overall support

system when performing or

completing tasks

The people in the crowd cheering

you during the game

Industrial-

organizational

psychology (I/O)

Area of psychology that applies psychological concepts and ideals to

optimize or improve the work place

Personnel

psychology

A division of I/O psychology

that attempts to match the right

job with the right employee

The person who decides whether or

not you get the job- the person who

hires you

Organizational

psychology

A division of I/O that addresses

worker satisfaction and

performance at their job

The person who trains and offers

support while you are on the job

Intrinsic

motivation

Motivation to achieve a personal

goal or self-satisfaction for

mastery

I for Intrinsic- “I want to be the best

I can” (competence motivation)

Extrinsic

motivation

Motivation to achieve an

external or outside reward for

performing a task

Ex for Extrinsic Ex for extra things

“I will only work hard if I get

EXTRA things”

Theory Y Workers motivated to work

through intrinsic motivation

Y for “Y do I work hard because I

want to be the best employee”

Theory X Workers motivated to work

through extrinsic motivation

X for extra “I only work hard for

Xtra things like pay raises”

Hawthorne effect Tendency for individual to perform better when singled out or given special attention

Similar to giving a student’s stickers resulting in working harder to get more stickers


129

___ 1. A hormone when released acts as a

neurotransmitter in the brain signaling

short-term satiation.

A) Competence (need) motivation

___ 2. A hormone that is released in response

to the amount of fat be secreted into the

bloodstream signaling long-term

satiation.

B) Set point theory

___ 3. A hormone that converts glucose into

energy causing glucose levels to drop

signifying hunger.

C) Basal metabolic rate (BMR)

___ 4. An area of the hypothalamus that is in

charge of stopping hunger.

D) Lateral hypothalamus

___ 5. An area of the hypothalamus that

initiates hunger.

E) Self-efficacy

___ 6. Regulates the expenditure and

conversion of energy used to maintain

our body's vital life functions.

F) Ventromedial hypothalamus

___ 7. A person's ideal weight regulated by

homeostasis and maintained by the

BMR.

G) CCK

___ 8. A type of motivation that is shown by

people who are driven to master a task

or achieve a personal goal.

H) Theory X

___ 9. According to Albert Bandura, a

person's level of confidence when

facing a task.

I) Leptin

___ 10. According to an Industrial-

organizational psychologist, a theory

that describes workers who are

motivated to achieve external factors

like a pay-raise.

J) Insulin


130


Emotions Comprised of cognitive appraisal-

interpretation and thoughts,

physiological reactions- body

reactions, and expressive behaviors.

Interpret a part of a movie as

funny (cognitive) start to feel

good (physiological) then start to

laugh (expressive behavior)

Fight-or-flight

response

A body’s response to a threatening

stimuli through activation of the

sympathetic nervous system

When you are in danger you will

either fight or run away (flight)

Galvanic skin

response

Measures skin temperature that could

indicate certain emotions

Nervous you get COLD feet/

Angry you get HOT under collar

Polygraph (lie

detectors)

Machines that measure body

fluctuations within a person that

could indicate whether or not a person

is lying

Simply measures changes in the

sympathetic nervous system not if

you are lying or not

Amygdala A part of the brain that recognizes

emotional facial expressions and

interprets emotional stimuli

Never make Amy mad- she is

very emotional

Cerebral cortex A part of the brain central for the

expression of emotion

Similar to the CPU of a computer

Right

hemisphere

Area of the brain associated with the

expression and experience of emotion

Right hemisphere allows you to

display the RIGHT emotion-

funny movie you laugh

James-Lange

theory of

emotion

Emotion result of interpreting changes

that occur in the body

James will not laugh unless Lange

tells him to laugh

Cannon-Bard

theory of

emotion

Emotions are result of thalamus

relaying information to the cerebral

cortex, which interprets emotional

stimuli, while at same moment

information is sent to the automatic

nervous system, which initiates

changes in the body

Cannon and Bard start to laugh at

the SAME TIME

Two-factor

theory of

emotion

(Schechter-

Singer theory)

Emotions are the result of two factors:

a cognitive label, which labels a

change in the body, and the change in

the body that occurs.

Some people misinterpret the

change in body/ Going to prom

causes changes in body but you

believe these changes are from

your date

Cognitive

mediational

theory

Emotions are the result of a cognitive

appraisal or interpretation of a stimuli

or event

This is interpretation of the

situation NOT a change in your

body/ door slams shut and you

interpret this as scary

Facial feedback

hypothesis

Certain facial expressions will cause

you to feel certain emotions

If you simply smile you feel

happy

Display rules Cultural norms affect expression and

intensity of emotions

You don’t laugh at funerals


131

___ 1. A division of the autonomic nervous

system that arouses the body and

produces the fight-or-flight syndrome.

A) Autonomic nervous system

___ 2. The hemisphere that is associated with

the expression of emotions.

B) Display rules

___ 3. An area of the brain that is critical for

learning emotions, recognizing

emotional expression, and the

interpretation of emotional stimuli.

C) Cannon-Bard theory

___ 4. Polygraphs do not necessary measure if

a person is lying but overall changes in

which nervous system?

D) Cognitive mediational theory

___ 5. A theory of emotion that suggests

emotion is the result of the

interpretation of bodily fluctuations.

E) Amygdala


emotions are the result of the thalamus

receiving information about emotional

stimuli and relaying the information

simultaneously to the autonomic

nervous system and the cerebral cortex.

F) Two-factory theory/ Schechter-Singer

theory


emotion is the result of the interaction

of two factors: physiological arousal

and a cognitive label that explains this

fluctuation in the body.

G) Pain


emotions are the result of the cognitive

appraisal of a situation and how it

affects their well-being.

H) James-Lange theory

___ 9. According to Carroll Izard what facial

expression is present at birth?

I) Sympathetic nervous system

___ 10. Refers to cultural norms and how

emotions should be displayed.

J) Right


132


Stress An emotional response to

circumstances or situations that

exceed a person’s ability to cope

Stress occurs when your routine is

disrupted or changed

Health psychologists Study how people interpret stressful

situations and the effect stress has

on the body

These are people that counsel

people have a heart-attack or

stroke to help them live healthier

lives

Stressors Circumstances, events, or situations

that cause stress

Traffic jams

Daily hassles Minor inconveniences that occur throughout the day

Life changes Events and situations that a cause a person’ life to dramatically change

as shown on the Social Readjustment Scale; death of spouse/parent most

stressful

Approach-approach

conflict

Having to make a choice between

two appealing items or choices

Choosing between 2 movies you

want to rent but only have money

for one

Avoidance-

avoidance conflict

Having to make a choice between

two non-appealing items or

choices

Not liking math classes but having

to choose one to graduate

Approach-avoidance

conflict

A choice that has both positive and

negative characteristics;

considered the most stressful

Most realistic- an option usually

has positive and negative points

Multiple-approach-

avoidance conflict

Two choices that have both positive and negative characteristics

Frustration Occurs when a goal is blocked from either losing or failure

Pressure Extreme demands place on a person to perform or conform

Flight-or-flight

syndrome

Hypothalamus triggers the

sympathetic nervous system to

activate adrenal medulla to release

catecholamine’s, which include

the hormones noradrenaline and

adrenaline and neurotransmitters

norepinephrine and epinephrine

that increase blood pressure,

respiration, slows down digestion,

dilates pupils

S for Sympathetic S for speeds up

Remember CATS are very quick

just like catecholamine’s that race

through body making you excited

Occurs when you first realize bad

news- your body responds before

you really understand what happen

Prolonged stress Hypothalamus triggers the

pituitary gland to release

adrenocorticotropic hormone

(ACTH) to trigger the adrenal

cortex to release the stress

hormones corticosteroids that

release stored energy

Pituitary gland is like a drippy

faucet- the drip is very slow but

does continue to drip throughout

the day like having a stressful

weak


133

General adaptation

syndrome (GAS)

According to Hans Seyle, a person

goes through three stages of stress:

alarm stage- characterized by

release of catecholamine’s in the

fight-or-flight syndrome/ resistive

stage- body trying to cope with the

effects of stress through releasing

corticosteroids/ and exhaustive

stage- when body becomes burned

out or exhausted resulting in

sickness

ARE you stressed?

A for Alarm stage

R for Resistance stage

E for Exhaustive stage

Psychoneuroimmunol

ogy

A field that examines the connections between psychological, nervous

systems, and the immune system in relation to stress

Lymphocytes Battle harmful bacteria and viruses

Perceived control More control over a situation the less stress a person experiences

Optimistic

explanatory style

Explaining negative events

through specific explanations

O for optimistic/ O for there must

be a reason why the outcome

occurred

Pessimistic

explanatory style

Explaining negative events

through personal faults

P for pessimistic/ P for personal

reason

Type A behavior Characterized by aggressive,

competitive, and impatient

behavior; often leads to coronary

heart disease

A for angry person

Type B behavior A more relaxed type of behavior B for B relaxed

Catharsis According to Sigmund Freud, the

releasing or displacement of

emotional aggression and tension

Going and working out after a bad

day

Problem-focused

coping

Coping strategies that emphasize

addressing the problem

Addressing the PROBLEM-

switching classes because you

don’t like a fellow student

Emotion-focused

coping

Coping strategies that address

negative emotions associated with

a specific problem

Addressing the EMOTIONS

connected with the problem- not

getting mad when you see a certain

individual

Individualistic

cultures

Cultures, like America, that

emphasize the individual and

utilize problem-focused coping

Americans will usually go and tell

a person their feelings for that

person

Collectivistic

cultures

Cultures, like tribal cultures, that

focus on the group, and utilize

emotion-focused coping

Collectivistic cultures consider the

group before speaking their dislike

for a person

Acculturative stress Stress that occurs for people trying to assimilate into a new culture


134

___ 1. A type of conflict when a person has to

choose between two appealing choices.

A) Catecholamine

___ 2. A type of conflict considered the most

stressful as one alternative has both

positive and negative characteristics.

B) Catharsis

___ 3. According to Walter Cannon, during

flight-or-flight syndrome the

hypothalamus causes the sympathetic

nervous system to activate the:

C) General adaptation syndrome

___ 4. A group of hormones when circulating

in the bloodstream increase heart rate,

blood pressure, respiration, pupils to

dilate and digestion to slow down.

D) Alarm stage

___ 5. According to Hans Selye, refers to how

stress affects the body in three stages.

E) Approach-approach conflict

___ 6. The first stage of the general adaptation

syndrome that is characterized by the

flight-or-fight syndrome through the

release of catecholamine.

F) Corticosteroids

___ 7. According to Hans Seyle, during

prolonged periods of stress the body

releases ________ that increases stored

energy but reduce the immune system;

occurs during the resistive stage of the

general adaptation syndrome

G) Type A behavior

___ 8. A type of behavior described by Meyer

and Friedman that is described as

impatient, competitive, and prone to

heart disease.

H) Approach-avoidance conflict

___ 9. According to Sigmund Freud, the

releasing and displacement of

emotional tension through various

positive outlets.

I) Problem-focused coping

___ 10. A type of constructive coping that

addresses the problem and conflicts

associated with the problem.

J) Adrenal medulla


135

Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”

Instinct theory Automatic Instinct Innate, fixed

Homeostasis Maintaining Need Biological

Drive Tension Arousal Curiosity

Optimum arousal

theory

Boredom Yerkes-Dodson law Equal, fair

competition

Altruism Generous Incentive theory Something extra

Humanistic theory Innate, potential Hierarchy of needs Stair steps

Self-actualization The best CCK hormone Short-term satiation

Leptin hormone Fat, long-term Glucose Sugar, energy

Insulin Breaks down glucose Ventromedial

hypothalamus

Stops hunger

Lateral

hypothalamus

Starts hunger BMR Burns conserves

calories

Set point theory Ideal weight BMI Obese 30

Leptin resistance No effect on brain Competence

motivation

Be good at something

Achievement

motivation

Beat others Thematic

apperception test

Achievement,

ambiguous scene

Self-efficacy Confidence Collective self-

efficacy

Support system

Industrial-

organizational

Work, better worker Theory Y I want to be the best

employee

Theory X Xtra things Right hemisphere Emotion expression

Amygdala Recognizing emotions Cerebral cortex Expression of emotion

James/Lange

theory

Change in body Cannon-Bard

theory

Simultaneously brain

and body

Two-factor theory Body + cognitive label Cognitive

mediational theory

Appraise situation

Display rules Cultural norms of

emotion Health

psychologists

Study stress- effects

Approach-

approach

Two appealing choices Avoidance-

avoidance

Two negative choices

Fight-or-flight Catecholamine Norepinephrine NT arouses brain

General adaption

syndrome (Seyle)

Alarm- arouse

Resistive- fight

Exhaustive- sick

Corticosteroids Battle stress

T lymphocytes Attach viruses B lymphocytes Fight bacteria

Martin Seligman Positive psychology Optimistic Give a reason

Pessimistic Blame themselves Type A anger

Type B Relaxed Problem focused Americans,

Individualistic

Emotion focused Manage emotions Catharsis Blow off some steam


136

Abnormal Psychology Chapter 11


137

Introduction to Psychological Disorders

1. What is the focus of psychopathology?

A. How is a psychological disorder defined?

B. What is a psychological disorder that is usually distressing but allows one to think

rationally and function socially?

C. What is a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality;

experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions?

Explaining Disorders

2. Who was a French physician that worked to reform the treatments of people with mental

disorders?

A. What disease changed the focus to the brain for mental disorders?

B. Who worked to improve mental health facilities in America?

3. Which model believes that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be

diagnosed and cured?

A. Which model focuses on psychological reasons for disorders?

B. Which model addresses disorders in relation to gender, age, ethnicity, and social

factors?

C. What is the diathesis-stress model?

Classifying Disorders

4. What refers to the American Psychiatrics’ Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

of Mental Disorders, which is the most widely used system for classifying psychological

disorders through providing common language to identify, classify, and treat psychological

disorders?


138

Anxiety Disorders

5. What are the symptoms of an anxiety disorder?

Types of Anxiety Disorders

6. What is free-floating anxiety characterized by disruptive levels of persistence, unexplained

feelings of apprehension, and tenseness?

A. What is characterized by sudden bouts of intense, unexplained panic attacks- intense

breathing, high heart-rate, and trembling?

B. What is a phobia?

i. What is extreme fear of social situations?

ii. What is a fear of leaving a place or open spaces?

iii. What is a specific phobia?

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

7. How is obsessive-compulsive disorder described?

A. What involves compulsively collecting of many different things without difficulty

letting go of these items?

B. What is a preoccupation with flaws in one’s body; often associated with anorexia?

C. What refers to skin picking to the point of causing damage?

D. What refers to compulsively pulling out their hair?

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Related Disorders

8. How is posttraumatic disorder classified?

A. What refers people who experience a traumatic event or neglect and become

emotionally withdrawn?

B. What occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a change of life which

could disrupt routines?


139

C. What occurs when a person experiences distress an anxiety following a traumatic

event that could have caused death or injury?

i. What is the difference between acute stress disorder and PTSD?

Causes of Anxiety Disorders

9. Identify some of the causes of anxiety disorders:

A. Heredity

B. Brain function:

C. Heightened:

D. Neurotransmission:

E. Emotion center:

F. Evolution:

G. Learning:


Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

10. How would you classify a somatic disorder?

A. What involves strong, unjustified fear of having physical illness or belief they are

getting sick?

i. What is the difference between illness anxiety disorder and hypochondriacs?

B. What occurs where there are numerous physical and complaints without verifiable

physical illness?

C. What is a conversion disorder?

Dissociative Disorders

11. How are dissociative disorders classified?


140

A. What is characterized by a loss of memory in reaction to a traumatic event?

B. What was referred to multiple personality disorder- a rare and controversial

dissociative disorder in which a person experiences two or more distinct and alternating

personalities?

Causes of Dissociative Disorders

12. What can dissociative disorders be linked to?

Depressive Disorders

13. How are depressive disorders classified?

A. Which mood disorder is characterized when a person for no apparent reason

experiences at least two weeks of depressed moods, diminished interest in activities, and

feelings of worthlessness?

B. Which disorder has symptoms similar to major depression but less severe and could

last for over two years?

Bipolar and Related Disorders

14. How is bipolar I disorder classified?

A. Which disorder has less severe symptoms of mania called hypomania?

B. What is a less severe case of bipolar?

C. Which type of mood disorder is characterized by depression that is triggered by a

back of light especially in the winter months?

Causes of Mood Disorders

15. Identify the causes of mood disorders:

A. Heredity:

B. Brain function:


141

C. Neurotransmission:

D. Social-cognitive factors:


Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder

16. How is schizophrenia diagnosed?

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

17. What are neologisms and word salad?

A. What is the inability to move and to hold body limbs in rigid positions for long

periods of time; referred to waxy flexibility?

B. What are false beliefs?

i. What are delusions of grandeur?

ii. What are delusions of persecution?

iii. What are delusions of sin or guilt?

iv. What are delusions of influence?

C. What are false sensory perceptions with auditory being the most common?

18. What are examples of positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

A. Which symptoms include an absence of pleasure, lack of speech, and flat affect- no

emotion at all?

Causes of Schizophrenia

19. Identify the causes of schizophrenia:

A. Genetics:

B. Brain structure:


142

C. Neurotransmission:

D. Prenatal viruses:

E. Age of Father:


Personality Disorders

20. How are personality disorders classified?

Personality Disorders: Odd-Eccentric Cluster A

21. Define paranoid personality disorder:

A. Schizoid personality disorder:

B. Schizotypal personality disorder:

Personality Disorders: Dramatic-Erratic Cluster B

22. Define Borderline personality disorder:

A. Antisocial personality disorder:

B. Narcissistic personality disorder:

C. Histrionic personality disorder:

Personality Disorders: Anxious Fearful Cluster C

23. Define avoidant personality disorder:


143

A. Dependent personality disorder:

B. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder:

Childhood Disorders- Externalizing or under controlled category

24. Which disorder mostly in boys shows a stable pattern of aggression, disobedience, and

other problematic behaviors?

A. What is ADHD?

Internalizing or over controlled category

25. What refers to constantly worrying about being lost, kidnapped, or harm caused by a

parent?

26. Which are not externalizing or internalizing disorders but show severe problems in

communication an impaired social relationships?

A. Give two examples:

B. Which is a less severe type on the autistic spectrum that shows high cognitive

functioning, impaired social relationships and engage in repetitive behaviors like

memorizing?



144

1. Philip Pinel demonstrated through syphilis that some disorders could have physical

origins/ negative criticism of labeling people with disorders can sometimes lead to self-

fulfilling prophecy- living up to expectations or label/ Deviant behavior being different

from most people within a culture/ Etiology- refers to finding possible causes that

contribute to psychological disorders

2. Anxiety disorders - feelings of nervousness and apprehension / Generalized anxiety

disorder - anxiety about generally everything / Panic disorder – unexplainable panic

attacks / Phobia - irrational fear- most common agoraphobia- fear of open places never

leaving home / Causes of anxiety disorders: high activity in Frontal lobe and Amygdala

shows a lack of GABA- neurotransmitter for slowing down brain activity and high

activity of neurotransmitter norepinephrine- in charge of arousal

3. Obsessive-compulsive and related disorder – obsessions are thoughts, compulsions are

actions to relieve or distract thoughts / hoarding, body dysmorphic disorder, excoriation

4. Post-traumatic-stress and related disorder- reoccurring memory that interrupts daily

functioning / acute stress disorder, reactive disorder, adjustment disorder

5. Mood disorders - Major-depressive disorder - major depression for at least 2 weeks-

very severe often requires intervention / Persistent depressive disorder- milder form of

depression, can usually perform daily routines but can last year’s / Bipolar disorder -

extremes of altering between mania and depression / Bipolar 1 – manic phase you could

be a harm to yourself or others, requires hospitalization / Bipolar 2- depression with

hypomania (milder form of mania) / Cyclothymic disorder- similar to dysthymic for

depression, less extreme bipolar / Causes of mood disorders: for depression less activity

in Frontal lobe and neurotransmitters serotonin (too little for depression) norepinephrine

(too little for depression) and opposite for manic as well as low levels of dopamine-

pleasure

6. Dissociative disorders - self has become dissociated or separated from previous memories

and identity / Dissociative amnesia - loss of a certain memory or part of life due to a

traumatic event / Dissociative identity disorder - two or more distinct personalities not

aware of one another/ Causes could include repression of latent material or traumatic

episodes


145

7. Somatic Symptom and related disorders- symptoms not due to physical reasons / /

Conversion disorder- anxiety or stress is converted in a loss of physical functioning or

sensory system- blindness due to traumatic event

8. Schizophrenia- psychotic- can’t distinguish between reality and fiction - positive

symptoms: addition of delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (false sensory awareness-

auditory being most common) and disorganized thinking / Negative symptoms - loss of

cognitive abilities: (word salad language does not make sense often use neologisms-

made up words) and emotions- flat affect- no emotion/ Causes of schizophrenia: large

fluid-filled spaces (ventricles); smaller Thalamus; frontal lobe- slower thinking; more

receptor sites and over production of Dopamine / Prenatal viruses during pregnancy

9. Personality disorders - inflexible and lasting behavior / Anxiety related: Avoidant

personality disorder- sensitive about being rejected/ Dependent personality disorder-

very clingy/ Odd related: Paranoid personality disorder- distrust others/ Schizoid

personality disorder- hermits- no social relationships/ Schizotypal- other people avoid

because very odd- Borderline personality disorder- instability of emotions and behavior/

Antisocial personality- lack of conscious may develop from conduct disorders in

childhood/ Narcissistic- preoccupation with importance of oneself not considering others

10. DSM-V- manual that provides classifications and techniques for treating disorders- made

by many professionals so everybody will be on the same page and allows for

understanding and proper treatment of a disorder / can stigmatize person when given a

label of a particular disorder Explaining disorders: Diathesis-stress model- suggests that

disorders are the result of genetics (diathesis) and how much stress a person encounters


146


Psychopathology The study of the causes, symptoms, and development of

psychological disorders

Mental disorder Characterized by deviant, maladaptive, or harmful behaviors that

often disrupt thinking, feelings, and behavior

Deviant behavior Being different from behavior of most

people in a particular culture

Deviate means to be

different

Medical model

(neurobiological

model)

Suggests that psychological disorders are actually sicknesses that

have specific symptoms that must be medically treated

Etiology The process of investigating all possible causes and factors that may

contribute to the onset of a psychological disorder

Biopsychosocial model Mental disorders are the combination of biological, psychological

and social factors

Diathesis-stress

approach/ model

Stress experienced in the environment may

trigger genetic predispositions to develop

a preexisting psychological disorder

Nature vs. nurture

Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders

(DSM)

A manual that provides psychologists with a common way to

classify and organize mental disorders (DSM-V is the latest edition)

Anxiety Characterized by worrying, apprehension, and increased physical

arousal within the body

Anxiety disorder Characterized by feelings of extreme apprehension that often

disrupts daily routines and functioning

Phobias Type of anxiety disorder where a person has an irrational fear of an

object or situation that should not cause that type of fear

Generalized anxiety

disorder

Type of anxiety disorder that includes

moderate anxiety that is persistent for a

long period of time and not connected to

any particular object or situation

Generally have fear

about everything

Panic disorder Type of anxiety disorder that involves sudden bouts or occurrences

of panic attacks that include rapid heart rate, heavy breathing, and

sometime fainting

Agoraphobia A fear of open spaces that may arise from a fear of having a panic

attack in public resulting in staying at home

Obsessive-compulsive

disorder (OCD)

Involves repetitive thoughts (obsessions) that can lead to ritualistic

types of behavior (compulsions))

Hoarding An OCD involves compulsive collecting of many different types of

things with the difficulty of discarding or letting go of those objects

Body dysmorphic

disorder

An OCD preoccupation with flaws in one’s body. This involves

continuously observing one’s body and obsession with one’s

appearance with comparisons to other people’s body. This is often

associated with anorexia but can include other body issues such as

feeling one is not muscular or premature blading even though others

do not notice.


147

Exoriation An OCD, referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point of

causing damage to one’s body

Trichotillomania An OCD, that occurs when a person compulsively pulls their hair

from their body to the point of causing bald spots often focusing on

eyelashes or eyebrows

Posttraumatic stress

disorder (PTSD)

Symptoms of anxiety in response to physical or psychological

trauma often leading to avoiding similar situations or stimuli

Reactive attachment

disorder

A PTSD that involves people who experience a traumatic event or

neglect and as result become emotionally withdrawn from inability

to form a secure attachment

Adjustment disorder A PTSD that occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to a

change of life, which could disrupt routines and making progressive

changes

Acute stress disorder A PTSD that occurs when a person experiences distress and anxiety

following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury.

The onset of the symptoms for acute stress disorder occurs two days

to four weeks after the trauma whereas a difference between acute

stress disorder and PTSD is that PTSD in not diagnosed until four

weeks after the traumatic event has occurred.

External locus of

control

People who believe they have no control over their situations that

could lead to learned helplessness or giving up in various situations


148

___ 1. Early 1800s Philip Pinel was able to

demonstrate that mental illnesses were

not the result of demonic possession

which led to _________ the belief that

illnesses have physical causes.

A) Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

___ 2. A model that suggests the amount and

type of stress play a crucial role in

triggering genetic predispositions to

certain psychological disorders.

B) Agoraphobia

___ 3. A manual used by psychologists, which

provides common language with the

identifying and diagnosing of mental

disorders.

C) Medical model

___ 4. An OCD related disorder that involves

collecting many different types of

things with difficulty of discarding.

D) GABA

___ 5. An irrational fear of open places that

could be a result of the fear of having a

panic attack.

E) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

(DSM-V)

___ 6. Mild anxiety that is not specifically

connected to any particular object or

situations and is long-lasting.

F) Generalized anxiety disorder

___ 7. Involves repetitive thoughts that often

lead to ritualistic and repetitive

behaviors.

G) Diathesis-stress model

___ 8. Anxiety that is in response to physical

or psychological trauma that is

affecting the way one presently acts or

thinks.

H) Hoarding

___ 9. A neurotransmitter that is lined to

arousal and tends to be overactive in

people experiencing anxiety disorders.

I) Obsessive-compulsive behavior (OCD)

___ 10. A neurotransmitter that inhibits or

slows down brain activity and tends to

in undersupply with people who

experience anxiety disorders.

J) Norepinephrine


149


Somatic Symptom and

Related disorders

People who experience psychological problems or disturbances

associated with physical ailments that have no physical origin or

cause/ Soma means body

Conversion disorder

(Functional Neurological

Symptom Disorder)

Type of somatic disorder where a person converts psychological

problems into physical problems such as sensory and motor

failure , sudden blindness or deafness, paralyzed limbs; that have

no identifiable physical cause

Illness anxiety disorder Type of somatic disorder that involves perceptual fear that one

has acquired a disorder. People with this disorder analyze the

slightest changes in their bodies and will frequent doctors to

confirm their beliefs

Somatic symptom disorder Type of somatic disorder where people report multiple physical

ailments rather than an isolated problem or condition

Dissociative amnesia Sudden memory loss associated with a specific event or period of

their life

Dissociative identity

disorder (multiple

personality disorder)

Person exhibits more than one personality that includes an

unique style of thinking, speaking, and acting

Major depressive

disorder- unipolar

Extreme feelings of depression that may last for weeks or months

Persistent depressive

disorder

Lesser intense depression that lasts for a longer duration when

compared to major depression

Bipolar disorder

(formerly manic-

depressive disorder)

Alternating between periods of deep depression and mania,

which is characterized by an energetic, optimistic, impulsivity,

and often the belief anything can be done

Bipolar II disorder Alternating major depressive period with periods of hypomania-

a lesser intense or severe manic episode

Cyclothymic disorder Alternating periods of depression and mania, but of lesser severe

or intensity when compared to bipolar disorder

Seasonal affective

disorder (SAD)

Depression associated with winter

months, especially the absence of

sunlight, may cause problems in the

suprachiasmatic nucleus

Release of melatonin

mellows a person

Disruptive mood

dysregulation disorder

Considered a depressive disorder in children who display

continuous irritability and frequent temper tantrums

Learned helplessness According to Marin Seligman, when someone is not successful

after repeated attempts then often a giving up or quitting occurs,

which may lead to symptoms associated with depression


150

___ 1. Type of somatic disorder, where a

person experiences sensory ad motor

failure that may include blindness,

deafness, or paralyzed limbs with no

identifiable cause.

A) Bipolar disorder

___ 2. A person experiences sudden memory

loss of present life; dissociates from

their memory.

B) Dissociative amnesia

___ 3. Which defense mechanism maybe used

to explain memory impairments

associated with dissociative disorders.

C) Major depression

___ 4. A person experiences severe and

debilitating depression that may require

hospitalization and treatment.

D) Cyclothymic disorder

___ 5. A less intense type of depression in

comparison to major depression, but

often of a longer duration.

E) Repression

___ 6. Alternating between periods of deep

depression and manic episodes, which

are characterized by periods of extreme

energy and optimism.

F) Conversion disorder

___ 7. A less severe alternation between

depression and mania; very similar to

dysthymic disorder.

G) Learned helplessness

___ 8. A neurotransmitter involved in the

regulation of moods, which when low

could lead to major depression.

H) Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

___ 9. Type of disorder that is associated with

an absence of light often experienced

during the winter months and also the

suprachiasmatic nucleus.

I) Serotonin

___ 10. Martin Seligman’s belief that continued

attempts that result in failures cold

eventually leading to giving up and

possible depression issues.

J) Persistent depressive disorder


151


Schizophrenia

Spectrum Disorder

A severe and often debilitating disorder that affect thoughts process

resulting in a “split brain,” speech production, perception and

behavior

Neologisms Symptom of schizophrenia that includes using words that do not

make sense to other people listening

World salad A schizophrenic’s repetition and use of no meaningful statements

Delusions False and distorted beliefs that include delusion of persecution- the

belief that others are out to cause harm to you/ delusions of

influence- the belief that one is being controlled by an outside

factor/ delusions of grandeur- the belief that you are more important

or powerful than you really are

Hallucinations False reports of perceptions Auditory is most common

hallucination

Flat affect Not displaying or demonstrating any emotional response to various

stimuli

Catatonia (movement

disorder)

The inability to move and hold body limbs in rigid positions for long

periods of time causing others distress; referred to as waxy

flexibility

Positive symptoms of

schizophrenia

The addition of disorganized

thoughts, hallucinations, and

delusions

Positive means to add

Negative symptoms of

schizophrenia

The lack of pleasurable feelings,

motivation, speech, and emotions

(flat affect)

Negative means missing

Dopamine hypothesis

theory of

schizophrenia

Excessive receptor sites for

dopamine may lead to the positive

symptoms associated with

schizophrenia

Induced psychosis is the

result of excessive use of a

stimulant- cocaine

Vulnerability of theory

of schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is the result of a biological predisposition, which then

could be determined by the amount of stress the person encounters

in the environment


152

___ 1. Sometimes referred to as "split mind"

characterized by disturbed emotions,

perceptions, and thought processes.

A) Catatonic schizophrenia

___ 2. The use of words that only have

meaning to the schizophrenic.

B) Delusions of persecution

___ 3. The schizophrenic's repetition of no

meaningful statements.

C) Word salad

___ 4. The false belief where a person

believes they are of some importance or

position.

D) Flat affect

___ 5. The false belief that everyone and thing

is out to harm you; often a

characterizations of paranoid

schizophrenia.

E) Neologisms

___ 6. The most common type of

hallucination experienced by

schizophrenics.

F) Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized

thoughts.

___ 7. Refers to positive symptoms of

schizophrenia.

G) Delusions of grandeur

___ 8. A negative symptom of schizophrenia

that is characterized by a lack of

emotion.

H) Auditory

___ 9. A symptom of schizophrenia,

characterized by a waxy flexibility or

immobility of body parts and positions.

I) Dopamine

___ 10. An increase of this neurotransmitter

may lead to the positive symptoms

associated with schizophrenia.

J) Schizophrenia


153

Key Term Definition

Personality disorders Enduring or continuous inflexible patterns of thinking,

feelings, and acting grouped into 3 clusters: cluster A: odd-

eccentric/ cluster B: dramatic-erratic, cluster C: anxious-

fearful

Paranoid personality disorder Distrust of other, the belief people are out to get him or her,

and may act in violent protective methods

Schizoid personality disorder No social relationships and often difficulty displaying

feeling for other people

Schizoids AVOID other people

Schizotypal personality disorder Problems either starting or maintaining relationships, odd

perceptions and emotions, and behavior that resembles

schizophrenia

Histrionic personality

disorder

Obsessed with being the center of attention, very dramatic,

often emotionally shallow

Narcissistic personality

disorder

An exaggerated belief that he or she is very important and

has achieved great success

Borderline personality

disorder

Instability of emotions and impulse control, obsessive fear

of being alone, and difficulty maintaining relationships

Antisocial personality

disorder

Lack of feelings or regard for others and their welfare;

often includes sociopath and psychopaths

Dependent personality disorder An enormous need to be taken care of, difficulty making

decision, and very needy

Obsessive personality disorder Obsession with order and control of situations

Avoidant personality disorder Oversensitive to criticism and humiliation, and often does

not take part in social situations

Conduct disorders Mainly exhibited by boys who demonstrate a lack of

obedience and are very aggressive

Separation anxiety disorder Fear of being lost or left behind

Intellectual developmental

disorder

Determined by a person’s cognitive capacity as well as

their adaptive functionality. This replaces the term, mental

retardation that was used in DSM-IV.

Autistic spectrum disorder Tend to show symptoms a few months after birth, have

problems forming attachments and communicating, and

suffer severe cognitive impairments that affect

concentration, learning, and social interactions with other

Asperger’s disorder A less severe form of autism, causes children to experience

problems in social relationships; they also engage in

repetitive behaviors

Communication disorder Includes language disorder, speech and sound disorder, and

childhood onset fluency- formally known as stuttering


154

___ 1. Type of personality disorder

characterized by obsession with being

center of attention, very dramatic, and

emotional shallowness.

A) Schizoid personality disorder


characterized by instability of

emotions, impulse control, fear of

being alone; maintaining relationships.

B) Asperger's disorder


characterized by no feelings or welfare

for other people and a lack of remorse.

C) Schizotypal personality disorder


characterized by no social

relationships, difficulty displaying

feelings for others; similar to a hermit.

D) Borderline personality disorder


characterized by problems associated

with starting or maintaining

relationships; very odd types of

thoughts feelings, emotions, thoughts.

E) Conduct disorder


characterized by an enormous need to

be taken care of and often cannot make

decision unless someone else does.

F) Histrionic

___ 7. Maybe connected to antisocial

personality disorder; exhibited by boys

who at an early age demonstrate a lack

of obedience and are overly aggressive.

G) Dependent personality disorder

___ 8. A fear of being left alone or left behind.

H) Autism

___ 9. Tend to show symptoms a few months

after birth, have problems forming

attachments and communicating.

I) Separation anxiety disorder

___ 10. A less severe form of autism and may

experience problems in social

relationships and the tendency to

engage in repetitive behaviors.

J) Antisocial personality disorder


155

Term Buzz Word(s) Term Buzz Word(s)

Psychopathology Study Deviant behavior Harmful

Diathesis-stress

model

Nature and nurture Diagnostic Statistical

Manual V

Common way to

classify and treat

Anxiety disorder Uncontrollable

apprehension Phobias Irrational fear

Generalized anxiety

disorder

General anxiety Panic disorder Uncontrollable

panic attacks

Agoraphobia Don’t leave home OCD Uncontrollable

thoughts/ actions

Hoarding OCD-Can’t throw out Post-traumatic stress

disorder

Realistic flashbacks

Acute stress

disorder

PTSD- few days Conversion disorder Unexplainable

physical problems

Dissociative identity

disorder

Multiple personalities Major depressive

disorder

Severe depression

Persistent

depressive disorder

Long-term livable

depression Bipolar disorder Depression- mania-

excitement

Cyclothymic

disorder

Less severe bipolar Seasonal affective

disorder

Depression tied to

light in winter

Learned

helplessness

Learn to give up Schizophrenia Psychotic disorder/

break from reality

Neologisms Made up words Word salad Made up thoughts

Delusions False beliefs Delusions of grandeur Think your god

Delusions of

persecution

Out to get you Delusions of influence Being controlled

Hallucinations False sensory input/

auditory Catatonia Waxy flexibility/

can’t move

Flat affect No emotions Positive symptoms Delusions,

hallucinations,

thought

Negative symptoms Emotions, pleasure Dopamine-

schizophrenia

Too much

Personality disorder Lifelong condition Paranoid pd Out to get me

Schizoid pd Hermit no contact Schizotypal pd No relationships;

odd behavior

Histrionic pd Dramatic, shallow Narcissistic pd I only matter

Borderline pd Unstable Antisocial pd No empathy

Dependent pd Needy Obsessive pd Ritualistic

Avoidant pd Stay away Conduct disorder Boys aggressive

Separation anxiety

disorder

Can’s be alone Autistic spectrum

disorder

Impaired social

relationships

Asperger’s disorder Highly IQ/ social

problems Communication

disorder

Speech language

impairment


156

Methods of Therapy

Chapter 12


157

Methods of Therapy

1. What is psychotherapy based on?

A. Which approach uses a variety of approaches best suited for the patient?

B. What is the goal of insight therapy?

C. What do behavioral therapist believe?

D. What techniques are used with the biomedical approach?

i. Which type of profession has a medical degree and is able to prescribe

medication?

Psychodynamic Psychotherapy

2. What inspired Sigmund Freud to develop psychoanalysis?

A. What did Freud believe unresolved conflicts from childhood could lead to?

B. What is the goal of psychoanalysis?

C. What is the usual timeline for traditional psychoanalysis?

Psychoanalytical Techniques

3. Which technique involves the client speaking openly and freely about whatever comes to

their mind?

A. What refers to the therapist involving insight to the comments made during free

association/?

B. What is resistance?

C. During dream interpretation which part is the analyst interested in which could lead to

the unconscious?


158

D. What are statements that are made that are often considered accidental but could lead

to the content of the unconscious?

E. What is considered the most important technique which involves the patient

unconsciously responding to the therapist as if they were a significant person in their life?

Contemporary Psychoanalysis

4. Why is traditional psychoanalysis not practiced as much today?

A. What is a shorter version of traditional psychoanalysis?

B. Which psychodynamic approach focuses on current problems instead of early

childhood experiences?

Humanistic Psychotherapy

5. Which therapy focuses on humans striving and reaching their full potential with the belief

that people are inherently good and are motivated to grow psychologically?

A. What is the humanists’ belief?

B. What is the goal of humanistic therapy?

i. How do humanistic therapist establish this goal?

Client (Person) Centered Therapy

6. What was Carl Rogers originally in terms of therapy?

A. What is the name of Rogers’s approach that encourages growth and self-discovery by

the client through unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence?

1. What is treating the client as a valued person who can solve their own conflicts?

2. What is a technique used by the therapist which involves listening to the patient while

often using reflection and repeating back what is said?

3. What involves the therapist being consistent with what is being said to the patient?



159

Gestalt Therapy

7. Who developed gestalt therapy- another version of humanistic therapy?

A. What is the goal of gestalt therapy?

Positive Psychology

8. Which type of therapy is modern type of insight therapy that forces on promoting human

strengths, personal growth, and developing a more favorable outlook on life?

A. What are two types of positive psychology and who supported these?

B. Which types of disorders are positive psychology approaches useful?

Behavior Therapy

9. Which type of therapy proposes that psychological problems originate from learned

behaviors and can be unlearned?

A. Which type uses classical conditioning principles?

B. Which types focuses on operant conditioning principles?

C. Which type addresses thoughts and behaviors associated with the problem?

Behavior Techniques emphasizing Classical Conditioning

10. Who influenced Behavioral therapy?

A. Which principle did Mary Cover Jones uses to teach a new conditioned response that

is more effective that than the maladaptive learned response?

B. Who was her subject and what was his fear?

C. What was the new response and association in response to using counterconditioning?

Systematic Desensitization and Exposure Techniques

11. Who developed systematic desensitization to treat phobias and other anxiety disorders?


160

Process of Desensitization

1. What is the patient first taught how to do?

2. In step 2, what is the patient asked to create?

i. What is the list called?

ii. What is a control scene?

3. What is the actual process of desensitization?

i. What is the new conditioned response instead of old maladaptive response?

12. What is newer version of systematic desensitization that uses computer technology?

A. What is direct exposure to the most feared image or event in the anxiety hierarchy

list?

i. What are two examples of exposure techniques?

ii. Why do some people not choose this approach?

Aversive Conditioning

13. What is the name of the drug if taken with alcohol will cause immediate sickness?

A. What is the purpose of aversive conditioning?

B. What is a negative with using aversive conditioning?

Behavior Therapies that emphasize Operant Conditioning

14. Which type of therapy uses operant conditioning that are based on the idea that the

consequences that follow a particular behavior could either strengthen or eliminate a behavior?

A. What is an example of using positive reinforcement through giving tokens or rewards

after desired behavior is performed?

B. How is extinction used? Give an example:

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy

15. Which type of therapy uses learning principles to change people’s negative thoughts or

patterns?


161

A. Who developed Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy that suggests that people’s

irrational and negative beliefs are responsible for a persons’ feelings or consequences?

B. Give an example of the ABC approach used in Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy?


Cognitive Therapy

16. Who was originally a psychoanalyst that developed Cognitive Therapy which is based on

the idea that people have developed cognitive distortions, perceptions, and interpretations of

events that have led to psychological disorders?

A. What type of approach is Cognitive therapy?

B. What is the goal of having the clients go out directly test their beliefs?

Group Therapy

17. Which type of therapy incorporates humanistic ideals that allows therapists to work with

several people at one time?

A. What are the advantages of using group therapy?

B. What is the goal of family therapy?

C. What is the emphasis of marital therapy?

Evaluating Psychotherapeutic Approaches

18. What is the purpose of meta-analysis?

A. Which approaches are effective for treating depression?

B. Which approaches are good for treating phobias, panic disorders, and OCD?

C. Which therapy is good for treating eating disorders?

D. What is psychoanalysis good for treating?


162

Biological Therapy

19. When are disorders treated with drugs?

A. What is involved with using psychosurgery?

B. Describe Egoss Moniz’s prefrontal lobotomy?

C. When is ECT or electroconvulsive therapy used?

i. What are some of the problems associated with using ECT?

Antipsychotic Drugs

20. Which type of drugs are used to treat psychotic symptoms related to the positive

symptoms associated with schizophrenia?

A. What are two example of neuroleptics?

B. What is a considerable side effect of using neuroleptics that is characterized by

symptoms similar to Parkinson ’s disease involves twitching and facial tics?

C. Which drug has been effective at treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

Antidepressants

21. How are antidepressant drugs designed to work?

A. What were the original antidepressants called?

B. How do Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors work?

C. What are some types of common SSRI’s?

Antianxiety Medications

22. What are the most common types of antianxiety medications used?

A. How do these drugs work?

B. What is a concern with using antianxiety medications?


163

Lithium

23. What is used to treat bipolar disorder?

A. Which neurotransmitter does lithium have an effect on?

i. What is an alternative to lithium?

Evaluating Drug Treatments

24. What is an overall concern with using drug therapies?

Community Psychology

25. What refers to process of releasing patients from hospitals to fend for themselves?

A. What is a movement to decrease or prevent psychological disorders in impoverished

areas?



164

1. Psychotherapy- sessions between a therapist and client with the hopes of providing insight

into problems/ Eclectric approach- approach that uses techniques from various therapies to

treat disorder

2. Psychoanalysis- Freud - problems in the unconscious and noticing patients had problems

without any physical causes / Resistance- unconscious blocking of anxiety material- not

talking about/ Transference- unconsciously transferring emotion unto therapist which was

intended for others who are actually to blame/ Interpretation- meaning derived from

resistance and transference/ Free association- patient says whatever comes to mind /

Psychodynamic therapy or interpersonal therapy- shorter sessions- focus on current issues

and less expensive than traditional psychoanalysis which is long and expensive

3. Humanistic therapy- increasing self-acceptance and self-awareness of patients/ Client-

centered therapy- Carl Rogers believed that if a therapist displayed the following

characteristics the patient or client can direct and discover solutions and problems to their

life- Empathy uses active listening or reflection- repeating back what patient states- showing

you are paying attention, unconditional positive regard- showing patient that you understand

and don’t judge what they have done, genuineness- therapist is honest with patient and is

open about own life- these therapist qualities make it possible for patient to direct session

and discover solutions to own problems which leads to increased self-confidence as he or she

discovered their own problems and solutions

4. Behavioral therapy- uses classical conditioning- Systematic desensitization (Joe Wolpe)-

based on classical conditioning- type of counterconditioning that Mary Cover Jones first used

through pairing frightening stimuli with relaxed thought instead of fearful thought as anxiety

causing stimulus is presented- involves patients develop an anxiety hierarchy which has most

fearful to least fearful aspects/ patients learn progressive relaxation techniques and are asked

to develop a control scene which will be the NEW and BETTER conditioned or learned

response replacing original NEGATIVE or FEARFUL condition or learned response/

Aversive conditioning- counterconditioning that produces unwanted response (nausea) with

unwanted behavior (drinking)/ opposite of systematic desensitization/ Exposure therapy-

flooding- continuously exposing someone to a feared object or situation

5. Behavior modification –uses Operant conditioning- token economies- positive

reinforcement- giving tokens after desired behavior increases behavior being repeated and


165

also Extinction- non-reinforcement- not giving expected response after a given behavior- like

throwing a temper tantrum and expecting attention

6. Cognitive-Behavioral therapy- Albert Ellis- Rational-emotive behavioral therapy- uses

ABC model- a= activating event (not getting a job), b= belief (I am never going to get job

because I am not smart (could it B because of my B-eliefs) which actually causes c=

consequence= depression- goal of therapy is to address and correct bad beliefs

7. Cognitive therapy- new thinking- Cognitive therapy-Aaron Beck- address unrealistic and

distorted thinking (cognitive biases) by actively testing false beliefs in real life situations

8. Psychiatrist have medical degrees and can prescribe medications; Biomedical therapy Drug

therapy- Thorazine- a type of neuroleptic used to treat schizophrenia- blocks activity of

Dopamine reducing the positive symptoms- can produce side effects like Tardive

dyskinesia- similar to Parkinson’s resulting from too little dopamine/ Valium used for

anxiety boosts effects of GABA/ Prozac, Zoloft and Paxil which are called SSRIs- selective

serotonin reuptake inhibitors used for depression with slowing down the process of the

reuptake of Serotonin allowing it to cross the synapse and get to the next neuron

9. Positive psychology- developed by Martin Seligman- which emphasizes positive human

characteristics and teaches people to focus on positive aspects and life experiences in order to

reduce learned helplessness- which is the tendency for people to give up when continuously

not successful

10. Group therapy- cost effective, group support and understanding

11. Community psychology- prevention of disorders through providing information to people in

poverty or disadvantaged areas due to deinstitutionalization- the shutting down of mental

hospitals

12. Meta-Analysis- gathering lots of information and resources to arrive at a conclusion


166


Psychotherapy The interaction between a trained therapist who uses psychological

techniques to treat a patient experiencing emotional, behavioral, or

interpersonal problems

Eclectic approach The use of a variety of therapeutic techniques that are based on the

symptoms of the patient

Insight therapies A dialogue between the therapist and the patient with the goal of

gaining insight into the patient’s conflicts resulting in the development

of a possible solution

Behavioral therapy Therapy that utilizes learning techniques

to have patient’s unlearn maladaptive

patterns of behavior

What is LEARNED

(including negativity) can

Be UNLEARNED

Biomedical therapy The use of medical procedures such as

electroconvulsive therapy, medication,

that are used to treat patients.

BIOLOGICAL reasons for

disorder

Psychiatrist’s Therapists who have medical degrees which allow them to prescribe

medications

Psychodynamic

psychotherapy

Originated through Sigmund Freud’s work with patients who had

certain symptoms that did not have physical causes, which led to beliefs

that disorders were the result of unconscious conflicts and repressed

childhood traumatic thoughts and memories

Psychoanalysis Method of therapy aimed at revealing and resolving unconscious and

repressed conflicts; often involved the use of case studies and many

sessions over a long period of time

Free association A psychoanalytical technique that allows

the patient to say whatever comes to his

or her mind in a therapeutic session

The patient talks FREELY

about whatever he or she

wants to talk about

Interpretation A psychoanalytical technique that occurs during free association where

the therapists offers insight to and explanations of the patient’s remarks

Resistance A psychoanalytical technique that occurs

when the client unconsciously blocks the

process of revealing repressed memories,

which allows the therapist to gain insight

into possible conflicts

To resist means to block or

refuse to discuss

Dream

interpretation

Identifying and separating the manifest

content, the story line consciously

remembered portion of the dream, from

the latent content, the symbolic portion of

the dream that contains impulses, wishes

and fantasies associated with the

unconscious

Manifest- “man I had a

crazy dream” which means

you remember that portion

of the dream/ latent LEADS

to unconscious

Freudian slips Statements that are accidentally made by the client that may lead to the

content of the unconscious


167

Transference A psychoanalytical technique that occurs

when the patient unconsciously responds

to the therapist as a significant person in

their life often leading to certain

emotional responses being displayed

TRANSFERRING

emotions ONTO another

person

Psychodynamic

therapy

A short-term type of therapy compared to psychoanalysis that offers

quicker diagnosis, but still focuses on the role of the unconscious

Interpersonal

therapy

A psychodynamic approach that focuses more on current problems and

conflicts instead of childhood repressions

Humanistic

psychotherapy

A type of therapy that emphasizes the

patient’s striving for and reaching their

human potential through the belief that

people are inherently good and motivated

to psychologically grow

Helping people become the

BEST HUMAN BEING

THEY CAN BE/ BE ALL

YOU CAN BE

Self-concept The humanist’s belief that the self-

concept, a person’s thoughts of

themselves are central to proper

psychological growth and should be

addressed during therapeutic sessions

How you describe yourself

Client-centered

therapy

According to Car Rogers, therapeutic

sessions should allow the patient to

discover for him or herself the reasons for

their disorder and then encouraged to

solve their conflicts and problems. The

therapists should stress unconditional

positive regard- treating the patients as a

valued person, empathy- placing oneself

in the patient’s point of view and

problems through the use of active

listening, and demonstrating congruence-

being consistent with thoughts and

feelings directed at the patient

The client in the CENTER

of attention- if client can

realize why he or she feels

or acts a certain then there

is a good chance he or she

can find a solution

Confidence comes from the

clients’ ability to figure out

their own problems and

solutions


168

___ 1. Type of therapist that possesses a

medical degree and has the ability to

issue medication.

A) Free association

___ 2. A type of therapeutic treatment by

Sigmund Freud that emphasized the

role of unresolved conflicts within the

unconscious as a determinant for

psychological disorders

B) Psychiatrists

___ 3. Method of psychoanalysis that involves

the client speaking freely about

whatever comes to her or his mind.

C) Client-centered therapy

___ 4. Occurs in psychoanalysis when the

client unconsciously tries to block or

refuses to discuss a particular subject.

D) Psychoanalysis

___ 5. According to Freud, the part of a dream

that is comprised of unconscious

symbols and conflicts.

E) Psychodynamic therapy

___ 6. Occurs in psychoanalysis when a

patient unconsciously responds to the

therapist in an emotional response that

should be directed at another person.

F) Transference

___ 7. A type of therapy shorter in duration

compared to traditional psychoanalysis.

G) Latent content

___ 8. Type of therapy where Carl Rogers

focused on the patient directing the

therapeutic session with the goal of

revealing the problem and solution.

H) Active-listening/ empathy

___ 9. A component of client-centered therapy

where the therapist sees the problem

through the patient's point of view

through repeating and rewording

responses by the patient.

I) Unconditional positive regard

___ 10. A component of client-centered therapy

where the therapist treats the client as a

valued person through accepting and

not judging the patient.

J) Resistance


169


Gestalt therapy Developed by Fritz Perls and his wife

and influenced by the principles of

Gestalt psychology, the belief and goal

of the therapy is to make patient’s

thoughts and behavior coincide with

reality

Gestalt means WHOLE- to

make sure the individual

parts- or parts of a

person’s life fit the whole

Positive psychology A modern type of insight therapy that focuses on promoting human

strengths while enhancing personal growth and self-acceptance,

which includes Well-being therapy developed by Giovanni Fava and

Positive psychotherapy developed by Martin Seligman

Behavioral therapy Proposes psychological problems

originate from learned behaviors and

that these unlearned behaviors can be

unlearned;

Behavior therapy that

focuses on the principles

of classical conditioning

Behavior modification that

focuses on operant

conditioning

Cognitive-behavior

therapy that addresses how

thoughts and behavior are

interrelated

Counterconditioning Developed by Mary Cover Jones, the

process of producing a new conditioned

response through a better association

between a prior stimuli and response

Counter clockwise means

to go in an opposite

direction

Systematic

desensitization

Developed by Joseph Wolpe and used

to treat phobias and other anxiety

disorders, a type of counterconditioning

that involves learning new conditioned

responses that replace established

maladaptive responses. This procedure

involves patients learning relaxation

techniques that later are associated with

items listed in their anxiety or

desensitization hierarchy that cause fear

and distress.

Desensitize means to make

LESS sensitive- so less

fearful of things or places

Virtual reality graded

exposure

A recent application of systematic desensitization that allows patients

to experienced their fears a controlled computerized setting without

actual exposure

Exposure techniques Direct exposure to a feared image or situation in a controlled setting

Flooding Type of exposure technique that

involves complete exposure to a fearful

stimuli

Similar to starting in the

deep end of the swimming

pool


170

Aversive

conditioning

Involves pairing a harmful stimulus,

like smoking, with an unpleasant

feeling like nausea

A person will then

associate smoking with

nausea leading to “I get

sick every time I try and

smoke so I don’t.”

Positive reinforcement Type of behavioral modification

procedure that presents a favorable

stimulus after a desired behavior is

performed increased that behavior

occurring in the future

The addition of a

favorable stimulus after a

desired behavior will

increases the changes of

the behavior being

repeated

Token economies The process of implementing positive

reinforcement in a therapeutic setting;

often used in rehabilitation programs

The tokens are like

secondary reinforcers

Extinction Not reinforcing an undesired behavior Some kids cry until they

get attention from a parent

because that is what they

want- if parents don’t give

attention child won’t cry

Rational-emotive

therapy

Developed by Albert Ellis and a type of

Cognitive-behavioral therapy, is based

on the ABC model and the belief that

beliefs (B) cause (C) consequences like

depression that are not actually caused

by the activating event (A) itself. The

goal is to then correct the beliefs that a

person holds.

Most people are not upset

with the outcome but their

reasons or beliefs for the

outcomes

Remember

RATIONALIZE means to

provide reasons for

outcome s


171

___ 1. A type of therapy that emphasizes the

belief that people actively process

information from the environment that

results unrealistic versions of reality.

A) Systematic desensitization

___ 2. Insight therapy developed by Martin

Seligman that focuses on promoting

human strengths and self-acceptance.

B) Aversive conditioning

___ 3. Developed the concept of

counterconditioning which believes

that previous associations can be

unlearned and result is new and more

productive conditional response.

C) Beliefs

___ 4. Joseph Wolpe's version of

counterconditioning used to treat

phobias that involve the gradual

learning of a new conditioned response.

D) Exposure therapy

___ 5. A chart made in the process of

systematic desensitization where the

patient list from most fearful to least

fearful anxiety provoking stimuli.

E) Anxiety or desensitization hierarchy

___ 6. Type of therapy that involves direct

exposure to the feared image.

F) Mary Cover Jones

___ 7. A type of behavioral therapy that

involves pairing a harmful substance

with a negative stimulus producing an

unwanted conditional response.

G) Positive psychology/psychotherapy

___ 8. An example of behavior modification

that uses the positive reinforcement to

distribute reinforcers for desirable

behaviors that are performed.

H) Token economics

___ 9. A concept of behavioral modification

used to stop undesirable behaviors

through the use of nonreinforcement.

I) Extinction

___ 10. Albert Ellis's idea a person's _____are

responsible for people's consequences

(c); not the actual (a) event itself.

J) Gestalt therapy


172


Cognitive therapy Developed by Aaron Beck who believed that

people have cognitive distortions,

perceptions, and interpretations of events that

contribute to the disorder they are

experiencing. The patient is then taught to

directly test these distortions with the goal

that he or she will develop more realistic

ideals

Cognitive the C

stands for lets “C”

what happens when

you go out and try.

Group therapy A type of humanistic therapy to allow one or

more therapists to work with several people

who share similar symptoms while saving

money; includes family and marital therapy

Strength in

numbers- group

support

Meta-analysis A type of analysis that gathers large amounts

of data and sources to evaluate therapeutic

approaches and methods

MANY means

META

Psychosurgery The process of destroying tissues in regions of the brain

responsible for psychological disorders

Prefrontal lobotomy Inserting a probe into the frontal area of the

brain and severing neural connections

between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of

the brain

Frontal area of the

brain in charge of

thinking,

reasoning, and

decision making

Electroconvulsive

therapy (ECT)

Primarily used for depression who did not respond to other

treatments, involves the use of brief electrical shocks that attempt

to stimulate neural activity in the brain

Neuroleptics Antipsychotic medication that are used to treat the positive

symptoms associated with schizophrenia; includes Thorazine and

haloperidol that affect the levels of dopamine

Tardive dyskinesia Irreversible movement disorder similar to Parkinson’s disease that

could be caused by taking neuroleptics

Selective serotonin

reuptake inhibitors

(SSRIs)

A type of antidepressant medication that

slows down the reuptake process through

allowing serotonin to remain in the synapse

longer ensuring proper delivery to other

neurons; includes Prozac, Zoloft and Paxil

Reuptake is like a

vacuum

SSRIS turn off the

vacuum

Antianxiety medications Used to treat anxiety symptoms through elevating GABA levels;

includes Valium and BuSpar

Lithium/ Depakote Used to treat Bipolar disorder

Deinstitutionalization The massive releasing of patients from mental health hospitals

resulting in many patients not receiving treatment

Community

psychology

A movement that increases treatment for people who do not have

access to mental health programs


173

___ 1. Which type of therapy was developed

by Aaron Beck and focused on

correcting irrational and distorted

thinking processes through having

patients actively addressing these

thoughts.

A) Group therapy

___ 2. Type of therapy that is cost effective,

offers social support and empathy

through the people participating.

B) Selective Serotonin Reuptake

Inhibitions (SSRIs)

___ 3. A process of gathering large amounts

of information in order to produce

accurate reports.

C) Meta-analysis

___ 4. A procedure rarely used anymore that

involved inserting a metal instrument

into the frontal area of the brain.

D) Cognitive therapy

___ 5. A procedure primarily used to treat

depression that involves a brief

electrical charge in the hopes of

increases neural activity.

E) Lithium

___ 6. Medication used to treat schizophrenia

specifically the positive symptoms;

thorazine and haloperidol being

examples.

F) Prefrontal lobotomy

___ 7. A side effect associated with taking

thorazine for schizophrenia that

resembles Parkinson's disease.

G) Deinstitutionalization

___ 8. A type of medication that is used to

treat depression through slowing down

the reuptake process of the sending

neuron.

H) Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

___ 9. A drug commonly used to treat bipolar

disorder.

I) Tardive dyskinesia

___ 10. The process of shutting down mental

hospitals resulting in the release and

nontreatment of many mentally ill

people; resulting in the rise of

community psychology.

J) Neuroleptics


174

Term Buzz Word(s) Term Buzz Word(s)

Psychotherapy Interaction Eclectic approach Variety of techniques

Insight therapy Dialogue, problems Psychoanalysis Treatment, Freud

Free association Talk freely Interpretation Insight

Resistance Unconscious refusal Transference Taking out on

Latent content Symbolic,

unconscious Psychodynamic

therapy

Short-term to

psychoanalysis

Interpersonal

therapy

Current problems Humanistic therapy Born good, self-

concept

Client-centered

therapy

Rogers, client directs Unconditional

positive regard

Value the person

Active listening Repeat what is said Congruence Consistent

Gestalt therapy Reality matches

situation Positive psychology Promoting human

strengths, Seligman

Behavior therapy Classical

conditioning Behavior

modification

Operant conditioning

Cognitive-behavior

therapy

Thoughts direct

behavior Mary Cover Jones Peter,

counterconditioning

Systematic

desensitization

Wolpe- relax instead

of anxiety, chart Exposure techniques Flooding- go right to

the most fearful

Aversive

conditioning

Sickness instead of

pleasure Token economics Positive

reinforcement

Extinction Don’t give what

want Rational Emotive

therapy

Ellis, beliefs not

event = depression

Cognitive therapy Beck- go test

negative thoughts Group therapy Save money, get

support

Meta-analysis Gather lots of data Prefrontal lobotomy Sever frontal lobe

ECT Depression,

schizophrenia, excite Neuroleptics Thorazine, positive

symptoms

schizophrenia

SSRI’s Slow down reuptake

of serotonin, Prozac Benzodiazepines,

valium

Increase GABA treat

anxiety

Lithium, Depakote Bipolar,

anticonvulsant Deinstitutionalization Shut down

Community

psychology

Prevent give help to

people in need Biomedical approach Overprescribe drugs


175

Research & Methods

Chapter 1


176

Critical Thinking

1. What is considered the first stop of research- making an educated guess?

2. What is the role of an operational definition?

A. Why are operational definitions required in order for it to be considered an

experiment?

3. How are theories different from hypotheses?

Research Methods in Psychology

4. What are the four goals for research?

5. What are the goals of descriptive studies?

Types of Research Methods

6. When is naturalistic observations used?

A. What are disadvantages associated with using naturalistic observations?

7. When would a researcher use a case study?

A. What are the disadvantages of using a case study?

8. What is an advantage of using a survey?

A. Why may people lie when taking a survey?

B. How do researchers influence the answering of participants’ responses?


177

9. What is the design of correlational studies?

A. What is the main disadvantage of correlational studies?

10. How are experiments designed?

A. Why do researchers use experimental design?

B. Identify two possible disadvantages for conducting experimental design?

Experiments: An in-depth look

11. What is the only way to prove cause/effect?

12. Identify the variable that is considered the variable of change or manipulation?

13. What is the variable that show the measurement or the effects of the independent

variable?

14. When does a null hypothesis occur?

A. Identify the variables that can’t be controlled by the researcher and could affect the

measurement of the dependent variable?

15. What do participants in the experimental group receive?

A. Explain the purpose of the control group and what constitutes a control group

condition?

16. How can research participants contribute to confounding variables? What is this called?

17. How can experimenter or researcher cause experimenter bias?

A. What is hindsight bias?


178

B. How can overconfidence lead to experimenter bias?

18. How can a double-blind research design help to eliminate confounding variables?

19. What is the purpose of a placebo group or placebo effect?

Selecting Human Participants

20. What is referred to when the selection of participants only includes the targeted

population?

21. Define a population.

22. What is a stratified sample?

23. When is a cross-sectional sample applied?

A. Give an example of a cross-sectional study?

24. When is a longitudinal study used?

A. What are the disadvantages of using a longitudinal study?

25. Describe the random sampling process?

A. When does a sampling bias occur?

26. When is random assignment used?

A. How is random assignment different from random sampling?



179

Statistical Analysis of Research

27. What are two methods that allow a researcher to formulate a statistical conclusion?

28. What are descriptive statistics?

Statistical Analysis of Research: Descriptive Statistics

29. What is the process of developing a frequency distribution?

30. Define the three types of central tendency?

A. Mean:

B. Median:

C. Mode:

31. Describe a normal distribution.

A. When is a percentile score used?

B. How is a standard score used?

32. What defines a range?

A. What does standard deviation indicate?

B. When does a skewed distribution occur?

33. How is the strength or value of a relationship determined in a correlational study?

A. Numerically what determines a strong relationship?

34. Define positive correlation:


180

A. Give an example of a positive correlation?

35. Define negative correlation:

A. Give an example of a negative correlation:

36. When does an illusory correlation occur?

A. Give an example of an illusory correlation?

Statistical Analysis of Research: Inferential Statistics

37. When are inferential statistics used by researchers?

38. When is data or the results considered statistically significant?

Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists

39. According to APA’ Ethical Principles explain the following guidelines:

A. Informed Consent:

B. Debriefing:

C. Confidentiality

D. Parental Permission

E. Prevention of harm



181

1. Theory- explanation about behavior or situation summarizing and describing findings

resulting from a hypothesis- testable prediction- first step in scientific method

2. Descriptive studies- describe behavior but don’t explain / case study- in-depth interview or

review of rare phenomenon or person- but can’t be applied to general population (Freud used

this method)/ Surveys- given to large groups for quick results- False consensus effect-

believing people taking the survey will automatically agree with the person’s thoughts and

opinions who wrote the survey- Social desirability effect- tendency for people to answer in a

favorable way to make one look good/ Wording effect- how you word questions could

influence how people answer surveys

3. Longitudinal study- long-term study over a group of people- very expensive and time

consuming/ cross-sectional study- study that examines and makes comparisons among

different groups like age, gender

4. Random sample- everybody equal chance of being picked from population- the group being

studied resulting in a representative sample- sample taken from targeted population

5. Random selection or assignment- equal chance for all participants (of the representative

sample) to be chosen for either control group- the group that is held for comparison not given

the independent variable or experimental group- the group that receives the independent

variable)

6. Correlational studies- shows relationships and makes predictions between variables or

factors- but does not provide cause-and-effect explanations / a number called the

correlational coefficient if closer to 1.00 (+1.00 or -1.00) means a strong relationship shown

on a scatter plot/ illusory correlation- relationship that appears to be there, but is not like

people act crazy during a full moon. Negative correlation variables move in opposite

directions (less you drink more you remember) Positive correlation- variables move in same

direction (more you study better grades you get)

7. Experiment- shows cause and effect relationships among variables by manipulating or

causing change with a variable called the independent variable- the variable of

experimenter interest and then showing the amount of change through measurement (the

results) of the dependent variable (If students take a vitamin (independent variable) then

their retention of material (dependent variable) will go up.


182

8. Confounding variable- variables that influence the dependent variable (outcome or

measurement of experiment) by not being considered or controlled by experimenter (students

moods before they take a test)

9. Double-blind procedure- guards against researcher bias and participant bias through the

subjects or experimenters not knowing who is in the control or experimental group or what is

the purpose of the study/ Placebo group- a fake/sugar pill independent variable

10. Hindsight bias- “I knew the results all along” but only state after the results given

11. Operational definitions- precise instructions how each variable will be manipulated or

measured in an experiment- helps others to later do same or replicate the experiment

12. Overconfidence- people or researchers who believe they already know the outcome before

the experiment and don’t consider any other factors or possibilities.

13. Research guidelines- informed consent- participants know that they are part of an

experiment/ debriefing- participants are told the purpose and the results of study.


183

Key term Definition Analogy

Applied research Research that can be applied

to the general population

You APPLY the paint (theory) to the

house changing the color of the house

Basic research Research used to build or gain

knowledge

Basic research adds more pages to a book

Variable Factor or feature that is being

measured or manipulated

Variables are going to VARY by either

being manipulated or changed/ measured

Theory Explanation makes

predictions/ observations

A theory is the title page of a book tells

reader what the book is going to be about

Hypothesis A testable prediction or

educated guess

A hypothesis are the pages that follow the

title page that tell the story

Operational

definition

Precise instructions define

how variables measured or

manipulated, allows

replication by other

researchers

Operational definitions DEFINE how the

experiment is going to OPERATE or run

Meta-analysis An analysis that includes

many types of research

Meta means MANY- many types of

research

Descriptive

research

Research that describes

behavior and phenomenon

Descriptive means to DESCRIBE

something

Naturalistic

observation

Observing people/ species in a

natural habitat

In order to be NATURALLY observed

the researcher CANNOT be seen

Surveys Self-reported inventories often

given to large groups

“I am going to survey or ask my friends to

see what they want to do tonight”

Wording effect How words or questions can

influence opinions on a survey

Harmful versus detrimental means the

same but reads different to people taking

False-consensus

effect

A researcher’s belief

participants share the same

attitudes or beliefs

You Falsely believe everyone thinks like

you that is why you are surprised when

people disagree with you

Social

desirability bias

Participants desire to answer

or perform in a favoring way

Most people have a DESIRABLE opinion

don’t want to admit to negative behavior

Case study/

case history

Detailed explanation of a

single individual or rare

phenomenon-cannot be

applied to general population

CASE means ONE- nobody would buy a

yearbook if it were a case study because

there are no pictures of them- can’t relate

to it

Correlational

research

Research designed to look for

possible relationships among

variables, but does not offer

cause-effect explanations

You cannot assume sports drinks will

make you run faster because other factors

make you also run faster- sports drinks

MAY POSSIBLY make you run faster

Experiment Research manipulates or

changes one variable to see

effects on another variable by

holding constant

Experiment means to change like you are

going to change the way you study to see

if it improves your grades- Cause-and-

effect

Confederate Instructed by researcher to act

a role to during experiment

A confederate is like an actor or actress-

PLAYING a part assigned to them


184

Independent

variable

A variable that is manipulated

or changed and is the main

interest of the researcher

IN-dependent variable is what the

researcher is IN-trested in/ “I am

Interested in the Independent variable”

Dependent

variable

Variable shows measurement

influenced by Independent

The dependent variable DEPENDS on

how you measure it

Control group The group that is held

constant and not exposed to

the independent variable

Comparison to see how much change

occurs in experimental group “The

experimental group’s scores went up 9%”

Experimental

group

Group manipulated; exposure

to independent variable

The experimental group is being

EXPERIMENTED WITH by change

Confounding or

extraneous

variable

Variables, not considered by

researcher, that could affect

measurement of dependent

variable/ motivation, weather

People’s time in a mile (dependent

variable) may be affected by weather-

windy and rainy the day of the timing

(confounding variable)

Experimenter

bias

Researchers who work

towards a predetermined goal

or outcome

AP teachers are not allowed to be in AP

testing room because their presence could

make the students try harder on the test

Hindsight bias Belief the researcher foreseen

the conclusion or knew the

outcome the entire time

People often say AFTER the game they

knew who was going to win, which shows

that they were hoping for that team to win

Research

participant bias

Participants act or perform in

a to achieve desired outcomes

If you told a sports drink will make you

run faster you might try harder in the race

Null hypothesis Belief independent variable will have no effect on the dependent variable

Placebo Non-active or fake substance

helps to eliminate research

participant bias

To see if people are acting versus the

actual effects of alcohol is to serve

nonalcoholic drinks and observe

Double-blind

procedure

A procedure where the researcher does not know which participants are in

control or experimenter group and the research participants do not know

the purpose/ measurement of the experiment/Double blind nobody knows

Longitudinal

design

A long-term study that

examines the same people or

phenomenon over an extended

period of time- very expensive

If you theorize not being held as a baby

will affect hugging another person as

adult would have to follow that person

from baby to adulthood- LONG TIME

Cross-sectional Examines and compares two diverse groups at same time- male/female

Random

sampling

Providing an equal chance or

opportunity for every subject

to be chosen for study

Your class schedule using random

sampling every class offered at your

school would have an equal chance

Random

assignment

Randomly assigning or giving

participants an equal chance

of being assigned to the

experimental or control group

You randomly ASSIGN people to the

experimental or control group- if you

handpicked may be tempted to pick

certain people to be experimental group-

Population Desired group to be study If studying high school seniors then your

population would be high school seniors

Representative

sample

A sample that was chosen

from the desired population

Your sample REPRESENTS your

population


185

___ 1. Indicates how research and variables will

be defined, tested, and measured allowing

other researchers to replicate the study.

A) Case study

___ 2. An in-depth study of a rare phenomenon or

person that often cannot be generalized or

related to a population.

B) Operational definitions

___ 3. A research method that infers cause-and-

effect relationships through the

manipulation of a variable and the effects

or measurement of another variable.

C) Experimental method

___ 4. The variable being manipulated or variable

of an interest to the experimenter.

D) Random assignment.

___ 5. The variable that shows the measurable

outcome or resulting effect of the

independent variable.

E) Double-blind design

___ 6. Variables that were not considered by the

experimenter that often will affect the

measurement of the dependent variable.

F) Confounding variable

___ 7. The group in an experiment that is held

constant or not administered the

independent variable.

G) Independent variable

___ 8. The experimental design that does not

allow the researcher or the participants to

know the measurement or which group the

participants are assigned guarding against

participant or experimenter bias.

H) Representative sample

___ 9. The result of using random sampling that

chooses participants that closely match the

population or group being studied.

I) Control group

___ 10. Allowing participants within the study an

equal chance of being chosen for either the

experimental or control group.

J) Dependent variable


186


Descriptive

statistics

Numbers that summarize research

data

Descriptive means to describe

Frequency

distribution

Arranging information in a bar or

graph to show scores

Distributing or describing the frequency

or numbers

Mean Mathematical average of the data Mean means average

Median A numerical value that appears in the middle of the data

Mode A value that appears most in data Mode is same m-OLD number

Normal

distribution

Data that resembles a normal

curve

Normal distribution means half on one

side and half on other side of MEDIAN

Range Difference between the highest

and lowest score

A driving range goes from where you hit

the golf ball to the end of the range

Standard

deviation

The variability between scores

and the mean

People DEVIATE from the way people

act- making them unique and not average

Correlational

research

Research designed to look for

possible relationships among

variables, but does not offer

cause-effect explanations

You cannot assume that sports drinks

will make you run faster because other

factors or variables may make you run

faster- rather sports drinks may make

possibly make you run faster

Third variable

problem

Correlational research can hint at

possible cause-effect

relationships but is not conclusive

There is a possible relationship between

motivation and grade point but other

factors play a role like intelligence

Correlational

coefficient

A numerical value that shows the

strength of a relationship

Closer a relationship is to 1.00 or -1.00

the stronger the relationship

Scatterplot Represents values of variables

and show direction of possible

relationships

A scatter plot look like kids that scatter

all over the playground when recess is

over

Positive

correlation

A relationship where variables

moves in the same direction- up

or down

Positive does not just mean up because

as long as it moves in the same direction

it is a positive correlation

Negative or

inverse

correlation

A relationship that involves

variable moving in an opposite

directions

A relationship break up is NEGATIVE

because the couple moves in OPPOSITE

directions

Illusory

correlation

A relationship that is believed to

exist but in actuality does not

A magic trick is an illusion because you

believe you saw something not there

Inferential

statistics

Allows a researcher to apply or

infer his or her results to the

general population

Infer means to cause- the stats show that

eating candy causes tooth decay/ 58% of

kids that ate candy had increased cavities

Statistically

significant

Results that are not influenced by

chance

NUMBERS never lie- or the scale never

lies

Informed

consent

Participants actively agree to

participate in an experiment

If your parent’s give consent for then

you have permission

Debriefed Participants are allowed to view

the results and provided

information after the experiment

If your parents debrief you about prom

then it occurs when prom is over and you

are at home


187

___ 1. The numerical average of all the presented

data.

A) Range

___ 2. The numerical value or number that

appears the most in presented data.

B) Correlational study

___ 3. The difference of the numerical value of all

given scores arranged from highest to

lowest.

C) Correlation coefficient

___ 4. The numerical relationship between 2 or

more variables that often will show the

strength of a relationship, but does not

indicate causation because of the

possibility of a third variable.

D) Illusory correlation

___ 5. The numerical value demonstrating the

strength or weakness of a correlational

relationship through closeness to 1.00 or -

1.00.

E) Mode

___ 6. Occurs when either variables or factors

move in the same direction of a

correlational study.

F) Debriefing

___ 7. An incorrect belief that one variable

affected the outcome of another variable

when it reality there is no relationship.

G) Positive correlation

___ 8. Statistics that allow a researcher to apply

his or her results to the general population

and infers that data can be generalized.

H) Statistically significant

___ 9. Statistical results that are not influenced by

chance and are valid and reliable.

I) Mean

___ 10. After a study is completed the researcher

shares with the participants what the

experiment was about.

J) Inferential statistics


188

Term “Buzz Word(s)” Term “Buzz Word(s)”

Hypothesis Guess Theory Explanation

Operational

definition

Directions,

replication,

requirement

Descriptive studies Describe

Naturalistic

observation

Natural, animals Case study In-depth, atypical

Surveys Quickly, large groups Social desirability

effect

Perfect, guilt feelings

False consensus

effect

Assuming, agreeing Correlational study Relationships,

prediction, no

causation

Experiments Causation,

manipulation Independent

variable

Interest, change,

manipulation

Dependent variable Measurement,

outcome Confounding

variables

No control

Experimental group Interest, given the

change Control group Comparison, no

change

Null hypothesis No effect Participant bias Opinions, knowledge

Experimenter bias Expectations Double-blind

procedure

Nobody knows

Placebo group Fake Hindsight bias “I knew it”

Overconfidence Arrogant Representative

sample

Represents

population

Population Targeted group Stratified sample Specific part

Cross-sectional

study

Comparison Longitudinal study Long-term

Random sampling Equal chance Random assignment Assigned groups

Descriptive statistics Numerical

descriptions Frequency

distribution

Graphs

Mean Average Mode Most

Median Middle Normal distribution Normal curve

Range High-low Standard deviation Varies from average

Skew distribution Lopsided Correlation

coefficient

Closest to 1.00

Positive correlation Same direction Negative correlation Opposite direction

Illusory correlation Fake relationship Scatterplot Correlation data

Inferential

correlation

Understandable data Statistically

significance

No chance, numbers

Informed consent Permission Debriefing After, no deception


189

Quarter Midterm 2

Review


190

Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

1. What drives people to do the things they do, the internal and external factors that direct

behavior is called motivation

Theories of Motivation

2. What explains motivation through a type of instinctual behavior?

_____________________________

a. An unlearned, innate, and automatic response to a specific stimulus is referred to as

an ___________________

b. Who believed that organisms are motivated to perform certain behaviors to enhance

their survival of their species (natural selection), which influenced the development of

the instinct theory?

Charles Darwin

c. However, what is a criticism of the instinct theory?

Just provide labels and not explanations for motivation

3. The premise that the body oversees and maintains its internal physiological systems at a

constant, stable level is referred to as _______________________

a. What is an example of homeostasis?

Body temperature

b. A biological requirement essential to proper bodily functioning is called a _________

c. Thirst, hunger, pain is a psychological state of tension, or arousal that directs an

organism to take action and reduce this tension are examples of a ____________

d. According to Clark Hull, _____________________ suggests that motivation is based

on the desire to reduce internal tension within the body (drives) that is caused by

biological needs not being met as indicated through ___________________.

Optimum Arousal Theory

4. What causes an increase in arousal, which is the result of several heightened

physiological states?

Arousal

5. What theory suggests that people try to maintain an ideal level of arousal through various

behavioral activities?

______________________________________


191

a. A person who has a boring day (low arousal) may be more prone to go out at night

(high arousal) to balance out one’s day maintaining a steady arousal rate.

6. Difficult or challenging tasks cause arousal to be lower (not concentrate), and easy tasks

cause arousal to be higher (make stupid mistakes). People perform best when arousal is

maintained or moderate described in the _______________________

Incentive Motivation

7. Which theory suggest that external stimuli “push” people (working longer hours for

overtime) to positive incentives and “pull” people away from negative incentives

(coming in on time so don’t get fired)?

_____________________________

Humanistic Theories of Motivation

8. Which theory suggests that people are motivated to build a positive self-concept (image

and beliefs of oneself) and achieve his or her potential?

________________________

a. Abraham Maslow believed that motivation to achieve one’s potential is primarily innate

(born with), but also suggested that one’s environment plays an important role in

achieving this potential. He believed that people are motivated to progress through a

series of levels, satisfying each level, before moving on to the next, which he referred to

as the ________________________________

b. Maslow suggested people try to achieve self-actualization which is defined as?

_________________________________________________________________

c. Identify the levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

5 Self-actualization

4 Esteem needs

3 Belongingness and love needs

2 Safety needs

1 Physiological needs


192

___ 1. What is a fixed-pattern, often unlearned and automatic response to a behavior;

described in Charles Darwin's natural selection theory? *RC: you can't train animals

to go against their instincts*

A) Instinct; instinct theory D) Need theory

B) Drive reduction theory E) Arousal theory

C) Homeostasis

___ 2. Jeff stops his workout to get drink of water even though he only had three minutes

left before he was done. Which theory of motivation best explains why he stopped

his workout? *RC: What drives us to get a drink of water- we have needs*

A) Arousal theory D) Self-actualization

B) Instinct theory E) Need motivation

C) Drive-reduction theory

___ 3. Which of the following examples best describes the optimum arousal theory? *RC:

Long day=stay home; boring day= go out*

A) Jenny had a stressful day at school and later tells her friends that she is just going

to rent a movie and stay home.

B) Richard gets a drink of water in the middle of the night.

C) Lucy gets her homework back out because she thinks she is not ready for the test.

D) A dog barks nonstop at the mailman.

E) Mitch has a busy day at school and has a strong desire to go and be with his

friends.

___ 4. A football coach is concerned his players are not practicing enough so he decides to

offer stickers to put on their helmets if they achieve certain goals in practice. Which

theory of motivation is the coach utilizing? *RC: extra credit is extra motivation that

pushes certain behaviors*

A) Drive-reduction theory D) Incentive theory

B) Insulin deficiency E) Homeostasis

C) Instinctual theory

___ 5. According to Abraham Maslow, what is the first level in the hierarchy of needs that

must be satisfied in order to reach self-actualization or self-mastery? *RC: remember

you can't concentrate if you have not had something to eat; always need to eat a good

breakfast*

A) Love and belonginess needs D) Safety and security needs

B) Aesthetic needs E) Physiological needs

C) Cognitive needs


193

Hunger

1. Is there more to a person getting hungry than him or her experiencing “hunger pangs?”

Yes or No/

2. Where do the most important signals for hunger come from?

Blood

a. As food moves from the stomach to the bloodstream, a hormone called ___________

(cholecystokinin) is released; this hormone is detected by the brain, where it acts as a

neurotransmitter signifying short-term satiation or fullness.

b. What is another hormone that also signals satiation, which is released into the

bloodstream as a result of fat increasing?

___________________

a. When leptin levels remains high a person feels full or satiated.

b. Sugar that the body uses for energy is called?

________________________

c. Which hormone converts sugar to energy?

_______________________

d. When insulin levels are high/ glucose levels decrease causing a person to become

hunger

The Brain’s Role in Hunger

3. What was the first area of the brain to be identified as a control center for hunger?

________________________________

a. Researchers believe that the ______________ hypothalamus stops hunger and the _____

hypothalamus initiated or starts hunger.

b. Damage to the lateral hypothalamus would cause an animal to stop eating. The lateral

hypothalamus produces a hormone called orexin that triggers hunger.

c. However, damage to the ventromedial hypothalamus did not cause a rat to eat until it

exploded, but rather became more particular with what it ate. Damage to the

hypothalamus showed that other drives were affected if destroyed. More sophisticated

areas of the brain are also involved in hunger.


194

Body Weight

4. One-third of the body’s energy is used for energy such as exercising, studying, everyday

functions. The other two-thirds are used for vital life functions such as breathing, heart

rate, brain-activity.

a. The regulation and expenditure of energy used to maintain our body’s vial functions is

monitored by the basal metabolic rate.

a. As people get older their BMR slows down

b. Women have a slower BMR than men

c. If you don’t eat your BMR will slow down.

Set-Point Theory

5. Homeostasis monitors and maintains internal body weight. The ______________ theory

maintains a person’s ideal weight through increasing or decreasing the BMR.

a. Also once fat cells start to increase in number weight gain will be seen and dieting will

just cause fat cells to decrease in size not number.

Obesity

6. The measure of a person’s weight in proportion to their height and weight is referred to as

the body mass index.

a. Normal BMI is between 18.5- 25

b. Obese people have a BMI of over 30.

a. However the BMI does not take into account muscle mass or bone density.

Eating Disorder

7. An eating disorder characterized by a dramatic drop in calories consumed and an

obsession with exercise is referred to as anorexia nervosa

a. Type of eating disorder characterized by period of binging- eating large amount of food

and purging- disposing of these calories is referred to as bulimia nervosa


195

Achievement and Motivation

8. People who are driven to master a task or achieve a personal goal demonstrate

__________________________________________

a. People who try to outdo, or beat, other people demonstrate _________________

b. Who was one of the first psychologists to measure achievement motivation?

Henry Murray

c. Which test did Murray use to measure people’s level of achievement motivation?

_____________________________________

d. Albert Bandura believed that a person’s level of confidence one has when facing

challenges and demands of a situation referred to as __________________ also play a

role in a person’s level of success.

Motivation and Work

9. Which type of psychologists applies psychological concepts to optimize the workplace as

an effective and productive environment?

_______________________________________

a. Which branch of industrial-organizational psychology tries to match the right job with the

right employee through administering personality tests and questionnaires?

Personnel psychology

a. A desire to achieve internal satisfaction and personal achievement is referred to as

_________________________________

b. A desire to achieve an external factor like a pay raise or a bonus is referred to as

____________________________________

b. Another field of industrial-organizational psychology that addresses worker satisfaction

and productivity in the workplace is called organizational psychology


196

___ 1. When insulin levels rise in the body what is the result? *RC: think of a teeter-totter;

what does up the other decreases*

A) Sugar is stored and a person is satiated.

B) Sugar is broken down for energy and a person feels hungry.

C) Leptin levels rise and a person is satiated.

D) CCK levels are conserved leading to satiation.

E) Sugar is broken down leading to feelings of satiation.

___ 2. Which part of the brain is involved in initiating hunger? *RC: remember L stands for

"let's eat!"

A) Lateral hippocampus D) Ventromedial hypothalamus

B) Lateral hypothalamus E) Cerebellum

C) Ventromedial hippocampus

___ 3. Which of the following statements in INCORRECT concerning obesity? *RC: it

takes more effort to move more weight*

A) Obesity is indicated by a BMI number greater than 30.

B) An obese person has a higher quantity of fat cells in their body.

C) An obese person has a slower BMR than non-obese person.

D) An obese person may have leptin resistance.

E) An obese person stores more fat cells.

___ 4. Which type of personality test is used to measure a person's desire for achievement

motivation? *RC: think about tell-a-tale; more competition in the tale the more will

to win*

A) MMPI B) NEO-PI C) Rorschach D) TAT E) ACT

___ 5. Which statement accurately describes the role of an Industrial-organizational

psychologist? *RC: the better organize an industry the better the industry will

function*

A) Concerned with the well-being and development of a child.

B) Ensuring that proper tests are given to preschool children.

C) Conditioning and reconditioning of phobic reactions.

D) Matching the proper personality with the right job.

E) Analyzing and comparing test results on standardized tests.


197

Introduction to Emotions

1. Emotions are related to motivation as people are motivated to experience happy

emotions. Emotions are based on 3 factors:

A. Cognitive appraisal

B. Physiological reactions (which are innate)

C. Expressive behaviors

2. The central nervous systems and the autonomic nervous system play a role in the

activation of emotions. Which part of the autonomic nervous system arouses the body?

________________________________

a. As the body is confronted with a threatening stimulus through activation of the

sympathetic nervous system by increasing breathing, heart-rate, muscles

tightening, which is referred to as the _________________________

b. Also anger tends to raise skin temperature and fear tends to lower skin

temperature.

c. Emotions also cause different areas of the brain to become active. Which part of

the limbic system is critical in learning emotions, especially recognizing

emotional expression, and interpreting emotional stimuli?

___________________________

d. Which part of the brain is responsible for voluntary forming facial expressions?

Pyramedial motor system

e. Which part of the brain is responsible for natural face expressions?

Extrapyramidal motor system

f. The ________ hemisphere is associated with the experience and expression of

emotion.


198

Theories of Emotion

3. Identify the theories of emotion.

Theory Researchers Definition

________________

_________________

William

James

Carl Lange

Emotion is the result of the interpretation of

bodily functions

Criticism- if emotions are the result of changes in

the body, then somebody with a spinal cord

injury would not experience emotion. not true

_________________

_________________

Walter

Cannon

Phillip Bard

Emotions are the result of the thalamus receiving

sensory information about emotional stimuli and

relaying the information simultaneously to the

autonomic nervous system and cerebral cortex.

_________________

_________________

Stanley

Schechter

Jerome Singer

Emotion is the result of the interaction of two

separate factors:

Physiological arousal and a cognitive label that

explains why there is physiological arousal.

_________________

_________________

Richard

Lazarus

Emotions are the result of the cognitive appraisal

of a situation and how a person decides it will

affect his or her well-being

Emotional Expression

4. Carroll Izard believed that certain facial expressions are present at birth- like pain.

a. Smiling being around 3-4 weeks

b. Anger around 2 months

c. Fear around 6-7 months

c. Who believed that facial expressions are similar across many cultures?

Paul Ekman


199

___ 1. Which part of the brain is responsible for facial recognition and proper emotional

response? *RC: remember never make Amy mad because she may become emotional*

A) Hypothalamus D) Prefrontal cortex

B) Hippocampus E) Amygdala

C) Cerebellum

___ 2. Which theory of emotion suggests that the brain and body simultaneously experience

emotion trough relay of the thalamus due to a stimuli response? *RC: Cannon

becomes scared as Bard's heart starts to race*

A) James-Lange D) Cognitive mediational

B) Cannon-Bard E) Facial feedback

C) Two-factory

___ 3. Which theory of motivation is challenged as the idea of polygraphs do not necessary

mean guilt of an act? *RC: remember your heart accelerates the same whether its

excitement or anger; James and Lange were friends until James got a girlfriend and

Lange lost his best friend- both of them had the same changes in their body*

A) Cannon-Bard D) Cognitive mediational

B) Facial feedback E) Two-factor

C) James-Lange

___ 4. Larry's heart starts to race because he knows that the letter he is holding will read if

he is going to be accepted to college? Larry's identification of why his heart is racing

is described in which emotional theory? *RC: Oh no! my hear is racing I better find

the label to explain to my brain why*

A) James-Lange D) Facial feedback

B) Cannon-Bard E) Two-factor

C) Cognitive mediational

___ 5. Which of the following statements best explains the difference between the Two-

factor and Cognitive mediational theory of emotion? *RC: remember to mediate

means to precede over a situation or event*

A) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body; whereas

the cognitive theory the brain decides the differences in emotional response.

B) Two factor looks at the situation; cognitive mediational theory looks at changes

in the body.

C) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body; whereas

the cognitive mediational theory is explaining the situation one is experiencing.

D) Both theories agree on the situation playing a little role and spinal cord separates

what people experience.

E) Two factor is explained through a label explaining a change in the body


200

Introduction to Stress

1. A negative emotional state in response to circumstances or situations that exceed a

person’s ability to control them is referred to as stress

a. What type of psychologists study the effects of stress on the body?

______________________________

b. Health psychologists believe that biological (genetics, family history),

psychological (interpreting of stressful circumstances), and social (where one

lives) play a part in a person’s health. This viewpoint is referred to as the

biopsychosocial model

Types of Stress

2. Circumstances, events, and situations that contribute to stress are called stressors

a. Minor inconveniences that occur somewhat daily are called daily hassles

b. Events that cause a person’s lifestyle to change are called life changes.

c. According to the Social Readjustment Rating Scale death of a spouse/ death of a

parent is considered for an adult the most stressful life change.

Causes of Stress

3. People experience a conflict when they are indecisive about the alternatives.

a. Type of conflict that occurs when a person has to make a choice between two

appealing or favorable alternatives is called an _________________________

b. Type of conflict that occurs when a person has to make a choice between two

unappealing or negative alternatives is called an ________________________

c. The most stressful conflict, which involves an alternative that has both positive and

negative attributes or parts is called a ___________________________________

d. Type of conflict that involves two choices each with both positive and negative

attributes is called a ______________________________________

4. When a goal is blocked this is referred to as frustration.

a. What does a person experience when extra demands are placed on a person to

perform or conform?

Pressure


201

Stress and the Body

5. Stress can affect the body both indirectly, causing a person to smoke, and also directly

through weakening the immune system. Stress directly affects the endocrine system.

Walter Cannon found that the body experiences changes at an immediate threat- referred

to as the fight-or-flight syndrome:

1. They hypothalamus and lower-brain structures active the ___________________

_________

2. They sympathetic nervous system then activates the adrenal medulla

3. The adrenal medulla release hormones called ________________ (which include the

hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline that circulated in the body/ and the

neurotransmitters epinephrine and norepinephrine that circulate in the brain)

4. Catecholamine circulate in the bloodstream that cause increases in heart rate, blood

pressure, respiration, increased blood flow the muscles, pupils to dilate, and

digestion to slow.

6. Hans Seyle studied the effects of prolonged stress. He referred to the toll stress has on

the body as the ______________________________

a. Fill in Seyle’s GAS chart:

Stage Description

______________ Intense body arousal as threat of a stressor is interpreted- causes the

release of catecholamine’s- fight-or-flight syndrome

______________ The body trying to adjust to the intense arousal triggered in the alarm

stage- release of corticosteroids

_____________

_____________

If stressor continues to arouse body- becomes exhausted which can

lead to burn-out

b. Selye also discovered a second endocrine pathway that occurs during exposure to

prolonged stress:

1. They hypothalamus triggers the _________________________

2. The pituitary gland then releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

3. ACTH triggers the adrenal cortex to release the stress hormones known as

_______________________

4. Corticosteroids increase the release of stored energy and reduce the response of the

immune system.


202

The Effects of Stress on the Immune System

7. Who demonstrated that the immune system could be affected by psychological thought

processes?

Robert Adler and Nicholas Cohen

a. This led to the development of psychoneuroimmunology, a field of psychology that

looked for connections of the psychological, nervous, and the immune system.

Beating Stress and Promoting Wellness

8. Identify different types of handling stress:

Method Definition

Perceived

control

The more sense of control a person has over a situation or

circumstances, the less stress that person will encounter

____________

___________

___________

____________

Optimistic: explain negative events through specific explanations and

consideration of external factors

Pessimistic: explain negative events with personal vindication and self-

defeating attitudes

_____________

_____________

_____________

_____________

Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman researched the effects of Type A

behavior in contrast to Type B. Type A people are impatient and

competitive and display anger and irritation frequently. As a result,

they have a greater chance of developing heart disease and chronic

illnesses.

Type B behavior is characterized by a calm, relaxed response style.

Social support Advice and resources provided by knowledgeable and productive

friends and family

Coping Strategies

9. Coping refers to the adjustments and changes made to handle stressful situations or

circumstances.

Strategy Definition

______________________

Addressing problem by changing the factors associated with

the problem

______________________

Changing certain emotions that are triggered by a stressor

(anger management)

The Role of culture on Stress

10. What type of culture, like the United States, tends to keep problems to themselves, and

rely more on problem-focused coping strategies?

_____________________________

a. Which type of culture relies more on emotion-focused coping through relying on people

and social support?

_____________________________

b. What type of stress occurs through the pressure of trying to adapt or assimilate to a new

culture?

Acculturative stress


203

___ 2. According to Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, in which stage are

catecholamine released in turn causing flight-or-flight syndrome in response to a

stressful stimuli? *RC: think of catecholamine as fire engines racing out of the fire

house at the sound of an alarm*

A) Alarm B) Resistance C) Exhaustion D) Denial E) Reaction

___ 3. According to Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Syndrome, in which stage are

corticosteroids released helping the body fight the struggles of prolonged stress?

*RC: people are amazed how much energy they have during stressful times; it is

because they have little helpers fighting the stress battle*

A) Alarm B) Resistance C) Exhaustion D) Denial E) Baseline

___ 4. Which of the following would support an optimistic explanatory style? *RC:

remember "O there is a good reason why the outcome occurred that way*

A) A football player thinks that he should quit because he will never be any good.

B) A student who did not picked for a leading role in a play thinks the teacher does

not like him.

C) Sarah understands that other students are more qualified as why she did not get

chosen for the leadership.

D) Frank says that his parents will call the coach and make sure that he plays the

next game.

E) June takes pride in knowing she cheated on the recent exam.

___ 5. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Type A behavior? *RC: remember

A for angry, agitated....*

A) Competitive D) Patient

B) Easily annoyed E) Consumed with time

C) Prone to heart disease

___ 1. Jimmy wants to buy a car but he is torn because on one hand the car looks sharp, but

on the other it gets bad gas millage. Which type of conflict is Jimmy experiencing?

*RC: Remember most things have good and bad points; some make you approach

and others avoid*

A) approach-approach D) double avoidance

B) avoidance-avoidance E) multiple approach

C) approach-avoidance


204

1. Internal and external factors that

direct an organism’s behavior

towards a desired outcome is referred

to as

(A) emotion

(B) homeostasis

(C) motivation

(D) arousal

(E) behavior

2. Jimmy got up in the middle of night

for a drink of water because he was

thirsty. Which theory best explains

why Jimmy got out of bed?

(A) Instinct theory

(B) Optimum arousal theory

(C) James-Lange theory

(D) Drive-reduction theory

(E) Self-actualization

3. Jenny wants to leave a party because

it is boring and go somewhere that is

more exciting. Which theory of

motivation would explain Jenny’s

reason for leaving the party?

(A) Instinct theory

(B) Optimum arousal theory

(C) Drive-reduction theory

(D) Cannon-Bard theory

(E) James-Lange theory

4. Joe was motivated to work flex-time

at his job because if he worked an

extra hour Monday through Thursday

he could leave at noon on Friday.

Which motivational theory would

best explain the rationale for Joe’s

wanting to work a flex-time

schedule?

(A) Drive-reduction theory

(B) James-Lange theory

(C) Instinct theory

(D) Incentive theory

(E) Yerkes-Dodson law

5. CCK is a signal for satiety of ___

hunger, and leptin is a signal for

satiety of ___ hunger.

(A) long-term; short-term

(B) short-term; long-term

(C) long-term; long-term

(D) short-term; short-term

(E) none of the above

6. As Tommy was mowing his lawn on

a hot summer day, he started to sweat

profusely. Tommy began to sweat to

cool his body in response to his body

temperature becoming too hot. What

refers to maintaining a constant

internal state within the body?

(A) Drive

(B) Parallel processing

(C) Homeostasis

(D) Hemoglobin

(E) Activity-synthesis

7. ___ hypothalamus initiates hunger,

and ___ hypothalamus stops hunger.

(A) Lateral; lateral

(B) Ventromedial; lateral

(C) Ventromedial; ventromedial

(D) Lateral; ventromedial

(E) Amygdala; ventromedial

8. Suzy has started to consume less and

less food. She also spends three to

four hours at the gym working out

each day. The mention of food upsets

her, and she won’t listen to anybody

who suggests that she is not eating

enough. Suzy may be suffering from

(A) anorexia nervosa

(B) bulimia nervosa

(C) the misinformation effect

(D) serial processing

(E) the egocentrism effect


205

9. When Jimmy started to learn to play

golf, he struggled with the

fundamentals. Instead of quitting,

Jimmy continued to practice and

tried to get better. This pursuit of

self-mastery or realization of his

potential is referred to as

(A) love and belongingness needs

(B) safety needs

(C) physiological needs

(D) personal needs

(E) self-actualization

10. The ___, a part of the limbic system,

is important in perceiving emotion.

(A) hippocampus

(B) amygdala

(C) hypothalamus

(D) pons

(E) cerebellum

11. When Julie heard a noise outside her

window, her heart started to beat

faster, and as a result she became

scared. Which theory of emotion

could best explain Julie’s response of

fear?

(A) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

(B) James-Lange theory of emotion

(C) Two-factor theory of emotion

(D) Cognitive-mediational theory of

emotion

(E) Facial-feedback hypothesis

12. Which theory suggests that emotion

is the result of applying a cognitive

label to explain a physiological

reaction?

(A) Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

(B) James-Lange theory of emotion

(C) Schachter-Singer’s two-factor

theory of emotion

(D) Cognitive-mediational theory of

emotion

(E) Facial-feedback hypothesis

13. ___ psychology is a field of

psychology that studies the effects of

stress on the human body and shows

how to handle stress by promoting a

positive lifestyle.

(A) Cognitive

(B) Behavioral

(C) Industrial-organizational

(D) Health

(E) Social

14. In the fight-or-flight response, the

adrenal medulla releases ___, a

hormone that alerts the body by

elevating heart rate and respiration

while tightening muscles.

(A) catecholamine

(B) corticosteroids

(C) melatonin

(D) insulin

(E) leptin

15. Tracy doesn’t like to talk in front of

large groups, so she convinces a co-

worker to join her scheduled

presentation. Tracy used?

(A) Catharsis expression coping

(B) Constructive coping

(C) Denial coping

(D) Perceptual inconsistency coping

(E) Self-indulgence coping


206

1. Answer: C. Motivation refers to the internal and external factors that affect an organism’s behavior

2. Answer: D. The drive-reduction theory of motivation says that organisms are driven to satisfy

biological needs that are not being met

3. Answer: B. The optimum arousal theory states that people are motivated to maintain a certain

amount of arousal

4. Answer: D. Incentive theory suggests that people are pushed or motivated by appealing stimuli, such

as being able to leave work early on a Friday

5. Answer: B. CCK sends signals that signify short-term satiation, as during a meal, and leptin sends

signals that signify the amount of fat in the bloodstream, which contributes to long-term satiation

6. Answer: C. Homeostasis monitors the internal states of the body, producing tension when levels

become too high or too low

7. Answer: D. The lateral hypothalamus initiates hunger and the ventromedial hypothalamus stops it

8. Answer: A. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by lack of caloric intake, vigorous

exercise, and a fear of gaining weight

9. Answer: E. Self-actualization, according to Abraham Maslow, is on top of the hierarchy of needs and

signifies mastery and working at potential

10. Answer: B. The amygdala is located in the limbic system and is responsible for expressing and

perceiving emotion

11. Answer: B. The James-Lange theory of emotion states that emotions are the result of physiological

changes in the body

12. Answer: C. The two-factory theory of emotion states that emotion is the result of providing a

cognitive label as an explanation for changes in physiological responses

13. Answer: D. Health psychology studies the effects of stress by providing information that helps

people learn what stress is and how it affects the body

14. Answer: A. Catecholamine are released into the bloodstream by the adrenal medulla, where they

work to elevate the heart and breathing rates and increase muscle tension, thus preparing the body for

fight-or-flight

15. Answer: B. Constructive coping strategies address the problem, or the cause of the problem, and seek

a more favorable solution


207

Abnormal Psychology 1. The study of the causes, symptoms, and development of psychological or mental

disorders is called psychopathology

a. Deviant, maladaptive or harmful behaviors, and disruptive patterns of thinking,

feeling, and acting that cause distress and dysfunction and affect the performance

of daily functions are referred to as mental disorders. These disorders can also

cause distress for the people who come in contact with these people.

Defining Abnormal Behavior

2. Deviant behavior is defined as being different from the behavior of most people in a

particular culture. But. what is normal in one culture maybe abnormal in another culture.

a. Statistical infrequency has been used to define abnormal behavior as a person

who displays unusual behaviors are considered abnormal. But, if someone does

not partake in mainstream activities, then he or she is not abnormal; just different.

b. Personal suffering alone cannot define abnormal behavior as this person

maybe suffering from cognitive difficulties.

c. An approach that focuses on how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior

affect, or interfere with, his or her home life, work, and social functioning has

been seen as an effective way to define abnormal behavior. This approach is

called the practical approach

Explaining Psychological Disorders

3. Who was the first to suggest that mental illness were not the result of demonic

possession, but a sickness of the mind? Philippe Pinel

a. What illness helped to confirm Pinel’s suggestion of a sickness of the mind?

Syphilis

b. What model suggests that psychological disorders are actually sicknesses

associated with specific symptoms to be treated medically? Medical model

c. What is a modern name for the medical model? Neurobiological model

d. What model states that psychological disorders are the result of psychological

processes that include the interpretation of stressful events, traumatic events, self-

defeating attitudes, thinking patterns, and distorted perceptions? Psychological

model


208

e. What model suggests that psychological disorders result from societal roles

and expectations, environmental location, gender, age, ethnicity, and cultural

norms? Sociocultural model

f. What overall model suggests that psychological disorders are the result of the

combination and interaction or biological, psychological, and sociocultural

factors? Biopsychosocial model

g. Along with the efforts of Dorthea Dix, who was an activist that tiredly lobbied

the United States Congress for improved mental health care was able to

produce the first generation of mental facilities that redefined the perception

for treating people with mental disorders.

Diathesis-Stress Model

4. The biopsychosocial model is very good at identifying which factors could lead to a

psychological disorder, but lacks at explaining how these factors lead to a disorder. What

model suggests that the amount and type of stress play a crucial role in triggering genetic

predispositions that could result in psychological disorders?

__________________________________________

Classifying Psychological Disorders

5. What manual, first published in 1952, provides a common language for all

psychologists to identify and classify psychological disorders?

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

a. What is the most recent version of this manual? DSM-V

Breaking Down the DSM-V

6. The DSM-V was not written by a single psychologist, but by a group of psychologists

including many different ideas, viewpoints, and outlooks. Was released in 2013

replacing the DSM-IV-TR used since 1994. A consideration for the DSM V, was to

transcend from a categorical to dimensional approach. Theorists pointed out that there is

often an overlap between diagnoses and that some people actually fit several types of

disorders. A dimensional maybe more inclusive to people experiencing several disorders.


209

Labeling Psychological Disorders

7. Some critics believe that labeling someone with a psychological disorder will cause

more harm than good. People may treat this person differently, or the person labeled

may now try to live up to the label, which is often explained through the self-fulfilling

prophecy of inadvertently living up to the idea or belief. Who suggested that a label

is not the same as a description of a person such as unique characteristics and

explanations? Thomas Szasz

Anxiety Disorders

8. A noticeable difference from the DSM IV-TR to the DSM V was the reclassification

of certain types of anxiety disorders which had been a very broad category. Obsessive-

compulsive disorder was removed from anxiety disorders and placed into a category with

other similar compulsive tendencies. Post-traumatic stress disorder in now placed into a

new category called trauma-related disorders. Worrying, apprehension, and increased

physical arousal describe anxiety

a. Extreme feelings of apprehension, which disrupt functioning, and are present

for a long time refers to anxiety disorders

b. Identify the following anxiety disorders:

Type Characteristics

_________________

Irrational fear of an object or situation that doesn’t warrant such fear,

resulting in avoidance of the object or situation

Specific phobia- a phobia that involves a specific fear- acrophobia-

fear of heights

Social phobia- irrational fears related to social situations; criticism

Agoraphobia- irrational fear of open, public places- can lead to

someone staying home all the time

__________________

__________________

Mild anxiety not connected to any particular or situation; tends to last

for a long time, fatigue, irritability, beliefs terrible things will happen

_________________ Involves sudden occurrence of panic attacks; rapid heart-beat, heavy

breathing, dizziness, sweating, and fainting

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

9. Obsessive-compulsive disorder involves repetitive thoughts (obsessions) that often

lead to ritualistic and repetitive behaviors (compulsions.)


210

10. Fill out the following chart of Obsessive-Compulsive Related Disorders:


_________________________

Involves compulsive collecting of many different

types of things with the difficulty of discarding or

letting go of those objects

_________________________

_________________________

_________________________

An obsessive compulsive preoccupation with

flaws in one’s body. This involves continuously

observing one’s body and obsession with one’s

appearance with comparisons to other people’s

body. This is often associated with anorexia but

can include other body issues such as feeling one

is not muscular or premature blading even though

others do not notice.

_________________________ Referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point

of causing damage to one’s body

_________________________

_________________________

Occurs when a person compulsively pulls their

hair from their body to the point of causing bald

spots often focusing on eyelashes or eyebrows

11. Post-traumatic stress disorder involves symptoms of anxiety in response to extreme

physical or psychological trauma, causing the person to avoid any situations that

resemble the trauma. For example, some Vietnam veterans experienced flashbacks or

frequent memory reoccurrences, which then caused them to avoid any situations that

resembled aspects of the war.

12. Fill out the following chart of other traumatic-related disorders:

Type Characteristic

_________________________

_________________________

Involves people who experience a traumatic

event or neglect and as result become

emotionally withdrawn from inability to

form a secure attachment

_________________________

_________________________

Occurs when people have a difficult time

adjusting to a change of life, which could

disrupt routines and making progressive

changes

_________________________

_________________________

Occurs when a person experiences distress

and anxiety following a traumatic event that

could have caused death or injury. The onset

of the symptoms for acute stress disorder

occurs two days to four weeks after the

trauma whereas a difference between acute

stress disorder and PTSD is that PTSD in not

diagnosed until four weeks after the

traumatic event has occurred.


211

Causes of Anxiety Disorders

13. Biologically, most anxiety disorders run in families. If one identical twin develops

an anxiety disorder, the other twin has an increased chance. Some people inherit a

predisposition that causes the automatic nervous system to overreact to stressful stimuli.

Research has also shown that people with anxiety disorders have predispositions that

affect certain neurotransmitters:

a. A neurotransmitter linked with arousal, tends to be overactive in people

experiencing anxiety disorders, which is _______________________

b. A neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of sleep and mood, shoes a lack

of functioning in people exhibiting anxiety disorders- especially OCD and social

phobias, which is _________________________

c. Which neurotransmitter, which has inhibitory effects or slowing brain activity,

has been shown to be in deficiency or lack of resulting in anxiety symptoms such

as racing thoughts? _________________________

d. Psychological factors such as parents modeling anxiety behavior that children

observe and model, lack of perceived control- external locus of control.

e. Anxiety disorders could also be the result of conditioning such as “Little

Albert.” What Pavlovian term described Albert associating his fear a white rat

with other similar stimuli? _____________________


212

___ 2. An irrational fear is classified as which type of anxiety disorder? *RC: remember a

person should not be fearful of this object or situation?

A) Obsessive-compulsive disorder D) Borderline personality disorder

B) Post-traumatic stress disorder E) Specific fears

C) Phobia

___ 3. A type of phobia that is characterized by a fear of open places often leading to

becoming a shut-in for fear of having a panic attack in public? *RC: remember fear

of a panic attack could lead to even more occurrences of panic attacks*

A) Agoraphobia D) Misophobia

B) Hydrophobia E) Paicaphobia

C) Acrophobia

___ 4. Sam check and rechecks the lock on his apartment door; in times of despair he has

been known to count his heart-beats for hours. Which type of anxiety disorder could

Sam be exhibiting? *RC: a reoccurring thought could lead to a behavior that

distracts the person from having these thoughts*

A) PTSD B) Major depression C) Bipolar D) OCD E) Agoraphobia

___ 5. A possible explanation for anxiety disorder is that a person may have a deficient

amount of which of the following neurotransmitters responsible for stabilizing

moods? *RC: remember when Sarah is at a party everyone is remains calm and

stable*

A) Motrin B) Dopamine C) Norepinephrine D) Epinephrine E) Serotonin

___ 1. What is the name of the manual that psychologists use to diagnose psychological

disorders? *RC: remember opinions vary- this provides common language for all

psychologists to be on the same page*

A) NEO-PI B) MMPI C) DSM-V D) RSAP E) PPI


213

Somatic Symptom Related Disorders

1. Occur when people experience psychological problems associated with physical

symptoms that are not linked to a physical cause called somatoform disorders

a. Fill out the following table outlining different somatoform disorders:


________________

________________

________________

________________

Sensory and motor failure, blindness, deafness, or paralyzed limbs with

identifiable physical cause

Usually first appears in childhood or adolescence, and under extreme

stress

Person usually does not show much concern for inoperative sensory and

motor functions

________________

________________

Intense feelings of having a physical illness with no justifiable cause

Person believes he or she already has disease, whereas people with

anxiety disorders have a fear of getting sick

Very quickly seek medical treatment

________________

________________

Occurs when a person is overly concerned and believes that there is

something wrong with them resulting in a manifestation that these

symptoms will get worse

Causes of Somatic Disorders

2. Some children learn to be sick which equals attention, which then carries over to

adolescence and adulthood. Which model suggests that people being overly sensitive to

physical sensations during long periods of stress?

Diathesis-Stress model

Dissociative Disorders

3. Rare occurrences that involve sudden and mostly temporary disruptions to a person’s

memory, consciousness, and identity are called dissociative disorders

a. Identify the different types of disorders:


________________________

A sudden loss of memory

Person has no recall of previous life, but does not move to a

new location as with dissociative fugue

_________________________

_________________________

Person exhibits more than one personality that is unique by

style of thinking, feeling, acting, memories


214

Causes of Dissociative Disorders

4. Some people who experience memory and identity loss as the result of an episodic

traumatic event do not want to deal with the pain. Psychodynamic therapists suggest that

dissociative disorders develop as result of a defense mechanism, repression which blocks

unwanted impulses and memories from entering consciousness.

a. Who suggested that in any given situation, people act differently depending on both the

circumstances and the setting of the situation- acting like another person?

Social-cognitive therapists

b. What famous person was diagnosed with DID? Sybil

Mood disorders

5. In previous edition of the DSM, depression and Bipolar shared the same category, but in

the DSM V they each have their own category.

a. Can range from occasional, manageable sadness to extreme episodes of depression that

require hospitalization is called depression

b. Identify the different types of depressive disorders:


_______________________

_______________________

_______________________

Person experiences extreme depression, which can last for

weeks or months, during which time one or many depressive

episodes are experience; minimum of 2 weeks deep depression

Changes in activity level, eating habits, and hygiene that could

result in rapid weight loss or gain

Cognitive problems affecting focusing, remembering, thinking

Person feels worthless, hopeless, or inadequate, resulting in an

inability to function socially or at work

Suicidal ideations (thoughts)

______________________

Less intense depression; longer duration than major depression

Person lacks interest in activities, generally feels sad

Must have depressive symptoms for a longer period than two

years to be classified as dysthymic disorder

______________________

______________________

Considered a depressive disorder in children who continuously

display irritability and frequent temper tantrums; occurs

because children can’t take the same medication as adults for

Bipolar disorder

______________________

______________________

Depression that is frequently associated with the darker winter

months called suggest that depression might be linked to

body’s internal clock via the suprachiasmatic nucleus triggering

to much of the hormone melatonin being released


215

Bipolar Disorders and Related Disorders

6. The polar opposite of depression, characterized by extreme enthusiasm, an optimistic

outlook, and an energetic state of mind is called mania

a. Identify the different types of Bipolar disorders:


_____________

____________

____________

___________

Alternating between periods of deep depression, characterized by major

depressive symptoms, and mania, has belief he or she can do anything

Brief “normal moods” between periods of depression and mania

Rare, affecting only 1% of adults

_____________

Major depressive episodes alternate with periods of hypomania, less severe

symptoms of mania compared to bipolar 1

Rare: affects only 1% of adults

______________

______________

Involves alternating periods of depression and mania, but less severe than

characteristics associated with bipolar 1

Dysthymic disorder couple with hypomania

Causes of Mood Disorders

7. Mood disorders tends to run in families, also researchers have identified a malfunction of

chromosome 13, which is connected to the production serotonin as a possible cause

a. Brain abnormalities have been linked to mood disorders; lack of development in the

frontal lobes, hippocampus, amygdala, and other areas of the limbic system. Low

amounts of the following neurotransmitters have been linked to depression:

_________________, ______________, and ____________/ whereas excess of these

neurotransmitters have been linked to mania.

b. Researchers have also noted that people who are experiencing depression have

excessive release of the hormone cortisol in response to stress

c. Women, who internalize problems more, are at a higher risk for depression. Social-

cognitive therapists suggest that learned helplessness giving up after repeating failing

at a task may contribute to depression

d. The diathesis stress model indicates that the higher amounts of stress, poverty, crime,

etc., the more a biological predisposition of depression could be triggered.


216

___ 1. Which of the following descriptions is comparable to a person experiencing

conversion disorder? *RC: remember sometimes when we are nervous we might get a

bad headache*

A) James rechecks the locks several times for he goes to bed.

B) Suzy experiences episodes of manic moments followed by severe depression.

C) Rick has no welfare regard for other people.

D) Mitch mentally pushes people away that try to show him affection.

E) Ray has the lost ability to see even though there is no medical reasoning for this

outcome.

___ 2. Persistent depressive disorder is characterized by: *RC: remember a common cold

can you make you feel sick, but you are still able to address your daily routines*

A) A type of mood disorder that often requires hospitalization.

B) A type of mood disorder characterized by extreme moment of mania.

C) A type of mood disorder that includes repetitive behaviors and countless

thoughts.

D) A type of mood disorder that is characterized by low grade depression.

E) A type of mood disorder that is lasts only a few weeks then dissipates.

___ 3. Rick has episodes that often include extreme excitability; however these moments are

often followed by severe cases of major depression. Rick maybe exhibiting: *RC:

remember Bi- means two like a bicycle has 2 wheels*

A) OCD D) Bipolar disorder

B) Hyper disorder E) Borderline personality disorder

C) Major depression

___ 4. A person recently cannot remember a certain period from their life. These symptoms

may be classified as: *RC: remember to dissociate means to separate*

A) Dissociative identity disorder D) Dissociative amnesia

B) Dissociative fugue E) Bipolar

C) Major depression

___ 5. A possible explanation for seasonal affective disorder is: *RC: remember light

therapy may alleviate symptoms*

A) Higher than normal levels of dopamine.

B) A deficiency of proteins in the liver.

C) A lack of natural light during the winter months.

D) A lack of empathy or regard for other people.

E) An overwhelming sense of importance placed on one's self.


217

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder

1. A severe and often debilitating disorder that involves patterns of disturbed thinking,

perceptions, emotions, and behavior is called schizophrenia. Tends to affect people

equally of different genders, races, SES levels, but women tend to develop it later in life

than men leading to less severe symptoms

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

2. Schizophrenia means “split mind,” but should not be confused with split personality.

Majority of schizophrenics experience gradual increases in symptoms with the first

symptoms appearing early in childhood. About 40% tend to function with mediation.

Treatment is more effective in those who had high functioning skills, referred to as

premorbid functioning, before the first symptoms appeared.

a. Identify the following symptoms of schizophrenia:

Symptom Characteristic

Neologisms Using words that only have meaning to the person saying them

Clang associations Words based on double meaning or on the way the word sounds

Loose associations One thought doesn’t seem to be connected with another

Word salad Repetition of nonmeaningful statements

_____________________

False and distorted

beliefs

Delusions of influence: the belief that one is

being controlled by outside forces such as

CIA

Delusions of grandeur: exaggerated beliefs

about oneself; the belief that one is godlike

Delusions of persecution; belief that others

are out to get him or her, someone is

always following him or her

____________________

False reports of

perceptions

Auditory hallucinations are most common:

hearing voices

Hallucinations may include seeing,

smelling, or feeling things that aren’t really

there

Inappropriate emotions Displayed emotions that don’t coincide with the situation

____________________ The inability to move and hold body limbs in rigid positions for

long periods of time; referred to as waxy flexibility


218

Categorizing Schizophrenia

3. Schizophrenics are categorized according to the symptoms they display. Symptoms that

include disorganized thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions are called ______________

________________________

a. Symptoms that include a schizophrenics lack of pleasure and motivation, speech skills,

and expression of emotion, or flat affect are called __________________________

Causes of Schizophrenia

4. Schizophrenia tends to run in families, identical twin studies have shown that roughly

40% of twins will develop schizophrenia if the other twin shows symptoms

a. Schizophrenics have shown undersized areas of the thalamus, prefrontal cortex, and

other cortical areas. Malfunctioning prefrontal cortex and enlarged ventricles within

the brain have been associated with negative symptoms

b. Positive symptoms have been linked to the excessive amounts and receptor sites of

the neurotransmitter ______________, referred to the dopamine hypothesis. Drugs

that block dopamine receptor sites have helped decrease hallucinations and delusions

c. Researchers have also noted that women who experience prenatal viruses during fetal

development may have an increased chance of producing a schizophrenic child. In

addition, fathers who conceive a child after 45, and a dysfunctional family style could

also contribute to schizophrenia

d. A theory that suggests that schizophrenia is the result of a biological predisposition

and the amount of stress one encounters refers to the vulnerability theory of

schizophrenia similar diathesis-stress model


219

___ 1. A type of symptom associated with schizophrenia that involves improper sensory

stimulation and perception; auditory being the most common experience. *RC:

remember psychotic implies a break in reality*

A) Delusions of grandeur D) Word salad

B) Delusions of persecution E) Neologisms

C) Hallucinations

___ 2. A type of delusion where a person believes that he or she is more important or has

great importance not consistent with reality. *RC: remember grand is greater than

life*

A) Delusions of illusions D) Delusions of lie

B) Delusions of persecution E) Delusions of narcissism

C) Delusions of grandeur

___ 3. Delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking are classified as which type of

schizophrenic symptoms? *RC: remember the addition of such symptoms makes a

person schizophrenic*

A) Negative B) Affective C) Pessimistic D) Ritualistic E) Positive

___ 4. A symptom of schizophrenia that is characterized by waxy flexibility and stupor.

*RC: remember when cats are frightened they freeze or don't move*

A) Paranoid B) Catatonia C) Disorganized D) Residual E) Reflexive

___ 5. Which of the following neurotransmitters when in excess could lead to the positive

symptoms associated with schizophrenia? *RC: remember too much dope causes

crazy*

A) Serotonin D) Dopamine

B) Endorphins E) Epinephrine

C) Acetylcholine


220

Personality Disorders

a. Enduring or continuous inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting refers to

personality disorders. These disorders tend to start in childhood and continue through

adolescence and adulthood. Identify the following personality disorders:

Personality Disorder Characteristics

Cluster A: Odd-Eccentric

__________________ Distrust of others, believe people out to harm them

Could react with violence to defend themselves

____________________ No social relationships/ The “hermit”

______________________ Problems with either starting or maintaining relationships

Odd perceptions, emotions, thoughts, and behavior

Cluster B: Dramatic-Erratic

_______________________

Obsessed with being center of attention

Very dramatic

Emotionally shallow person

_______________________ Exaggerated belief that he or she is very important and has

achieved much success/ Arrogant

______________________ Instability of emotions, impulse control, obsessive fear of

being alone, difficulty maintaining relationships and routines

______________________

No feelings of regard for others and their welfare

Lack of conscience or remorse

Most heavily studied personality disorder

Sociopath and psychopath have describe this disorder

Cluster C: Anxious-fearful

______________________ An enormous need to be taken care of/ Cannot make

decisions/ Very needy

______________________ Obsession with order and control/ Perfectionist

_______________________ Oversensitive to criticism/ does not partake in social

situations

Antisocial Personality Disorder

1. No single gene has been identified for the antisocial personality disorder. Some

behavior in childhood could be correlated to antisocial personality disorder such as

impulsivity as a child or diagnosed conduct disorder. Also people with antisocial

personality disorder show a lack of functioning in the frontal lobes as well as

dysfunctional family settings and attachment problems.


221

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

2. An intellectual developmental disability is determined by a person’s cognitive capacity

as well as their adaptive functionality. This replaces the term, mental retardation that

was used in DSM-IV.

3. Two categories associated with childhood are externalizing and internalizing disorders.

Externalizing disorders affect people in the child’s environment and are linked to

conduct issues. A category of externalizing disorders, are mostly exhibited by boys who

demonstrate a lack of obedience to authority figures and act aggressively refers conduct

disorders

a. Internalizing disorders can cause children to experience depression and anxiety, and

to isolate themselves socially. An example of this category that is characterized by a

fear of being lost, left behind, or abandoned refers to separation anxiety disorder

b. Also known as autistic spectrum disorders, are not categorized as externalizing or

internalizing; they are characterized by children who are impaired socially and show

problems communicating called pervasive developmental disorder

a. Tend to show symptoms a few months after birth, have problems forming

attachments and communicating, and suffer severe cognitive impairments that

affect concentration, learning, and social interactions with other called

autistic spectrum disorder

b. Research with autistic children has led to the study of mirror neurons, which

are linked to the observation and perception of other people’s thoughts and

behavior; autistic children show a deficit of mirror neurons

c. A less severe form of autism, causes children to experience problems in

social relationships; they also engage in repetitive behaviors refers to

Asperger’s disorder


222

___ 1. Type of personality disorder that is characterized by avoiding people and often

leading a life of seclusion. * RC: remember schizoid like to avoid*

A) Borderline B) Histrionic C) Dependent D) Schizoid E) Schizoid typical

___ 2. Bill has no regard for other people in terms of their well-being. He often engages in

behavior that threatens the safety of others. Bill maybe exhibiting symptoms of

which of the following personality disorders? *RC: remember anti means against*

A) Borderline B) Antisocial C) Avoidant D) Dependent E) Typical

___ 3. Which of the following descriptions could describe a person with borderline

personality disorder? *RC: remember border means to cross back and forth*

A) Rick has no regard for the well-being and safety of others.

B) James lives out in the woods where he avoids most people.

C) Jesse has a tendency to one day be nice but within the day become very worried,

dependent on others, and angry.

D) Simon believes that no one else exists and that he is the most important person in

the room

E) Rita is very suspicious of others; in fact she does not let anyone enter her house.

___ 4. A person who believes they are more important than the reality of the situation and

thinks that nobody else matters in terms of their opinion or ideals may be classified

as: *RC: it is hard to argue with someone who does not know you exist*

A) Dependent B) Avoidant C) Schizoid D) Histrionic E) Narcissistic

___ 5. A possible consequence of an attachment disorder may lead to one of these

outcomes? *RC: remember attachment is based on touch and warmth and being

with that caregiver *

A) Separation anxiety disorder D) Major depression

B) Seasonal affective disorder E) Conduct disorder

C) Obsessive compulsive disorder


223

1. Jimmy and Rich are identical twins who

share a genetic predisposition for major

depression. Jimmy lives a fast-paced

lifestyle that involves a challenging career,

travel, and not much time for rest and

relaxation. Rich, on the other hand, lives a

more relaxed life and enjoys a simpler

lifestyle. When they turned 35, Jimmy alone

showed symptoms of major depression.

Which approach may explain why Jimmy,

but not Rich, became depressed?

(A) Medical model

(B) Diathesis-stress model

(C) Biological model

(D) Humanistic model

(E) Psychodynamic model

2. According to the biopsychosocial model,

genetic predispositions would be an example

of which factor(s)?

(A) Biological and social

(B) Psychological and social

(C) Biological

(D) Psychological

(E) Social

3. What refers to the process of investigating

possible causes and developmental factors

that may contribute to the onset of

psychological disorders?

(A) Etiology

(B) Prevalence

(C) Epidemiology

(D) Speculation

(E) Criteria spectrum

4. Hoarding, which involves collecting and

holding onto many items with a difficulty of

discarding these items, is related to which of

the following disorders:

(A) Major depression

(B) Dissociative identity disorder

(C) Antisocial personality disorder

(D) Obsessive-compulsive disorder

(E) Persistent depressive disorder

5. A phobia is defined as

(A) a repetitive thought followed by a

compulsive act

(B) free-floating anxiety that is displayed in

many situations

(C) a delusional belief that impairs reality

(D) an inaccurate perception

(E) an unjustified, irrational fear

6. Sally has reported that she experiences

anxiety throughout much of her day. She has

no idea why she is experiencing this anxiety,

and lately it has become more persistent,

making it harder for her to fulfill her daily

activities and routines. Sally most likely

would be diagnosed with

(A) a phobia

(B) obsessive-compulsive disorder

(C) post-traumatic stress disorder

(D) generalized anxiety disorder

(E) schizophrenia

7. Luke recently experienced a sudden loss of

memory that resulted in his forming a new

identity, traveling to a new location and

beginning a new life with no memory of his

previous life. Luke would most likely be

diagnosed with

(A) dissociative identity disorder

(B) dissociative amnesia

(C) dissociative fugue

(D) schizophrenia

(E) generalized anxiety disorder

8. Persistent depressive disorder is

characterized by

(A) major depression, including loss of

appetite, feelings of worthlessness, and

difficulty functioning at home and at

work

(B) fluctuations between periods of major

depression and extreme feelings of

euphoria

(C) delusions and hallucinations

(D) mild depression that persists for more

than two years

(E) irrational fears with no justifiable cause


224

9. A difference between bipolar I and bipolar II

disorders is that bipolar II disorder includes

(A) a longer period of mania

(B) more severe periods of mania

(C) less severe periods of mania

(D) shorter periods of mania

(E) no periods of mania

10. A problem on chromosome ___ seems to be

connected with the production of serotonin,

which may be linked to the development of

mood disorders.

(A) 13

(B) 12

(C) 14

(D) 8

(E) 7

11. “Split mind,” used to describe

schizophrenia, refers to

(A) anxiety-arousing thoughts

(B) multiple personalities

(C) disorganized thinking patterns

(D) an inability to function properly

(E) catatonic behavior

12. James believes that he is God and that he

therefore has tremendous powers. This

would be an example of which characteristic

of schizophrenia?

(A) Delusions of grandeur

(B) Delusions of persecution

(C) Clang associations

(D) Hallucinations

(E) Flat affect

13. An example of a positive symptom that

involves immobility or holding of part of the

body for an extreme amount of time..

(A) paranoid

(B) disorganized

(C) undifferentiated

(D) residual

(E) catatonia

14. Excessive receptors of the neurotransmitter

___have been linked to the development of

schizophrenia.

(A) serotonin

(B) GABA

(C) dopamine

(D) glutamate

(E) norepinephrine

15. ___ personality disorder is characterized by

an excessive need to be taken care of,

difficulty making decisions, and clinging

behavior.

(A) Histrionic

(B) Antisocial

(C) Narcissistic

(D) Dependent

(E) Obsessive-compulsive


225

1. Answer: B. The diathesis-stress model suggests that the type and amount of stress play a role in

the development of a psychological disorder

2. Answer: C. Genetic predispositions, which can affect neural communication, brain anatomy, and

the nervous system, are associated with the biological component of the biopsychosocial model

3. Answer: A. Etiology refers to identifying the causes and development of the disorder

4. Answer: D. Obsessive-compulsive disorder involves persistent obsessive thoughts accompanied

by compulsive ritualistic behaviors which includes hoarding

5. Answer: E. Phobias are irrational fears that do not warrant a reaction to such intense fear

6. Answer: D. Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by generalized anxiety that

accompanies many seemingly unrelated situations and circumstances

7. Answer: C. Dissociative fugue is characterized by loss of memory, formation of a new identity,

and relocation to a new environment

8. Answer: D. Persistent depressive disorder is a mood disorder that does not include the extreme

characteristics of major depression and tends to last more than two years

9. Answer: C. Bipolar II disorder includes less severe periods of mania, referred to as hypomania.

Both disorders are characterized by periods of deep depression (MDD)

10. Answer: A. Genes associated with chromosome 13 may be linked to the development of mood

disorders

11. Answer: C. “Split mind” refers to the splitting of thought processes that resemble the

disorganized thinking characteristic of schizophrenia

12. Answer: A. Delusions of grandeur are a characteristic of schizophrenia that include the belief

that one is more important than he or she really is

13. Answer: E. Catatonia is a condition of immobility that could last for an extended period of time.

14. Answer: C. Excessive dopamine receptors have been linked to the development of schizophrenia.

This is referred to as the “dopamine hypothesis”

15. Answer: D. Dependent personality disorder is characterized by clinging behavior, a hard time

making decisions, and an excessive need to be taken care of


226

Methods of Therapy

1. Psychotherapy and biomedical therapy are two major types of therapy. The interaction

between a trained therapist, using psychological techniques, and a client, who is

experiencing emotional, behavioral, or interpersonal problems is referred to as

psychotherapy

a. The use of medications, electroconvulsive therapy, or other medical procedures that

directly affect the brain and nervous system of a patient experiencing symptoms

associated with a psychological disorder is referred to as biomedical

b. What psychological profession has a medical degree and extensive training in a

specialty area making is possible to prescribe medication?

____________________________________

c. Involves using a variety of therapeutic techniques based on the symptoms and needs

of the client refers to the eclectic approach

Psychodynamic Psychotherapy

2. Sigmund Freud established the psychodynamic approach to understand the causes of

psychological disorder. He was curious why some of his patients who were experiencing

blindness, paralysis, or other symptoms, but did not have any physical causes for such

experiences. Freud found that many of his clients had traumatic childhood experience,

for which he concluded later affected them in life. These traumatic episodes often were

repressed into the person’s unconscious, but still affecting their personality and behavior.

This led to Freud to the development of _____________________ a method of

psychotherapy aimed at revealing and resolving conflicts that are in the unconscious.

a. A psychoanalyst relies on several techniques that help client’s gain insight and

understanding into their unconscious conflicts. A technique that involves the

client speaking freely about any topic or image that comes into his or her mind is

called ___________________________

b. When the client unconsciously tries to block the process of revealing repressed

memories this is called ___________________________

c. Dream interpretation helps the therapist and client gain insight into the

unconscious through the therapist separating the portion of the dream that is

consciously remembered called the manifest content from the unconscious

symbolic portion that contains impulses, wishes, and fantasies called the latent

content- what Freud was primarily interested in.

d. Slips of the tongue, or statements accidentally made by the client, that could

reveal unconscious content are called ____________________________


227

e. The most important technique, ____________________, occurs when the patient

unconsciously responds to the therapist as though he or she were a significant

person in his or her life and responsible for some moment or conflict that has

occurred.

Contemporary Psychoanalysis

3. Traditional psychoanalysis is still practiced today, but not as often because people find

the sessions too long and expensive, and not relative to modern problems. In response,

short-term psychodynamic therapy evolved- less expensive, time-consuming, but still

investigating the unconscious.

a. A version of psychoanalysis therapy, that helps clients cope with present

problems and situations is called interpersonal therapy

Humanistic Psychotherapy

4. What perspective emphasizes striving for and reaching human potential, the belief that

people are inherently good, and are motivated through a desire to grow psychologically?

Humanistic

a. A person’s thoughts or a perception of him or herself is called the self-

concept. Humanists believe disorders develop when a person’s growth

process is stopped or interfered with by an unhealthy environment. Therapy is

aimed at helping the individual rediscover thoughts and behavior that will

further continue his or her growth. This is accomplished through the client

feeling comfortable and secure in the presence of the therapist and the

surroundings.

Client-Centered Therapy

5. Carl Rogers, once a psychodynamic therapist, now a humanist therapist believed that the

client should take a more active role in the therapeutic process through actively sharing

and directing the session. Therefore, the therapist should be passive and allow the client

to discover their conflicts and resolutions that befuddle them. He referred to this

approach as ___________________________________, that required 3 guidelines

provided by the therapists: unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence.


228

a. Identify the characteristics associated with client-centered therapy:

Client-Centered therapeutic

techniques

Characteristics

__________________________

Treating the client as a valued person

Listening to the client without being judgmental or

interrupting or expressing opinion

Trying to accept client through consideration of their

background and setting

The client should overcome feelings of inferiority

through this characteristics

__________________________

The therapist tries to see problems form the client’s

perspective

Understands what the client is going through and how

its affecting the client’s decision-making

Use of reflection, an example of active listening,

which repeats the client’s thoughts and concern, while

adding supportive comments

__________________________

The therapist tries to be consistent with how his or her

thoughts and feelings are directed toward the client

If the therapist does not understand a comment by the

client, he or she will inquire, instead of just continuing

with the session

The therapist is open and honest with the client

leading to trust and respect from the client


229

___ 1. Which of the following professions has to have medical degree in order to prescribe

medications? *RC: requires two degrees; medical and psychiatry*

A) Community psychologists D) Psychiatrists

B) Gestalt psychologist E) Cognitive psychologists

C) Social worker

___ 2. A psychoanalytical technique that involves the patient talking readily about anything

and everything that comes to their mind. *RC: remember when you have a long

conversation on the phone you often cannot remember the next day what you talked

about*

A) Resistance D) Hesitation

B) Transference E) Dream analysis

C) Free association

___ 3. A psychoanalytical technique that occurs when the patient unconsciously refuses to

discuss a topic or a part of their life. *RC: most people don't want to talk about

things that are bothering them*

A) Resistance D) Interpretation

B) Transference E) Sessional pressure

C) Free association

___ 4. A patient suddenly begins to yell at the therapist comparable to the way he would yell

at his father. In this dialogue he accuses the therapist of not being there for him. In

psychoanalysis this is termed: *RC: to transfer means to place onto others*

A) Resistance D) Latent content

B) Transference E) Manifest content

C) Interpretation

___ 5. Which of the following descriptions accurately describes the purpose of Carl Roger's

Client-centered therapy? *RC: if you dominate or are the center of the conversation

you will often answer your own questions*

A) A patient ascribes their feelings onto the therapist; meant for his mother.

B) James refuses to talk about a problem from his childhood.

C) Rachel's therapist remains passive insisting that she find a solution for her

problem.

D) James is told to describe the components of a dream he had.

E) William is told to imagine a happy situation when he gets scared of buildings.


230

Gestalt Therapy

1. Fritz Perls and his wife Laura developed a version of humanistic therapy, influenced by

Gestalt psychology, with the belief that people actively process information from the

environment, resulting in the person’s own version of reality- that either promotes or

prevents psychological growth. This therapy was called Gestalt therapy

a. The goal of Gestalt therapy is to make clients aware of their environment in

actual and realistic way

Behavior Therapy

2. Proposes that psychological problems originate from learned behavior and that learned

behaviors that contribute to psychological problems can be unlearned refers to behavior

therapy

a. This type of therapy combines the principles of the behavioral and social-cognitive

approach and incorporated the ideas of John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner,

and Albert Ellis. There are different types of behavioral therapy;

1. Behavior therapy utilizes the principles of classical conditioning

2. Behavior modification focuses on the principles of operant conditioning

3. Cognitive-behavior theapy addresses both thoughts and behaviors associated with the

problem

Behavior Techniques Emphasizing Classical Conditioning

3. Based on the work of Ivan Pavlov, behavioral therapists believe that association leaning

does not only occur between natural and unnatural stimuli, but between stimuli and

emotional reactions, for example, Watson and Rayner’s work with “Little Albert.” On

the other hand, who contemplated whether or not established learned fears could be

reversed and replaced with productive response? _____________________________

a. Mary Cover Jones worked with her client, “Peter,” who was afraid of furry animals,

especially rabbits. She developed a process that entailed the learning of a new

conditioned response that is the opposite of the original learned response called

___________________________________.

b. Her work with Peter involved Peter making a new association between the rabbit and

himself.

1. She brought the rabbit into the room- visible but far enough away where Peter not

to have fear (his original conditioned response)

2. Next she had Peter eat his favorite snack, milk and crackers while he viewed the

rabbit

3. The goal was to have Peter establish the good feelings associated with eating his

favorite food with the rabbit- (replacing fear with good feeling-

counterconditioning)

4. Jones also used observational learning by having Peter watch other boys enjoy

playing with rabbits and not expressing fear

5. After 2 months, Peter eventually held a rabbit as he ate his favorite snack


231

Systematic Desensitization and Exposure Techniques

4. Joseph Wolpe developed another type of counterconditioning therapy that involved the

gradual learning of a new conditioned response that will replace, or inhibit, an established

maladaptive response such as fear or anxiety called ______________________________

a. There are 3 steps involved in the process of systematic desensitization:

1. The patient experiences progressive relaxation techniques- learning how to relax each

muscle

2. The patient is then asked to generate a list of anxiety provoking stimuli associated with

the phobia or problem (anxiety hierarchy) ranging from most to least stressful. The

patient is asked to imagine a relaxing moment called the control scene each time anxiety

is presented or evoked.

3. The actual process of desensitization begins when patients, while relaxed, first imagine

the first stressful event identified in their hierarchy; the patient progresses through the list

until anxiety arises when then the patient is told to recall their control scene of relaxation

b. Once the patient reaches the top of the hierarchy he or she is presented the fearful

object or situation, while the hope is that the patient has replaced the original

established response of fear with a new productive response

c. A recent application of systematic desensitization allows clients to experience their

fears in a controlled computerized setting with a real-world context called virtual

realizty graded exposure

a. Direct exposure to the feared image or event is referred to as _________________

b. This process is referred to as _________________, which produces constant

exposure to the object. The hope is that the client learns nothing bad is going to

happen- this is similar to the last step of systematic desensitization

Aversion Conditioning

5. _______________________ is also based on the principles of classical conditioning and

involves pairing a harmful stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus, a distasteful substance

a. A person, who drinks alcohol too much, is given disulfiram (a drug when mixed with

alcohol causes nausea) that when the person drinks alcohol while on this drug will

become sick- the new conditioned response

Behavioral Therapies that Emphasize Operant Conditioning

6. Operant conditioning is the belief that behavior is shaped through followed

consequences. The belief that maladaptive behavior can also be modified through

consequential actions is held by ________________________________________


232

a. Positive reinforcement and extinction are two operant terms that have been applied to

the behavioral modification processes.

b. Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a desired

behavior is performed- increasing the chances that the behavior will be repeated.

___________________ operate on the principles of operant conditioning, specifically

using the concept of positive reinforcement. In this setting, a person is given a token

for each desired behavior and then the person is allowed to use these tokens to

purchases things. Token economies are used in mental hospitals and rehabilitations.

c. _____________ is another operant technique sued to extinguish or stop an

undesirable behavior. People often perform actions because they are rewarded for

their responses. If a person does not receive expected reinforcement (referred to as

nonreinforcement) then the person will not perform the action again- extinguishing

the response.

d. Punishment is also used- the presentation of an undesirable response or the removal

of a pleasant stimulus in response to an undesirable action or behavior

Cognitive-Behavior Therapy

7. Behavioral therapists recognize that causes of many disorders are linked to different

styles of thinking, the utilization of learning principles to change people’s negative

thought patterns refers to ___________________________________

Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy

8. Albert Ellis developed ________________________________ (REBT) based on his

belief that distorted expectations and irrational beliefs contribute to psychological

disorders. He believed that it is not the event itself, as people think, but the interpretation

or beliefs about the event that actually leads to consequences or psychological disorders

a. Fill out the chart that describes Albert Ellis’ REBT model

ABC Model Example

____________________ The individual can’t find a date for the prom

___________________ “I guess nobody likes me enough to go with me to the prom”

__________________ Feelings of depression

b. Ellis, with the above example, would suggest to the client that there could be other

reasons why they don’t have date for prom. Once the client was made aware of their

self-defeating thinking patterns, he or she would replace these once thoughts with

more productive interpretation of the event. This therapy has been very helpful with

depression, phobias, and anxiety disorders.


233

___ 1. Which of the following procedures is used primarily to treat phobia involving

associating a fearful stimuli with a progressive relaxation technique in hopes to

eliminate a maladaptive conditioned response? *RC: remember to desensitize means

to make less sensitive or to eliminate*

A) Phobia training D) Systematic desensitization

B) Free association E) Toke economy

C) Transference

___ 2. During systematic desensitization, the highest step in the anxiety hierarchy is often

the most fearful. If a therapist chooses to bypass the previous steps in the hierarchy

and expose the person to the most fearful then this is called: *RC: think of Fear

Factor- being exposed or flooded with your worst fears*

A) Passive training D) Transference

B) Exposure training E) Resistance

C) Flooding

___ 3. During an evening’s festivities Marcy drank too much alcohol; and as a result she got

very sick throughout the night. The next Marcy stated that she was not going to drink

alcohol anymore. This situation is comparable to which of the following therapeutic

techniques? *RC: remember aversion means negative result or outcome*

A) Flooding D) Systematic modeling

B) Transference E) Aversion therapy

C) Resistance

___ 4. Which of the following situations is an example of a token economy? *RC: think of

extra credit delivered in a classroom; it encourages good behavior*

A) Lucy gets a gold star each time she raises her hand in class.

B) Larry is placed in the hallway when he acts accordingly.

C) Jerry is laughed at when he makes a mistake in class.

D) Homer is shocked when imagines a fearful stimuli.

E) Linda is told to take a pill that when mixed with alcohol will make her sick.

___ 5. According to Albert Ellis's Rational-Emotive therapeutic approach, which of the

following statements would Ellis contribute to a person's problematic approach as

described in the ABC model? *RC: hard to eliminate the outcome; but easier to

address the thoughts about the outcome*

A) Rick did not make the team at school and knows he just have tried harder.

B) Mary believes her dreams are the reasons for her outcomes.

C) Jenny thinks that nobody likes her and will never ask her out.

D) Richard has low levels of dopamine in relation to his feelings of self-worth.

E) Mitch's parents will not let him attend the school dance.


234

Cognitive Therapy

1. Aaron Beck, originally trained as a psychoanalyst, developed _____________ therapy

based on the idea that people have developed cognitive distortions, distorted perceptions,

and interpretations of events that contribute to psychological disorders. Beck believed

people would “blow things out of proportion.”

a. Cognitive therapy is a directive approach where clients actually go out and test

distorted beliefs and assumptions. Clients will report back their actual experiences

and the therapist will build on positive encounters. If there was a negative encounter

the CT will provide a rational explanation often to the client’s irrational thought

Group Therapy

2. Individualized therapy allows a personal relationship between client and therapist, but the

client is unable to interact with other people. A approach that allows one or more

therapists to work with several people at the same time, observing social and interaction

skills is called _____________________________

a. Group therapy offers several advantages:

1. Therapists are able to work with several people experiencing similar problems

and are able to observe interaction skills

2. It is cost effect for the people participating

3. Participants are able to gain an understanding from listening to others with

similar problems

4. Group therapy is conducted by a trained mental health professional, while

non-health professionals tend to direct support and social groups.

b. Focusing on how each member of a family contributes to the family structure

is called family therapy with the aim to make each member aware of the other

members and teach togetherness or to operate as a system

c. Marital and couple therapy is similar to the structure of family therapy,

especially emphasizing communication

Evaluating Psychotherapeutic Approaches

3. Clients and psychotherapies both agree that therapy can be positive and productive, but

often evidence is needed. The gathering of large amounts of data from a variety of

sources and then presenting the data in a single report is called a meta-analysis

a. The hardest part to measure is clients’ motivation to attend, especially if it was

required. Data has provided evidence that cognitive, behavior, and interpersonal

therapies have been effective for treating depression.

b. Cognitive, behavior, and exposure therapies have been effective for treating anxiety

disorders such as phobias, panic disorder, and OCD

c. Cognitive-behavior therapy has proven beneficial for treating eating disorders and

behavior modification for bed-wetting


235

Biomedical Therapy

4. Psychological disorders, which have physical causes, have been treated with drugs and

other medical procedures. Destroying tissue in regions of the brain for treating

psychological disorders is called __________________________

a. Egos Moniz developed a procedure that involved inserting a sharp instrument into

the front part of the brain and moving it from side to side, severing neural

connections between the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the brain called

___________________________

b. Used for severe depressive patients who didn’t respond to drug treatments; a brief

electrical shock was thought to simulate and increase neural activity in the brain

reducing depression, and sometimes schizophrenia is called _________________

_______________________

a. ECT sometimes produces memory loss, seizures, speech disorders, confusion,

and patients usually relapse with symptoms

Psychoactive Drugs

5. The emergence and increased use of psychoactive drugs has become the most popular

biomedical type of therapy.

Neuroleptics

6. Used to treat psychotic symptoms related to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia such

as hallucinations, delusions, disordered thinking, and confusing speech are ___________

a. Chlorpromazine (thorazine in the USA) and haloperidol are two of the most widely

used antipsychotic medications

b. A side effect associated with antipsychotic drugs that is an irreversible movement

disorder characterized by uncontrollable repetitive actions that involve facial

twitching and rapid movements of the arms and legs is called ___________________

c. The newer generation of antipsychotic drugs, called atypical neuroleptics, includes

Clozapine, which causes fewer muscle movement problems. Clozpine has been

helpful at treating the negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Antidepressants

7. Prescribed to treat depression, increase the amount of the neurotransmitters

norepinephrine and serotonin are called antidepressants

a. People who use antidepressants often don’t notice improvements for several

weeks. Tricyclics and MAO inhibitors were first generations antidepressants, but

produced negative side affects

b. Second generation antidepressants, including trazodone and bupropion produced

fewer side effects, but were not as effective.


236

c. The third group of antidepressants has been most successful. ________________

__________________ (SSRIs), these drugs do not act on multiple neurological

pathways, focusing only on serotonin. SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin,

allowing this NT to remain in the synapses, increasing the chances that serotonin

will be more available the next time the neuron fires.

a. Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil are examples of SSRIs. Dual action depressants

have recently been released that work on both serotonin and

norepinephrine, but have produced more side effects than the original

SSRIs.

Antianxiety Medications

8. Also referred to as anxiolytics, are prescribed to help people deal with anxiety called

antianxiety medications

a. Most popular types of antianxiety medications are the benzodiazepines, Valium and

Xanax, which reduce the symptoms of anxiety by increasing the level of the

neurotransmitter GABA, which inhibits brain activity.

b. A newer antianxiety drug, BuSpar, has had fewer side effects- especially alertness as

the original benzodiazepines did

Lithium

9. Used to treat bipolar disorder called ___________________, which treats both the manic

and depressive episodes. Lithium has been helpful and controlling the levels of the NT

glutamate, which has excitatory effects in the brain

a. Depakote is new drug used for Bipolar, especially those who did not respond to

lithium

Evaluating Drug Treatments

10. Drug treatments have been successful, but many researchers point out some problems

associated with taking drugs:

a. Drugs simply masks the problem

b. Some clinicians are over prescribing medications to people who may not be at that

point when they need it

c. Some drugs produce side effects worse than the psychological symptoms, and some

people become addicted to the medications

Community Psychology

11. There was a growing concern that individuals were not benefiting from mental hospitals,

which led to ________________________ the process of releasing patients from

hospitals, which then led to shutting down many of these hospitals.

a. This result led to ___________________________, a movement to decrease or

prevent psychological disorders through offerings in community health programs.

This is especially useful for the homeless, or people that can’t get help.


237

___ 1. All of the following are benefits of group therapy EXCEPT: *RC: remember their is

strength in numbers*

A) You can identify with others who share common problems.

B) You may learn different approaches through listening to others describe their

situations.

C) Typically group therapy is very expensive in relation to other types of therapy.

D) You have a chance to relate to the background similar to your background.

E) You have established a support team for future assistance.

___ 2. A type of psychosurgery that is primarily used to treat major depression through the

administration of electrical currents; but used sparingly as side effects include

memory loss and short-term positive results? *RC: action potentials are based on

electrical activity*

A) Lobotomy B) SSRIs C) Cognitive stimulation D) ECT E) Etiology

___ 3. What is the design of an SSRI that is used to treat depression? *RC: think of a

vacuum cleaner turned off the dirt is allowed to stay in the carpet*

A) It increases the reuptake process causing neurotransmitters to remain in an

excited state.

B) It slows down the reuptake process allowing serotonin to bind to its appropriate

dendrite destination.

C) It slows down the reuptake process allowing acetylcholine to bind to its

appropriate dendrite destination.

D) It causes the synapse to increase in dimension.

E) It causes the synapse to decrease in dimension.

___ 4. Which of the following medications is commonly used to treat bipolar disorder?

*RC: remember salt is a stabilizer*

A) Thorazine B) Prozac C) Lithium D) Zoloft E) Calcium

___ 5. A side effect associated with administering neuroleptics to treat the positive

symptoms of schizophrenia; symptoms similar to Parkinson disease is called: *RC:

results from lowering the levels of dopamine- responsible for hallucinations*

A) Tardive relaxation D) Conversional disorder

B) Tardive dyskinesia E) Delusional tracks

C) Serotonin deficiency


238

1. What type of therapist has a medical degree

and therefore is able to prescribe

medications?

(A) Clinical psychologist

(B) Social worker

(C) Counselor

(D) Psychiatrist

(E) Psychiatric nurse

2. Psychoanalysis is a method of

(A) treatment that helps patients gain an

understanding and possible resolution of

conflicts hidden in the unconscious that

may be responsible for psychological

disorders

(B) reversing learned behaviors that are

now associated with psychological

disorders

(C) developing and promoting a healthy

self-concept

(D) examining thoughts and actions

connected with psychological disorders

(E) group interaction and social skill

development

3. The process in psychoanalysis in which a

patient reports on whatever thoughts,

memories, or concerns come to mind is

called

(A) resistance

(B) empathy

(C) transference

(D) latent content

(E) free association

4. In a psychoanalytical session, the following

dialogue demonstrates which term?

Psychoanalyst: “Why don’t you tell me

more about your mother?” Patient: “You

were never there for me—why did you do

the things that you did?”

(A) Resistance

(B) Transference

(C) Empathy

(D) Unconditional positive regard

(E) Manifest content

5. Who believed that during the therapeutic

session a therapist should demonstrate

unconditional positive regard, empathy or

active listening, and genuineness in the

hopes that the client or patient could then

identify personal problems and later develop

possible solutions?

(A) Sigmund Freud

(B) Fritz Perls

(C) Carl Rogers

(D) B. F. Skinner

(E) Albert Ellis

6. Suzy doesn’t like to make speeches. Every

time she gets up in front of people she starts

to shake and becomes increasingly nervous.

Which therapeutic perspective would

explain Suzy’s response as a result of

negative associations?

(A) Humanistic

(B) Psychodynamic

(C) Cognitive

(D) Gestalt

(E) Behavior

7. Who conducted the first research to use the

technique of counterconditioning?

(A) Joseph Wolpe

(B) Mary Cover Jones

(C) Carl Rogers

(D) Fritz Perls

(E) Margaret Floy Washburn

8. In certain rehabilitation centers, patients are

given coupons for good behavior that later

can be used to buy desirable merchandise or

acquire certain privileges. This process is

referred to as

(A) systematic desensitization

(B) client-centered therapy

(C) Gestalt therapy

(D) token economies

(E) transference


239

9. Larry was just hired by a company to

develop a new marketing campaign for their

product. Larry, however, has a childhood

phobia of heights and this new job requires

him to work on the top floor. Which

therapeutic technique would teach Larry to

associate relaxation instead of fear with

heights and tall buildings?

(A) Group therapy

(B) Systematic desensitization

(C) Psychodynamic therapy

(D) Client-centered therapy

(E) Gestalt

10. What factor would Albert Ellis agree could

potentially contribute to a psychological

disorder?

(A) Learned behaviors

(B) Conflicts that occur within the

unconscious

(C) A defeated self-concept

(D) Beliefs that surround an event.

(E) Latent issues

11. Who would suggest that cognitive

distortions or errors in logic that are blown

out of proportion could lead to

psychological disorders?

(A) Sigmund Freud

(B) Ivan Pavlov

(C) Carl Rogers

(D) Aaron Beck

(E) Mary Cover Jones

12. After listening to several people’s

testimonies, Jimmy was able to form a

network of support through identifying with

certain people who share the same concerns

and problems. Which form of therapy offers

this opportunity?

(A) Systematic desensitization

(B) Psychodynamic therapy

(C) Client-centered therapy

(D) Gestalt therapy

(E) Group therapy

13. Which type of therapy is commonly used for

depression and administers an electrical

shock to help stimulate brain activity?

(A) Psychosurgery

(B) Electroconvulsive therapy

(C) Psychodynamic therapy

(D) Client-centered therapy

(E) Behavior therapy

14. Which drug has been used as alternative to

lithium for treating bipolar disorder?

(A) Thorazine

(B) Prozac

(C) Paxil

(D) Depakote

(E) Valium

15. Tardive dyskinesia was associated with

which type of psychoactive drug?

(A) Antidepressants medications

(B) Neuroleptics (antipsychotic

medications)

(C) Antianxiety medications

(D) Lithium

(E) Tranquilizers


240

1. Answer: D. A psychiatrist has a medical degree allow him or her to prescribe medications to patients

2. Answer A. Psychoanalysis identifies and explains possible conflicts that are present in the

unconscious and might be at the root of a psychological disorder

3. Answer: E. Free association is a psychoanalytical technique in which patients report any thoughts,

memories, or concerns that come to mind

4. Answer: B. Transference is when a patient transfers his or her feelings from earlier life experiences

onto the therapist

5. Answer C. Carl Rogers developed client-centered therapy, which encouraged the client to become

more involved in the sessions. This approach helps the client gain insight into his or her problems and

their causes and believes in the importance of the client’s role in healing

6. Answer: E. Behavioral therapy believes that psychological disorders are the result of learned

associations between certain stimuli and emotional responses

7. Answer B. Through her work with Peter and the rabbit, Mary Cover Jones was able to demonstrate

that learned fears could be counterconditioned

8. Answer: D. Token economies involves giving tokens or rewards after a desired behavior has been

displayed. The tokens can later be used to buy specific merchandise or trade for special privileges

9. Answer: B. Systematic desensitization is a type of behavior therapy that is based on the principles of

classical conditioning. The client is taught relaxation techniques that will replace previously learned

maladaptive responses, like fear, that have been associated with an anxiety provoking stimuli. This is

referred to as counterconditioning

10. Answer: D. Albert Ellis believed that the negative beliefs that accompany the outcome of an event

are responsible for the consequences associated with psychological disorders

11. Answer: D. Aaron Beck developed cognitive therapy based on his belief that symptoms associated

with psychological disorders, especially depression, could be traced to cognitive distortions that

misinterpret events

12. Answer: E. Group therapy involves interaction among many people assembled in a setting that

encourages sharing and revealing solutions to solve individual problems

13. Answer: B. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is used to treat depression. An electrical current is

delivered to the brain to increase brain activity

14. Answer: D. Depakote has been used as alternative to lithium when lithium has been not been

effective in treating bipolar disorder

15. Answer: B. Tardive dyskinesia, a condition that resembles Parkinson’s disease and produces muscle

problems, was one possible side effect of neuroleptics, the first antipsychotic medications to be

released


241

Research Methods

Critical thinking

1. Researching with factual information in order to arrive at a valid conclusion refers to

critical thinking

a. An educated guess of a specific or testable prediction, is considered the first

step in research and refers to a hypothesis

b. The definition of how the research will be tested, including the precise

definitions of how each variable will be used refers to

__________________________

c. Operational definitions clarify how the researcher plans to test his or hypothesis

through identifying variables. Any factor that may influence the outcome is

called a variable

2. A theory is an explanation of the recorded data used to explain what is being studied or a

phenomenon. What is the main difference between a theory and a hypothesis?

Theories not created as a hypothesis is; rather an explanation of the results of hypothesis

Research Methods in Psychology

3. Psychologists aim to meet four goals when conducting research: describe a phenomenon,

predict future or past behavior, control current or past behavior, and explain how and why a

phenomenon occurred. As a result, researchers rely on different methods to accomplish these

goals. Discuss the following methods in terms of their advantages and disadvantages.

Research Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages

_______________

_______________

Involves watching

participants in their

natural environment

Can observe

the subject in

natural

environment

May have to infer

information based on

observations

Can’t control environment

______________

An in-depth

examination of a rare

phenomenon that

occurred with an

individual, small

group, or a situation

Can examine,

in depth, rare

occurrences

Can’t generalize findings to

entire population

Situation may never occur

again- hard to theorize

_______________

Administration of

questionnaires or

interviews used to

identify attitudes,

beliefs, opinions

Can obtain

information

from large

number of

subjects

Subjects may lie

Subjects may not represent

entire population


242

Research Method Definition Advantages Disadvantages

_______________

_______________

Examines the

relationships between

two or more variables

Researcher

can see

whether

variables are

related

Just because related does not

mean causation or one

variable caused another

variable/ there could always

be a third variable

_____________

Attempt to prove

causation by allowing

the researcher to

manipulate one or

more variables and

measure their

outcome

Can prove

whether one

variable

causes the

outcome

Can’t always account for

confounding variables

Laboratory setting is

different than real world

experiences

4. Which of the above methods are considered descriptive methods that describe

phenomenon, behavior, or attitudes?

Naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys

Experiments: An In-depth Look

5. What is the only accurate method to prove cause-and-effect phenomenon?

______________________

a. In an experiment, what is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter?

_______________________

b. Which is the measurable outcome or resulting effect of the manipulated variable?

____________________________

a. Variables that cannot be controlled by the researcher but may influence the

results are called __________________________

C. Which group in an experiment receives the treatment or is exposed to the independent

variable?

_________________________

a. Which group in an experiment does not receive any treatment or

exposure to the independent variable and is used for comparison to

conditions and effects of the experimental group?

__________________________

6. Confounding variables are variables that could affect the outcome or dependent variable

of an experiment. Subjects who act as they believe the experimenter wants them to act

refers to participant bias. The experimenter’s actions that could influence the outcome of

the experiment is called experimenter bias/ expectancy.


243

7. An experiment design in which neither the experimenter nor the subjects know who is in

the experimental group or control group refers to a ____________________and could

reduce participant/ experimenter bias.

Selecting Human Participants

8. Selecting participants from the population that closely match the population being studied

is called the _________________________

9. Categorizing the desired target population and selecting participants that best represent a

particular category of interest is referred to as a stratified sample,

b. Selecting participants from a population that the experimenter wishes to

study refers to ____________. Selecting participants in a manner that

ensures each member of the population has the same possibility of being

selected is called ____________________

b. Selecting participants in a manner that does not allow for all potential

subjects to have an equal chance of being selected refers to sampling bias.

10. After participants are chosen through random sampling, researches use the method of

_____ _________________allowing all participants the same opportunity of being

placed in a participation- control or experiment group.


244

___ 1. A procedure that describes how research will be conducted that also allows other

researchers to be able to replicated the same research. *RC: How research operates

depends on how you define the procedure*

A) Case study D) Random assignment

B) Correlational data E) Random sampling

C) Operational definitions

___ 2. Dr. Hue is considering studying the effects of Vitamin on students' ability to answer

questions correctly on a test. In this particular hypothesis, what type of variable is

Vitamin B considered? *RC: Think of what the researcher is IN-terested in testing.*

A) Dependent variable D) Randomization

B) Independent variable E) Correlational coefficient

C) Confounding variable

___ 3. Forty-five students took part in a four-month study that looked at how imagery could

help people retain numbers displayed on a screen for a brief amount of time. The

study revealed that imagery did help people remember more numbers from the list

thus validating the hypothesis. In this particular study what was identified as the

dependent variable? *RC: Remember The outcome DEPENDS on how you measure

it*

A) Time allowed to answer a question D) People in the study

B) The imagery E) The person's intellectual ability

C) Numbers remembered

___ 4. What is potentially one flaw when utilizing a correlational study? *RC: Remember

there can always be other factors responsible for a relationship*

A) Correlational studies require a lot of time to see an actual relationship.

B) Correlational studies require manipulating more than one variable.

C) Correlational studies do not make predictions.

D) Correlational studies require multiple researchers simultaneously working

together.

E) Correlational studies may hint but do not provide causational evidence.

___ 5. Which of the following procedures would ensure that each member in a research

design is given the same opportunity to be part of the experiment or control

condition? RC: Remember you have to randomly ASSIGN people to different

experimental conditions*

A) Random sampling D) Hindsight bias

B) Random assignment E) Operational definition

C) Correlational design


245

Statistical Analysis of Research

Descriptive studies

1. Data that are used to numerically summarize or describe the results for the targeted

population refers to descriptive studies

2. The gathering of data and arranging the information to indicate how often a score occurs

refers to frequency distribution

3. Define the 3 measures of central tendency.

a. Mean- average numerical value of all presented data

b. Median- numerical value of all presented data

c. Mode- numerical value that appears most often in presented data

4. Data that is arranged in a manner that resembles a normal curve refers to normal distribution

a. What is referred to a bell-shape curve or inverted U, which graphically

represents the occurrence of all the scores in a given set of data?

Normal curve

5. The difference of the numerical value of all given scores arranged from highest to lowest

values within a distribution is called the range

6. The variability between scores and how far each diverges from the average/ mean is referred

to as the standard deviation

7. The numerical relationship between two or more variables or factors, is often used to see

how two or more variable or factors relate to each other describes a ____________________

a. Correlational studies are represented by a histogram or scatterplot

b. A numerical value demonstrating the strength or weakness of the relationship

between 2 or more variables or factors is referred to as the

____________________________

c. The closer the numerical value is to ______ or ________ the stronger the

relationship.

d. Even though two variables are related this does not mean that:

________________________________________________


246

e. What type of correlation occurs when either variables or factors move in the same

direction? _________________. For example, the more classes a student attends the

higher his or her final grade will be.

f. Negative correlation occurs when:

___________________________________________ __________

g. An incorrect belief that supposes one variable affected the outcome is referred to as

an ____________________________

Inferential Statistics

8. What do inferential statistics allow a researcher to do?

To apply results to the general population and infer whether data can be generalized to

population at large

9. The resulting correlation is not influenced by chance refers to the conclusion being

________________________

Ethical Guidelines for Psychologists

10. Who sets the guidelines for all research in terms of it being conducted?

American Psychological Association (APA)

11. Define the following guidelines that must be utilized when conducting research.

a. Informed consent- participants have agreed to be part of the experiment

b. Debriefing: participants are allowed to view the results after the experiment is

completed

c. Confidentiality: results are not released to the general public indicating names or

personal information

d. Harmful treatment: no harm should be done to the participant during study


247

___ 1. Which of the following correlational coefficients would indicate the strongest

relationship between two variables? *RC: Remember 1 is a powerful number*

A) -.096 B) +.096 C) -0.98 D) +0.098 E) -0.77

___ 2. Jimmy thinks that there is a relationship between a full moon and people acting out of

the ordinary. This belief is described as a: *RC: Remember an illusion is something

that does not exist"

A) Positive correlation D) Half correlation

B) Negative correlation E) Inverse correlation

C) Illusory correlation

___ 3. Which of the following defines describes standard deviation? *RC: To deviate means

to vary from the norm or average*

A) How scores vary from the average or the mean.

B) The middle score in a frequency distribution.

C) The number that occurs the most in a frequency distribution

D) The top number in a range.

E) The bottom number in a range.

___ 4. Which of the following terms states that the results are not due to chance- but rather

empirical evidence:? *RC: Remember the scale does not lie- numbers or stats never

lie*

A) Inferential statistics D) Standard deviation

B) Mean E) Statistical significance

C) Frequency distribution

___ 5. A requirement of the APA Ethical Guidelines for research that instructs researchers to

discuss the purpose and results of the study to participants after they have participated

in a research design to ensure that deception was not used during the process. *RC:

To brief someone is to give them DEtails about the situation*

A) Informed consent D) Fair practice

B) Debriefing E) Unequal assistance

C) Liability


248

1. Professor Marianos is conducting an

experiment on the effects of chalk dust on

memory retention. Two groups are given the

same memory test. Participants in group A are

exposed to chalk dust for 30 minutes a day,

while those in group B are not exposed to

chalk dust at all. Identify the dependent

variable in Professor Marianos’ study.

(A) Exposure to chalk dust

(B) Memory retention

(C) Ability to form mnemonics

(D) The length of time subjects were

exposed to chalk dust

(E) The amount of time between exposures

2. If a study is considered statistically

significant, we can assume that

(A) the study has both independent and

dependent variables

(B) the study is conducted in a controlled

environment

(C) all participants were debriefed after the

experiment was completed

(D) neither the experimenter nor the

participants knew which groups

participants were assigned to

(E) there is a relatively small chance the

results were caused by chance

3. Researchers concluded that subjects given a

sugar pill experienced the same results as

those who took actual medication. This is

known as the

(A) confirmation bias

(B) placebo effect

(C) double-blind effect

(D) hindsight bias

(E) participation bias

4. Recent research found a correlation between

the time one spends listening to heavy metal

music and the number of books one reads.

The correlation coefficient between these two

variables was –0.83. What does this

correlation mean?

(A) The more a person listens to heavy metal,

the more books he or she reads.

(B) The number of hours spent listening to

heavy metal has no effect on the number

of books a person reads.

(C) The less a person listens to heavy metal,

the more books he or she reads.

(D) As the age of the subject increases, the

number of books he or she reads

decreases.

(E) As the age of the subject decreases, the

number of books he or she reads

decreases.

5. Professor Gladhand is interested in studying

the effects of caffeine on the aggression levels

of rats. Which of the following research

methods would be most useful in reaching a

cause-and-effect conclusion?

(A) Case study method

(B) Experimental method

(C) Naturalistic observation method

(D) Survey method

(E) Selective breeding method

6. Dr. Sanborn is interested in studying people

who have sustained brain damage after

ingesting banana peels. Over the past five

years, he has studied only one such patient.

Which of the following research methods is

Dr. Sanborn most likely using?

(A) Naturalistic observation

(B) Experimental

(C) Survey

(D) Case study

(E) Twin studies


249

7. Which of the following is an example of a

positive correlation?

(A) As the number of hours a person sleeps

increases, her violent behavior

decreases.

(B) As the number of dogs a person owns

decreases, her violent behavior

increases.

(C) The less sleep a person gets, the lower

her grade-point average.

(D) The more a person watches television,

the less she reads.

(E) The number of reptiles a person owns

has no effect on the number of emails

she sends.

8. Dr. Cho is concerned that his body language

might influence the outcome of his

experiment. Which of the following methods

should Dr. Cho use to ensure that he will not

impact the results of the study?

(A) Sampling size

(B) Double-blind study

(C) Single-blind study

(D) Case study method

(E) Survey method

9. Dr. J. Belaen conducted research that required

50 participants. The first 25 people that

arrived on the day of the experiment were

assigned to the experimental group, and the

remaining 25 were assigned to the control

group. Such a method of assignment may

influence the results of his experiment.

Instead, Dr. J. Belaen should have used which

method of assignment?

(A) Random sampling

(B) Random placement

(C) Random assignment

(D) Random selection

(E) Random blindness

10. In an experiment studying the effects of

alcohol on memory, subjects’ tolerance levels

relating to alcohol consumption would be

considered

(A) the dependent variable

(B) the independent variable

(C) a confounding variable

(D) random assignment

(E) participant bias

11. Which of the following correlation

coefficients would be considered to have the

greatest relationship strength?

(A) +0.78

(B) +0.33

(C) –0.56

(D) –0.84

(E) –0.14

12. Descriptive statistics

(A) allow the researcher to make

generalizations to the wider population

(B) are a numerical set of data used to

describe the data in a study

(C) are used only in rare instances

(D) allow the researcher to control for

confounding variables

(E) ensure that neither the subject nor the

researcher influences the outcome

13. In an experiment, the operational definition

serves what function?

(A) To randomly assign subjects to their

appropriate group

(B) To identify the standard deviation

within a given experiment

(C) To identify how the dependent variable

will be measured

(D) To identify a possible illusory

correlation

(E) To identify any experimenter bias that

may occur during the experiment


250

14. The three measures of central tendency are

(A) mean, medium, majority

(B) majority, median, mode

(C) mean, variability, reliability

(D) mean, median, mode

(E) validity, predictability, reliability

15. Professor T. Manley noticed that her class’s

scores on their first test were between 89 and

14. Professor T. Manley is describing her

class’s

(A) range

(B) reliability

(C) sample size

(D) standard deviation

(E) correlation coefficient


251

1. Answer: B. The dependent variable is the measurable outcome of the study. The experiment is

testing whether chalk dust increases memory retention; therefore, memory retention is the

dependent variable, whereas exposure to chalk dust is the independent variable

2. Answer: E. When a study is considered statistically significant, it means that the influence of

outside variables on the study is minimal, and has not impacted the findings

3. Answer: B. The placebo effect occurs when participants administered a fake pill (placebo) show

the same results as those given the actual medication. This is the result of the person believing that

the medication is working, even though it has no medicinal value

4. Answer: C. A negative correlation means that one variable increases while the other variable

decreases. As the number of hours spent listening to heavy metal increases, the number of books

read decreases.

5. Answer: B. The experimental method allows the researcher to manipulate variables to determine

cause and effect

6. Answer: D. A case study is used when a rare event or situation has occurred. Because this

research is considering a rare event, its results cannot be applied to the population at large

7. Answer: C. A positive correlation indicates that both variables move in the same direction. Even

though both variables (sleep and GPA) decrease, they are still moving in the same direction

8. Answer: B. In a double-blind study neither the researcher nor the participants know who has been

assigned to the control and experimental group

9. Answer: C. Random assignment (randomizing) allows all subjects the same opportunity of being

placed in either research group and helps control for assignment that may skew the results

10. Answer: C. A confounding variable is any factor that cannot be controlled by the researcher. In

this study, a subject’s tolerance level for alcohol may influence the outcome of the study

11. Answer: D. The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1.00 or –1.00, the stronger the relationship

between the variable

12. Answer: B. Descriptive statistics numerically describe the data. This allows researchers to

quantify their research and does not involve generalizing to the population at large

13. Answer: C. The operational definition is the definition of how the research outcomes will be

measured.

14. Answer: D. The three measures of central tendency are mean, median, and mode

15. Answer: A. Range refers to the numerical difference between scores arranged from highest to

lowest


252

Appendix

Outlines


253


A. Psychology’s Roots

1. Plato and Socrates

a. Ideas are inborn/ mind distinct from body- mind continues after body dies

2. Aristotle

a. Mind and body are the same/ knowledge comes from experience

3. Descartes

a. Believed in interactive dualism- soul (consciousness) different than brain/ but

can interact

a. Materialism- mind and body are the same

4. John Locke

a. Mind but a “white paper”

a. Tabula rasa- a blank slate to write life experiences

b. Mind acts on what comes through senses

c. Gave rise to empiricism- knowledge comes from experience/ relies on

observation/experimentation

5. Wilhelm Wundt

a. Father of Psychology

b. German philosopher/ physiologist

c. Opened first psychology laboratory 1879

d. Used the technique of introspection- to look inward to basic elements that make

up conscious experience (very unreliable)

i. Set up experimental design to study sensory reactions to stimuli-

helped to separate from philosophy from psychology

6. E.B. Titchener (Wundt’s Student)

a. Introduced Structuralism (first system for organizing psychological beliefs)

based on studying structures of consciousness

7. Gestalt Psychology

a. Max Werthheimer- study of organization of mental processes

b. Opposed analyzing elements of consciousness (Structuralism)

c. Believed that the, “Whole is greater than sum of parts”

8. William James

a. Wrote “Principles of Psychology"

b. Disagreed with Structuralism

c. First American Psychologist- started first American Psychology lab at Harvard

d. Developed Functionalism- function of consciousness- how we adapt and adjust

in the environment/ based off of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution

9. Sigmund Freud

a. Austrian physician

b. Psychoanalytical approach

1. Focused on abnormal behavior- unconscious conflicts from childhood

2. Relied on personal observation (case studies)

10. Ivan Pavlov

a. Russian physiologist

b. Studies of animal learning gave rise to observable study

c. Classical Conditioning


254

11. John B. Watson

a. Founded Behaviorism

b. Focus on learning through rewards/consequences and observable behavior

1. B.F. Skinner- Operant Conditioning

2. Albert Bandura- Observational Learning

12. Humanistic Psychology

a. “Third Force of Psychology”

b. Emphasized conscious experience through free will and human potential

c. Abraham Maslow/ Carl Rogers

d. Rejected principles of behaviorism-rewards/punishment

13. Jean Piaget

a. Worked with assessing a child’s thinking ability

14. G. Stanley Hall

a. First person to receive Ph.D. in psychology

15. Mary Whiton Calkins

a. Elected President of the APA

b. First woman to finish requirement of Ph.D. but did not receive

16. Margaret Flow Washburn

a. Titchener’s first graduate/ and first to receive Ph.D.

17. Francis Cecil Sumner

a. First African-American to receive Ph.D.

A. Psychological Perspectives- Schools of thought and psychological approaches- opinions and

viewpoints on behavior and mental processes

1. Cognitive Perspective- Viewing behavior based on how brain takes in information,

creates perceptions, forms retrieves memories, processes information and generates

actions

2. Biological Perspective- Biological structures, such as brain, nervous system, neural

communication that underlie behavior

3. Social-Cultural Perspective- How thinking and behavior change in situations

4. Evolutionary Perspective- How natural selection of traits affects behavior to promote

adaptation and survival

5. Behavior Genetics Perspective- Genes and our environment influence individual

differences

6. Psychodynamic Perspective- Freud’s view of wow behavior, thoughts, and feelings

from the unconscious

7. Behavioral Perspective- Human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has

learned- for example- rewards and punishments

8. Humanistic Perspective- Views behavior as controlled by the decisions that people

make about their lives based on perceptions of the world through free will and

conscious choice

B. Careers in Psychology

1. Basic research- goal to increase knowledge of psychology

a. Biological psychologists- explore physiological roots and results of behavior


255

b. Social psychologists- study influence of others and situations on our behavior

c. Developmental psychologists- growth and development over a lifetime

d. Cognitive psychologists- study thought processes and how it affects behavior

e. Quantitative psychologists- develop and use statistical tools to analyze research

data

2. Applied research- aim to solve practical problems

a. Educational psychologists- apply psychology to classroom

b. Clinical psychologists- treat troubled people

c. Psychiatry- physicians use medial and psychotherapy- prescribe medications

d. Community psychologists- who work to obtain psychological services for

people in need of help and prevent psychological disorders

e. Engineering psychology- study human factors in the use of equipment and help

designers create better versions of equipment

f. Sports psychologists- explore the relationships between athletic performance

and such psychological variables as motivation and emotion

g. Forensic psychologists- who assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants’

mental competence to stand trial

h. Environmental psychologists- study the effects of physical environment on

behavior and mental processes

a. Industry/ Organizational psychologists- use psychology to help

businesses and hire people


256


A. Body Rhythms

1. Conscious level- awareness of yourself and your environment

a. Nonconscious level- level of mental activity that is inaccessible to conscious

awareness- biological process

b. Preconscious level- level of mental activity that is not currently conscious but

of which we can easily become conscious

c. Unconscious level- level of mental activity that influences consciousness but

is not conscious

2. State of consciousness- the characteristics of consciousness at any particular

moment

a. Altered state of consciousness- a condition in which changes in mental

processes are extensive enough that a person or others notice significant

differences in psychological and behavioral functioning- hallucinations

b. William James- described consciousness as a “stream”- although always

changing, consciousness is perceived as unified and unbroken

3. Biological rhythms- periodic physiological rhythms

a. Circadian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur every 24 hours- like

temperature

i. Jet lag- syndrome of fatigue, irritability, inattention and

sleeping caused by air travel across several time zones

b. Ultradian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur more than once each day

c. Infradian rhythms- biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a

season

B. Stages of Sleep

1. Sleep cycle is a circadian rhythm but it also includes 90-minute ultradian rhythms

a. REM sleep- type of sleep during which rapid eye movement and dreaming

usually occur and voluntary muscle activity is suppressed- also called active

sleep or paradoxical sleep

b. NREM sleep- quiet, typically dreamless sleep- divided into four stages- also

called quiet sleep

2. Sleep is measured through an electroencephalograph that uses electrodes to measure

brain wave activity

a. Beta waves- brain waves associated with alert wakefulness

b. Alpha waves- brain wave pattern associated with relaxed wakefulness and

drowsiness

c. Theta waves- follow alpha waves- slower waves

d. Delta waves- deep sleep- slowest waves

3. Onset of Sleep

i. Hypnagogic hallucinations- vivid sensory phenomena that

occur during the onset of sleep

ii. Myoclonic jerk- an involuntary muscle spasm of the whole

body that person awakes

4. N-REM sleep- non-rapid eye movement- period of sleep in which sleep stages 1-3

occur/ not characterized by eye movement or vivid dreams


257

a. Stage 1 of NREM Sleep- slowed breathing, alpha to theta brain waves/ first

five minutes of sleep/ easy to awake/ last only a few minutes

b. Stage 2 of NREM Sleep- brain waves slow down/ experience little brain wave

bursts called sleep spindles/ lasts about 20 minutes then longer as night goes

on/ spend half your sleep in stage 2

c. Stage 3 NREM sleep- slow wave sleep- after about 30 minutes of sleep you

enter 3/ have increasing delta waves- about 20% delta waves

i. After reaching NREM stage 3 then go to Stage 3, then Stage 2,

and then REM sleep

5. REM sleep- rapid eye movement sleep/ a recurring sleep stage during which vivid

dreams commonly occur- also known as paradoxical sleep- because muscles are

relaxed but other body systems active

a. When you reach stage 4 of NREM your brain waves will start to pick up and

you will go back to stage 3, then 2, and then enter REM sleep- this cycle is

about 90 minutes long

b. Last 4 hours of sleep (if you get 8 hours) are spent mostly in Stage 2 NREM

and REM

c. When you wake someone up during REM sleep they report a dream- REM

consumes 25% of sleep/ 100 minutes is thus spent dreaming

C. Why we Sleep

1. Control center for the 24-hour rhythm of sleep appears to be the brain’s

hypothalamus- the sensor (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in the hypothalamus monitors

changes in light and dark through information sent from the retina- the

hypothalamus then sends messages to other parts of the brain and body preparing

for sleep

a. This is done through hormones such as melatonin- when you wake up

melatonin levels begin to drop and continue to drop throughout the day until

you go to bed and turn out the lights

2. Restorative theory of sleep- sleep allows us to recuperate from the wear and tear

that affects our body throughout the day

a. NREM sleep restores the body

b. REM sleep restores the mind- improving the function of the neurotransmitter-

norepinephrine

3. Adaptive theory of sleep- view that the unique sleep patterns of different animals

evolved over time to promote survival and environmental adaptation- also referred

to as the evolutionary theory of sleep

4. Behavioral theory of sleep- we sleep because there is no stimulation

5. REM rebound- a phenomenon in which a person who is deprived REM sleep

greatly increases the amount of time spent in REM sleep at the first opportunity to

sleep uninterrupted

D. Why we Dream

1. Sleep thinking- takes places during NREM sleep and consists of vague, uncreative,

bland, and thought like ruminations about real-life events

2. Dream- a sequence if images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping

person’s mind- story like episode of unfolding mental imagery during REM sleep

a. Lucid dreaming- awareness that a dream is a dream while it is happening


258

3. Freud believed in his book, Interpretation of Dreams, that dreams were the key to

understanding inner conflicts

a. Manifest content- according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

b. Latent content- according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream-

disguised as wish fulfillment

4. Information processing theory- dreams sort through the information throughout the

day’s experiences and tries to makes sense of the experiences.

a. Research shows that REM sleep facilitates memory and the amount of REM

sleep increases with stressful days

b. REM rebound- tendency after sleep deprivation to dive right into REM sleep

5. Physiological Function theory- neural activity during REM sleep stimulates the

brain- especially true with the infant’s brain rapidly developing

a. During delta sleep the pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone that supports

this theory

6. Activation-synthesis theory- this theory suggests that dreams are simply the mind’s

attempt to make sense of the random firing in the various regions of the brain- this

interpretation of the neural firing leads to dreams

E. Sleep Disorders

1. Insomnia- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep- stress plays a role

2. Narcolepsy- characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks- goes directly into REM

sleep

3. Sleep apnea- temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent

momentary reawakening

4. Night terrors- characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified-

unlike nightmares- night terrors occur during Stage 3 sleep within 2 or 3 hours of

falling asleep and are seldom remembered

5. Nightmares- frightening dream that takes place during REM sleep

6. Sleep Bruxism- grinding of the teeth

7. Enuresis- bed wetting

8. Myoclonus- sudden jerking of a body part occurring in Stage 1 or 2

9. Sleep walking- somnambulism- occurs in NREM sleep stage 3 and affects mostly

children- usually have no occurrence of events

10. REM behavior disorder- a person does not lose muscle tone during REM sleep-

allowing the person to act out dreams

a. Sudden infant death syndrome- sleeping baby stops breathing and

suffocate.

A. Hypnosis- a social interaction in which one person- hypnotist- makes suggestions about

perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors, and another person- the subject- follows those

suggestions

1. Social influence theory- Role theory- the theory that powerful social influences can

produce a state of hypnosis- peer pressure to act in accordance with the expectations

and demands of hypnotic session

a. State theory- theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness


259

2. Divided consciousness theory- dissociation theory- theory that during hypnosis- our

consciousness- our awareness of ourselves and others splits- so that one aspect of

consciousness is not aware of the role other parts are playing

a. Ernest Hilgard- pioneering research on hypnosis and believer of the divided

consciousness theory based on social agreement of the participant and divided

consciousness

b. Hidden observer- Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness

of experiences, such as pain, because of an altered state of consciousness/

when participant awakes they report no feeling of pain as the “hidden observer

noted”

B. Hypnotic Techniques

1. Hypnotic induction- process in which a hypnotist creates a state of hypnosis in a

subject, generally by voicing a series of suggestions

2. Posthypnotic suggestion- a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session to be carried

out after the subject is no longer hypnotized- helps control addiction and behaviors

3. Hypomnesia- supposed enhancement of a person’s memory for past events through

a hypnotic session

4. Posthypnotic amnesia- supposed inability to recall what one experienced during

hypnosis- induced by hypnotist’s suggestion

C. Meditation- An one of a number of sustained concentration techniques that focus attention

and heighten awareness

D. Drugs

1. Psychopharmacology- study of psychoactive drugs and their effects

2. Psychoactive drug- a chemical substance that alters perceptions, mood, or behavior

3. Blood-brain barrier- feature of blood vessels supplying the brain that allows only

certain substances to leave the blood and interact with brain tissue- once past barrier

psychoactive drugs can have effects on the brain

4. Learned expectations- what user expects or hopes to feel with taking drug affects

how drug performs

5. Dependence- a state of physiological and or psychological need to take more of a

substance after continued use- withdrawal follows if discontinued

a. Physical dependence- physiological need for drug resulting in withdrawal

symptoms

b. Psychological dependence- psychological need to use a drug- to relieve

negative emotions

6. Withdrawal- discomfort and distress that follow when a person who is dependent on

a drug discontinues the use of that drug

7. Tolerance- reduced responsiveness to a drug, prompting the user to increase dosage

to achieve effects previously obtained by lower doses.

E. Drugs and Neurotransmission

a. Drugs affect binding with receptors- mimicking a neurotransmitters effects-

causes a neuron to fire in the absence of normal stimulation

b. Drugs block receptor sites preventing neurotransmitters from binding and

thereby not allowing neurotransmission to occur

c. Drugs block neurotransmitter reabsorption thereby intensifying the

neurotransmitter’s effects in the synapse


260

d. Drugs tend to bind better than neurotransmitters so the intensity and effects on

the body tend to be more

F. Drug classifications

1. Depressants- drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body function and inhibits

central nervous system/ and increases the availability of GABA- inhibitory

neurotransmitter

a. Alcohol

b. Barbiturates- drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system-

reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment- also included

tranquilizers and sedatives

c. Benzodiazepines which include Valium and Xanax depress the activity of the

central nervous system without the side effects included in barbiturates

d. GHB- naturally occurring substance similar to neurotransmitter GABA-

inhibitor of the brain

2. Opiates- opium and its derivatives such as morphine and heroin that depress neural

activity and temporary lessen pain and anxiety

a. Morphine- strong sedative and pain-relieving drug deprived from opium

b. Endorphins- “morphine within”- neural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked

to pain control and to pleasure

a. Opiates are agonist for endorphins

3. Stimulates- drugs such as caffeine and nicotine and the more powerful

amphetamines and cocaine that excite neural activity- especially dopamine-

neurotransmitter linked to pleasure- and also reduce the effects of the GABA

neurotransmitter- and speeds up body functions- in the central nervous system

a. Caffeine- stimulant found in coffee, chocolate, tea, and soft drinks

b. Nicotine- stimulant found in tobacco

c. Cocaine- stimulant derived from leaves of the coca plant

a. Cocaine psychosis- features very similar to schizophrenia

d. Amphetamines- drugs that stimulate neural activity speeding up body

functions and associated energy and mood changes

e. Ecstasy- MDMA- increases dopamine activity

4. Hallucinogens- psychedelic “mind manifesting” drugs- LSD- that distort

perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input by affecting

dopamine receptors

a. LSD- powerful hallucinogenic drug

b. Marijuana- leaves, stems, resin and flowers from hemp plants that when

smoked, lower inhibitions and produce feelings of relaxation and mild

euphoria- THC is the active ingredient

5. Prevention- education


261

Personality

A. Personality- an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

B. Psychodynamic Perspective- importance of unconscious thought and unresolved childhood

conflicts as a source of personality development

1. Sigmund Freud

2. Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality- also therapeutic technique attempts

to provide insight in one’s thoughts and action by exposing the unconscious and

conflicts associated with childhood

3. Free association- method of exploring the unconscious in which people says

whatever comes to mind

4. States of consciousness

a. Preconscious- information that is not conscious but is easy to retrieve into

conscious awareness- ate for dinner last night

b. Unconscious- a portion of the mind that holds unacceptable thoughts, wishes,

feelings, and memories

5. Personality structure

a. Id- part of personality that is unconscious and strives to satisfy basic sexual

and aggressive drives

1. Operates according to pleasure principle- demanding immediate

gratification

2. Libido- psychic energy contained in the id

3. Thanatos- death instincts-responsible for aggression and destructiveness

4. Eros- life instincts- responsible for constructive energy and a source of

energy

b. Superego- part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides

standards for judgments and future goals

c. Ego- largely conscious- part of personality mediates demands of the Id and

Superego and reality

1. Operates according to reality principle- satisfying the Id’s desires in ways

that will bring pleasure not pain

6. Defense Mechanisms- Ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by

unconsciously distorting reality

a. Repression- banishes thoughts, anxiety, feelings and memories from the

consciousness

1. Found in all defense mechanisms

b. Regression- allows an anxious person to retreat to more comfortable, infantile

stage of life

c. Denial- refuse to admit that something unpleasant is happening

d. Reaction formation- switching unacceptable thought to the opposite- “I hate

her” to “I love her”

e. Projection- disguising threatening feelings of guilt to another person

f. Rationalization- displaces real, anxiety provoking feelings with more

comforting explanations or justifications

g. Displacement- shifts unacceptable impulse toward a less threatening object or

person


262

h. Compensation- striving to make up for unconscious impulses or fears- being

extremely competitive for inferiorities

i. Undoing- neutralizing an unacceptable action by a more favorable second

action- cheating on one test- helping someone else out on another test

7. Psychosexual Stages- each stage marked by the id’s pleasure-seeking focus on

different parts of the body called erogenous zones

a. Fixation- failure to resolve the problems and conflicts that appear in a given

stage

1. Oral stage- 1-18 months- pleasure centers on mouth, biting, chewing

2. Anal stage- 18 months – 3 years- pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder functions-

coping with demands of control

3. Phallic stage- 3-6 years- pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous

feelings

1. Oedipus complex- boy has rival for Dad- feelings for Mom- boy experiences

castration anxiety from father for punishing his feelings

2. Electra complex- girl develops feelings for father- resistance towards mother-

penis envy- feels a sense of loss and deprivation

3. Identification- ego defense mechanism- reducing anxiety by modeling the

behavior and characteristics of another person

4. Latency stage- 6 – puberty- dormant sexual feelings- gender identity forms towards

same sex people

5. Genital stage- puberty on- maturation of sexual interests

A. Neo-Freudians

1. Alfred Adler

a. Agreed with Freud of importance of childhood experiences but thought social not sexual

tensions were crucial for personality development

c. Adler had his own childhood inferiorities that led to development of his theory

d. Believed that the most human fundamental motive is striving for superiority

1. Inferiority complex- childhood inferiorities lead to superiority

2. People tend to overcompensate for weaknesses developing a superiority

complex- characterized by exaggerating one’s accomplishments

2. Carl Jung

a. Not agree with social tensions or Freud’s role of the unconscious

b. Stated we don’t have an individual unconscious but a collective unconscious that are

memories from our ancestors- not aware of these memories- but influence behavior

1. Archetypes- shared symbols in stories, art- mother a symbol for nurturing

c. People don’t go through personality stages but develop either introversion or extraversion

1. Introversion- tendency to reflect on one’s own abilities

2. Extraversion- tendency to focus on the social world

3. Karen Horney

a. Pointed out that Freud’s theory was male dominated and female development was inaccurate

1. Stated that male develop womb envy- inferiority from not being able to carry a child

2. Stated social factors, not biological, responsible for personality development


263

a. Moving toward relationship- excessive need for approval

b. Moving against relationship- excessive need for power

c. Moving away relationship- excessive need for independence

i. Caused by dependent child’s sense of helplessness triggers desire for love

and security

B. Assessing Psychodynamic perspective

1. Projective personality tests- personality tests that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger

projection of inner thoughts

b. Advantage: can access unconscious/ subjects do not really know what tester is

asking- may lead to be more honest with answers

C. Trait approach- perspective in which personality is seen as a combination of characteristics

that people display over time and across situations

1. Trait- characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act- quantitative

measure- number of traits a person has

2. Type- qualitative measure- whether or not someone is or is not a certain type-

feeling type made up caring, sympathetic, dependable traits

D. Gordon Allport- one of the first trait theorist who researched the idea that individual

personalities are unique

1. Surface traits (secondary traits)- personality characteristics or attributes that can

easily be inferred from observable behavior

2. Source traits (central traits)- most fundamental dimensions of personality- basic

traits- few in number

3. Cardinal trait- an overwhelming dominant trait- very few possess

E. Raymond Cattell’s Factor Analysis

1. Used factor analysis- technique to identify traits that are closely related to one

another- one trait predicts another trait- if caring then dependable

2. Proposed 16 key personality dimensions or factors to describe personality

3. To identify the 16 traits used- Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire

F. Hans Eysenck’s Biological Dimensions- Identified three dimensions of personality

1. Extraversion-introversion dimension

a. Extroverts- outgoing/ Introverts- shy

1. Neuroticism- emotional stability dimension

b. Neuroticism- disposition to become extremely upset

c. Emotionally stable- disposition to remain emotionally stable

1. Psychoticism dimension- high on this dimension is antisocial, cold

hostile/ low on this dimension- caring towards others

G. Five-factor model of personality

1. Robert McCrae and Paul Costa’s Trait theory of personality that identifies five

basic source traits as the fundamental building blocks of personality

a. Openness-imaginative or practical

b. Extraversion- affectionate or reserved

c. Emotional stability (neuroticism)- calm or anxious

d. Agreeableness- trusting or suspicious

e. Conscientiousness- organized or disorganized


264

H. Gray’s Approach-Inhibition Theory

1. Differences among people in introversion-extraversion/ emotionality-stability

(neuroticism) come from two related systems in the brain:

a. Behavioral approach system- (BAS)- made up of brain regions that affect

people’s sensitivity to rewards and motivation to seek those awards- called a

“go” system- responsible for impulsive behavior

b. Behavioral inhibition system- (BIS)- involves brain regions that affect

sensitivity to potential punishment and the motivation to avoid being

punished- called a “stop” system- responsible for fearful behavior

A. Evaluating Trait Perspective

2. Does not consider situation in how affects person

3. Does not explain why somebody acts a certain way

B. Social- Cognitive- this perspective is an interactive theory that combine research on social

behavior, cognition, and learning, and self-efficacy beliefs

C. Albert Bandura- believed to understand personality have to consider situation, person’s

thoughts, and thoughts surrounding an event

1. Reciprocal determinism- Albert Bandura’s theory that explains human functioning

and personality as caused by the interaction of:

a. Cognition- or thoughts

b. Behavioral factors

c. Environment factors

2. Self-efficacy beliefs- beliefs that people have about their ability to meet the

demands of a specific situation, feelings of self-confidence or self-doubt

D. Julian Rotter’s Expectancy Theory

a. Learning creates cognitions called expectancies- that guide behavior

determined by what the person expects to happen following the behavior/ and

the value the person places on the outcome

b. Also determine by personal control

1. External locus of control (externals)- perception that chance or forces

beyond personal control controls your fate

2. Internal locus of control (internals)- you control your own fate

E. Walter Mischel’s Cognitive/Affective theory

1. Mischel believed that cognitive person variables- beliefs, feelings, expectancies are

responsible for why individuals differ and personality/

2. Also called “if/then” theory- if people encounter a particular situation then they will

engage in certain characteristic behaviors- called behavioral signatures

3. Most important cognitive variables:

a. Encodings- beliefs person has about the environment

b. Expectancies- what person expects to follow each behavior

c. Affects- feelings, emotion responses

d. Goals and Values- things person believes in and wants to do

e. Competences/ self-regulatory plans- thoughts and actions person is capable of


265

F. Evaluating Social-Cognitive

1. Does not consider emotion or enduring traits- biological factors/ unconscious

G. Humanistic Perspective- Goal is to reach human potential- flourished in the 1960s-

emphasizes the inherent goodness of people, self-actualization, self-concept, and healthy

personality development

1. Emphasized conscious experience

2. Focused on free will and creative abilities

3. Studied all factors- not just observable behaviors

a. Abraham Maslow- Self-Actualization

a. Hierarchy of Needs- must satisfy one set of needs before meeting other needs-

motivation to reach self-actualization

b. Deficiency orientation- a preoccupation with perceived needs for things a

person does not have

c. Growth orientation- tendency to draw satisfaction from what is available in life-

rather than what is missing

1. Physiological needs- air, water

2. Safety needs- security

3. Belongingness and love- love and to be loved

4. Esteem needs- need for achievement, competence

5. Self-actualization- need to live up to and realization of one’s

potential. Abraham Lincoln, Elenor Roosevelt

b. Carl Rogers- Person-Centered Approach

a. Actualizing tendency- Rogers’s theory, the innate drive to maintain and

enhance the human organism

b. Self-concept- set of perceptions and beliefs that you hold about

yourself- people are motivated to act in accordance with their self-

concept- don’t act in accordance- personality is altered

1. Conditional positive regard- sense that you will be valued and

loved only if behave in a certain way- conditional love

2. Unconditional positive regard- sense that you will be valued and

loved even if you don’t conform to the standards and

expectations of others- unconditional love

a. Congruence- what you do and self-concept match

b. Incongruence- what you do and self-concept does not

match

3. Agreed with Maslow, but thought could also flourish with having

empathy, acceptance and genuineness

a. Genuine- freely express themselves- don’t disclose

anything

b. Empathic- reflecting the other person’s feelings

c. Acceptance- accepting someone no matter what done

c. Evaluating Humanistic Perspective

a. Unconditional positive regard can be interrupted as not disciplining

children

b. Theory is vague and hard to test


266

H. Personality Testing

1. Objective personality tests- a test containing direct, unambiguous items relating to

the individual being assessed

2. Personality inventories- questionnaires (true or false) which people respond used to

assess personality traits

a. Validity- extent to which test measures what it is supposed to

b. Reliability- extent to which test yields consistent results when or where given

3. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

a. MMPI most widely used of all personality tests- originally designed to test

personality traits for abnormal behavior

4. NEO-PI-R- Neuroticism Extraversion Openness Personality Inventory-designed to

measure “big five traits

5. Advantages of objective tests- easy to administer/ compared to others/ Inexpensive

6. Disadvantage/ Only one correct answer


267

Testing and Individual Differences

A. Intelligence- ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to

adapt to new situations

1. Fluid intelligence- basic power of reasoning and problem solving

2. Crystallized intelligence- specific knowledge gained as a result of applying

fluid intelligence

3. Emotional intelligence- ability to perceive, express, understand regulate

emotions

B. Intelligence test- method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing

them with those of others, using numerical scores

1. IQ test- designed to measure intelligence on objective, standardized scale

C. Factor analysis- a statistical procedure identifies clusters of related items called factors on

a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score

D. Theories of Intelligence

1. Psychometric approach- a way of studying intelligence that emphasizes analysis of

the products of intelligence- especially scores on a IQ test

2. Information- processing approach- focuses on mental operations, such as attention

and memory, that underlie intelligent behavior

3. Charles Spearman- g factor- a general intelligence factor that underlies specific

mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

1. s factor- a group of special abilities that Spearman saw as accompanying

general intelligence g

1. L.L. Thurstone- used factor analysis- found “7 primary independent mental

abilities”

a. Numerical ability, reasoning, verbal fluency, spatial visualization,

perceptual ability, memory, verbal comprehension

b. Thought that Spearman’s g factor was average of these 7 abilities

2. Howard Gardner- believed intelligence consists of eight separate kinds of

intelligence

a.Verbal-linguistic- reading/ Logical-Mathematical- solving math

problems/ Bodily-Kinesthetic- balance, endurance/ Visual-spatial- map

reading/ Musical-Rhythmic- creating music/ Interpersonal- sensitivity to

others/ Intrapersonal- knowledge of self/ Naturalistic- ability to work with

plants and animals

b. Savant syndrome- a condition in which a person otherwise limited

in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill,

3. Robert Sternberg- wrote Triarchic theory of intelligence- identifying three

distinct forms of intelligence:

a. Analytic intelligence- analyzing, comparing, evaluating, solving

problems (most stressed in schools)

b. Practical intelligence- applying, adapting to the environment- street

smarts

c. Creative intelligence- using existing information in new situations


268

A. Intelligence Testing

1. Alfred Binet- developer of first test to classify children’s abilities using the concept of

mental age

a. He did not test what students were taught in school- but mental abilities- memory,

attention / brighter children performed like older children

a. Mental age- chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of

performance/ average 8 year old has mental age of 8

2. Lewis Terman- adapted Alfred Binet’s tests for use in the United States as the

Stanford-Binet intelligence test

a. William Stern revised the scoring of the Stanford-Binet test and developed the

intelligence quotient- IQ- mental age divided by chronological age (actual

age) multiplied by 100

b. The mean score is 100 with a standard deviation of 15

3. David Wechsler- developed the Wechsler adult intelligence scales- most widely used

individual intelligence tests in the United States

a. Wechsler intelligence scales- series of intelligence tests tailored to three

different age groups- children- WISC, adults- WAIS, preschoolers- separate

scores for verbal and nonverbal abilities/ verbal- vocab, math/ nonverbal-

nonverbal or performance- ability on task- assembling an object

i. Verbal scale- subtests that measure verbal skills as a part of a

measure of overall intelligence

ii. Performance scale- subtests that measure spatial ability and the

ability to manipulate materials as part of a measure of overall

intelligence

4. Aptitude tests- designed to predict a person’s future performance/ capacity to learn

(ACT or SAT)

5. Achievement tests- designed to assess what a person has learned, or mastered

6. Creativity- the capacity to produce new, high quality ideas or products

a. Divergent thinking- ability to think along many alternative paths to generate

many different solutions to a problem

b. Convergent thinking- ability to apply logic and knowledge to narrow down

the number of possible solutions to a problem or perform some other complex

cognitive task

B. Principles of Test Construction

1. Test- systematic procedure for observing behavior in a standard situation and describing it

with help of a numerical scale or category system

2. Norm- description of the frequency at which particular scores occur, allowing scores to

be compared statistically

3. Percentile scores- indicate percentage who score at or below specific scores

4. Standardization- defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a

pretested group- representative sample

5. Normal Curve- the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describe the distribution of

many physical and psychological attributes- most fall near the average- few far from

6. Reliability- extent to which a test yields consistent results of scores

i. Testing reliability

a. Alternate form- giving an alternate test and comparing results


269

b. Split-half- calculating a person’s score based on halves of the test

c. Test-retest- giving the same test twice over different times

7. Validity- extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

a. Content validity- extent to which a test samples the behavior of interest- psychology=

psychology test of the content covered

b. Construct validity- refers to the extent to which there is evidence measures a

hypothetical construct- a theory that is being tested

c. Predictive validity- success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to

predict- relationship between some criterion and test score/ test score and college

success

1. Criterion- a behavior that a test is designed to predict- test score and college

grades

C. Mental Retardation- test scores that fall below 70

1. Down syndrome- an extra 21st chromosome/ IQ of 40-55

2. Fragile X syndrome- defect on chromosome 23

1. Williams syndrome- defect on chromosome 7/ or by inheriting a gene of

phenylketonuria (PKU) which causes the body to create toxins out of milk and other

foods

2. Familial Retardation- mild cases- no genetic or environmental causes

a. Mild retardation- 50-70 score- 85% have- may learn up to 6th grade level- adults need

some assistance

b. Moderate- 35-49- 10% have- 2nd grade level- adult may need support groups

c. Severe- 20-34- 3-4% have- simple tasks under supervision

d. Profound- below 20- 1-2% have- constant aid and supervision

D. Gifted children- IQ scores of higher than 130 a. Drudge theory- proposes that extraordinary achievement depends on intensive training and

monumental effort- innate talent is also important

E. Group Tests

1. Heredity and environment seem to interact of intelligence scores- differences accounting

for different environments

a. Heritability- percentage of variation within population that is due to heredity

b. Twin studies show more similar IQ scores than siblings or others raised apart

c. Reaction range model- heredity sets limits on one’s intelligence and that environmental

factors determine where people fall within these limits

2. There are differences in the average IQ scores for different racial groups- there is more

variation within a particular group than between groups

3. Cross-cultural studies have demonstrated that the average age IQ scores of groups subject

to social discrimination are frequently lower than the average IQ scores of the dominant

social group

4. Intelligence tests can be culturally biased- an intelligence tests reflects the culture in

which they are developed


270

Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

A. Motivation- a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

a. Motive- reason or purpose for behavior

B. Historic Explanations

1. Instinct theory- a view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic,

involuntary, and unlearned responses

a. Instinct- complex behavior rigidly patterned throughout species unlearned

b. Evolution- Charles Darwin- natural selection- nature selects organisms best

suited for survival

C. Biological Explanations

1. Optimum Arousal theories- each brain has activated different levels of alertness

expressed through curiosity and explains boredom- motivation is to maintain a stable

level of arousal

a. Arousal- general level of activation reflected in physiological systems

b. Yerkes-Dodson law- degree of psychological arousal helps performance but

only up to a certain point- too much or too little can affect performance

2. Drive-reduction theory- the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension

state (drive) that motivates the organism to satisfy the need

a. Need- biological requirement for well-being that is created by an imbalance

in homeostasis

b. Drive- psychological state of arousal created by an imbalance in

homeostasis prompts organism to take action restore balance reduce drive

c. Homeostasis- a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state-

regulation of any aspect of body chemistry- such as blood glucose

a. Drive-reduction theory focuses on removing deficits and homeostasis

regulation focuses on avoiding both deficits and surpluses

D. Cognitive Explanation

1. Incentive theory- behavior is directed towards, or “pushing” us to attaining desirable

stimuli and, or “pulling” us- avoiding unwanted stimuli

a. Incentive- a positive or negative environmental stimulus motivates behavior

2. Extrinsic motivation- a desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or

threats of punishment

3. Intrinsic motivation- desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

E. Clinical Explanations

1. Abraham Maslow- Humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs

2. Motivation based on satisfying needs and progressing to self-actualization

a. Hierarchy of Needs- pyramid of human needs beginning with:

a. Physiological needs- food water,

b. Safety needs- feeling secure,

c. Belongingness and love needs- need to love/ beloved,

d. Esteem needs- need for self-esteem/ achievement,

e. Cognitive needs- pursuit of knowledge

f. Aesthetic needs- expression

g. Self-actualization- the need to live up to one’s fullest and unique

potential


271

A. Physiology of Hunger

B. Satiety- condition of no longer wanting to eat

1. Hypothalamus

a. Lateral hypothalamus- brings on hunger

b. Ventromedial hypothalamus- depresses hunger

a. Satiety- condition of no longer wanting to eat

2. Glucose- form of sugar that circulates throughout your body- run low on glucose and feel

hungry- glucose a major source of energy in your body

a. Orexin- hunger-triggering hormone produced by lateral hypothalamus- when glucose

levels drop- orexin levels rise and you feel hungry

b. Insulin- hormone that allows cells to use glucose for energy or convert it into fat-

when insulin goes up- glucose goes down

3. CCK- short-term signals to stop eating/ monitors hormones in the gut- sends signals to

brain to stop eating

4. Leptin- produced by bloated fat cells, which send long-term messages to stop eating- when

leptin levels high- hunger decreases

5. Set point- the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is set- when body falls

below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the

lost weight

a. Basal metabolic rate- the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure

a. Women slow than men

b. Don’t eat- slower BMR

c. Exercise- speeds up BMR

C. Psychology of Hunger

1. External incentives- sight, sound, and smell of food seem to affect some people more than

others/ for example increased insulin levels

2. Culture- shape our attitudes toward eating

b. Culture also affects taste

D. Obesity

1. Body Mass Index- (BMI)- greater than 30- severely overweight

E. Eating Disorders

1. Anorexia nervosa- normal weight people (usually adolescent females) suffer delusions

about being overweight- put themselves on rigorous exercise and starvation diets that allow

them to 15% or more underweight

2. Bulimia nervosa- characterized by episodes of overeating- usually high calorie foods

followed by vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise

F. Achievement Motivation

1. Achievement- desire for significant accomplishment for mastery things, people, or

ideas for attaining a high standard

a. Henry Murray- Neo-Freudian who first established the concept of

achievement

2. David McClelland- pioneered the use of the TAT to measure individual differences in

need for achievement

a. People who score high in need for achievement tend to work harder and more

persistently than others- can delay gratification


272

b. Need achievement (Competent motivation)- motive influenced by the degree

to which a person establishes specific goals, cares about meeting goals, and

experiences feelings of satisfaction with completion of goals

c. Achievement motivation- motivation and satisfaction based on outperforming

others

d. Subjective wellbeing- combination of cognitive judgment of satisfaction with

life, frequent experiencing of positive moods and emotions

G. Motivating and Work

a. Industrial-organizational psychology- the application of psychological concepts

and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces

b. Personnel psychology- subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee

recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal and development

c. Organizational psychology- a subfield of I/O psychology that examines

organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates

change

d. Flow- a completely involved, focused state of consciousness with diminished

awareness of self and time

a. Task leadership- goal-orientated leadership that sets standards, organizes

work, and focuses attention

b. Social leadership- group orientated leadership that builds teamwork, mediates

conflicts, and offers support

c. Theory X- assumes that workers are basically lazy, error-prone and

extrinsically motivated by money and thus should be directed

d. Theory Y- assumes that given challenge and freedom, workers are

intrinsically motivated to achieve self-esteem and demonstrate their

competence and creativity

1. Emotions- transitory positive or negative experience that is felt as happening to the self-

generated in part by cognitive appraisal of situation, accompanied by both learned and

innate physical responses- involving:

1. Physiological arousal- increased heart rate

2. Expressive behaviors- smiling, laughing

3. Conscious experience- interpretation of situation or event

2. Theories of Emotions- Historical

1. William James and Carl Lange- James-Lange theory- theory that our

experience of emotion is awareness of our physiological responses to an

emotion arousing stimulus

a. Car accident- heart pounding (physiological arousal) then fear

(emotion)

2. Walter Cannon and Philip Bard- Cannon-Bard theory- theory that emotion-

arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and

subjective (brain)experience of emotion

a. Car accident- heart pounding (physical arousal) and fear (emotion) at

same time


273

3. Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer- Two-factor theory of emotion- theory

that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and a cognitive

label that explains the physiological arousal:

a. Attribution- process of explaining the causes of an event

b. Excitation transfer- process of carrying over arousal from one

experience to an independent situation

a. Car accident- pounding heart (physical arousal) and “I am

afraid” cognitive label equals fear (emotion)

4. Robert Zajonic- concluded that some emotional reactions involve no

deliberate thinking and cognition is not always necessary for emotion-

cognition and emotion are separate- before we know what we think about a

situation we know how we feel- hear some rustling of leaves and our heart

starts beating and we jump back and then our brain takes over and examines

the situation

a. Certain pathways skip the cortical thinking parts of the brain and take

a more direct path to the amygdala- emotion control center of the

brain- these short-cuts explain why our feelings are more likely to

control our thoughts than our thoughts control our feelings- jumping at

a noise before knowing what the noise is

5. Cognitive mediational theory of emotion- Richard Lazaras- concluded that

some emotional responses do not require conscious thought- he however

does think that some sort of cognitive appraisal (if it is harmful or pleasant

to us) is necessary or how would we know what we are reacting to- this

maybe unconscious and we may not be aware of the label- example- rustling

of leaves behind us cause us to be scared then we appraise the situation and

notice that it is just the wind, which is not a threat to us

6. Facial feedback hypothesis- expressing a specific emotion, especially

facially, causes the subjective experience of that emotion

7. Evolutionary theories of emotion- assert that emotions are innate reaction

that do not depend on cognitive processes

a. Charles Darwin- face expressions tell people how one feels leads to

survival

3. Physiological Changes due to Emotion

1. Limbic system- activity in the amygdala- central to emotion

a. Pyramidal motor system- voluntary facial movement- fake

b. Extrapyramidal motor system- involuntary facial movement-

automatic

c. Right hemisphere- identification of emotions

2. Autonomic nervous system- part of the nervous system that controls the

glands and the muscles of the internal organs- such as the heart

a. Sympathetic nervous system- arousing the body- pupils dilate,

salivation decreases, skin perspires, respiration increases, heart

accelerates, digestion inhibits, stress hormones secrete

a. SNS- releases norepinephrine- helping to prepare body for

vigorous activity


274

b. Parasympathetic nervous system- calms the body down- opposite

responses of sympathetic nervous system

a. PNS releases acetylcholine- neurotransmitter that helps

protection, nourishment, and growth of body

b. Lie detection- polygraph- detects emotional arousal- not lying

4. Expression of Emotion

1. Nonverbal communication- body language and facial expressions- women

tend to show more of face expressions

2. Culture and gender- North American women smile more, use more gestures,

and have more expressive face expressions/ North American men seem to

express one emotion more- anger

a. Display rules- cultural rules governing how and when a person may

express emotion

b. Cultures also disagree about the meaning behind gestures/ “ok” sign

not a good idea in Italy

c. Social referencing- process of letting another person’s emotional state

guide our own behavior

A. Stress- process of adjusting to circumstances disrupt a person’s equilibrium

a. Stressor- an event or situation to which people must adjust

b. Stress reaction- physical, psychological, and behavioral response

c. Appraisal- how people interpret stress

1. Health Psychology- a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affects

our well-being and our health

2. Behavioral medicine- an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and

medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

B. Responding to Stress

1. Walter Cannon- American psychologist who concluded that physiological and

emotional experiences occur simultaneously

a. Fight-of-Flight- physical reaction initiated by the sympathetic nervous system

that prepare the body for- anger (fight) or flee from it- fear (flight)

b. Acute stress:

i. Hypothalamus causes

ii. Sympathetic nervous system causes

iii. Adrenal medulla (inner surface) causes

iv. Release of catecholamine’s- increased respiration, heart rate,

blood pressure, blood to muscles, digestion slows, pupils dilate

c. Prolonged Stress

i. Hypothalamus causes

ii. Pituitary gland causes

iii. ACTH (hormone) causes

iv. Adrenal cortex (outer surface) causes

v. Release of corticosteroids- increased stored energy, reduces

inflammation, reduces immune system

vi. Release of endorphins- dull pain


275

2. Hans Selye- Psychologists who researched a recurring response to stress that he

called the general adaptation syndrome

a. General adaptation syndrome (GAS)- Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive

response to stress in three stages, alarm, resistance, exhaustion

1. Alarm reaction- Nervous system is activated following an emotional or

physical trauma- your body gets ready for the event (same as Walter Cannon’s

description of fight-or-flight)

2. Resistance- outpouring of stress-related hormones keep your respiration,

temperature, and blood pressure high

3. Exhaustion- with extended exposure your body’s reserves become depleted

and exhaustion happens in illness and eventually death- flood of stress

hormones appears to shrink the hippocampus which may explain why recall is

hard after a stressful event

a. Diseases of adaptation- illnesses that are caused or worsened by

stressors

b. Burnout- gradually intensifying pattern of physical, psychological, and

behavioral dysfunction in response to continuous flow of stressors

C. Sources of Stress

1. Daily hassles- reoccurring sources of aggravation

2. Acute stressors- short bouts of stress

3. Chronic stressors- long term bouts of stress

4. Life-changes- noticeable change that requires readjustment- death of a loved one,

marriage, having a child

a. Determined by life change units- death of a spouse/ death of a parent highest

on Social Readjustment Rating Scale

5. Catastrophes- earthquakes, floods, wars

6. Pressure- expectations to perform or conform

7. Frustration- goal is blocked- failures and losses

8. Conflicts- decision between two choices

a. Approach-approach- choice must be made between two appealing goals

b. Avoidance-avoidance- choice must be made between two unattractive goals

c. Approach-avoidance- most stressful- choice must be made about a goal that

has good and bad aspects or points

d. Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict (double)- two alternatives- each with

positive and negative characteristics.

D. Stress and the Immune system

1. Psychoneuroimmunology- research the interaction of psychological, social,

behavioral, neural, hormonal, and immune system processes that affect the body’s

defenses against disease

2. Psychophysiological illness- “mind-body” illnesses- any stress related physical

illness such as hypertension and some headaches

3. Lymphocytes- two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune

system

a. B lymphocytes- in bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial

infections


276

b. T lymphocytes- in the thymus- attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign

substances

i. Stress hormones reduce lymphocytes

E. Coronary heart disease- number 1 killer among Americans

F. Martin Seligman- American psychologist and proponent of positive psychology

1. Wellness- common result of a healthy lifestyle and healthy attitude

a. Family and Friends- support home and friends leads to wellness

b. Faith factor- faith leads to wellness

2. Positive Psychology- subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of optimal

human functioning and the factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive

a. Flow- state of optimal experience- for flow to occur- the experience must be a

challenge requiring skill have clear goals and provide feedback

b. Happiness- leads to high self-esteem, optimistic outlooks, outgoing, close

friendships, good work skills/ not connected to age, gender, parenthood,

physical attractiveness

3. Explanatory style- habits we have for thinking about the good or bad causes or

events

a. Optimism- positive- things will work- other causes besides oneself

b. Pessimism- negative- find fault within oneself for outcomes- things will never

get better

4. Quit smoking leads to wellness

a. Smoking affects dopamine receptors

5. Weight control and losing weight

6. More aerobic exercise

7. Social support network- friends and social contacts

G. Effects of Perceived Control

1. Type A personality vs. Type B personality- Friedman and Rosenman’s

a. Type A personality- term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally

aggressive and anger-prone people/ risk for heart disease

b. Type B personality- easygoing and relaxed people

2. Predictability- tend to have less impact

3. Perception of control- people with more control have less impact from stressors

H. Coping strategies

1. Problem focused coping- addressing the problem

a. Confronting

b. Seeking social support

2. Emotion-focused coping

a. Self-controlling

b. Distancing- try to not think about

c. Positive reappraisal – minimize negative/ emphasize positive

d. Accepting responsibility

e. Escape/avoidance- wishful thinking

f. Downward comparison—compare self to those less fortunate

3. Cultures

a. Individualistic cultures- favor problem-focused coping- not social support

b. Collectivistic cultures- favor emotion-focused coping- seek social support


277

Abnormal Psychology

A. Introduction to Psychological Disorders

A. Defining Disorder

1. Psychopathology- the study of the patterns of thinking, feeling, behaving

that are maladaptive, disruptive, or uncomfortable for those who are affected

or for those with whom they come in contact.

a. Impaired functioning- difficulty in fulfilling appropriate and expected

family, social, and work-related roles

2. Psychological disorder- a “harmful dysfunction” in which behaviors are

maladaptive, unjustifiable, disturbing, and atypical

a. Neurotic disorder- a psychological disorder that is usually distressing

but that allows one to think rationally and function socially

b. Psychotic disorder- a psychological disorder in which a person loses

contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted

perceptions

B. Explaining Disorders

1. Philippe Pinel- French physician who worked to reform the treatment of

people with mental disorders

a. Syphilis- infects the brain and distorts the mind- made people

focus on physical causes for mental disorders and treatments that

would cure them- led to medical model:

b. Dorthea Dix- worked to improve mental health facilities in

America

2. Medical model- the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be

diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured- when applied to psychological

disorders, the medical model assumes that these “mental” illnesses can be

diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which

may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital

a. Neurobiological model- modern name for medical model

3. Psychological model- view in which mental disorder is seen as arising from

psychological processes- thoughts, learned behaviors

4. Sociocultural model- looking at mental disorders in relation to gender, age,

ethnicity, and other social/ cultural factors

5. Diathesis-stress model- viewing psychological disorders as arising when a

predisposition for a disorder combines with sufficient amounts of stress to

trigger symptoms

6. Bio-psycho-social perspective- a contemporary perspective which assumes

that biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors combine and

interact to produce psychological disorder

C. Classifying Disorders

1. DSM-V- the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders V a widely used system for classifying

psychological disorders and providing common language to identify,

classify, and treat psychological disorders


278

D. Anxiety Disorder

1. Anxiety Disorders- a condition in which intense feelings of apprehension are long-

standing and disruptive

a. Anxiety- vague feeling of apprehension or nervousness- the basis of the

anxiety disorders

2. Types of Anxiety disorders

a. Generalized anxiety disorder- free-floating anxiety- characterized by

disruptive levels of persistence, unexplained feelings of apprehension and

tenseness

b. Panic disorder- characterized by sudden bouts of intense, unexplained panic

attacks- intense breathing, high heart rate, trembling

c. Phobia- characterized by disruptive, irrational fears of objects or situations/

a. Social phobia- extreme fear in social situations

b. Agoraphobia- fear of leaving a place or being alone

c. Specific phobia- involving fear and avoidance of heights,

animals, and other specific stimuli and situations

E. Obsessive-compulsive disorder- characterized by unwanted, repetitive thoughts

(obsessions) and actions (compulsions)

a. Obsessions- repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or

mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress

b. Compulsions- repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to

prevent or reduce anxiety

i. Hoarding- involves compulsively collecting of many different

types of things with the difficulty of discarding or letting go

ii. Body dysmorphic disorder- obsessive preoccupation with flaws

in one’s body. Involves continuously observing one’s body and obsession

with comparison to other peoples’ bodies- often associated with anorexia

iii. Exoriation- referred to as skin picking; can occur to the point of

causing damage

iv. Trichotillomania- when a person compulsively pull their hair to

the point of causing baldness

F. Posttraumatic stress disorder- characterized by reliving a severely upsetting event in

unwanted recurring memories and dreams

a. Reactive attachment disorder- involves people who experience a traumatic

event or neglect and become emotional withdrawn

b. Adjustment disorder- occurs when people have a difficult time adjusting to

a change of life- which could disrupt routines

c. Acute stress disorder- when a person experiences distress and anxiety

following a traumatic event that could have caused death or injury- onset of

symptoms occurs 2 days after the event whereas PTSD is not diagnosed until 4 weeks

after the event

1. Causes of anxiety disorders

a. Heredity- some inherit a predisposition or likelihood for developing

anxiety disorders.

b. Brain function- higher degree of activity in the frontal lobes of people

with obsessive-compulsive disorder


279

c. Heightened autonomic nervous system

d. Neurotransmission- deficiency in serotonin and GABA contributes to

obsessive-compulsive disorder

A. Excessive activity in norepinephrine contributes to panic disorders

e. Emotion center- amygdala also shows different functioning for people

with phobia

f. Evolution- we are likely to fear situations that posed danger to the earlier

generations

g. Learning: Conditioning- associating fear with certain places or

situations/ Observational learning- children learn fears from their parents

or siblings/ Reinforcement- associate emotions with actions depending

on the results that follows those actions- obsessive-compulsive- hand

washing reducing anxiety

A. Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

1. Somatic disorders- psychological problems in which there are symptoms of a physical

disorder without a physical cause

1. Illness anxiety disorder - involving strong, unjustified fear of having

physical illness (anxiety disorders have anxiety about getting sick/

hypochondriac already believes is sick)

2. Somatic symptom disorder- there are numerous physical complaints without

verifiable physical illness

3. Conversion disorder (functional neurological symptom disorder)- a person

displays blindness, deafness, or other symptoms of sensory or motor failure

without a physical cause

B. Dissociative Disorders

1. Dissociative disorders- disorders in which the sense of self has become separated

(dissociated) from pervious memories, thoughts or feelings

1. Dissociative amnesia- a dissociative disorder characterized by loss of

memory in reaction to a traumatic event

2. Dissociative identity disorder- multiple personality theory- a rare and

controversial dissociative disorder in which a person experiences two or

more distinct and alternating personalities

2. Causes

1. Very controversial- maybe linked to child abuse, or other traumatic

childhood events

a. Repression- defense mechanism that unconsciously banishes traumatic

memories

C. Depressive Disorders- conditions in which a person experiences extreme moods, such

as depression or mania

a. Major depressive disorder- a mood disorder in which a person for no

apparent reason experiences at least two weeks of depressed moods,

diminished interest in activities, and other symptoms such as feelings of

worthlessness


280

h. Persistent depressive disorder- symptoms similar to major depressive

disorder but less severe and lasts for over 2 years

D. Bipolar and Related Disorders

i. Bipolar I disorder- a mood disorder (formerly called manic-depressive) in

which the person alternates between the hopelessness of depression and a

manic episode- the overexcited and unreasonably optimistic viewpoint

a. Mania- an elated, very active emotional state

ii. Bipolar II disorder- major depressive episodes alternate with episodes of

hypomania

a. Hypomania- less severe than the manic phases in bipolar I

iii. Cyclothymic disorder- less severe case of bipolar- equivalent to dysthymic

disorder for depression

E. Causes of Mood Disorders

a. Heredity- mood disorders run in families

b. Brain function- brain is less active during periods of depression especially in

frontal lobe

c. Neurotransmitters are important for depression- serotonin and

norepinephrine, and dopamine/ too little possibly depression/ too much

possibly mania

a. Social-Cognitive factors: learned helplessness- feel like they have little

control because of what they have learned in the past/ Attributions- depressed

people feel that the bad situation will last for a long time/ internal- events

happen because of my actions

A. Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorder

1. Schizophrenia- a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and

delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

2. Symptoms

1. Neologisms- words that have meaning only to the person stating them

2. Word salad- chaotic thoughts that don’t have any rhyme or reason

3. Catatonia (movement disorder)- inability to move and to hold body limbs in

rigid positions for long periods of time; referred to as waxy flexibility

4. Delusions- false beliefs that are symptoms of schizophrenia and other

serious psychological disorders

a. Delusions of grandeur- false beliefs that you are more important than

you really are

b. Delusions of persecution- false beliefs that people are out to get you

c. Delusions of sin or guilt- false beliefs that you are responsible for

some misfortune

d. Delusions of influence- you are controlled by some outside force

5. Hallucinations- false perception that are symptoms of schizophrenia and

other serious psychological disorders

a. Auditory hallucination most common

6. Positive vs. Negative symptoms


281

a. Positive symptoms- schizophrenic symptoms such as disorganized

thoughts, hallucinations, and delusions

i. Positive- “In addition, this is what makes them

schizophrenic”

b. Negative symptoms- schizophrenic symptoms such as absence of

pleasure, lack of speech, and flat affect- no emotion at all

i. Negative- “what missing to be normal”

3. Causes of schizophrenia

a. Genetics- produces a predisposition to get this disorder/ runs in

families- twin studies reveal highest chance if one identical twin has it

b. Brain structure- smaller amounts of brain tissue and large fluid-filled

spaces around the tissue called ventricles/ thalamus is also smaller

c. Brain function- frontal lobe (thinking) shows slower activity

d. Neurotransmission- increased number of receptor sites for dopamine

which may explain delusions and hallucinations

e. Prenatal viruses- viral infection in the middle of pregnancy- like the

flu

f. Psychological factors: stress may set off schizophrenia/ disturbed

family relationships may make symptoms worse

g. Age of Father- older father’s conceiving children higher chance

A. Personality disorders are psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and

lasting behavior patterns that disrupt social functioning

1. Personality disorders: Odd- Eccentric Cluster A:

a. Paranoid personality disorder- show deep distrust of other people

b. Schizoid personality disorder- detached from social relationships/ limited range of

emotions- true hermits

c. Schizotypal personality disorder- detachment from, and great discomfort in social

relationships/ odd perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors

2. Personality disorders: Dramatic-Erratic Cluster B:

a. Borderline personality disorder- instability of emotions, self-image- behavior and

relationships

b. Antisocial personality disorder- a person- usually male- shows a lack of

conscience for wrongdoing and a lack of respect for the rights of others

c. Narcissistic personality disorder- exaggerated ideas of self-importance and

achievements, preoccupations with fantasies of success

d. Histrionic personality disorder- excessive emotionality and preoccupation with

being the center of attention/ dramatic behavior/ emotional shallowness

3. Personality disorders related to anxiety: Anxious Fearful Cluster C:

a. Avoidant personality disorder- sensitive about being rejected that personal

relationships become difficult

b. Dependent personality disorder- behave in clingy, submissive ways and display a

strong need to have others take care of them


282

c. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder- preoccupation with orderliness,

perfection, and control

B. Childhood Disorders

1. Externalizing or under controlled category

1. Conduct disorder- mostly boys- relatively stable pattern of aggression,

disobedience, destructiveness, and other problematic behaviors

a. May signal antisocial personality disorder

2. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder- (ADHD)- impulsive and unable to

concentrate on an activity

2. Internalizing or over controlled category

1. Separation anxiety disorder- constantly worry about being lost, kidnapped,

or harm caused to a parent

a. School phobia- fear of going to school

3. Pervasive developmental disorders- also known as autistic spectrum disorders-

neither externalizing or internalizing- show severe problems in communication and

impaired social relationships

1. Autistic disorder- most severe of this group- show early no attachments to

caregivers/ language development impaired/ trouble focusing and sharing

attention with others/ focus on nonsocial aspects of human interaction

2. Asperger’s disorder- less severe on autistic spectrum- high- functioning

autism/ have impaired social relationships/ engage in repetitive behaviors

and may memorize meaningless facts- like phone numbers


283

Methods of Therapy

A. Psychotherapy- an emotionally charged, confiding, interaction between a trained therapist

and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties

a. Eclecticism approach- an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s

problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

b. Psychiatrists- medical doctors who have completed special training in the treatment

of psychological disorders

B. Psychoanalysis- Freud’s theory of personality that therapeutic techniques attributes our

thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts

a. Psychoanalytical Methods

1. Free association- talking discussing whatever comes to the patient’s mind

2. Resistance- in psychoanalysis the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-

laden material- sensitive areas- client does not want to talk about

3. Interpretation- psychoanalysis- analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings,

resistance, and other significant behaviors in order to promote insight

4. Transference- in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of

emotions such as love or hate that are linked with other relationships-

transferring past relationship feelings onto the therapist

5. Freudian slips- slips of the tongue reveal unconscious motives and conflicts

6. Dream interpretation

a. Manifest content- remembered storyline of the dream

b. Latent content- symbolized portion of the dream- therapist interest-

unconscious content

b. Types of Therapy

7. Psychoanalysis- long sessions and many visits focusing on dreams,

resistance and transference and events from childhood

8. Psychodynamic therapy- fewer sessions/ focus on current issues/ less money

9. Interpersonal therapy- (Interpersonal psychotherapy) would seek insight into

problems but focus on the patient finding solutions and dealing with

conflicts that are going on currently or after childhood

C. Humanistic therapies- aims to promote self-fulfillment by increasing self-acceptance and

self-awareness of the client’s feeling, actions, and thoughts.

a. Client-centered therapy- person centered therapy- a humanistic therapy developed

by Carl Rogers in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a

genuine, accepting, empathic, environment to facilitate the client’s growth

1. Reflection- active listening- therapist’s listening by echoing, restating, and

clarifying in an understanding way

2. Unconditioned positive regard- acceptance- a therapist attitude that conveys

a caring for, and acceptance of, the client as a valued person

3. Empathy- therapist’s attempt to appreciate and understand how the world

looks from the client’s point of view

4. Congruence- a consistency between the way therapists feel and they act

toward clients- not beating around the bush


284

A. Gestalt therapy- developed by Fritz Perls and his wife- people create their own versions of

reality and people’s natural psychological growth continues only as long as what they

perceive is consistent with the actual environment

a. An active treatment deigned to help clients get in touch with genuine

feelings and disregard false ones- line up thoughts with factors in the

environment

B. Behavior therapies- applies learning principles to elimination of unwanted behaviors

1. Behavior therapy- treatments use classical conditioning principles to change

behavior

b. Mary Cover Jones- was interested in reversing “Little Albert’s” fear of a

white rate, which Watson established

a. Jones treated “Peter” who was fearful of furry objects- like a rabbit

b. Jones focused on counterconditioning- a technique that is based on

classical conditioning involves modifying behavior by

conditioning a new response that is incompatible with a previously

learned response

i. Rabbit was brought into room- far away from Peter/ Peter

sat in a high chair and ate favorite snack, which made him

feel good/ as days passed Peter observed others

(observational learning) playing with rabbits and rabbit was

brought closer as he continued to eat his favorite snack-

Peter began to associate site of rabbit with positive feelings

of eating his favorite snack- replaced original conditioned

response- fear/ with a new conditioned response- positive

c. Systematic desensitization- Joe Wolpe- a behavioral treatment for anxiety

in which clients visualize a graduated series of anxiety provoking stimuli

while remaining relaxed

a. Progressive relaxation- clients are taught relaxation exercises

b. Clients make a desensitization hierarchy-a sequence of

increasingly fear-provoking situations

c. Wolpe would have clients progress through the hierarchy- least

stressful to more using progressive relaxation techniques if anxiety

develops- then clients would face fear in reality

d. Exposure techniques- methods in which clients remain in the presence of

strong anxiety provoking stimuli until the intensity of their emotional

reactions decrease– making someone ride a roller coaster

a. Flooding- an exposure technique for reducing anxiety that involves

keeping a person in a feared, but harmless, situation

e. Aversive conditioning- type of counterconditioning that associates an

unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior such as

drinking (CS) alcohol + (UCS) drug (that automatically causes nausea) =

(UCR) nausea/ (CS) alcohol= (CR) nausea

f. Bell and Pad treatment- used to treat nighttime bedwetting by conditioning

arousal from sleep in response to bodily signals of a full bladder- child

learns to associate sound of bell with pea hitting bed- (CS) bell triggers

CR- getting out of bed


285

2. Behavior modification- treatments that use operant conditioning principles

g. Token economy- an operant conditioning procedure that attempts to

modify behavior by giving rewards for desired behaviors- these tokens can

be exchanged for various privileges or treats

a. Positive reinforcement- a therapy method that uses rewards to

strengthen desirable behaviors

h. Modeling- demonstrating desirable behaviors as a way of teaching them to

clients

a. Assertive training and social skills training- methods for teaching

clients how to interact with others more comfortably and

effectively

i. Extinction- gradual disappearance of a conditioned response through

nonreinforcement- not reinforcing a child with attention- the expected

response- the child expects for doing something bad

j. Punishment- a therapy method that weakens undesirable behavior by

following it with an unpleasant stimulus

a. Positive punishment- applying punishment- like a hand, or being

grounded

b. Negative punishment- taking something away- like freedom

3. Cognitive-Behavior therapy- learning based treatment methods that help

clients change the way they think, as well as the way they behave

k. Rational-Emotive therapy- Albert Ellis- a treatment designed to identify

and change self-defeating thoughts that lead to anxiety and other

symptoms of disorder

a. ABC model- A-Activating event- can’t find a date/ B-belief- “No

one will ever ask me”/ C Consequence- depression

i. Ellis would teach client that it is the belief- not the

activating event- which causes depression- the consequence

1. Client would learn to change the beliefs to alleviate the

consequences, or characteristics of the disorder

A. Cognitive therapy- therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and

acting; based on the assumptions that thoughts intervene between events an our emotional

reactions/ failed test- thought- I’m worthless- feelings of depression

1. Cognitive Therapy (CT)- developed by Aaron Beck- sought to actively reverse

negative thoughts and irrational beliefs that surrounded events to improve feelings

and emotions through positive explanatory styles

a. Clients developed negative cognitive bias- consistently distorting

experiences in a negative way

1. Beck would have clients not only change beliefs but actually go out

and test them in situations reporting back outcomes- which Beck

would then analyze

B. Group Therapy- a form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working

simultaneously with a small group of clients


286

1. Family therapy- therapy that treats the family as a system- views an individual’s

unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other members of the family-

attempts to guide the family toward positive relationships and improved

communication

2. Couples therapy- couples learn better communication skills, solve problems, identify

weaknesses and strengths about relationship

3. Advantages:

a. Help more people in less time

b. Sessions cost less

c. Other people have similar problems

d. Group meetings foster a sense of community

C. Careers in Psychotherapy

1. Clinical psychologist- has a Ph.D./ expertise in research, assessment, and therapy/

supplemented by a supervised internship/ most have private practices

2. Clinical or psychiatric social worker- two-year Master of Social work graduate

program/ most deal with personal and family problems

3. Counselor- marriage and family counselors specialize in problems arising from

family situations/ abuse counselors work with people and addictions

4. Psychiatrist- physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders/

can prescribe medication/ deal with the more serious problems

D. Evaluating Psychotherapies

1. Meta-analysis- reading and analyzing a variety of sources, patients, doctors, family

members, research data- to come up with a conclusion

a. 75% of clients say they are satisfied with therapy

b. Cognitive, interpersonal, and behavior therapy work best for depression

c. Cognitive-behavior therapy works well for the eating disorders- bulimia

d. Behavior modification- works best for enuresis- bed wetting

E. Alternative therapies

1. Therapeutic touch therapy- therapists move hands above the person’s body to “push

energy fields into balance”- don’t actually touch the body- does not seem to work

2. Light exposure therapy- deals with Seasonal affective disorder- disorder characterized

by feelings of depression that coincide with winter months/ by exposing clients to

more light- does seem to work

F. Biomedical therapy- treatment of psychological disorders that involves changing the

brain’s functioning by using prescribed drugs, electroconvulsive therapy, or surgery

1. Types of Drugs

a. Antipsychotic drugs- Neuroleptics- a category of medications used primarily to

treat severe disorders like schizophrenia

1. Thorazine was one of the first drugs used- negative side effects include

dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation

2. Could also cause tardive dyskinesia- muscle tremors like Parkinson’s

disease, associated with low levels of dopamine

a. Haloperidol- like thorazine- but less sedation or feelings of tiredness

3. Newer generation neuroleptics

a. Clozaril- new drug with few side effects is the most effective/ treats

positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia- but is expensive


287

because patients must get blood tested regularly for the chance of

damage to white blood cells

i. Could cause agranulocytosis- fatal blood disease

2. Antianxiety drugs- Anxiolytics- category of medication used to treat anxiety

a. These drugs boost the neurotransmitter GABA that helps our brain to reduce the

anxiety associated with stress

1. Valium, Librium, Xanax- all of which should not be taken with alcohol

3. Antidepressant drugs- a category of medications used to treat major depression

a. MAOIs- these drugs affect the levels of serotonin by boosting the effect and activity

b. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors-(SSRIs)- Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil - blocks the

reuptake of serotonin, which causes serotonin to remain active in the synapse longer

and therefore having more effect than it otherwise would

c. Depression is usually cyclical- which means that depression has its ups and downs

so in order to see if a drug works it must be taken for at least a month

4. Lithium and Anticonvulsants

a. Lithium is used to treat bipolar

1. Depakote- used to treat bipolar when lithium does not work/ has fewer side

effects and does not require a high dosage

5. Electroconvulsive therapy- a therapy for major depression in which a brief electric

current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient

a. Used to treat depression/ works faster than drugs and is often used with suicidal

patients/ side effects include memory loss and therapists are not quite sure how

ECT works, which leads to controversy

6. Psychosurgery- surgical procedures that destroy tissue in small regions of the brain

a. Lobotomy- a now-rare form of psychosurgery once used to try to calm

uncontrollably emotional or violent patients- the procedure cut the nerves that

connect the frontal lobes of the brain to the deeper emotional centers

7. Community psychology- a movement to minimize or prevent psychological disorders

through changes in social systems and through community mental health programs

a. Deinstitutionalization- release of patients from mental hospitals to community at

large- development of drug treatments led to an 80 percent decline in the number of

hospitalized mental patients in the second half the 20th century- led community

psychology


288

Research Methods

A. Research Strategies

a. Scientific Method a set of assumption, attitudes, procedures that guide researchers in

creating questions to investigate, generating evidence, drawing conclusions

1. Theory- an integrated explanation that makes predictions and observations

2. Hypothesis- a testable prediction taken from a theory

3. Operational definitions- precise procedures used to define variables that others can

replicate- or repeat

4. Variable- factor or characteristic that is manipulated or measured

B. Critical Thinking- Thinking that takes all factors into account

1. Researcher bias- researchers that avoid thinking that does not support their conclusion

2. Participant bias- participants respond in certain ways because they know they are being

observed

3. Hindsight bias- “I knew it all along” you foresee the answer

4. Overconfidence- over confident towards results/ less likely to list to others

C. Descriptive Studies- describing the way others act through observation

1. Case study- one person studied in-depth

a. Sigmund Freud

b. Tends to be atypical- not good representation of general public

2. Naturalistic observation- observing someone in their natural environment

a. Researcher can’t be seen or participant knows being observed

3. Surveys- self-reported attitudes or behaviors through random samples/ good for large

groups of people

a. False-consensus effect- overestimating how others share our beliefs and behaviors

b. Wording effect- how you word questions influence answers

c. Social desirability bias- participants feel obligated to answer questions with

socially favorable opinions

d. Population- all the cases in a group from which samples drawn

D. Sampling- process of selecting participants who are members of the population

1. Representative sample- group of research participants whose characteristics accurately

represent population

e. Random sample- research participants from population who had an equal chance

of being selected

f. Biased sample- research participants from population who did not have an equal

chance of being selected

E. Longitudinal Study

1. Follows the same group over a period of many years

2. Very expensive and time consuming

F. Cross-Sectional Study- compares diverse groups- gender, age, background at one time

G. Experiments

1. Researcher manipulates one or more factors to observe effect on another variable by

holding it constant

2. Independent variable- researcher actively manipulates/ researchers main interest

a. Variable whose effect is being studied

3. Dependent variable- variable that is influenced by the independent variable

a. Variable that shows the measurement


289

a. Does smoking (independent variable) cause a runner to go slower

(dependent variable)

4. Null hypothesis- assertion independent variable manipulated by the experimenter will

have no effect on the dependent variable measured by the experimenter

5. Experimental group- those exposed to the independent variable- smoking

6. Control group- those not exposed to the independent variable/ held for comparison

7. Confounding variables- a variable other than independent variable that could affect the

dependent variable- variables the researcher does not count on- previous time in mile

1. Controlling confounding variables

a. Double-blind procedure- researcher and participants don’t know whose

getting the independent variable

b. Placebo- non-active substance or condition administered instead of

independent variable

A. Correlational Studies- does not provide explanation

1. Research project designed to see how two variables are related to each other

2. Correlation coefficient- statistical measurement of relationship that shows prediction; closer

to 1.00 the stronger the relationship

3. Scatter plot- represents values of variables and shows direction of relationship

a. Positive correlation- move in same direction

b. Inverse correlation- move in opposite direction

4. Illusory correlation- we believe there is a relationship because we are more likely to notice

things that confirm our beliefs

B. Reporting Data

1. Descriptive statistics- numbers that summarize a set of research data

a. Inferential statistics- mathematical procedures that help psychologists make

inferences about what data means

A. Measures of Central Tendency

a. Mode- most frequently occurring score

b. Mean- the average of total scores

c. Median- middle score

d. Skewed distribution- atypical scores that could distort central tendency scores

B. Measures of Variation

a. Range- difference between highest and lowest scores

b. Standard deviation- how much scores vary from the mean

c. Statistical significance- a statistical statement of how likely result occurred by chance

d. Percentile score- a value that indicates the percentage of people or observations that

fall below a given point in a normal distribution

e. Standard score- a value that indicates the distance in standard deviations between a

given score and the mean of all the scores in a data set

C. Ethics

a. Informed consent- knowing what the experiment involves

b. Right to be protected from harm or discomfort- participants know ahead of time

c. Right to confidentiality- never release information

d. Right to debriefing- full explanation of what has been done/ given after the

experiment.


290

Documents

shhspsychologyprogram.weebly.comshhspsychologyprogram.weebly.com/uploads/2/3/1/0/... · Analogies of Psychology Sterling Heights High School McLane 2 History of Psychology 1. What