Upload
leduong
View
219
Download
1
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Running Head: THEORY AND PRACTICE 1
QUESTION
Critically analyze how theory informs practice in the field of sport management and more
specifically sport sponsorship. (Max 20 pages plus references).
Introduction
To critically analyze how theory informs practice, it is necessary to establish working
definitions for both “theory” and “practice.” Providing the epistemological (i.e. what is
knowledge) and ontological (i.e. what is real) perspectives from which I view the question may
be even more important, as doing so establishes the rules and boundaries [i.e. framework] of
belief from which I develop my response. Therefore, the epistemological and ontological
perspective from which I view this question is provided, and the meanings of theory and practice
as defined within this response are framed, before engaging into critical analysis.
Additionally, I believe it essential to examine this question from both a scholarly and
practitioner perspective. First, the role of theory in sport management practice from scholars will
be extrapolated from recent commentary in academic publications. Then, an elaboration on
noticeable research trends by practitioners within sport management will be discerned from
available resources. Lastly, with consideration to both perspectives, I will—synthesizing aspects
of each with my own experiences from both—present my personal position on how theory
informs practice in the sport management field.
My Lens for Understanding and Reality: American Pragmatism
One criticism by Mintzberg (2005) when speaking about what he believes to be the
prevalent mindset of researchers, says, “We have altogether too many geniuses in research and
not enough ordinary, open minds” (p. 23). He elaborates on his view by noting that the creativity
issue is less about the capability of researchers to be creative, but attributes it to becoming
THEORY AND PRACTICE 2
“blocked,” by a fear of—or, at minimum, a cautiousness related to—being perceived as “correct”
in the publication process (Mintzberg, 2005, p. 23). Moreover, he claims that much research is
often driven by theory that is fashionable within academia at that time; warning that when
scrutinized under “single [narrow] (my inclusion) lenses, organizations look distorted”
(Mintzberg, 2005, p. 18). He concludes his thoughts on the topic by recalling the “rule of the
tool”:
“[Y]ou give a little boy a hammer and everything looks like a nail. Narrow concepts are
no better than narrow techniques. Organizations don’t need to be hit over the head with
either” (Mintzberg, 2005, p. 18).
Mintzberg’s (2005) sentiments strongly align with my own. While a hammer is a useful
tool, possessing access to a toolbox full of different tools is more useful. My desire for a full
repertoire of tools and an open mind for inquiry leads me to typically adhere to an
epistemological and ontological perspective of American pragmatism (referred to as just
“pragmatism” herein), as I believe it allows me to bring the largest toolbox for addressing
research problems.
Generally speaking, pragmatism encourages a full and holistic examination of the
phenomenon or phenomena of interest. Ontologically, pragmatism recognizes both the physical
and constructed worlds as “real.” In describing pragmatism ontologically, Rosenthal (2011) says,
“There is an inseparable relationship between the human biological organism bound to a natural
environment and the human knower who through meanings constitutes the world” (p. 6).
Correspondingly, the epistemological perspective of pragmatism accepts knowledge as
both objective and constructed (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004), its inherent nature rejecting the
incompatibility thesis (Howe, 1988) that quantitative or qualitative purists consider to be truth.
THEORY AND PRACTICE 3
Thus, scholars (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004) suggest that pragmatism represents a mixed
methods way of knowing, with mixed methods research serving as a “third research paradigm”
(p. 14). With its ability to function in both an objective and constructed context of inquiry,
Feilzer (2010) argues that a pragmatist perspective lends itself to “solving practical problems in
the ‘real world’ ” (p. 8).
As a former sport manager and sponsorship practitioner, I was unaware that I actually
followed an epistemological and ontological perspective of pragmatism; though, reflecting back
during that time, it is quite apparent that I was a pragmatist in all regards. Further, I would argue
that many of the sport practitioners with whom I worked—especially those within the area of
sport sponsorship—would most closely associate with pragmatism than any other explicitly
stated epistemological or ontological perspective. When evaluating sponsorships, there was
always a need to measure objectively with return-on-investment (ROI), and subjectively with
return-on-objective (ROO) metrics. From my experience, of the various types of sport
practitioners, I would suggest that sponsorship consultants are most likely to be adherents to a
mixed methods way of knowing and perceiving reality. As I later bring this response to a
conclusion, my pragmatist perspective will substantially influence how I synthesize the
following scholarly and practitioner positions gleaned from available literature into one that I
state as my own.
With an understanding of the epistemological and ontological perspective applied in
developing a response now provided, this next section frames a working definition of theory for
use in critically analyzing how theory informs practice.
THEORY AND PRACTICE 4
What is Theory?
Sutherland (1975) defines theory as "an ordered set of assertions about a generic behavior
or structure assumed to hold throughout a significantly broad range of specific instances" (p. 9).
Speaking on Sutherland’s (1975) definition of theory, Weick (1989) further elaborates by
describing his understanding of theory as being on a continuum of explanatory strength:
“As generalizations become more hierarchically ordered, behaviors and structures that
are the focus of the generalizations become more generic, and as the range of specific
instances that are explained becomes broader, the resulting ideas are more deserving of
the label theory [italics in original]” (p. 517).
In other words, theory provides a generalizable explanation for how specific behaviors or
structures function within a phenomenon or phenomena, with the stronger and more
comprehensive explanations serving as stronger representations of theory. Mintzberg (2005)
supports a more inclusive portrayal of the word theory; placing lists, typologies, relationships
among variables, causation models, and full explanatory models along a continuum similar to
that which Weick (1989) proposes. This response adheres to the more inclusive view of theory as
proposed by Mintzberg (2005); functioning along a continuum of increasing explanatory power.
An inclusive and broadly functional definition of theory is one that I believe most aptly reflects
its application in actual sport management practice. Further, Mintzberg’s (2005) overall
discourse on what constitutes theory aligns well with a pragmatist-held perspective accepting
action-based, fallibilistic truth; as he asserts that “we must choose our theories according to how
useful they are, not how true they are” (p. 1). Pragmatism views truth as a process rather than a
destination, believing that any current truth is provisional—being considered true to the degree
that it currently works (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004).
THEORY AND PRACTICE 5
Yet, what of “practice” in this critical analysis—what is it, and how does it function? The
following section provides a working definition of practice, and establishes boundaries of what
constitutes sport management practice as analyzed within this response.
What is Practice?
For purposes of this response, sport management practice and sport business, while
overlapping, are not the same. Sport business is synonymous with the sport industry, and its size
can be estimated in a national context by calculating a Gross Domestic Sport Product (GDSP),
referring to “the market value of the nation’s output of sport-related goods and service” (Meek,
1997, p. 16). The sport industry within the United States (U.S.), however, is not classified as its
own industry (Milano & Chelladurai, 2011). Instead, the sport industry’s GDSP has typically
been conceived by scholars (Meek, 2007; Milano & Chelladurai, 2011) as containing parts of
multiple industries, with the largest being Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation (Brown, Rascher,
Nagel, & McEvoy, 2010). A study by Milano and Chelladurai (2011) provides conservative
($168.469 billion), moderate ($189.338 billion), and liberal ($207.503) estimates of the 2005
U.S. GDSP, with a comparison between its moderate estimate and a similarly conducted 1995
estimate of the U.S. GDSP by Meeks (1997); suggesting that the relative size of the U.S. sport
industry has actually declined between those time periods.
Sport management practice differs in that we are speaking to those individuals who
engage in the practice of sport management, which would not include every employee within a
sport business. For instance, a Nike factory worker does not require an understanding of sport
and its effective application in business to competently perform the duties of his or her position.
A Nike marketing manager, however, would be well served to understand how to apply—
whether focusing on leagues, teams, sports, or athletes—sport elements effectively in the
THEORY AND PRACTICE 6
company’s marketing campaigns. Another example of a position within the sport management
practice is that of a sport sponsorship consultant. To accurately assess the value of sponsorship
with a sport property for his or her client (i.e. potential sponsor), the consultant must know the
dynamics between the property and its sport environment, as well as possible synergies (i.e.
congruence or fit) between the property and client (Gwinner & Eaton, 1999; Roy & Cornwell,
2003, 2004; Ruth & Simonin, 2003).
Thus, sport management practice is framed within this response to necessitate that the
practitioner (or sport manager) possesses a knowledge and relevant understanding of sport and
its application within his or her particular sport business to conduct his or her duties. Depending
on the particular sport business (e.g. sport retail, sport sponsorship, college sport, professional
sport, etc.), the application of sport and the duties of the sport manager may vary substantially.
At this juncture, with my pragmatist lens shared and key terms framed, the following
section attempts to capture representative perspectives of how theory informs practice within the
scholarly sport management community. Please note that this response does not claim that the
following section is an exhaustive and fully comprehensive representation of scholarly
perspective within sport management, but a reasonable representation of the intended perspective
based on the literature that is available.
A Scholarly Perspective of How Theory Informs Sport Management Practice
As should likely be expected with a field as multidisciplinary in nature as sport
management, scholars in sport management possess multiple and, at times, contrary perspectives
on how theory informs practice. Furthermore, some scholars share their perspectives as to how
theory should inform sport management practice—encouraging changes based on these
perspectives. I highlight a sampling of these scholarly perspectives with the intention to provide
THEORY AND PRACTICE 7
a general sense of the varying viewpoints within the discipline. The end outcome is hopefully a
portrait of scholarly perspectives that represents the general factions within sport management—
its painting done with broad strokes.
Re-centering of Sport Management Scholarship (Amis & Silk, 2005)
John Amis and Michael Silk (2005) contend that scholarship in sport management is too
centered, which “limits scholars in serving a multitude of needs within the sport practice” (p.
356). They assert that sport management “is—as are other social science disciplines—dominated
by quite fixed and rigid boundaries” (p. 360). Given the multidisciplinary nature inherent in the
academic discipline of sort management, they state a need to challenge the hegemonic emphasis
to follow certain methods and apply certain paradigms, neglecting others. While not explicitly
stated (though, very much so implicitly) Amis and Silk (2005) speak against an overbearing of
literature adhering to a positivist perspective of author neutrality and pure objectiveness as they
note:
“…all of our work is what Sparkes (1995) termed persuasive fiction, even those pieces
that offer a stripped down, abstracted, detached form of language, an impersonal voice, a
conclusion of propositions, or formulae involving a realist or externalizing technique that
objectify through depersonalized and supposedly inert representations of the disengaged
analyst (Sparkes, 1995)” (p. 364).
Rather, Amis and Silk (2005) propose a re-centering of sport management scholarship
that drives the emphasis of research (and thus theory) to “confronting social injustices and
promoting social change (p. 358);” emphasizing stances held by Giroux (2001) and Frisby
(2005). They implore their fellow scholars to engage in research that is less market-driven in its
nature, and to focus less on traditional managerial issues. Encouraging an academic discipline
THEORY AND PRACTICE 8
more accepting of various epistemologies and methods, they call for a re-centering that is more
actively engaged in the welfare of the public; implementing theory “as a resource to think and
act” (Amis & Silk, 2005, p. 360).
While recommending a re-centering of sport management scholarship, it is important to
note that Amis and Silk (2005) are not discouraging the continuation of research pertaining to
traditional managerial issues. They state that:
“…such developments do not disregard the managerial issues that have traditionally
dominated the discipline, but they do place emphasis on a wider consideration of the
history, content, location, and implications of both the issues at hand and the research
designs appropriate to investigate them” (Amis & Silk, 2005, p. 359).
Pertaining to sponsorship. Amis and Silk (2005) use research pertaining to sport
sponsorship as an example of how scholars may be following practice in developing their
theories, rather than developing theories that inform practice. Their example of research direction
in sponsorship claims that most research views “sport sponsorship investments as neutral or
inherently positive,” rather than considering “who might be disadvantaged by such investments”
(p.359). Moreover, their example alludes to the notion that scholars in that area of research may
be focused on publishing based on practitioner wants, instead of conducting research to develop
theories explaining issues in the areas necessary for its advancement.
As stated in the introduction of this section on scholarly perspectives, not all academics
are in agreement with one another as it pertains to theory building, nor do they agree on the most
appropriate direction for sport management scholarship as it continues towards maturity. The
following researcher’s perspective is quite contrary to that of Amis and Silk (2005).
Test, Adapt, and Create within a “Relevant” Sport Context (Chalip, 2006)
THEORY AND PRACTICE 9
Laurence Chalip’s (2006) position on where sport management scholars should focus
their research energies could be considered oppositional to the approach that Amis and Silk
(2005) propose. While Amis and Silk (2005) urge scholars to focus more on social, cultural, and
political issues that are pertinent to sport management practice, Chalip (2006) encourages his
peers to pursue a more deliberate focus of the market-driven issues (using empirically-based
methods) that the former authors suggest as “somewhat narrow (Amis & Silk, 2005, p. 356):”
“…sport-specific research foci need to be identified, and sport-specific research questions
must be formulated. One manifestly useful place to begin is with the claims that sport
organizations commonly make on the public purse. After all, the claims we make about
the significance and value of our industry represent our loftiest aspirations for sport.
Anything we do to further those aspirations will also enhance sport’s significance and
value” (Chalip, 2006, p. 4).
Chalip (2006) asserts that for sport management to more firmly establish itself as a
unique academic discipline—rather than a derivative of a parent discipline—its scholars must
engage in two theory development processes to establish its distinctiveness. His derivative model
of theory development, borrowing and testing theories from sport management’s various parent
disciplines, determines the degree to which theory from the parent is applicable in sport
management (Chalip, 2006). A sport-focused model of theory building involves either creating
new theory that is grounded within sport phenomena or finding relevant mainstream theory to
test within a purely sport application (Chalip, 2006). By developing theory using these two
processes, he implies that—as it pertains to the view of the institutions that house its programs—
sport management’s status as an academic discipline will mature into a similar, yet distinct, field
of study from its parents (Chalip, 2006).
THEORY AND PRACTICE 10
Acknowledging the greater difficulty in developing theory using the sport-focused model
he promotes, Chalip (2006) suggests scholars focus such endeavors towards research in what he
refers to as “sport legitimations” (p. 4). These legitimations—health, salubrious socialization,
economic development, community development, and national identity—serve as justifications
for promoting sport within society; suggesting positive outcomes (Chalip, 2006). Additionally,
he encourages scholars to conduct research that examines popular wisdom differently than—as
he suggests—has been traditionally conducted by sport sociologists and sport psychologists
(Chalip, 2006). Where fallacies in popular wisdom relative to sport are exposed, Chalip (2006)
suggests that scholars should probe “the management and research implications (p. 10)”
associated with those fallacies. According to Chalip (2006), “…empirical scrutiny of a popular
belief can render substantial new theoretical insight” (p. 14).
In a recent article discussing theory development (Fink, 2013), Janet Fink speaks to what
she views as being necessary for developing theory in sport management. She shares her
perspective on the current situation between sport management theory and practice, how theory
can inform sport management practice, and possible constraints for when it does not.
Contextual Weaving of Sport into Theory (Fink, 2013)
In speaking to the process of how she creates her research, Fink (2013) emphasizes
selecting a research topic of personal interest, conducting a thorough literature review relative to
her topic across applicable disciplines, and writing notes in her own words to better master the
meaning of content. She stresses that her process is not linear, but rather iterative and
necessitates a substantial amount of time. Considering the level of refinement that occurs during
the iterative process of her research, she notes that it is rare that her “final written work mirror
the detailed outline (p. 19)” from which she initiated the process (Fink, 2013).
THEORY AND PRACTICE 11
In highlighting items she believes to be essential for theory development within the
discipline, Fink (2013) states the need for theory to be insightful and contextually sport-
integrated. She believes that “the context of sport must be densely woven into any work in order
to make a strong theoretical contribution to the sport management literature [italics in original]”
(Fink, 2013, p. 18). Furthermore, she encourages the use and acceptance of multiple theoretical
perspectives and related theories that arise from the process; allowing for differing theories
relative to a particular phenomenon or similar phenomena (Fink, 2013). In quoting Chalip
(2006), she affirms a stance that developing theory is necessary for the survival of sport
management as an academic discipline.
Yet, Fink (2013) acknowledges that—from conversations with some doctoral students—
that there is an existing perception, to some degree, of “a large chasm between theory and
practice” (p. 20). In further clarifying these conversations, she explains that the perception is that
theory-driven researchers (e.g. scholars) are unable to relate or influence sport management
practice; likewise, sport management practitioners are unable to relate or influence theory-driven
researchers (Fink, 2013). While she even notes that this perception appears to be ubiquitous
among many academic disciplines, Fink (2013) provides examples of researchers (i.e. Bruening,
Chalip, Cunningham, Frisby, and Irwin) who she considers influential in both theory and practice
through various means (i.e. service learning projects, participatory action research, and
consultancy). Stating her position on the topic, she contends that “[t]heory and practice should
not be thought of as ‘either/or’ entities,” but rather that “they can operate in tandem, and each
can initiate the other” (Fink, 2013, p. 20).
Fink (2013) does, however, admit that developing theory while influencing practice
requires significant time investment, and more expertise than just one’s research area. In
THEORY AND PRACTICE 12
addition, she cites environmental constraints in academia that scholars must encounter and
overcome when developing theory. Considering Walsh’s (2011) contention that the academic
discipline of management functions in a “volume matters (p. 219)” culture to also be germane to
the sport management academic discipline, Fink (2013) posits that this emphasis on quantity
may be negatively affecting quality. To support this possibility, she notes that while the number
of publications increases each year, only 40.6% of top journal articles are cited in the initial five
year period following publication (Bauerline, Gad-el-Hak, Grody, McKelvey, & Trimble, 2010).
Such statistics raise a concerning question: How can developing theory inform practice, when the
theory being developed is not informing the theory which follows it?
The last scholarly perspective I highlight may partially answer the question just posed.
Irwin and Ryan (2013) argue that collaboration between sport management scholars and
practitioners is mutually beneficial; claiming a partnership approach to be most effective in
applying, testing, and generating theory.
Engaging with Practice to Develop and Advance Theory (Irwin & Ryan, 2013)
Two decades ago, Weese (1995) expressed concerns about the relevancy and
applicability of sport management theory in actual practice. He suggested that if the academic
discipline offered no service to practitioners in sport management, then, what purpose does it
serve (Weese, 1995)?
Within the scholarly perspectives being highlighted, Fink (2013) acknowledges the
presence of a theory–practice gap, and its ubiquity across various academic disciplines. Irwin
and Ryan (2013) suggest that problems in knowledge transfer and knowledge production
between scholars and practitioners (Hodgkinson & Rousseau, 2009; Sandberg & Tsoukas, 2011)
are likely leading causes for this theory–practice gap. A solution, therefore, is strengthening
THEORY AND PRACTICE 13
relationships between these two groups “through authentic and collaborative instruction,
research, and professional service” (Irwin & Ryan, 2013, p. 13).
In addressing issues with knowledge transfer and knowledge production through the
proposed scholar–practitioner collaborations, Irwin and Ryan (2013) present a number potential
benefits, such as:
“(a) enriching student learning outcomes, (b) fostering healthy relationships with
industry, (c) establishing a mechanism for external funding, (d) serving as a platform for
scholarship, and (e) challenging faculty to upgrade instructional methods and content;
ultimately enhancing professional competency and connectivity of faculty and students
alike, and thus, advancing the discipline” (p. 12).
Yet, Irwin and Ryan (2013) highlight that when the North American Society of Sport
Management (NASSM) and Sport Marketing Association (SMA) created opportunities for
scholars to collaborate and partner with sport professionals, scholar interest was nearly non-
existent. Questions arise: Do constraints exist that are too encumbering to overcome? Are the
natures of academia and practice so fundamentally different, that collaborations are impossible
and unwarranted (Grey, 2001; Kieser & Leiner, 2009)? How can theory—assuming scholars
serve as its stewards—inform practice if scholars are unable to establish meaningful relationships
and collaborations with practitioners?
Before presenting my own thoughts on how theory informs practice in sport
management, and more specifically sponsorship, the following section examines noticeable
practitioner trends in a narrow category of inquiry: professional team construction and on-field
performance.
THEORY AND PRACTICE 14
Noticeable Practitioner Trends
As it is assumed that any proprietary information a sport organization perceives as
valuable (e.g. offers competitive advantage) is protected, I emphasize that these are “noticeable”
trends. What is presented is far from comprehensive. In this section, I will first discuss the
general nature of competition among American sport franchises before directing further
discussion toward Moneyball and the emerging age of front office analytics.
Professional sport leagues in the U.S. are closed systems that are structured to encourage
competitive balance, often utilizing regulations in player recruitment and roster spending towards
that end (Andreff, 2011). Team management, typically—with the occasional exception (Torre,
2015)—desire strong on-field performance. For on-field success to occur, it is paramount that
teams exercise good judgment in making roster decisions. With salary caps of various types in
the big four (i.e. baseball, basketball, hockey, football) professional sport leagues (Brown et al.,
2010), identifying inefficient practices in talent evaluation and determining means of enhancing
player performance can provide teams with a temporary competitive advantage. A trend for
identifying and exploiting these inefficiencies is advanced metrics development and statistical
analysis utilization by in-house research departments.
Of the big four professional sport leagues in the U.S., Major League Baseball (MLB) is
the league with the biggest discrepancies among its teams’ payrolls, given its soft salary cap (e.g.
teams can exceed the cap, but must pay a luxury tax penalty). For example, the Los Angeles
Dodgers possess the largest team payroll in MLB this year at approximately $276 million, while
the Miami Marlins’ payroll—the smallest in the league—is approximately $69 million
(Riccobono, 2015). Coincidentally, the small-market team that is credited with introducing
THEORY AND PRACTICE 15
advanced metrics analysis (i.e. which is called “sabermetrics” in baseball) into front office
decisions originates from MLB: The Oakland Athletics (called the “A’s” herein).
In 2002, the New York Yankees had a payroll of approximately $126 million; whereas,
the A’s payroll was approximately $40 million (Lewis, 2003). Yet, both teams won their division
with 103 wins each. While MLB Commissioner Bud Selig referred to the A’s success as “an
aberration,” given their small payroll, the team’s General Manager, Billy Beane, called it
“Moneyball” (Lewis, 2003). His front office exploited a fundamental misunderstanding in
evaluating baseball talent held league-wide. Teams were focusing on statistics such as batting
average and runs batted in (RBIs), while ignoring better indicators of team contributions to
success, such as on-base percentage (OBP). With teams engaging in improper player evaluation
practices, the Oakland A’s identified and secured good players at discount prices relative to their
actual performance value (Lewis, 2003).
While visible adoption of analytics-based decision making by teams’ front offices
appears to have been initially slow, there is evidence—considering the success of teams known
to implement analytics—that use of analytics is becoming expected to some degree. Though,
given the secrecy many organizations (i.e. teams) enact to protect valuable proprietary
knowledge, this recent trend of adoption may represent mimetic isomorphism within American
sport franchises (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). Teams may be perceiving the adoption of analytics
as a necessary action for remaining competitive.
Thus, it seems apparent that sport organizations, especially sport franchises, perceive
value in collecting data that can be analyzed through advanced metrics; believing it furthers
knowledge, and improve its practices. This has arguably led to greater competitive balance
within the sports where these analytics have been adopted, as inefficiencies pertaining to player
THEORY AND PRACTICE 16
evaluation are identified by teams and remedied. In a presentation at the 2013 Sloan MIT
Conference on Sports Analytics titled “Moneyball Revisited,” researchers Andrew Zimbalist and
Ben Baumer (2013) contend that as baseball teams have adopted the use of various sabermetrics,
a continual process of finding inefficiencies and eventual assimilation of those practices league-
wide is in effect. Subsequently, they suggest that while sabermetrics was once undervalued, it
may eventually become overvalued, allowing the front offices that are not dependent on
sabermetric thought to possibly enjoy a period of competitive advantage (Zimbalist & Baumer,
2013).
What I find interesting about this period of emerging—though, not yet fully accepted or
adopted—use of analytics in professional sports are the differing “theories” of what teams are
“testing” to develop rosters and play games. In Moneyball, the A’s found under-valued talent for
constructing its roster by obtaining players with historically high OBP. Moreover, the insights
reaped from analytics extended into how the game was played on the field. For instance,
attempting steals was frowned upon by management, as a player caught stealing would—in a
statistical sense—reduce the likelihood of a big run inning (Lewis, 2003).
A more recent example of a front office’s “theories” informing its team’s practices within
a different sport involves the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association. Called,
“Moreyball,” after the team’s General Manager, Daryl Morey, the Rockets play at an up-tempo
pace implementing an offense that avoids mid-range jumpers. The team’s style is based-upon
findings from its department of in-house analysts (The Great, 2015).
With consideration to the scholarly perspectives and sport practitioner trends that are
presented within this response, this final section provides my perspective on how theory informs
practice within sport management and more specifically sport sponsorship. Further, I believe that
THEORY AND PRACTICE 17
my experiences as both a doctoral student and as a sport sponsorship consultant are relevant in
influencing my perspective.
My Personal Perspective on How Theory Informs Practice
While research in the area of sport management is capable of informing practice with its
theory, I would argue that it does not do so enough; especially in the area of sport sponsorship.
From what I have experienced as a doctoral student, and my past experience as a practitioner, I
believe that the theory—practice gap is large and continues to grow. As a sport sponsorship
consultant eight years ago, I was never privy to the research that I can now access online through
university libraries. Much of my understanding of the sport sponsorship phenomenon was
obtained through knowledge transfer and knowledge production from more experienced
consultants, as well as from the experiences that I personally garnered. From those experiences,
however, came personal “theories” of explanation. In truth, after having read hundreds of peer-
reviewed journal articles on sport sponsorship, the “theories” that I had developed as a
practitioner and those that I have read in research articles are quite similar. The largest difference
among the two approaches is that I could explain my practice-based theories in less words. And
even now, when conflicts exist between what I have learned from scholarly theory and in
practice, I tend to side with that which I had learned in practice. Often, the difference is
attributable to a narrow research design that suggests an incomplete understanding of how sport
sponsorship functions—an incomplete understanding that is noticeable because of my
practitioner background. Mintzberg (2005) reinforces the need for practitioner understanding
when he says, “The library is the worst place in the world in which to find a research topic. Even
students who were once in the world of real things have forgotten what goes on there” (p. 18).
THEORY AND PRACTICE 18
It is easy for me to agree with Mintzberg (2005). The longer I have been in my doctoral
studies, the more disconnected I believe that I have become to current practice in the field of
sport sponsorship. I agree with the rationale of scholars (Chalip, 2006; Irwin & Ryan, 2013;
Parks, 1992; Weese, 1995) who claim that establishing relationships with sport practitioners is
vitally important for improving instruction, research, and service contributions that come from
our academic discipline. Boyer (1990) makes the point that “theory surely leads to practice. But
practice also leads to theory” (p. 16). Further, developing theory is not something exclusive to
scholars, as Mintzberg (2005) notes, theories are “just words and symbols on pieces of paper,
about the reality they purport to describe; they are not that reality…they simplify it” (p. 1).
As a sponsorship consultant, when a particular sponsorship activation produced
unexpected results, notes were taken to be investigated further. In continuing his discourse on
developing theory, Mintzberg (2005) contends that “You are not going to make the great
breakthrough from the note that fits…[w]eak theorists, I believe, throw such notes away. They
don’t wish to deal with the ambiguity. They want it all to be neat. Keep these notes…” (p. 21-
22).
Consultants must be able to provide explanations to their clients; thus, they must seek to
understand those notes that do not fit. If a clear understanding is not initially possible, they must
theorize an explanation that is capable of being “tested” in the next activation. To “throw away
notes” as a consultant is paramount to throwing away business. Thus, should not scholars,
serving as knowledge consultants, conduct themselves similarly?
The realization of the potential benefits that Irwin and Ryan (2013) associate with
scholar-practitioner partnerships—including “an ideal opportunity to apply, test, and…generate
theory (p. 13)”—would function two-fold. First, the quality of instruction, scholarship, and
THEORY AND PRACTICE 19
service to the practice would increase. Second, and possibly more importantly, the quality of the
practice would be advanced. Consider sponsorship research: Does it inform or confirm?
I would argue that research in sponsorship generally adheres to one paradigm (i.e. post-
positivistic, quantitative), follow similar designs, are cross-sectional, and heavily focus on
cognitive and affective image transfer effects (e.g. Roy and Cornwell, 2003, 2004; Gwinner &
Eaton, 1999)—with results reflecting the general practice. In other words, the “big picture”
findings that are identified in studies do not add value to the practitioner who already practices in
accordance to those theories—albeit, in a different vocabulary. I would argue that few
sponsorship studies are particularly insightful. For instance, why not investigate sponsorship
effects that are associated with different types of leveraging? Different industries have different
practices (given the nature of their products/services) for leveraging their sport sponsorships—
what differences in effects exist between them? Or, instead of mass generalization of an
extremely complex construct, how about examining sponsorship effects specific to certain
industry categories? How about research questions leading to more inquiry of a qualitative (e.g.
Farrelly & Quester, 2005) and mixed-methods (e.g. Delia & Armstrong, 2015) nature?
To summarize my overall perspective on how theory informs practice: it does regularly. I
believe, however, that such theory is predominately being produced and tested by sport managers
through practice. My thought is that the previously mentioned constraints (Fink, 2013; Irwin &
Ryan, 2013) of the academic profession are partially responsible. The other, as highlighted by
Irwin and Ryan (2013), is the indifference of most sport management scholars to engage
collaboratively with practitioners. Foundationally, for sport management and its various sub-
disciplines to be more relevant, I believe it is necessary to collaborate/partner with practitioners
in our research, instruction, and service. Collaboration is also needed between scholars in sport
THEORY AND PRACTICE 20
business management and sport sociology (Love & Andrews, 2011). Such collaborations
establish better understanding between these two groups of scholars; thus, capable of developing
more comprehensive (and subsequently more relevant) theory from a greater breadth of methods
and philosophies. These types of theories are beneficial in advancing practice in that they
provide practitioners with their market-driven wants, while advocating and empowering them to
address socio-cultural and political needs.
THEORY AND PRACTICE 21
References
Amis, J. & Silk, M. (2005). Rupture: Promoting critical and innovative approaches to the study
of sport management. Journal of Sport Management, 19(4), 355-356.
Andreff, W. (2011). Some comparative economics of the organization of sports: Competition
and regulation in North American vs. European professional team sports leagues.
European Journal of Comparative Economics, 8(1), 3-27. doi:
http://eaces.liuc.it/default.asp
Bauerlein, M., Gad-el-Hak, M., Grody, W., McKelvey, G., & Trimble, S. W. (2010). We must
stop the avalanche of low quality research. Chronicles of Higher Education, 56(38), A80.
Boyer, E. L. (1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ:
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Brown, M. T., Rascher, D. A., Nagel, M. S., & McEvoy, C. D. (2010). Financial management in
the sport industry. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway.
Chalip, L. (2006). Toward a distinctive theory of sport management. Journal of Sport
Management, 20(1), 1-21.
Chelladurai, P. (1992). Sport management: Opportunities and obstacles. Journal of Sport
Management, 6(3), 215-219.
Chelladurai, P. (2013). A personal journey in theorizing in sport management. Sport
Management Review, 16(1), 22-28.
Cunningham, G. B. (2013). Theory and theory development in sport management. Sport
Management Review, 16(1), 1-4.
Delia, E. B. & Armstrong, C. G. (2015). #Sponsoring the #French Open: An examination of
social media buzz and sentiment. Journal of Sport Management, 29(2), 184-199.
THEORY AND PRACTICE 22
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and
collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–
160.
Doherty, A. (2013). Investing in sport management: The value of good theory. Sport
Management Review, 16(1), 5-11.
Farrelly, F. & Quester, P. (2005). Investigating large-scale sponsorship relationships as co-
marketing alliances. Business Horizons, 48(1), 55-62.
Feilzer, M. Y. (2010). Doing mixed methods research pragmatically: Implications for the
rediscovery of pragmatism as a research paradigm. Journal of Mixed Methods Research,
4(1), 6-16.
Fink, J. S. (2013). Theory development in sport management: My experience and other
considerations. Sport Management Review, 16(1), 17-21.
Frisby, W. (2005). The good, the bad, and the ugly: Critical sport management research. Journal
of Sport Management, 19(1), 1-12.
Giroux, H. A. (2001). Cultural studies as performative politics. Cultural Studies/Cultural
Methodologies, 1(1), 5-23.
Grey, C. (2001). Re-imagining relevance: A response to Starkey and Madan. British Journal of
Management, 12(Special Issue), 27-32.
Gwinner, K. P., & Eaton, J. (1999). Building brand image through event sponsorship: The role of
image transfer. Journal of Advertising, 28(4), 47-57.
Hebb, D. O. (1969). Hebb on hocus-pocus: A conversation with Elizabeth Hall. Psychology
Today, 3(6), 20-28.
THEORY AND PRACTICE 23
Hodgkinson, G. P., & Rousseau, D. M. (2009). Bridging the rigour–relevance gap in
management research: It's already happening! Journal of Management Studies, 46(3),
534-546. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00832.x
Howe, K. R. (1988). Against the quantitative-qualitative incompatibility thesis or dogmas die
hard. Educational Researcher, 17(8), 10-16.
Irwin, R. L. & Ryan, T. D. (2013). Get real: Using engagement with practice to advance theory
transfer and production. Sport Management Review, 16(1), 12-16.
Johnson, R. B. & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm
whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26.
Lewis, M. (2003). Moneyball: the art of winning an unfair game. New York: W.W. Norton,
c2003.
Love, A., & Andrew, D. P. S. (2012). The intersection of sport management and sociology of
sport research: A social network perspective. Sport Management Review, 15(2), 244-256.
Meek, A. (1997). An estimate of the size and supported economic activity of the sports industry
in the United States. Sports Marketing Quarterly, 6(4), 15-21.
Milano, M. & Chelladurai, P. (2011). Gross domestic sport product: The size of the sport
industry in the United States. Journal of Sport Management, 25(1), 24-35.
Mintzberg, H. (2005). Developing theory about the development of theory. Retrieved from
http://www.mintzberg.org.
Parks, J. B. (1992). Scholarship: The other “bottom line” in sport management. Journal of Sport
Management, 6(3), 220-229.
Riccobono, A. (2015, April 6). MLB payrolls 2015: Dodgers, Yankees, Nationals are baseball’s
biggest spenders. International Business Times. Retrieved from
THEORY AND PRACTICE 24
http://www.ibtimes.com/mlb-payrolls-2015-dodgers-yankees-nationals-are-baseballs-
biggest-spenders-1871096
Roy, D. P., & Cornwell, T. B. (2003). Brand equity's influence on responses to event
sponsorships. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 12(6), 377-393. doi:
10.1108/10610420310498803
Roy, D. P., & Cornwell, T. B. (2004). The effects of consumer knowledge on responses to event
sponsorships. Psychology & Marketing, 21(3), 185-207. doi: 10.1002/mar.20001
Ruth, J. A., & Simonin, B. L. (2003). 'Brought to you by brand a and brand b': Investigating
multiple sponsors' influence on consumers' attitudes toward sponsored events. Journal of
Advertising 32(3), 19-30. doi: 10.2307/4622165
Sandberg, J., & Tsoukas, H. (2011). Grasping the logic of practice: Theorizing through practical
rationality. Academy of Management Review, 36(2), 338-360. doi:
10.5465/AMR.2011.59330942
Sparkes, A. (1995). Writing people: Reflections on the dual crises of representation and
legitimation in qualitative inquiry. Quest, 47(2), 158-195.
Sutherland, J. W. (1975). Systems: Analysis, administration, and architecture. New York: Van
Nostrand.
The great analytics rankings: Is your team a believer? (2015, March 2). ESPN The Magazine,
18(4), 54-63.
Torre, P. S. (2015, March 2). The loser’s guide to winning, or: How one analytics-mad franchise
learned to stop worrying and love the bomb. ESPN The Magazine, 18(4), 64-75.
Weese, W. J. (1995). If we’re not serving practitioners, then we’re not serving sport
management. Journal of Sport Management, 9(3), 237-243.
THEORY AND PRACTICE 25
Weick, K. E. (1989). Theory construction as disciplined imagination. Academy of Management
Review, 14(4), 516-531.
Zimbalist, A. & Baumer, B. (2013). Moneyball revisited. Presented at Sloan MIT Conference on
Sports Analytics, Boston, MA. Retrieved from
http://www.sloansportsconference.com/?p=11043