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Running head: SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 1
Developing the Social Life Task for Individuals with High Functioning Autism
Using Irish Céilí Dance
A Summary Paper
Presented to
The Faculty of Adler Graduate School
_____________________
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree in Master of the Arts in
Adlerian Counseling and Psychotherapy
_____________________
By:
Elizabeth Clarice Pitchford
March 17, 2014
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 2
Abstract
This paper presents a curriculum for developing the social life task by teaching and
practicing social skills for higher functioning individuals with a diagnosis of autism spectrum
disorder through the medium of dance, specifically Irish céilí dancing. The paper also
presents the Adlerian aspects present in learning and doing Irish céilí dance and in the
teaching of social skills to individuals on the autism spectrum. There is a high need in the
autism community for utilizing active and varied approaches to teaching social skills and
offering ample opportunity to integrate the learned skills. Research presented in this paper
shows the importance of teaching social skills to individuals on the spectrum, that teaching
these skills is best done in group settings, and that there has been success in teaching skills
through the medium of dance and exercise and, specifically, through what is commonly
referred to as special interests of those on the spectrum.
Keywords: Céilí dance, Irish dance, Adults, Autism, Social Skills
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 3
Acknowledgements
Barb Luskin: For your deep knowledge and understanding of autism and willingness to share that
knowledge has been enlightening and empowering. Thank you for the support and
guidance.
Meg Williams: For having another Adlerian voice in the field of Autism: Thank you. Your
passion is inspiring.
Cormac, Natalie O’Shea, and Becky Bollinger: For supporting me through the art of Irish dance
and for knowing that I need to dance: Go raibh maith agaibh!
Mary Branick Ujda: For your friendship and enthusiasm for all my schemes and undertakings! I
will always admire your zen-like approach to life and dance.
William Pitchford: My late father who unknowingly taught me more about the life of an
undiagnosed Aspie than any book or article ever will.
Marilyn Pitchford: My late mother to whom I am grateful for her dogmatic teachings to me of
social skills, reading people, and appreciating people for who they are and who they want
to be.
Roain Pitchford McCormick: My beloved eldest nephew who is the future of high functioning
autism. It is for you and all your peers that my passion soars in this field and I promise to
not slow down in advocating for you and educating the world about your strengths and
just how wonderful you are.
Erik Zakis: For the endless opportunities to practice what I preach, for the encouragement, and
for all the cooking!
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 4
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... 3
Defining Autism Spectrum Disorder ........................................................................................... 5
Individual Psychology and Autism Spectrum Disorder ............................................................... 7
Social Skills ................................................................................................................................. 8
The Social Life Task .................................................................................................................. 12
Dance/Movement Therapy and Individual Psychology ............................................................. 15
Significant Findings ................................................................................................................... 15
Individual Psychology and Irish Dance ......................................................................................16
General Psychological Benefits of Dance ...................................................................................20
Dancing as an Intervention ........................................................................................................ 22
Dance as a Teaching Tool for Social Skills ................................................................................ 23
Irish Céilí Dance ........................................................................................................................ 24
Developing and Integrating Social Skills .................................................................................. 26
Future Study ................................................................................................................................29
Curriculum ................................................................................................................................. 30
References ...................................................................................................................................42
Appendix
Social Interaction Anxiety Scale .................................................................................... 47
Pre-class Questionnaire ...................................................................................................49
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 5
Developing the Social Life Task for Individuals with High Functioning Autism
Defining Autism Spectrum Disorder
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 (DSM-5) defines autism
spectrum disorder using two main criteria with specifics within each of those criterion. The first
criterion is “persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple
contexts” (APA, 2013, p. 50). This criterion includes marked deficits in social-emotional
reciprocity, joining groups in conversation, sharing experiences and emotions, and “failure to
initiate or respond to social interactions” (APA, 2013, p. 50). This first criterion also specifies
deficits in nonverbal communication, both in using nonverbal communication and in
understanding nonverbal communication, and deficits in “developing, maintaining, and
understanding relationships” (APA, 2013, p. 50).
The second criterion notes patterns of behavior such as restricted patterns, inflexible
thinking, or repetitive motor movements. The DSM-5 also notes that the symptoms must be
present before the age of three and not be better explained by an intellectual disability or other
developmental delay. There are three levels of severity that can be assigned and which are
decided upon based on how much support that individual needs. It is important to recognize that
individuals on the spectrum may need very substantial support (the highest severity level) in
some areas but in other areas only need some support (the lowest severity level). This uneven
pattern of development is referred to as splinter skills and is a characteristic present in every
person on the autism spectrum.
The medical and mental health communities are certain that autism is a neurological
difference in the brain but many specifics of those differences are still currently being
researched. Brain overgrowth, connectivity differences, brain volume, head and brain size, and a
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 6
difference in white and grey matter in the brain are areas of significant study. There is a strong
genetic component present in many families with autistic members, but that is not the case for
every family.
Autism is not a mental health disorder. However, anxiety and depression are frequent
comorbid diagnoses for autistic individuals and especially common in those individuals with
high functioning autism (HFA). For people with autism, benefits gained from therapy and
coaching include help decoding the social and sensory world and, in cases where the autism
greatly impairs the individual, improving functioning. Many people with high functioning
autism, which was formerly referred to as Asperger’s Syndrome, need social skills taught in a
direct and methodological way whereas many neurotypical children learn these skills implicitly
through watching others and experience.
Correctly perceiving and recognizing social cues displayed in a person’s face and body
posture are, in part, essential for appropriate social interaction. Faces and body postures
both tell us about a person’s emotional state, whether that person is friend or foe, whether
that person is attending to us, what that person intends to do, and what actions we should
take subsequently. (Reed, Beall, Stone, Kopelioff, Pulham, & Hepburn, 2007, p. 1576)
The same authors as above note “without strategies for processing other people’s bodies,
individuals with ASD are missing a critical source of social information.” Hidden and unspoken
social rules, such as how far to stand from a person with whom you are speaking, need to be
directly explained to individuals on the spectrum especially for individuals who have difficulty
reading nonverbal language. In a casual conversation with the author, one individual on the
spectrum described going out into his community as being like walking into a pack of wolves: he
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 7
never knew when he was going to do something to set the wolves off and he had no way of
knowing what they were communicating to each other or trying to communicate to him.
Individual Psychology and Autism
While it is currently accepted that autism is in fact a neurological difference in the brain,
people with autism are not exempt from developing mistaken beliefs, striving vertically,
safeguarding and other side shows that neurotypical clients utilize. Therapy that is beneficial for
an individual with autism largely depends on where they are with regards to cognitive
functioning. Talk therapy is less beneficial to most people on the spectrum while cognitive
behavioral therapy and acceptance and commitment therapy has, in general, been shown to be
effective with this population. It is crucial for a therapist working with an individual on the
spectrum to be aware when a symptom may be an element of autism as opposed to a more
standard mistaken belief. The symptom can still be challenged by the therapist, but should be
approached more as a psychoeducational moment than a “spit in their soup” moment. This is
especially true for adults who were diagnosed later in life and have spent much of their life
struggling with what seemed to come easily for others.
Mistaken Beliefs and Social Skills Differences
We know that the origin of many social skills differences in individuals on the autism
spectrum is neurological. Temple Grandin discusses an article published in the Journal for
Autism and Developmental Disorders in her book, The Autistic Brain (2013), which found the
following through fMRI scans:
What a neurotypical person feels when someone won’t make eye contact might be what a
person with autism feels when someone does make eye contact. And vice versa: What a
neurotypical feels when someone does make eye contact might be what an autistic feels
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 8
when someone doesn’t make eye contact. For a person with autism who is trying to
navigate a social situation, welcoming cues from a neurotypical might be interpreted as
aversive cues. (p. 35)
Despite this well accepted information about a biological origin, there is still potential for
mistaken beliefs be developed based on negative social experiences. For example, a young
individual may experience great difficulty in processing what is being said to him or her while
simultaneously making eye contact which in turn causes them to develop the idea that it is
always a bad idea to make eye contact. While a therapist may not be able to change the difficulty
of processing verbal information while making eye contact, the therapist can help the individual
learn under which conditions he or she can safely make eye contact. The therapist can also help
dispel any myths associated with making eye contact such as the idea that neurotypical
individuals make constant eye contact.
Social Skills
Being systematically taught social skills is a shared experience for almost every young
person who is diagnosed as autistic due to the fact that while the “symptomology of the broad
spectrum of autism may be rather heterogeneous and confusing…there is general consensus that
a marked social deficit is included among its primary symptoms” (Berger, Aerts, van
Spaendonck, Cools, and Teunisse, 2003, p. 502). While many young people might be ambivalent
about the classes, adults on the spectrum who received their diagnosis well after the time when a
school-based class could have assisted them may lament the missed opportunity. Much focus is
on children receiving interventions as research has shown that early intervention is most effective
(Corsello, 2005) and social skills classes for adults are harder to fill partially due to a lack of
understanding as to what exactly can be learned in a social skills class.
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 9
“[S]ocial skills are the specific behaviors that an individual uses to perform competently
or successfully on particular social tasks (eg. starting a conversation, giving a compliment,
entering … [a] group” (Gresham, Sugai, and Horner, 2001, p. 333). Based on this definition of
what social skills are, Gresham et al. provide a concise definition of what a deficit in social skills
is:
Social skill acquisition deficits refer either to the absence of knowledge for executing a
particular social skill even under optimal conditions, or a failure to discriminate which
social behaviors are appropriate in specific situations. […] Acquisition deficit can be
thought of as ‘can’t do’ deficits, whereas performance deficits are ‘won’t do’ deficits (p.
334).
A class which teaches these skills would focus on detailed, direct, and systematic
teaching of those skills which are pertinent to the deficits, or differences, that each individual
experiences. Furthermore, “dance/movement therapists’ unique facility for understanding,
reflecting, and expanding nonverbal expressions can help those with autism to improve
socialization and communication, build body awareness, and can directly affect motor deficits”
(Dance/Movement Therapy & Autism, para. 1).
Addressing Joint Attention and Motivation
Joint attention is defined as the “capacity to coordinate attention among self, other, and
an object or event to share an interest or an experience” (Vismara & Lyons, 2007, p. 214). This
skill is a common deficit in the autism population and is one of the defining characteristics of the
disorder. Joint attention is the seeking to spontaneously share an experience with another
individual and is one of the first social interactions humans engage in. Jones and Carr (2004) cite
Bruner & Sherwood (1983), Gómez, Sarriá, & Tamarit (1993), Mundy (1995) and Tomasello
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 10
(1995) as recognizing the fact that “the function of joint attention, then, is social, reflecting the
infant’s growing understanding of the world and motivation to interact with adults about
interesting objects” (p. 14). Infants who do not engage in joint attention are often later diagnosed
with autism.
What makes joint attention so significant is the amount of information the individual is
missing due to not looking at the face of another individual or following their gaze or pointing.
Many studies have been dedicated to investigating joint attention and developing interventions
for teaching it because “the social motivation component of joint attention [must be] …
addressed through intervention, [because] children with autism may never learn to develop more
sophisticated social–communicative behaviors” (Vismara & Lyons, 2007, p. 215). Most of the
research regarding interventions for joint attention is focused on children with autism as it is
imperative that joint attention challenges be met with early intervention as early intervention
lessens the likelihood of more significant challenges in social skills later in life. In order to
encourage joint attention, Isaksen and Holth encourage frequently incorporating a type of reward
throughout the intervention. In order to identify what the individual finds rewarding, they
conducted an interview with the parents of their participants with “the purpose … to assess the
child’s interest for objects and pictures to use as material in the training” (2009, p. 224). This
concept will be incorporated in the curriculum outlined below.
Difficulty initiating activity or feeling motivated is another common characteristic in the
autism population. Once again researchers call on the assistance of a characteristic already
present in many individuals with autism: special interests. Special interests refer to the “highly
restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus” as mentioned in the DSM 5
criteria for the diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder. While not every individual on the
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 11
spectrum has a designated special interest, which are sometimes referred to as perseverative
interests or restricted interests, it is a common characteristic and provides an opening for
building rapport, offering rewards for preferential behavior, and to sustain motivation. Research
that focuses on encouraging motivation in academics “supports the use of restricted interests as
evidence-based best practice” (Mancil & Pearl, 2008, p. 12). Koegal, Singh, & Koegal (2010)
found that utilizing “motivational components in academic tasks resulted in faster completion
rates, decreased disruptive behavior, and improved interests” (p. 1064). The motivational
components in the Koegal et al study are not limited to incorporating special interest but also
include natural reinforcers, choice, and the interspersal of easier tasks.
Of importance to note is the fact that while joint attention or theory of mind may be the
culprits behind poor social skills, if an individual on the autism spectrum has not received early
intervention and has spent a lifetime feeling lost in regard to social interactions, “understanding
what others want and expect might end up being of little use without the basic drive to act in
accordance with these desires and expectations” (Chevallier, Molesworth, & Happé, 2012, p. 4).
Hence finding the key to motivating individuals or helping them identify what is motivating is a
critical component in teaching social skills. As Lequia quotes Szatmari in her article, “when
working with children with ASD, it is our responsibility to enter their world, to discover what
motivates or interests them and to use this strong interest or motivator as a tool to teach them
new skills” (2011, p. 406). The author contends that this statement holds true for adults on the
autism spectrum as well as “ASD is a heterogeneous disorder, and research aimed at
understanding treatment must address this heterogeneity” (Voos, Pelphrey, Tirrell, Bolling,
Vander Wyk, Kaiser, McPartland, Volkmar, Ventola, 2012, p. 9).
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 12
Recognizing Biological Contributions to Social Skills Deficits: Oxytocin
In addition to neurological origins of social skills deficits, there are potential biological
origins as well. “Oxytocin and the structurally similar peptide, vasopressin (two amino acids
differentiate them), have also been found to be critically involved in affiliative behaviors,
including sexual behavior, mother-infant and adult-adult pair-bond formation, separation
distress, and other aspects of social attachment” (Hollander, Bartz, Chaplin, Phillips, Sumner,
Soorya, Anagnostou, & Wasserman, 2006, p. 1). Hollander et al remark that “given that deficits
in social interaction and affiliation are a core feature of autism and that oxytocin is involved in
the regulation of affiliative behaviors, it is believed that oxytocin might play a role in autism” (p.
1). Their 2006 study found that individuals who received a dose of oxytocin helped individuals
with autism identify and retain social information that they previously could not. Another study
published in 2011 written by Lischke, Berger, Prehn, Heinrichs, Herpertz, & Domes also
presented positive results finding that intransal doses of oxytocin “promotes emotion recognition
from dynamic facial expressions” (p. 6). However, side effects were not addressed at length and
only one report identified the potential hazard of the intervention causing memory deficits.
The Social Life Task
The social life task is at the core of many of the challenges individuals with autism face.
Difficulties engaging in social activities are considered to be a core symptom of
individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Both the literature and our clinical
observations suggest that most individuals with ASD have a desire to engage in social
activities, but social skill deficits make social interaction challenging, and in turn can lead
to feelings of loneliness and isolation (Koegel, Ashbaugh, Koegel, Detar, & Regester,
2013, p. 899).
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 13
The research conducted by Koegel et al lends support to the author’s hypothesis that
working with individuals to enhance the social life task through a dance class integrating social
skills curriculum will increase their level of functioning in the remaining life tasks.
In The Science of Living (2011), Alfred Adler writes, “the goal of Individual Psychology
is social adjustment” (p. 84). Given the marked social deficits experienced by individuals on the
autism spectrum, much time is spent on training those individuals with social skills in order to
improve their quality of life, their ability to gain work, and increase their connectedness to their
community. According to Koegel, Kim, Koegel, and Schwartzman (2013), “especially alarming
… that these social impairments increase the risk that adolescents with ASD will develop
comorbid disorders, most commonly anxiety and/or depression” (p. 2121-2122 ) and,
furthermore, “Given the interrelationships between anxiety, depression, and social challenges it
seems that interventions that focus on improving social skills could potentially yield a broader
impact that helps alleviate these other psychological factors” (Hillier, Fish, Siegel, & Beversdorf,
2011, p. 269).
For individuals who are considered to be on the higher functioning end of the autism
spectrum, social skills classes consist of direct lecture, modeling, and experiential opportunities
to integrate taught social skills such as how to join a group conversation, how to approach
someone in order to talk to them, and how and why to engage in small talk as well as more subtle
skills such as reading facial expressions and body language. “Research has documented that
without systematic social intervention, adolescents with ASD can exhibit limited or nonexistent
initiations towards typical peers” (Koegel, et al., 2013, p. 2121). This paper outlines a new
approach to teaching and integrating social skills for adults with the HFA designation. By
integrating social skills into an Irish céilí dance class, individuals with the HFA diagnosis will be
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 14
able to learn, practice, and integrate social skills such as eye contact, joining a group,
approaching another individual to converse, proprioception, and turn taking.
At a breakout session of a support group for adults with ASD, the author taught some
céilí dances and explained the social skills pertinent in each. The dancers were receptive to this
approach of teaching and practicing skills and one reported that it was an effective way for her to
think about better integrating those skills into her daily life.
Individuals with autism can learn social skills and while the learned social skills may
always feel like a “second language” for them, they are able to use the skills in a proficient
manner after systematic practice in various scenarios. A paper by Mayo and Eigsti (2012) notes
that while their study found strong evidence of implicit learning in autistic individuals, “studies
have also indicated that individuals with ASD demonstrate difficulty with skills that are
implicitly learned in typically developing individuals” (p. 2476). At this point, it is important to
note that every individual with autism presents symptoms, deficits, and differences in a unique
pattern. This fact explains the often-varied results of research when that research is trying to
present a generalization about a symptomatically multifarious population.
There is significantly more importance to knowing social skills than just connecting to
other people. Social skills are what help people advocate for their needs. The needs may be as
basic as asking for a drink of water or more complex such as asking for a mentor in the
workplace. However complex the need may be, there are basic social skills involved at each step
of the process. Having good social skills promotes contentment in all three of the Adlerian life
tasks which is one part of strong mental health, the other part being social interest.
Social Interest
Many individuals on the autism spectrum are accused of not being interested in other
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 15
people or in their community. This is simply not true. Some people on the spectrum seem to have
developed a mistaken belief that there is no reason they should interact in their community, but
upon further investigation, most of these individuals will divulge bad social interaction
experiences that is the root of their lack of community involvement. Most autistic individuals
want to feel connected to their community; they simply require some training in how to connect
which is where explicit teaching of social skills can be highly beneficial.
Dance and Movement Therapy in the Framework of Individual Psychology
Movement and the astute analysis of movement have been a part of the Adlerian
approach from the earliest writings of Alfred Adler. In The Science of Living (2011), Adler writes
that “movements themselves are expressed or imbedded in attitudes, and the attitudes are an
expression of that whole attitude to life which constitutes what we call the style of life” (p. 135).
Currently, most dance and movement therapists (D/MTs) do not approach therapy from an
Adlerian perspective. The dance therapy known as Authentic Movement is based on the theory of
Carl Jung while practitioners certified by the American Dance Therapy Association have a
separate theory based on the idea that “body movement, as the core component of dance,
simultaneously provides the means of assessment and the mode of intervention for
dance/movement therapy” (“About dance/movement therapy,” 2009, para 2). However, it is the
opinion of the author that Adlerian concepts such as social interest, moving from a felt minus to a
perceived plus, striving, belonging, and the courage to be imperfect and the courage to fail, can
all be effectively applied to dance not only in a typical dance therapy method which is
characterized by freeform movement, but also to a formal, structured dance class such as one
featuring Irish céilí dance. As the only formal dance training for the author being in Irish dance,
it is imperative to the author to be able to link the psychological benefits of being an Irish dancer
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 16
despite the perception that this particular style of dance is thought to be lacking in expressive
emotion and, therefore, less linked to the subconscious.
Significant Findings in Research Regarding Dance and Movement Therapy
In a 1977 article, Joan Lavender details her first two years as a dance therapist working
with a man diagnosed with undifferentiated schizophrenia. She “came to understand that dance
provides its own structure, according to the thoughts and feelings of the dancers. It is the
emotional context of the dance that motivates the dancer to expand his/her movement/emotional
world” (Lavender, p. 128). She describes the two years she worked with Nick and highlights the
breakthroughs and what she came to see as regressions, which are a part of the therapeutic
process. Nick was encouraged to use whatever movement he felt appropriate at the time and this
included finger-pointing, punching, and Greek folkdance as Nick was of Greek descent. This
author finds it significant that Nick chose to use elements of the folk dances from his culture of
origin. Ghorol (2007) reports that regression to childhood behaviors and familiarities can happen
when an adult is under stress. Utilizing dances from one’s own culture such as Irish dance, or
Greek dance in the case of Nick, can be a significant comfort to someone under stress and one
should keep in mind that the therapeutic process itself can be a stressor. As an advantage of using
the freeform movement in dance therapy, the chosen movements by the dancer can be used to
say what language cannot. Adler (1956) wrote that “in mimic and physiognomy, in the
expressive movements of the emotions, in rhythms of the dance and of religious ecstasy, in
pantomime and in art, and most eloquently in music, this organ dialect renounces language as a
means of communication in order to impress us the more” (p. 221). So while dance therapy does
not specifically use the teachings of Adler, this is an example of how movement can be utilized
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 17
and viewed from an Adlerian perspective to assist in the communication to a therapist where
words fail the client/dancer.
Individual Psychology and Irish Dance
Belonging and Social Interest
In social dances such as céilithe, there are many reasons as to why it is imperative that the
dancers work together, be socially interested, not the least of which is to properly execute the
dance. Experienced dancers know that a dance can quickly fall apart if participants leave the
dance floor mid-dance or if they give up properly executing the steps. While it may be perceived
by an individual to be more fun to go in whichever direction he or she feels the music
commands, the togetherness and execution of the dance would then be destroyed, dancers would
not have partners, and, in the progressive dances, much confusion would ensue. In fact, in
well-attended dances, it is not uncommon to feel the floor move up and down with the
synchronous dancing but this is only accomplished if all the dancers not only move in time to the
music, but also dance together. One Irish céilí dancer says “What is it like when the dancing is
really good? I always compare it to flying. When your partner and you are in synch and
everything works and you’re both stepping off together, and, you know, you don’t seem to be
spending much time touching the floor. I just say it feels like flying” (Allen, 2003, p. 111).
Gemeinschaftsgefühl/Community Feeling
At the heart of Adlerian psychology is the concept that mental health depends on the
ability of a person to engage in gemeinschaftsgefühl which has been translated to “social interest”
or “community feeling.” The concept states that an individual must be interested in not only what
is good for him or her but also for the community at large. For example, in an article in the
Journal of Individual Psychology, La Voy, Brand, and McFadden (2013) share a personal
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 18
communication from S. Blahut of the gemeinschaftsgefühl developed by mountain climbers. By
working together, the climber developed a sense of togetherness. A common characteristic of
individuals on the autism spectrum is that of a sort of self-centeredness. While some literature
calls this a lack of empathy, a more accurate description would be low community feeling. In
order to increase community feeling in individuals on the autism spectrum, it is most beneficial
to bluntly explain the benefits of community and provide specific opportunities for them to get
involved in their community. These specific opportunities can vary widely but in order to be
successful, the opportunities should be related to the individual’s special interest(s).
Striving for Success and Goal Oriented
Competitive Irish dance can be used as a metaphor for the Adlerian concepts of striving
for success and being goal oriented. Adler’s concept that life is teleological in that one is always
striving for a future fictional goal can also be portrayed via metaphor in Irish dance. Irish dance
form requires tight control of the feet and to dance as if one is on a balance beam at all times;
straight lines are the mainstay in Irish dance form. There is also the patterns made by the dancer
as he or she move across the floor and that the dancers are trained to plan their route so as to
utilize as much of the space provided to them as possible.
Felt Minus to a Perceived Plus
Lavender wrote that her client Nick often would ask her to grade his dancing. He was
concerned with getting an “A” in the “class.” Nick was striving from a felt minus to a perceived
plus. In looking at formal dance lessons, the idea of constant practice and hard work is an
example of moving from a felt minus to a perceived plus. If a dancer takes the study and practice
of dance seriously and notes that his or her own movements are not as well executed as those of
other students or as those of the teacher, he or she will work harder in order to better execute the
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 19
movements. A perfectionist may never see that he or she is doing the movements acceptably well
while one with an inferiority complex may think he or she will never get the movement good
enough. It is important for the Adlerian dance therapist to note these attitudes and look for ways
to help set the dancers back to the useful side of life.
Courage
A common example of having the courage to fail is the child who is learning to walk. No
one succeeds in walking at the first try; everyone falls and gets up again and again. The same is
true in dance: extremely rare is the dancer who executes a leap correctly the first time. The
successful person will make many attempts in his or her chosen field be it dance, music, or
business to achieve his or her standard. Mistakes are required in learning how best to accomplish
one’s chosen task.
The author uses the concept of the courage to fail in a pep talk with her own dance
students, ages 5-16, when they are convinced that a dance is too advanced for them to even
attempt. The theory usually makes sense to them, encourages them, and they begin working in
earnest on “failing” the step until they no longer fail. In dance circles, this pep talk is more often
referred to as “fake it until you make it.”
Encouragement
The role of a dance teacher is very similar to that of a therapist. As teachers/therapists
watch their dancers/clients, they observe how the students/clients move whether they are moving
on a stage or through the world. In The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (1956), Adler
writes that the “aim of Individual Psychology treatment is always to increase an individual’s
courage to meet the problems of life” (p. 362). By increasing the confidence of a client/dancer,
counselors/teachers can help build self-esteem and the ability for the individual to build a
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 20
metaphor between struggles in dance and struggles in life. If they think, “I once could not do that
dance move but I can now, then perhaps if I cannot succeed at this one event in life I will be able
to succeed with more attempts” then the dance teacher/therapist has succeeded. In returning to
the Adler (1930) quote that “movements themselves are expressed or imbedded in attitudes,” (p.
135) one can also see examples of that in the posture of Irish dance students. The students with
correct posture: straight back and arms, head held in a neutral but strong position, will be able to
execute a dance more accurately than that of the dancer who shows that they feel discouraged:
hunched shoulders, head down, arms aloft. In encouraging the dancers to correct their dance
posture, one hopes that it will carry into their daily approach.
General Psychological Benefits of Dancing
In a case study performed in Great Britain, one participant said the following about line
dancing:
I had major depression, which was diagnosed 3 years ago. I couldn't pull myself up from
a very dark place. My family suffered too -- my partner and kids were upset to see me so
low. I think it all goes back to my childhood … but I don't know … I felt scared and
unfocused most of the time. Counselling and antidepressants helped, but I really picked
up when I joined the line dancing class. It took some courage to go on my own, but my
practice nurse really sold it to me. After only 2 weeks I began to feel better mentally and
physically, and after 6 months I was a different person. It is brilliant when we all make
the same moves at the same time. I have such a happy feeling, you know … part of
something … it’s hard to explain. And it doesn't matter if you get the steps wrong, new
people join all the time.” (Macdonald, 2010, p. 31)
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By dancing together the sense of belonging quickly swells. In Irish social dancing as well
as other folk dancing such as contra dancing, many of the dances feature a changing of partners
as the dance progresses. This serves as a non-verbal ice breaker as by the end of the dance,
almost every dancer in the room has met and danced together. Well-run dance events will start
out with one of these progressive dances so as to contribute to the good rapport at the event. For
individuals who may be living with anxiety, depression, or other neuroses, a sense of belonging
to a community, even a temporary one such as a social dance, can alleviate symptoms.
Children who are taught how to dance and how to work together so as to properly execute
a dance in a performance, learn that teamwork can be rewarding. Even for an introverted child or
adult, being included and feeling that they belong teaches them that they too have an important
role in the dance. This can help them learn the social skills needed to successfully navigate a
world where, as Susan Cain (2012) discussed in her presentation on TED “The Power of
Introverts,” extroverts are more valued. Hence, the benefits of dance are not lost on introverts as
there are many opportunities to dance that do not necessarily involve group work.
In Irish dance schools where competition is a focus, it is not uncommon to witness
dancers helping each other learn and perfect their dances. Despite the fact that once on-stage at a
competition they are competing against each other, it is understood that it is better for their dance
community (specifically, their school) to have dancers placing well in the results. Again, there is
a sense of what is better for our community (dance school) is also better for me. So despite the
fact that the competition itself is an example of striving on the vertical plane, it is important for
dancers to come back to the horizontal plane when the results are in. If the dancer did not do
well, he or she will still celebrate the success of a fellow dancer. Of course, this is not always the
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 22
case and there are plenty of examples of animosity not only between specific dancers but also
between entire dance schools.
In “Dance as Metaphor of the Psychotherapeutic Encounter,” Mosak and Rasmussen
(2002) note that “from military drills to religious ceremony, by moving in synchrony with others,
cultures and communities have emerged, defined not by geographic locale but by unique forms
of communal movement” (p. 109). The sense of belonging to a community can be reinforced at
social dances and dance classes. Many people who dance not only say to others “I dance” but
rather “I am a dancer.” It is an identity and it is a part of who they are. They belong to the greater
community that is the Dance Community. Another dancer was quoted in the article “Irish Céilí
Dance and Elderly Dancers” by Allen (2003) as saying “I think dance has a lot of health benefits,
it’s not only the exercise, it’s the mental, because you’re, uh, you’re visiting with people, you
know . . . you wouldn’t get a chance to know ‘em if you didn’t have something in common, and
you can really form friendships in that area” (p. 120). The camaraderie and sense of community
that is created at social dances can help bring people out of their self and help them refocus on
the bigger picture if they have perhaps been too focused on their inner self. This example is
reminiscent of the famous story where Adler suggested to a patient he was treating for
melancholy to have someone over for a cup of tea.
Dancing as an Intervention for Mental Imbalances
In Ehrenreich’s 2006 book Dancing in the Streets; A History of Collective Joy, she
reports that the 18th
century writer, Richard Browne, did a scientific study that resulted in the
findings that “singing and dancing could cure melancholy … by stirring up ‘secretions’” (p.
149). He went on to prescribe “an Hour or more at a convenient time after every Meal.”
However antiquated this may seem, current research supports that exercise can make one feel
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 23
happier. Lehman and Herkenham’s 2011 study showed that mice that had the opportunity to
regularly exercise could more effectively deal with stress. Dance is, of course, a form of exercise
but with the added benefit of music and music also has been shown to be a good mood enhancer
(DivaVillage, 2009). Assuming that one enjoys the music and the type of dance, it can very well
be a solution for those who suffer from anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders. Or as one
local dancer says, “When my body executes a dance (and doesn't require my brain to take part), I
get a rare and fleeting reprieve from the constant mental analysis that plagues my life. My brain
gets a mini vacation and it is pure bliss” (A. Moen, personal communication, May 19, 2012).
Dance as a Teaching Tool for Social Skills
Social dances have historically served many purposes including community bonding,
ways to meet new people (including future spouses), and also as a way to teach manners, values,
and social expectations. “Social reformers taught folk dances from the ECD [English Country
Dance] and American traditions as a way to transmit values and modes of expression from an
imagined essential ‘natural’ rural past they saw threatened by the presumed 'artificiality' of urban
life” (Walkowitz, 2006). For an individual with a neurotypical brain, one that does not have any
neurological differences such as autism, ADHD, or intellectual disabilities, social skills are
learned implicitly in these social dances. These social skills include responding to requests from
strangers, how to follow nonverbal cues, focus on tasks, sequences, and turn taking. These skills
can be explicitly taught for individuals who may not learn them implicitly as Reed et. al. (2007,
p. 1582) noted “Imitation therapies that emphasize attention to body postures could provide a
generalizable tool that individuals with ASD could use across a variety of social situations and
environments.”
In The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (1956), Adler expresses his positive view of
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 24
dancing as a developmental aid for children: “Dancing is a type of activity in which two people
have to accomplish a common task, and I think it is good for children to be trained in dancing. I
do not exactly mean the dancing we have today, where we have more of a show than of a
common task. If, however, we had simple and easy dances for children, it would be a great help
for their development” (p. 436). While Irish céilí dances may not meet Adler’s criterion of
“simple,” they are predictable, learnable dances that depend on everyone working together to
make the shapes, patterns, and rhythms in response to the music provided. Regardless of whether
the dances are learned in a formal class setting or on the fly at public céilí dances, teamwork and
a sense of community are quickly learned and integrated.
Irish Céilí Dance
Terms and Definitions
• Céilí: (pronounced kay-lee, emphasis on first syllable) in Irish dance lexicon, a social dance
event where dances consist of couples or small groups in geometrical formations (lines,
squares, circles, etc.). Danced mostly to reels (4/4 time signature) and jigs (6/8 time signature).
• Irish step dance: a form of dance that originates in Ireland; characterized by brisk, rhythmic
movements of the legs and feet while the upper body, arms straight at the side, is controlled and
still; danced in both a soundless soft shoe called a ghillie as well as a shoe with fiber glass tips
and heels called a jig, heavy, or hard shoe. The type of shoe worn depends on the type of tune
being danced to. For example, slip jigs are always danced in ghillies while a hornpipe requires
the hard shoe.
• Step or steps: a specific set of movements which when done together consist of a whole section
of an Irish dance; always performed in completion starting with the right foot then repeated
symmetrically starting with the left foot.
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• Feis: (pronounced “fesh”) An Irish dance, art, music, and soda bread baking competition.
Formally started by the Gaelic League in order to resuscitate the traditional arts in Ireland.
The word “céilí” translates to “social gathering.” The term is still used in Ireland and
Scotland (where it is spelled “céilidh”) to mean a social gathering as well as referring to a dance.
Historically, social dances were not always referred to as céilí dances (plurual: céilithe). They
were first called céilí dances in 1934 by a London member of the Gaelic League: Séan Ó
Ceallaigh. In fact, the Irish diaspora in England and America is largely responsible for changing
the meaning of the word from “social gathering” to more often meaning “social dance.” In
Ireland, the Public Dance Hall Act of 1935 further removed social gatherings, which often
included music and dance, from homes and pushed them into licensed dance halls, which could
have possibly further distanced the word from its original meaning.
For many young people céilí dances were, and continue to be, the social mixers and for
young people are often their first experience intimately interacting with those of the opposite sex.
At the céilithe, dancers learn more than just the dance: they learn how to ask someone to dance
(interpersonal skills), how to accept rejection (being turned down for a dance), how to maintain
space between bodies (proprioception), and how to make eye contact as the only way to not get
very dizzy in a “céilí spin” is to look your dance partner directly in the eyes. The last factor is of
utmost importance to individuals with autism as eye contact is often a learning objective in social
skills classes.
Irish Dance and Neurogenesis
In the May/June 2011 issue of Feis America, an Irish dance themed magazine, they note
that “as you learn new steps and dances you are promoting neurogenesis. When those steps
become second nature, the cognitive benefits of dancing diminish. Irish dancing can promote
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 26
neurogenesis when you learn new skills and make rapid decisions” (Dorrity, p. 43).
Consequently, it is paramount to continue learning new steps and skills throughout one’s dance
career in order to reap the benefits of Irish dance when it comes to building new neural
pathways. Dong and Greenough (2004) cite a 1999 study by van Pragg, Christie, Sejnowski, and
Gage that
experience-induced neurogenesis in hippocampus was found to be positively correlated
with general improvements in performing tasks that tested spatial learning and memory.
Other studies have shown that physical activity increases cell proliferation, cell survival,
and net neurogenesis in the adult hippocampal dentate gyrus; improves hippocampus-
dependent spatial learning; and enhances long-term potentiation (functional synaptic
plasticity) in the dentate gyrus (p. 86).
In combining exercise in the form of dance to learn social skills, the hope is that the
neurogenesis encouraged by learning new skills with the body will also benefit the learning of
new social skills.
Developing and Integrating Social Skills with Dance
While many social skills classes currently use a method of lecture, modeling, and
integrated skill practice, there has been some movement towards teaching skills through special
interests of individuals with HFA. One school in Columbus, Ohio, is using dance to teach
students in a standard classroom social skills. “…[Y]ou’ll see fifth-graders who eagerly hold one
another’s hands, look one another in the eye and move in close in fine dance formation. You’ll
hear ‘please’ and ‘thank you’ and see every single kid standing straight and tall. Proud”
(Richards, 2013, para 2). While these students are most likely learning these skills through
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 27
implicit learning or with minimal guidance, individuals with HFA generally need the social skills
to be more blatantly discussed.
Laban Movement Analysis
Observations regarding the manner of movement and possible meanings and metaphors
of those movement patterns would be best recorded using the language of Laban Movement
Analysis (LMA). In most everyday activities, the focus of a given movement is the outcome,
while the form with which it is executed is incidental. However, in dance, the process of motion
is oftentimes emphasized more than the outcome of a movement. Thus, when observing
movement, dancers are often much more finely attuned to subtle variations in a mover’s form
than are members of the general population. Using Laban Movement Analysis may allow
psychologists to tap into the subtleties that otherwise may have eluded them. LMA can
provide psychologists with a well established and widely accepted systematic language
for describing movement, and at the same time, allow observers to describe movement
qualitatively. (Levy, Duke, 2003, p. 44)
LMA not only allows the instructor/therapist a deeper understanding of movement but
also provides a language with which to record actual movement. The language consists of a
tremendous lexicon of characters that can be used to record not only which body part is moving
but also how it is moving.
Specific Curriculum
The class is designed for individuals who are considered to be high functioning. In this
case, high functioning is defined as having the ability to respond to verbal instruction, have
significant gross motor control, and not experience significant processing delays. Irish dance is
intense, anaerobic, high impact, and would require the participants to be cleared for intense
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 28
exercise by a doctor. A waiver will be signed by all participants releasing the dance studio,
instructor, and any possible sponsoring agencies from any liability related to injury. The class is
designed for a minimum of six participants and a maximum of twelve. Considering the
challenges in motivation mentioned previously in this paper, good candidacy is further
characterized by an interest in learning and practicing social skills in a group setting and, most
importantly, an interest in learning Irish céilí dance. While individuals who have a broader
interest in dance may also be good candidates, individuals with a special interest in Irish or
Celtic culture will most likely be most motivated to join the class. Individuals with a sensitivity
to touch, who experience discomfort in group settings, or who experience significant (over 30
seconds) processing delays would not be good candidates for the class as it is currently designed.
The class is to be scheduled in a way such that it ends a week prior to one of the monthly
public céilí dances so as to offer the opportunity for the participants to then implement the skills
in an alternate setting and with unfamiliar people. The class is currently designed for individuals
over the age of eighteen. Exceptions can be made for individuals who meet the above criteria
who are under eighteen if they have a significant special interest in Irish dance as special
interests are generally enough of a motivator for the individual to overcome any challenges
presented by age.
Assessments and Measures
Establishing an initial baseline of social skills will be measured by administering the
Socialization Domain of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS) as it is the most widely
researched adaptive behavior scale used with autism (Wells, Condillac, Perry, & Factor, 2009).
The VABS is widely used in research to establish baselines though a drawback is that it does not
typically successfully reflect changes in behavior over a short period of time. Consequently, it
SOCIAL SKILLS FOR ASD INDIVIDUALS USING CÉILÍ DANCE 29
may not reflect any advances made in the six week course and, therefore, the Social Interaction
Anxiety Scale (Mattick & Clarke, 1998) will be administered both at the beginning of the course
and at the conclusion. An opportunity to evaluate the class, the instructor, and to provide
feedback will also be presented at the conclusion of the class.
The Beck Anxiety Inventory will also be given prior to the start of the class and then
again after the conclusion of the class in order to monitor general anxiety. Individuals scoring in
the moderate anxiety and severe anxiety may require cooperation with the individual’s therapist.
In that case, a release will be signed allowing the instructor to communicate any concerns back
to the therapist.
Of note, Adlerian concepts to be openly discussed with the class will be: felt minus to a
perceived plus, the courage to fail and be imperfect, and sense of community feeling.
Future Study
In doing research for this paper, the author experienced frustration in the lack of research
involving adults on the autism spectrum. There is significant need to address the challenges that
adults on the spectrum experience, and, particularly, those challenges faced by those designated
as high functioning. These individuals often receive the diagnosis late in life and have
experienced a lifetime of significant challenges and have experienced many social failures. They
may develop entire life styles based on their failures that have been exasperated by not knowing
that they were autistic.
Also of interest would be, if this class proves to be successful, if other forms of social
dance could also be used in lieu of Irish céilí dance such as English country dancing, contra
dancing, salsa dancing, and other group-based dancing.
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Appendix
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