Running head: GLOBAL JOURNEYS!! - Gonzaga Universityweb02.gonzaga.edu/comltheses/proquestftp/Green_gonzaga_0736M_1… · Global Journeys: Exploring the ... Identity and Family Adjustment

Global Journeys: Exploring the Communication Strategies Successful Longterm Sojourners use for Cultural, Language, Identity and Family Adjustment

___________________________________________

A Thesis

Presented to the faculty in Communication and Leadership Studies

School of Professional Studies

Gonzaga University

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Under the supervision of Dr. Heather Crandall

Under the mentorship of Dr. Heather Crandall

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In partial fulfillment of

The requirement for the degree

Master of Communication and Leadership Studies

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By

Lynne H. Green

May 2013

Running head: GLOBAL JOURNEYS! !

Running head: GLOBAL JOURNEYS

Abstract

With a growing number of multinational corporations sending workers into new locations, the

need for knowledge about how individuals and families successfully integrate and connect to

their host country is paramount. This study focuses on the phenomenological communication

strategies used for cross cultural adjustment and adaptation of longterm sojourners in a new

culture. Longterm sojourners who have lived for three years or longer in two host countries were

interviewed to explore their communication strategies of adaptation for meaning making for

themselves and for their families. Specifically, perspectives around the experience of cross

culture adjustment, language acquisition, and identity shift were explored. Findings show that

individuals who approach the experience with openness and non-judgmentalism find greater

satisfaction with the host country. Also, those who seek to integrate and deeply embrace the new

culture experience acceptance and stay for longer periods. Humor, humility, and perseverance are

character traits that predict for satisfactory adjustment. The stresses on marriage and family

provide a dialectic experience of strain and closeness. Implications from this study indicate that

satisfied longterm sojourners have discovered ways of contending with difficulties that provide

knowledge for managing this stressful adjustment. Their experience can inform the expectations

of future sojourners. This study emphasizes the need for sojourners to be prepared for the

challenges ahead and to engage the process with flexibility.

Key Words:Adjustment, Communication strategies, Expatriate, Longterm, Narrative, Phenominological, Satisfaction


Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction 1 Importance of study 1 Statement of the problem 3 Definitions of terms 3 Organization of remaining chapters 5

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

Philosophical assumptions 6 Theoretical basis 6 The literature 8 Rational 21 Research questions 22

Chapter 3: Scope and Methodology

Scope 23 Methodology 23 Participants 24 Instrumentation 25 Data analysis 25 Ethical considerations 26

Chapter 4: The Study

Introduction 28 Findings 28 Discussion 39

Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusions Limitations of the Study 46 Further Study 46 Conclusions 47

References 50

Appenix: 56 Appendix A: Interview questions 56


Chapter 1Introduction

Introduction

Numerous studies across a variety of disciplines discuss the growing issue of cross-

cultural exposure within our increasingly global society (Clouse & Watkins, 2009; Y. Kim, 2008;

Friedman & Antal, 2005; Pinto, Cabral-Cardosoa, & Werther, 2012). Many multinational

companies are faced with how to successfully acculturate the growing number of expatriates they

employ across international boundaries. Sojourners moving from their home country

(expatriates) and living in host countries for extended periods of time experience adjustment

challenges that can be extreme: “As people become ‘citizens of the world,’ for the purposes of

work, education, and business, they are required to span boundaries of language, ethnicity, and

nationality (Holmes & O’Neill, 2012, p. 707) and hold their family together at the same time.

Something that indicates that people are not isolated individuals.

Importance of study

Many sojourners expect some level of “culture shock,” but if this challenge is not

navigated and levels of satisfaction achieved, then withdrawal, or expatriate failure occurs and

both the company and the sojourner lose (Pinto, Cabral-Cardosoa, & Werther, 2012). The

financial cost to companies, as well as the cost emotionally for the families, is immense. Costs

for adjusting families include travel, housing set up, specialized schooling among a few ("Main

Reasons for Expatriate Failure," 2012). Given that in 1987, early return “cost companies

between $55,000 and $150,000 in direct costs alone (Mendenhall, Dunbar, and Oddou, 1987),

this failure rate is a serious problem” (Osland, 1995,p.xiv). Costs to the families include a

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sacrifice of the familiar surroundings, change in culture and language, and often changes in

living standards. Personal costs to marriage and family are high: “Unofficial numbers from the

Asian Development Bank (a large development organization modeled after the World Bank) are

that upwards of 50% of their expatriate’s marriages fail due to the stress of offshore

postings” ("Main Reasons for Expatriate Failure," 2012).

These challenges should be acknowledged and discussed up front and more resources

should be allocated for preparing families for the challenges to come. Clouse and Watkins (2009)

note:

Major firms continue to send managerial talent to strategically important countries such as China, India, Brazil, and the UK. Counting on expansion overseas to drive profitable growth, these organizations recognize the critical need to develop a cadre of “global” leaders who have the intellect and experience to move fluidly among diverse markets and cultures, and who can transfer systems, processes, and technologies around the world. (p. 116)

While companies continue to send employees to international destinations, if proper

understanding of the challenges and adequate preparations made, then failure rates can be high

and costly:

For Oscar and Jennifer, the move to China posed a greater challenge than they could fathom: According to a survey by Brookfield Global Replacement Services,China was the top destination for globally relocated executives in 2008, but it was also the location with the highest rate of assignment failure, because of the radical differences in living. (Clouse & Watkins, 2009, p. 117)

Satisfactory adjustment to these new challenges often determines if the sojourner stays or

decides to return to their native homes. Pinto, Cabral-Cardosoa, and Werther (2012) note:

It is likely that poor adjustment leads to negative emotions and poor satisfaction with the assignment; while adjustment reduces the negative moods and increases satisfaction. Therefore, a high level of adjustment (e.g., familiarity or comfort with the new situation) can promote satisfaction with the assignment, while a poor adjustment can decrease general assignment satisfaction. (p. 190)

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Statement of the problem

Understanding what constitutes a satisfactory adjustment to the new life circumstances

becomes an area of paramount importance: “This is a common obstacle to foreign assignments in

most multinational companies. Yuen (2003), in a pioneering study, noted that expatriate failure is

caused by expatriate’s inability to adjust or cope with the foreign country’s

environment” (Chepkong’a, 2012). Exploring the contributing factors for satisfactory adjustment

is important both for the sojourner and for the sending entity. This study will explore four areas

that effect satisfactory adjustment for the sojourner: cross cultural adjustment, language

acquisition, identity formation and adjustments within the family.

Definition of terms

Adjustment.

This study uses the Matsumoto, Leroux, and Yoo (2005) definition of adjustment: “We define

adjustment as the subjective experiences that are associated with and result from attempts at

adaptation, and that also motivate further adaptation” (p. 17).

Communication Strategies.

The adjustments and shifts that an individual makes, verbally, non-verbally, and perceptual to

accommodate the new environment and their place in it. This can include the more obvious

changes in cross cultural adaptations or language acquisition as well as the more subtle and

harder to define shifts in personal identity.

Expatriate

Anyone living outside their native country.


Longterm.

For the purposes of this study longterm has been defined as a period of longer than three years in

the host country. The rationale behind three years is that if a sojourner knows that a two year

period is required and then they move on to a new posting (a common multinational bank

practice) then they do not make attempts to adjust or just tender their time. Three years has been

set as the minimum time to qualify as longterm.

Narrative

This study uses a narrative approach to gathering information as well as analyzing the

information. Narrative is an appropriate method to use when the aim of the study is to understand

created meaning by the participants. The use of the phenomenological narrative approach allows

the interviewee to access their own history and understanding of the events that shaped their

journey: “an important justification for doing narrative research is the belief that people are

storytellers because telling and sharing stories helps us understand ourselves and connect to

others” (Erikkson & Kouvalainen, 2008, p. 211).

Using stories to explain one’s self, one’s journey, and how that was navigated is a way to

access understanding.“Human’s are essentially storytellers” asserts Walter Fisher, the founder of

narrative paradigm of communication.(Fisher,1984, p.7). Applying his theory, this study assumes

that we are “narrative beings” and “all forms of human communication that appeal to our reason

need to be seen fundamentally as stories” (Fisher, 1987, p.xi).

Phenomenological

This study is phenomenological and is defined as: “Phenomenology, which focuses on the way

individuals participate in the world, is underpinned by the idea that humans are agents who


creatively construct social worlds (Ainley, 1986)” (Holmes & O’Neill, 2012, p. 709).

Satisfaction.

Satisfaction is defined as familiarity or comfort with the new situation, and the ability to live and

move within the host culture in a way that is acceptable for both the sojourner and the hosts.

Organization of Remaining Chapters

Chapter 2 includes the philosophical approach of this study. A literature review is

included, discussing several current and relevant theories that have approached this topic. The

literature review includes the four categories of adjustment that are being addressed. The

rationale supports the importance of this topic and the research questions are delineated.

Chapter 3 is a review of the methods used for this study. It includes the scope, which

gives the rationale for how participants were chosen. The participants are noted by name

(changed to protect anonymity) and location (also altered). It is important to note the global

nature of the participants selected. Not all were US based going abroad, many were from Europe

and Asia going to other international locations including the US. This chapter also included the

instrumentation, data analysis and ethical considerations.

Chapter 4 is a summary of the major findings, again broken into the four categories:

cultural adjustment, language acquisition, identity shift and family adjustment. The implications

of the findings within these categories are addressed in the discussion section of Chapter 4.

Chapter 5 is the summary, limitations, further study and conclusions


Chapter 2

Review of the Literature

Philosophical Assumptions and Theoretical Basis

One tradition within the communication field of study is the phenomenological approach.

Phenomenology “places great emphasis on people s perception and interpretation of their own

subjective experience.” (Griffin, 2003, p. 32) Within this tradition the work of Austrian

philosopher Martin Buber is prominently featured. Buber’s focus on the importance of respect

and authenticity between two individuals is the main feature of his approach. Buber highlights

the importance of mutual respect with the I/THOU approach to dialogue. He likewise focuses on

the possibility of authentic human relationships thru dialogue: “an intentional process in which

the only agenda both parties have is to understand what it is like to be the other.”(Griffin, 2003,

p. 32)

Gregory Shepherd (2006) uses the principles of Buber’s philosophy when he posits that

communication is an experience that should be transcendent for both parties. Beginning with

communication as shared experienced, then building a foundation for understanding the other

results in a transcendent experience. He focuses on the experiential aspect for human

communication when he notes:

Experiences can be good or bad, colorful or dull, rewarding or punishing, memorable or forgettable, and the like, but they cannot be right or wrong, accurate or inaccurate, or true or false. ..... By defining communication as experience, I am doing away with that requirement of accuracy or correspondence, and that is very important. By focusing on communication as an experience it allows for people to look at the experience and grow and change from the exposure to the other. (Shepherd, 2006, p. 23)

Shepherd (2006) builds upon this idea when he emphasizes that communication is an

experiences of “being together” (p. 25). He highlights the importance of this idea, by stressing


that this ideas of experiencing together is “the processual sense of always becoming, and always

becoming more together” (p. 25).

These two philosophies--phenomenological interpretation and transcendence--greatly

affect the approach of this study influencing the idea of the individual’s experience being the

basis of the study. There is also a concern for how the individual is influenced by their

experiences of “ the other” in their new location. How do their experiences and their perception

of these experiences affect their ability to adapt and adjust to a new situation? Beginning with the

experience and searching for meaning leads to a narrative approach. Because the

phenomenological tradition places great emphasis on people’s perception and interpretation of

their own subjective experience, a simple story has great value. “ For the phenomenologist, an

individual’s story is more important - and authoritative - than any research hypothesis or

communication axiom” (Griffin, 2003, p. 32). Ethnography focus’s on the meaning people make

and the experiences that influence us. This meaning is not based on science and evidence, but

experience. “We’re not looking at communicating people as scientists. We’re looking at them as

poets and storytellers. The experiences that concern us usually are those beyond the clutch of

cause and effect” (Bochner & Ellis, 2006, p. 114). Meaning is not a given as a result of an

experience, rather it is derived from the interaction of each individual and any given experience.

“Auto-ethnography privileges the heart, the emotions and the moral center of lived

experience” (Bochner & Ellis, 2006, p. 119). Ethnography allows us to hear people tell stories

and to learn from them. There is a connection of storyteller and listener. “One of the main uses of

auto-ethnography is to allow another person’s world of experience to inspire reflection on your

own. The best auto ethnographies have this inspirational quality. You re-contextualize what you


already know about your own life in light of your encounter with someone else’s life or

culture.” (Bochner & Ellis, 2006, p. 119.)

This study seeks the stories of sojourners who have traveled to and adjusted to new

places, language and cultures.Through their storied experiences we gain insight and knowledge

about how to successfully navigate these challenges.

The Literature

Cross Cultural Adjustment

Great adventures come with great challenges. Classic literature illustrates some of the

challenges encountered on great journeys as it chronicles the travels of Odysseus and Aeneas.

Modern sojourners, be they students, business people, or just those seeking adventure, are sure to

meet with multiple challenges as they embark on their journey between nations. The more

obvious cultural challenges faced are changes in food, language, and cultural cues, but hidden

beneath the surface are the greater challenges of understanding how another culture functions

and what it values. Several researchers use the analogy of the iceberg (Friedman & Antal, 2005;

Peterson, 2008) to illustrate the obvious challenges that are observed superficially above the

water line, but beneath the surface are the more difficult areas to navigate. A lack of

understanding or accepting these differences can lead to “culture shock”:

One reason for culture shock is that sojourners break norms and receive negative reactions from hosts, but do not know exactly why. Future research on this construct may help us better understand the dynamics of such interactions, and how they lead to culture shock. Therefore, culture shock seems like a promising area of research related to cross-cultural training. (Bhawauk & Brislin, 2001, p. 162)

Understanding what is below the surface is an important step in cultural adjustment. Knowing

how to navigate those waters is the deeper adjustment that leads to satisfaction with the


experience. This useful metaphor helps with understanding that what is seen on the surface is

supported by the deep cultural assumptions that shape thinking and reactions of the individuals.

While only a small part is visible, all the proscribed reactions are informed by cultural cues and

mores (Friedman & Antal, 2005, p. 71). Figure 1 (below) shows the iceberg analogy.

food, music

pace of life architecture,

literature, language gestures,greetings, level of

emotional display. and many more.

Religion , views about leaders, attitudes about men and women’s roles, tolerance for

Change, role of family, risk taking, beliefs about Human nature, individualism vs collectivism,

Notions of time..and many more

Figure 1: The Iceberg (Peterson, 2005, p.81).

Cross-cultural adjustment (CCA) “occurs across many levels, work, interactions and

general life” (Kim & Slocum, 2008, p. 110). Under consideration in this study is what supports

satisfactory general life adjustment. One consideration included in CCA is the need to understand

“changes in individual communication behavior that are related to the process of acculturation

and that have communicative implications” (Kim & Hubbard, 2007, p. 228). These

communication strategies are a possible key for greater adaptation and adjustment. Two theories

that address how sojourners navigate CCA are Berry’s (as cited in Matsumoto, LeRoux, & Yoo,

2005) model of cultural adjustment and Friedman's (Friedman & Antal, 2005) Theory of


Negotiated Reality.

Berry’s (as cited in Matsumoto, LeRoux, & Yoo, 2005) model of cultural adjustment

identifies four possible adaptation outcomes based on two questions. The questions are: 1)

Should I retain my original culture and identity? 2) Should I develop relationships with the

members of the dominant group?

Based on the Yes/ No answers to these questions Berry is able to group sojourners as either

assimilators, marginalizers, integrators, or separators (See Figure 2) (Matsumoto, LeRoux, &

Yoo, 2005, p.17).

yes,

Assimilation

Integration

Should I develop relationships with members of the dominant group?

Should I retain my original culture and identity?

YES

YESNO

Marginalization

Assimilation Integration

Separation

Figure 2. Adapted from Berry 1997 (as cited in Lua, Samaratungea, & Härtel, p. 670)

Acknowledging that there are a variety of adaptive strategies that can be utilized when

faced with different cultures begins to separate the why and how of a sojourners adjustment.

Each individual will navigate these challenges and will figure out what works best for them and

their circumstances; “One of the goals, therefore, of intercultural adaptation is to adopt an


adaptation pattern that minimizes these stresses and negative adjustment outcomes, and

maximizes positive ones (Matsumoto, LeRoux, & Yoo, 2005, p. 18). Adjustment continues as

sojourners adapt more and more; adjustment is the “experiences that are associated with and

result from attempts at adaptation, and that also motivate further adaptation” (Matsumoto,

LeRoux, & Yoo, 2005, p. 17).

Understanding the culture, how and why it functions as it does, allows the sojourner to

adapt and adjust with smoothness. This is particularly salient when a sojourner is working within

the host country in a managerial position, as is often the case. Knowing how to work effectively

within the new culture with new rules and constraints is a fundamental need. “The development

of strategies that deal with potential conflict and misunderstanding is imperative in order to

produce successful and effective long-term intercultural communication and

relationships” (Matsumoto, LeRoux, & Yoo, p. 18). The power of good adjustment is noted when

sojourners make integrated thoughtful contributions, or, conversely, a lack of understanding has

managers making wrong decisions and being at odds with their employees. Clouse and Watson

(2005) point out that when managers fail to understand the culture cues they can make

irreparable gaffes: “Oscar’s failure to appreciate how Chinese culture differs from U.S. culture

was apparent when he singled out the young plant analyst” (p.118). Other business writers make

the argument that CCA is imperative for successful business practices (Lu, Samaratungea, &

Härtel, 2012). Findings from a recent study of professional Chinese immigrants in Australia

found “those who adopt the assimilation strategy report significantly higher levels of job

satisfaction than those who adopt the separation strategy (Lu, Samaratungea, & Härtel, 2012, p.

678).


This theory of adaptation is only one way of looking at the problem and while many

scholars give Berry’s (as cited in Matsumoto, LeRoux, & Yoo, 2005) model great credence,

Friedman and Antal ( 2005) offer an alternative view. Acknowledging the Berry model has

validity, Friedman and Antal write: “Adaptation, therefore, appears to be the most promising

strategy, which is consistent with much of the international management literature” (e.g. Chaney

and Martin, 2000; Mead, 1998; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1997, p. 76). Friedman and

Antal go on to assert it has serious drawbacks as it takes away individual differences and human

agency in the process; they argue that it promotes stereotypical thinking (p. 76). Rather than

focusing on the outward aspects of CCA they argue for a synthesized integration of self in

regards to the new circumstances. They call for a qualitative understanding of the challenges

rather than just strategies of adaptation. Friedman and Antal have developed a negotiated reality:

Negotiating reality involves an active awareness of oneself as a complex cultural being and the effect of one’s own culture on thinking and action, an ability to engage with others to explore tacit assumptions that underlie behavior and goals, and an openness to testing out different ways of thinking and doing things. (p. 71)

The model is compelling for its idealism. It focuses on the individual choice for change

and understanding: “It assumes that if people know enough about different cultures they can

intentionally shift into a different cultural frame of reference and modify their behavior

accordingly” (Friedman & Antal, 2005, p. 76). Friedman’s theory assumes a level of self-

awareness that is quite sophisticated and possibly could be higher than the average sojourner

would possess. It also assumes an ability to analyze events and cultural stresses as they are

occurring. This process calls for individuals to be aware of their own cultural iceberg at the same

time as engaging with others to explore that iceberg. The image of two colliding icebergs

presents an equal opportunity for disaster as well as insight!


Friedman and Antal (2005) argue that in contrast to the adaptation approach, the

negotiated reality “generates the necessary cultural knowledge for situations as they arise and,

from this knowledge, constructs effective action strategies” (p. 77).

While there is a great appeal to the Friedman (Friedman & Antal, 2005) theory, it has yet

to be tested. It has insight for human agency and choice, but it assumes a level of awareness that

might not occur for the average sojourner till much later in their journey. The Berry (as cited in

Matsumoto, LeRoux, & Yoo, 2005) model, while more straightforward and not dealing with

human thought and choice helps to challenge sojourners about their intentions and desires as they

encounter challenges. Future work on Friedman’s theory could shed more light on effective

transitions. Multinationals may seek to find sojourners with that level of sophisticated insight:

According to Shaffer et al. (2006), greater attention needs to be paid to various traits (individual differences) that will enable expatriates to function effectively in their new environment. Since organizations seek to minimize their training and relocation costs, the selection of an individual with appropriate individual differences is their priority. (Kim & Slocum, 2008, p. 111)

Language Acquisition

New language situations bring more challenges for the sojourner; the uncertainty and

anxiety that Gudykunst and Nishidab (2001) identify as present within all communication is

multiplied when a new language is introduced. New language and new culture come as a

package: “As is to be expected, the two go hand in hand” (Byrnes, 2010, p. 315). How

individuals learn language and grow in levels of fluency is a matter of great interest not only for

academic linguists, but also for the sojourner. Sojourners can participate in language immersion

prior to leaving, or take language classes upon arrival. Navigating challenges towards learning a

new language is an immense hurdle that must be overcome for satisfactory adjustment. Most of


the current focus on language learning (L2) focuses on both language and culture working

together; Byrnes (2010) argues for the importance of moving from typical classroom settings to

more practical and real-life learning. Similarly, Scarino (2010) argues that language and culture

work together to extend cultural learning and adjustment: “This attention to the exchange of

meaning across languages and cultures as the essence of communication calls for a renewed

understanding of language, culture, and learning” (p. 325). Kearney (2010) argues for an

immersion approach and then a narrative approach to internalizing the language: “I then describe

what exactly students are meant to be immersed in and unpack the process of culture learning as

it can unfold through a narrative approach” (p. 333). Many teachers of L2 have different

approaches that they argue are the most effective, but few if any have done the study to try to

tease apart the many components that go into successful L2 acquisition.

With her hallmark study on Second language acquisition Moyer (2004) identified a

mixture of elements that exist in the process of language acquisition which include satisfaction

with one’s level of language, identity, and the social network the sojourner exists within as all

having a multi-pronged influence on language learning (p. 103). Moyer reveals, “that high

satisfaction and motivational intensity are connected to individual strategies initiated to improve

language fluency” (p. 109). Using a qualitative approach to assess these multiple factors that

contribute to successful language acquisition, Moyer describes three major factors: “In cases of

later exposure, psychological factors, contact opportunities and intention to become native like

may play the greatest role in attainment” (p. 98). Moyer illuminates that in L2 acquisition not

enough attention has been given to the issue or contact opportunities and that it may play a key

role in language attainment and therefore satisfaction: “personal contact with native speakers has


not been adequately or consistently addressed . . . high levels of contact may lead to certain

social and cognitive strategies that directly impact language attainment” (p. 103). Moyer also

notes that respect for the new culture and language attainment are positively correlated (p. 107).

Noting two individuals, she posits: “such a conscious resistance to acculturate may have had

profound consequences for Drew’s language acquisition” (p. 107). Conversely, “Dora has clearly

developed a strong sense of identity based on her mastery of the language” (p. 121). Since

dealing with a new language and how one successfully learns and communicates within that

language is one of the major factors effecting successful and satisfactory adjustment,

understanding and facing the challenges for the sojourner is crucial. No one should arrive at a

new location and be surprised at the challenge of language acquisition.

Identity Formation

80 years ago, Martin Buber (2009), the noted Austrian philosopher, identified that whom

we bring to our communication events has a dramatic effect on the efficacy of the

communication. He posits that when two individuals communicate, there are six personas

participating in the event: the two individuals, the specters of how they each see the other, and

how the other sees them (p. 69). Rarely is the possibility for communication confusion more

evident than when two individuals from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds meet and

engage in meaningful communication. An individual’s confusion of identity intensifies during

intercultural communication because typical cultural cues cannot be relied upon. Numerous

theories have been posited to try to capture the experience occurring for the international

sojourner. Gudykunst (Gudykunst & Nishidab, 2001) has developed the Anxiety/Uncertainty

Management Theory. Stella Ting Toomey (2005) has done extensive research with her Identity


Management Theory. Baxter and Montgomery (as cited in Chen, 2011) developed the Relational

Dialectic theory and Kim (2008) has developed the stress model intercultural personhood.

William Gudykunst (Gudykunst & Nishida, 2001) first developed his Anxiety/

Uncertainty Management (AUM) Theory to explain interpersonal and intergroup

communication. His theory has been widely applied regarding interpersonal and intergroup

communication in the US, but has only recently been studied in a cross-cultural setting. A major

axiom of his theory is that anxiety and uncertainty influence communication by effecting the

ability of individuals to manage their attitudes and feelings, thus inhibiting or releasing their

desire to communicate.

Another theory widely used to explain what is happening with the communication

of sojourners in a new culture is the Ting Toomey (2005) model of Identity Negotiation Theory.

Her theory contains five major shifts that occur for the sojourner. Her theory explains their

experiences and allows for explanations of how identity shift happens. She has included in her

theory an understanding of the over-determined nature of these shifts. The theory shows that

there are five elements: “identity security-vulnerability, identity inclusion-differentiation, identity

predictability-unpredictability, identity connection-autonomy, and identity consistency-change.

These five themes form the basic building blocks of the Identity Negotiation Theory” (Motozuka

& Ting-Toomey, 2008, p. 7).

Similar to Ting-Toomey (2005), but slightly less developed is the Montgomery/Baxter

Relational Dialectic Theory (Chen, 2011, p. 215). This theory explains the push me pull you

tension that is occurring during cross-cultural transitions. The theory is working on the

isomorphic principle that as tension is pulling the individual between two cultures, they are


simultaneously experiencing that tension within themselves. These tensions exist within

“openness and closeness or revelation and non-revelation, between autonomy and connection or

separation and integration, and between predictability and novelty or conventionality and

uniqueness” (Chen, 2011, p. 215). Relational Dialectic Theory does more to describe the events

and what is happening than to posit the mechanisms and shifts by which identity is transformed.

Kim (2008) argues for the growth of the person that she calls intercultural personhood.

Her model for identity growth derives from the idea that when there are stressors in the form of

new challenges within the host culture that the stress leads to personal growth and this becomes a

cyclical process that brings the sojourner closer and closer to the new cultural norms (p. 359).

This process continues and as time moves forward, the swings in the cycle become less dramatic

and the person shifts their intercultural identity (see Figure 3). Kim writes: “Over a prolonged

period of undergoing internal change, the diminishing fluctuations of stress and adaptation

become less intense or severe, leading to an overall ‘calming’ of our internal condition” (p. 364).

This overall process leads to an intercultural identity that is “open-ended, adaptive, and

transformative self-other orientation” (p. 364).


Figure 3. The stress–adaptation–growth dynamic (as cited in Kim, 2008, p. 364).

While each of these four theories have useful elements, the Ting-Toomey (2005) theory

of Identity Negotiation (INT) contains the ability to express both the complexity of the issue, but

also to account for the identity challenges and changes of the sojourner. Her theory integrates the

anxiety and uncertainly Gudykunst (Gudykunst & Nishidab, 2001) describes and it likewise

contains elements that express the dialectics of Montgomery and Baxter (as cited in Chen, 2011).

The Kim (2008) model of intercultural personhood is intriguing, but still needs to be better

developed to understand the mechanisms that allow for growth and change to the identity of the

sojourner.

Family Adjustment

Little research has been done to study the direct effects on a couple or family when they

move to a new location that involves new culture, lifestyle and possibly a new language. One

attempt to gain insight was a study done by Family Matters, a Canadian based consulting

company for expatriates. The results of a survey of 656 expatriates worldwide highlight seven

needs that have been assessed as most important by the expatriate respondents. The


overwhelming response is that needs of the family remain unaddressed by the company that is

sending them. Most importantly, marital stress is the number one reason for failure to adjust.

“Marital breakdown was given the highest rating for factors impacting negatively on

international assignments” (Family Matters, p. 9). One respondent noted how much pressure

spouses put on each other because they have no one else. “Unfortunately, my husband is the only

one for me to talk to about problems and then he has to handle them whether with HR or the

relocation company. He comes home late at night and the list is waiting for him and I have no

other options but to go to him” (Family Matters, p. 10). Another respondent illustrates the stress

on marriages: “Everyone tries to put on a brave face and show the world how well they are

coping, when secretly, the ‘wheels may be falling off’ behind closed doors” (Family Matters, p.

10). These examples illustrate the importance of addressing the communication between couples

at these times of high stress.

Another study makes an interesting attempt to quantify what are very human and

qualitative issues. The study of Chen, Tzang, and Tsung, (2005) applies the fuzzy multiple

criteria decision making (FMCDM) model to various factors such as employee personal factors,

competencies, job characteristics, family factors, environmental factors and organizational

relocation. (p. 277). This study concludes: “results show that personal factors are the most

important aspect in the evaluation of expatriate assignments decision-making” (p. 294). This

study provides insight demonstrating the multiple variables that affect families and couples in

these challenging times. It highlights the need for attention to personal areas more than simply

job performance.

While little study has been done directly assessing adjustment for internationally


relocated families, an analogous situation that can illuminate management for these times of

stress is studies of military couples that experience transition around deployment. Studies that

have been done on military families for pre and post deployment show that these times place

immense stress on the couple/family. Navigating these tumultuous times is one of the most

important foci a family can have, but without the awareness of addressing and focusing on the

needs, these important needs can be neglected in the busyness of relocation. Magurie and

Sahlstein (2009) note that communication is key. Their study highlights the importance of

studying the dyadic nature of personal relationships; you cannot rely on studying only the

individual under stress, you must also study the relationship. This study highlights “the relational

uncertainty induced by high stress events and that partners will need to negotiate their coping

efforts when such instances occur, which is a task facilitated by communication” (p. 5).

In a somewhat similar approach Knobloch and Theiss (2011) examine the relational

turbulence military couples experience post deployment. The relational turbulence model

highlights the need for understanding peoples own constructs of what constitutes turbulence.

There is wide ranging definition of what is relational turbulence and thus an individual’s own

construct of what this is affects their view of themselves, their partner, and the relationship (p. 4).

In the case of international sojourners there is a strong component of relational stress that is

imposed by the new environment. There needs to be understanding around how couples are

affected by these circumstances. The relational turbulence model may be a good tool to study

this.

Storytelling, as understood in narrative theory, is one more model of cross-cultural

adjustment. According to narrative theory, individuals and families edit a rich range of


experiences into more synoptic stories that capture and perpetuate meaning. With this in mind,

the kind of story spun by the person or family really matters and may make or break the cross-

cultural endeavor. Various studies underscore the potential of positive family narratives: The

April Trees and Koenig Kellas (2009) study, for example, demonstrated that families that use

joint storytelling of difficult experiences had a higher level of family satisfaction. “Specifically,

people whose stories contained themes such as togetherness, care, humor, reconstruction,

adaptability (Vangelisti et al., 1999) and accomplishment (Koenig Kellas, 2005) were more

satisfied with their families” (p. 94). For family adjustment during the stressful times of

expatriate relocation, engaging the meaning of the uncertainty and turbulence affecting the

marriage and family is a first step in addressing the communication needs. Using a co-

constructed narrative about the events and the family history may be a way to make sense and

share the events and meanings around the adjustments.

Rationale

This study engages the stories and experiences of successful sojourners to seek

understanding of how they reached satisfaction. Their stories matter and they have knowledge to

share about how adjustment happens. While these individuals are unaware of the academic

theories presented about cross cultural adjustment ( Kim, 2008; Friedman & Antal, 2005; TIng-

Toomey, 2005), investigating their stories about how they experienced adjustment will lend

insight and practical application for these theories. Their stories should provide insight into how

they managed to navigate the challenges. The Kim (2008) model describes the mode of change,

but does not account for the individuals story of how the growth happens, this study provides an

opportunity to build upon it. Friedman and Antal (2005) present a theory about negotiating


reality that this study can confirm or not. Moyer’s study needs more research with those involved

in language acquisition. No study has been found that for studying what happens to the family

during cross-cultural adjustment. This study seeks to uncover the family dynamic for the

sojourning families. The adjustment needs to be studied at all levels; culture and language are

intrinsically tied and identity and family adjustment are the deep areas of people’s lives that will

determine intent to remain in their host country or return home. Having reviewed the literature of

the previous categories: cultural adjustment, language acquisition, identity shift and family

adjustment, the following research focuses on understanding the stories of satisfied sojourners,

featuring the following core questions:

Research Questions

1) What allows longterm sojourners to adapt to cultural differences in a manner that satisfaction

and intent to remain, are achieved?

2) What role, if any, does acquisition of a new language play within that adjustment?

3) How does the experience of being a long-term sojourner change the identity of the individual?

4) What effect does a longterm journey in a non-native host country have on marriage & family?


Chapter 3

Scope and Methodology

Scope

The scope of this study is to look at the experiences of 12 couples from multiple

originating countries and understand their transitions to new host countries. It covers their

experiences in four categories of adjustment: cultural, language, identity and family. It is looking

through the lens of their stories about how this adjustment happened for them personally. The

scope is limited to this phenomenological approach.

Methodology

Twelve sojourner couples (dyads) were interviewed separately. Then couples were

interviewed jointly to talk about the journey regarding marriage and family. Participants were

chosen due to their experience with international relocation and having been a sojourner in

multiple places for an extended time (at least three years in each host country). These

participants were deliberately sought for their multiple relocation experience in hopes that,

having gone through the experience more than once in different countries, they may have within

themselves an understanding of the processes that they engaged in for satisfactory adjustment.

There is a deliberate choice of some situations that involve a new language as well as situations

that do not. Also, there is an intentional design plan to engage couples that have traveled together

to seek understanding about human agency and meaning making by two different individuals

experiencing the same conditions in committed relationships. Interviewing the dyad separately

allowed for the possibility of revealing of how different individuals make sense of the same

events or circumstances and if different individuals use different strategies.


Participants

The participants were selected based on the researchers knowledge of their life’s

experience. All the couples were known to the researcher by their common association in a faith

based community. Eight couples were contacted, six were able to meet the time frame of the

study constraints. Participants were asked and voluntarily agreed to participate. The names have

been changed and locations altered to protect anonymity.

1) Don and Eliza Lewis: She went from Asia to the US (7 years) and he from US to Asia (2

years) both ended up in a new Asian country (6 years) and then on to a fourth Asian country (3

years) then back to the previous Asian country (4 years)

2) James and Kathy Long: She went from the US to the UK (2 years) He from Asia to the UK (6

years) They went together to another Asian country (4 years) a third Asian country (4 years) and

now back to their first Asian country (6 years)

3) Alex and Tanya Floyd: He went from one North American country to the US (6 years)

together they went to a European country (3 years) an Eurasian country (8 years) and to the

UK (5 years)

4) Matt and Nancy Thompson: He went from the US to the UK (4 years) She from a European

country to the UK (4 years) then together they went to South Asia (8 years) the back to the UK

(6 years) then back to Asia (10 years)

5) Milt and Amber Troy: they went from the US to South America (2 years) then to Africa (3

years) and on to another African country (11 years)

6) Scott and Linda Watters: Went from Africa to the UK (4 years) then on to another African

country (8 years) then to Europe (3 years)


Instrumentation

Interviews were conducted with each of the participants. The couples each did an

interview individually, then three of the six couples were able to be interviewed as a couple. The

other three either had schedule constraints that did not allow for that or travel that put them in

different countries at the time of the interviews. Each interview was approximately an hour in

length. Some were face to face, others over Skype. Interviews were taped and later transcribed.

The nature of these interviews was to remain true to a qualitative approach. “Qualitative

interviews are often unstructured, informal, open and narrative in nature” ( Eriksson &

Kovalainen, 2008, p. 82). This approach is useful for exploration from the participants’ point of

view. The questions were open ended in keeping with narrative approach to elicit a wide

perspective and to allow for the individuals to share their own experience in narrative form: “A

narrative interview is open in two different ways, there are no hypotheses or propositions to be

tested, and the participant is encouraged to talk openly” (Eriksson & Kovalainen, 2008, p. 216).

The interview style will be in keeping with narrative approach and seek to open up space for

discovery to occur. To this end, the questions were deliberately open-ended.

The questions center on the three main areas of intercultural adjustment: cross cultural

understanding, language differences, and identity. There was also a section of the interview

dedicated to exploring the effect of global journeys on marriage and family. Appendix A contains

the interview questions. These questions are a loose template to guide the interview. The intent is

for the interview to be very free flowing for the interviewee and give them space to tell their

stories.

Data Analysis


Consent from each of the couples was given to participate in the study. Consent forms

signed, and times established for either face-to-face, phone, or Skype interviews. The interviews

were taped, with interviewees consent, transcribed. Using the narrative approach, the transcribed

tapes were studied for common words, themes and narratives that emerged. Common patterns or

stories of a common theme were grouped together When a common them emerged from more

than four participants it was considered for application to the study. For example, all the

participants had stories about what were their hardest cultural adjustments, these challenges were

all found to be values that fall below the surface of the iceberg. Findings were grouped within the

four major categories of the study: cultural, language, identity and family adjustment. In keeping

with a narrative approach, their individual stories were sought for how they made meaning of the

transitions. From these stories emerged findings about how they found satisfaction in each host

country. The data collected as interviews will be only for the use of this study and seen only by

the interviewer and then destroyed.

Ethical Considerations

A point worth noting that may contribute to bias in some way is that all the study

participants have a faith-based background. They were selected by the interviewer because of a

loose affiliation within a worldwide church fellowship; some were known to the interviewer and

others are not. There is no relationship between the interviewer and any of the couples that would

put anyone in a position of coercion. The interviews could be stopped at their request.

Participants were assured of confidentiality with names and locations changed to protect privacy.

Holmes and O’Neill (2011) note, “how positions of faith and religious identities impact on

intercultural competence need further investigation” (p. 717). While this study is addressing the


issue of intercultural adjustment, there needs to be an understanding of how this worldview may

affect the results.


Chapter 4

Introduction

The interviews were valuable in uncovering the strategies that were used for successful

adjustment. In each area of culture, language, identity and family there were a great number of

stories that led to findings of importance. Cultural adjustment is a broad category and therefore a

large number of stories emerged from the interviews about this category. The findings highlight

the importance of emotional preparation and expecting challenges as one experiences a new

culture. Finding friends to guide you through the cultural roadblocks that inevitably appear and

having open and positive attitudes were key in adjustment success.

Findings

Cultural adjustments: Preparation and Challenges, Mentors and Attitudes

Preparation and Challenges

It was the only place I went to not prepared—emotionally.

Adequate preparation and having reasonable expectations was a theme that emerged in

almost all the interviews. When individuals had assumed that the cultures would be similar they

found that their low expectations for change in fact impeded their ability to adjust. Alex

acknowledged that out of his many and exotic travels (some include the Pacific Islands and

Eurasia during its changes in the 90’s) the change that was the hardest for him was moving from

one English speaking country to another. He said, “ I went with the expectation that it would all

be familiar, but it was the only place I went to not prepared—emotionally. I struggled liking the

people, liking what I saw, because I wasn’t prepared for something different.” Likewise, Nancy

points out that in moving from one European country to another there are still many differences


to encounter, “It was still very European, obviously, but it was different. England, to me, seemed

more traditional in many ways—more religious. I felt many times like I was stepping back in

time, moving from my country to England.” Eliza points out the importance of reasonable

expectations regarding timing of adjustment; the first few months are hard for anyone:

Expect it to be hard, and I think for me, it was the first few months especially. I constantly thought about the stuff I left behind, relationships or education for the kids. And that takes a long time to get it out of your system. Because you can decide to leave but the place doesn't leave you and it just takes time.

Amber stresses the importance of not comparing. She focused on expecting things to be

different: “That every place is really different and to not compare—I think that’s probably the

biggest thing—is that you can’t really embrace where you are if you are comparing it to where

you were before.”

We are not in Kansas any more

Using the words of Dorothy in the Wizard of OZ was how Matt captured the experience

of cultural change. Even with adequate preparation and expecting challenges, all the interviewees

pointed to the challenges they encountered with cultural adjustments. These challenges were

frequently captured by a story that marked the realization for them that there was a huge change/

difference in their new country of choice. These cultural challenges demonstrate the applicability

of the iceberg analogy. Many of the participants talked about differing notions around time,

several about business culture and communication styles and notably several of the women

spoke to the challenging nature of the way women are regarded in many countries yet today.

Time was a common theme that took a great deal of adjustment for almost all the

interviewees. Matt shared, “ Time had a completely different meaning. It was kind of relative and

in flux and you had to learn a new way of interacting.” Milt said that the Brazilians were


“completely different” to him concerning time expectations. Scott relates a story about the

African country he lived in: “We used to joke—there’s a saying you know people say, ‘don’t put

off until tomorrow what you can do today.’ So, in this country, it went ‘don’t put off until

tomorrow what you can put off until next week.’”

Adjusting to business culture was another area that is mentioned a great deal. Scott

related how much more social his home country was regarding post business day activities. His

host country was “ not such an integrated business environment.” Matt noted that work ethic

varied a great deal in each of the places he lived and that he had to learn to adjust within each

approach.

Don shared the importance of understanding that even though he was the manager, he let

his local workmates take the lead when he was unsure of the work culture. Within in business

culture the importance of understanding the communication styles was frequently addressed.

Scott revealed that he initially experienced one of his host countries as rude:

And one of the other big challenges was just the way they communicate—they’re very direct. Initially you experience it as rude. Again, it’s something that you learn to appreciate over time. Generally they are very open, you don’t have to wonder what they are thinking—they will tell you what they think. But it’s also still something I’m not used to. They are very opinionated.

Adjusting to differences in women’s roles was a factor several women mentioned as a

great challenge. Amber, sharing about a developing country, remembered an early visit in a

village where the women did not meet with the men, instead she was allowed to meet the women

in their homes where one woman was introduced as “ my mothers rival”. Amber noted the

closeness of the village relationships, but the newness of meeting a second wife, and having her

described in this way took adjustment for her to understand this part of the culture. Similarly,


remembering an early day in her travels to a new host country Nancy shared that it was

absolutely overwhelming, shocking:

What was more challenging were the cultural differences having to do with women and the woman’s role. The women in this country—and especially in those days, we’re talking about 20, almost 30 years ago now—you just didn’t see women out on the roads. Women were totally protected, living at home. If they were going to go out they had to be accompanied by a man, either their father or their husband or their brother. I remember the first time I went out on the street in Bangalore, we were out exploring the city, meeting people. I was out for about three hours, and I only saw one woman the whole time I was out, and that was absolutely overwhelming, shocking—that was the hardest thing to deal with.

Mentors and Attitudes

She was a bridge, an anchor

! All the participants shared the importance of having cultural mentors. Nancy shares about

mentors in each of the places she lived. Speaking of a friend in her first international relocation

she says, “I could talk to her and she would understand the British context but she would also

understand me. So she was very much a bridge for me.”

Eliza shares that in her first experience it was her brother’s girlfriend that helped her adjust, then

when she made another move she looked for someone to mentor her culturally.

After I got there, I think I may have instinctively looked for someone that could help me navigate.and that person was Jojo. She was someone that could speak my language so I could communicate with her and it didn't have to be English. But she was also native. I relied on her to figure out some of the landscape. A lot of this was not done consciously now that I think of it. It really seems like it got imprinted as like a survival skill and I wasn't really aware that I had developed them and then continued to call upon those skills as I was making those adjustments.

It was Nancy’s words that evoke the sense of safety that these friends provide. She called her

magical friend, Rita, a bridge, sharing the importance these guides have in the lives of sojourners

especially in the early days:


One of them was a very unusual young woman—she was unusual in the sense that even though she was very Indian, and in those days society was still very traditional, for some reason she was very westernized and very modern. She was only 17 when I met her—I was 24—so I was a little bit older than her but we really clicked and she was someone who was very intelligent, very smart, spoke English very well. She would kind of tag along with me and translate everything for me and introduce me to people—so there again, I feel that I was lucky, I don’t know if it was luck, maybe I gravitated towards those types of people that would help me—the kind of people that would help me have a bridge to the local society. I think everywhere we go there are people likethat —people who are very local but who also have an I think they were others, but she was definitely a great help.

The participants all mentioned cultural mentors that helped them understand and navigate the

challenges they were encountering in the culture. These friends provided a crucial step in

understanding and accepting cultural differences.

I came to deeply respect them

A notable finding that emerged was the positive terms that the participants used when

referring to their host countries. They all shared about challenging cultural adjustments, but

always in terms of what they had needed to learn and how it helped their respect and

appreciation for their host country. Words like humility, respect, listening, understanding,

learning were said many times. Nancy said, “ It takes effort, it takes overlooking the daily hassles

and the details of life and trying to look for the good and trying to look for the human contact

more than complaining.” Amber said it best: “I came to deeply respect them. In spite of their

incredible poverty, I learned that they possess an incredible maturity of character that I never had

imagined.”

Language Acquisition: Crucial and Exhausting

It really was sink or swim.


Regarding the acquisition of language all the participants that were in new language

situations agreed that learning the language is a must. Eliza said, “The biggest adjustment was

the language. It really was sink or swim.” Two other participants warned that while it is crucial,

speaking the language fluently does not bypass the importance and need for appropriate and

sensitive cultural adjustment. Milt puts it this way: I became fluent in the language and then I

still had to figure out how a South American thought, because he thought completely differently

than I did in many areas.”

Many participants talk about the importance of the language aiding with connections to

locals. Alex stated that the language is “ a statement of solidarity with the people. To be quite

honest, I feel that learning the language is my best way of getting to know them.” Nancy echoes

the importance of this as she shared how language acquisition builds trust:

The minute I open my mouth and I speak in their language, there’s an instant connection, there’s a trust, people just light up. I think it’s super important to communicate in the local language—I think it wins people over immediately. It wins their trust.

Mind Mush

While learning a new language is a great benefit, it comes at a tremendous cost. All the

participants talked about the exhaustion that comes when having to learn, engage and function in

a new language. Milt and Amber both call it mind mush: “We call it mush-mind, I mean, you’re

exhausted. It was a lot of hard work.” Others chime in with their experiences. Eliza shared about

spending 5 hours on homework that for native speakers was a short assignment. Nancy, an avid

language learner, sums this up with her thoughts:

I mean I love languages so I enjoyed it but it was exhausting. Having to function in a different language all the time—to think in a different language, to communicate in a different language, to communicate at a heart-level in a different language—is exhausting. And I do think I have an ability for languages so that helps—like learning


the technical side of the language is not a big issue for me. But what’s hard is communicating at a heart-level and really going for that—like really investing yourself personally, deeply, to the point where you can actually relate to people in a different culture, with their language, at the heart-level. And I think it takes an investment to do that, and that is exhausting.

All of those participants that had to learn a new language stressed the importance of

staying engaged with language learning. They point out attitudes that help them to keep learning.

Don and Alex talked about the effect of the language keeping them humble and the importance

of not taking yourself too seriously. Others use positive and motivational descriptors for how

they stayed engaged: determination, invigorating, fun, exciting and enjoyable. Obviously, despite

the challenges these sojourners experienced in language acquisition they found the end results to

be so positive that they continuously persevered in learning new languages. Tanya puts it this

way: “After learning the language—there’s really something about that—it becomes a part of

you. In some kind of way it becomes part of home. I think that’s huge,”

Identity Adjustments: Transformation and Inspiration

I was transformed

The experience of a global journey, living and thriving within a new culture and often

language is summed up best by Kathy’s words: “I was transformed.” How this transformation

happens is unique to each of the participants, but they all spoke to the changes it had made for

each of them personally. Alex and Don both spoke of being life long learners. Alex noted it

made him simpler:

Depending on the language stage that I’m in, its made me simpler. I think 25-year-old Alex was quite complex. I think by the time that Alex learned two more languages and sought to express himself, I think he actually became simpler—less complicated.


Eliza spoke about how it helped her relate to each person in his or her own setting and culture.

She is able to understand their needs and meet them. Nancy stressed that she is able to mix better

with the culture:

I think the language makes you blend, I think when you speak the language your mannerisms, your body language, your facial expressions automatically—it’s like you’re a chameleon. You kind of adapt. Its made me more accepting, more tolerant, more willing to listen and understand. And I think the biggest change for me,

Amber shares the impact for her this way: “I think I’m a much more global person. You know, I

think I tend to take a more global view of things around me.” Kathy experienced something

similar when she shares, “I kind of feel like a citizen of the world and I don't really feel like an

American.”

Scott follows this up by saying that their travels have made them more cosmopolitan.

“London is, to me, one of the most cosmopolitan cities in the world. And to learn to live with

different cultures, and different ethnicities, and different minorities—that was certainly an eye-

opener.”

Milt summarized well the experience and how he changed:

Well, you know, its been one of the best experiences of my life. I think the realization that everyone comes from a different place means that you can’t make assumptions and that you know that you might be wrong, and I think that’s a useful thing when going into any kind of a new situation—to assume that you don’t know what you’re doing and that you might be making a mistake and not be overconfident.

Their words show how identity changing the experience is. All the participants spoke

extensively and personally about these changes. Accompanying them on this radical shift were

characters that they identified with that helped them.

I’ve really crossed over, like Dunbar had,


For most of the participants, the process of identity shift conspicuously included a role

model-sometimes fictitious—internalized by and guiding the sojourner. This role model was a

source of inspiration on their journey. Assuming through a narrative lens that all human

experience is understood by the individual as a condensed, subjective story or series of stories, it

is not surprising to find participants identifying with and attaching themselves to characters from

other stories. The participants from Africa for example, felt inspired to persevere by the example

of Nelson Mandela, as specifically depicted in the film Invictus, and noted, “This story was about

bringing cultures together across cultural lines.” Don felt similarly inspired by the character of

George Bailey in It’s a Wonderful Life.

James admired a character from the Indian film, Stars of the Earth, saying, “When I see

that character, I see me.” Matt related to Neo and Trinity from The Matrix: “Their idea was to

sacrifice themselves in order to somehow help others or save others, and I know that especially

when I’ve been in difficult situations where I thought things were completely spinning out of

control, I would think about their characters.”

Milt summed it up this way, remembering the character of John Dunbar in Dances With

Wolves:

That movie moved me to tears. Because here was a guy who went cross-cultural, finally understood the Native American culture, and I’m sitting there in Africa going, “That is exactly what I just did for the last two years.” I mean I cried because I really learned the language, I learned the customs, I identified with the character. It made me miss my culture—I realized how much I had sacrificed in terms of my own identity—how different I now was—living in Africa, eating the food, speaking the language, using African customs and vocabulary—I realized what a sacrifice, what a big change it was. And that was sobering, as one feeling, but also exciting. I felt like, “Wow, I’ve really kind of gotten onto the other side—I’ve really crossed over, like Dunbar had, like Kevin Costner in the movie.


Several of the participants were a bit reticent to share, but eventually admitted the

presence of these co-sojourners:

I hate to admit it but the other is John Carter of Mars. I am a product of Edgar Rice Burroughs almost as much as I am of the apostle Paul. Edgar Rice Burroughs is a romantic Science Fiction novelist who basically took the same person, whether it was Tarzan or John Carter of Mars, and put them in a romantic setting of alien landscape and learning—they are always avid learners. My wife finally got some missing pieces of my puzzle by seeing the movie John Carter of Mars, and realized where I come from.

Family Adjustments: Partnership and Age of Children

We’re deep partners in all of this

Many of the participants spoke to the challenges that such a journey brings to marriage

and family and how they felt they navigated those challenges. Interestingly, while saying it was

hard, all said it made their marriages stronger. Milt stated:

“Well, I can see there’s potential for it to really beat up a marriage but I think it brought us closer

as a couple because we talked and we enjoyed discussing it and we made the changes along the

way as a team.”

Nancy was able to relate, “ For the marriage, I think it does make us closer, and it does make us

fight.”

Don confirms this sentiment when he said that the journey was both a stress on their marriage

and a strength for their marriage. He also noted that by their third international move they were

aware of the strength in their marriage: “we really look to each other as the familiar thing and

rely on them as your anchor.”


The importance of standing together with challenges was discussed. Tanya said it was

“huge” to work together: “ We were shoulder-to-shoulder and immersed in everything together,

so I think that’s huge.” Nancy speaks to the importance of sticking together: “We’re deep

partners in all of this. I don’t know that its changed it so much as it’s a part of the fabric of our

relationship—all the things that we’ve experienced, gone through together, struggled through.

Scott sums it up well with his words

Every move has always been stressful. It definitely tested our relationship. But it also deepened our relationship every time. It brought us closer together—that’s for sure, you’re now going through the same challenges, the same experiences. Sometimes it gets to you and you take it out on each other, but its also great sometimes too, just when you get home and talk about just your day, you know, “the culture got in my face today.” And there’s someone to talk to. So it’s been testing at times for our marriage, but its also brought growing times. Really positive.

Typical third culture kids.

Many spoke to the challenges with the family, and in most regards the participants felt

like smaller children were easier to move with, they followed the parents’ emotional cues, but for

the older kids there were more challenges and these brought challenges then for the family. It

took more time with the family and time to help the kids adjust. Scott and Linda had experienced

moving as a couple, as a couple with young kids (they called them adaptable and flexible at this

age) and also then with teens. That last move was the hardest:

The biggest challenge for us was Europe, because of the age of the children they were older and more in a transition time in their lives as well. Yeah, a lot of stress. They had to face the same cultural challenges that we had to face with the way of European communication, but I think even more intense because they were with—all three of them, we put them initially in local schools—so they were between local kids and really had like a bang of local culture.


Acknowledging there were many challenges to overcome, all the interviewees related that

they felt the benefits outweighed the negatives. Several jokingly stated the kids were confused,

but actually meant they were extremely adaptable. Scott addressed this issue:

That’s what I meant when I said my kids are confused. They were born in England, they have African passports, they also have a European passport, but the first part of their life they grew up in Africa. So they’re English, they’re African, they’re another African, and now they’re European—they’re confused in that sense but highly adaptable

In more than one family they all have different country’s birth certificates, Tanya states it is a

mixed blessing for them all:

It’s interesting because we all have completely different birth certificates, the kids have both American and another passport, but I guess for our family it’s been—I’ve always looked at it as an incredibly rich blessing. Sometimes the kids have not—I think they are more aware of the challenges it presents to them.

Even given these challenges of location, language, and passports, the participants found the

advantages for their kids were many. Amber stated it makes them flexible: “They’re able to relate

to all different kinds of people—I mean they really are. Nothing really fazes them—I think it’s

just very enriching.”

Nancy, who has five children all born outside the US, having lived in first world and developing

countries summed it up with her words:

What they would say is that they don’t fit in anywhere—typical third culture kids.... there are disadvantages, but the advantage to that kind of upbringing is that they are very adjustable and adaptable, they don’t complain, they eat anything, they make friends with anybody, they can mix with the rich, they can mix with the poor, they don’t have any prejudice, so in that sense I think it’s great.

Discussion

Cultural adjustment


This study finds that preparation is key for successful and satisfactory adjustment. Alex’s

words about his hardest adjustment being the one place he perceived as more similar to home

demonstrates the stumbling block effect of assumed similarity. “ If you assume that people are

alike you fail to take the necessary steps to bridge significant cultural differences (Caputo,

Dannels, Hazel, & McMahon, 2002, p. 308). For these participants there were a few places that

the surprise of difference caught them off guard. They all professed to learn from this experience

and proceed with the next move to assume difference within the culture.

The findings from the interviews demonstrate convincingly that the iceberg analogy has

great relevance. Some made cursory mention of the obvious changes of food and outward

differences, but all had comments about the values and deeper issues of culture that were the

main block they had to overcome. These values focused on the differences in time perspectives,

direct vs. indirect communication and values towards women. These stories were told often with

great detail and memory of how they experienced these deep adjustments. Even with the second

and third countries many of these sojourners lived in they had to understand and seek to adjust to

these deep issues of cultural differences.

Most the interviewees valued the experience of a cultural mentor, or “magical friend” as

Osland (1995) calls it. These friends take many forms. Some are members of the new culture,

and others are those that have traveled the path before you. “ These mentors serve as guides

during the heroes initial journeys, helping with language concerns, living accommodations,

social contacts and advice for greater effectiveness” (Hall, 2004, p. 276). The participants shared

how important these friends were in providing guidance and insight, confirming Osland’s

observations.


Looking back at the theory of Negotiated Reality that Freidman and Antal (2005) posit, it

has become apparent that while this theory holds appeal, it assumes a level of self awareness that

is not found when one first steps into a new culture. They describe their theory this way:

Negotiating reality involves an active awareness of oneself as a complex cultural being and the effect of one’s own culture on thinking and action, an ability to engage with others to explore tacit assumptions that underlie behavior and goals, and an openness to testing out different ways of thinking and doing things. (p. 71)

These participants have a great deal of experience in international relocation, yet all mention the

process presenting great challenges. They were also all extremely motivated individuals with an

intent to remain in their new host country, yet all shared the challenges that real adjustment bring

with it. This study finds that Antal and Freidman assume a level of awareness of self that seems

hard to maintain when confronted with differences and so many new situations within a new host

country. The ability to stand outside yourself and analyze falls out side of normative experiences

with cross cultural adjustment.

The incidence of only positive stories told, or if it was about an adjustment it was told

about how they needed to grow and change, not as a negative about the host country. It is

possible that these successful and satisfied sojourners are being affected by memories that are

only positive ones, or that they are positive people and return with positive and happy tales. The

research of Osland (1995) shows that the expatriates she interviewed considered a positive

attitude a key attribute for successful adjustment. In contrast, “ expatriates attribute lack of

adjustment on the part of other expatriates to a negative attitude” (p. 205). This sentiment is

echoed by Pinto, Cabral-Cardosoa, and Werther (2012) when they note what influences

sojourners to return home.


It is likely that poor adjustment leads to negative emotions and poor satisfaction with the assignment; while adjustment reduces the negative moods and increases satisfaction. Therefore, a high level of adjustment (e.g., familiarity or comfort with the new situation) can promote satisfaction with the assignment, while a poor adjustment can decrease general assignment satisfaction. (p. 190)

Language Acquisition

The participants that had a language change stress the importance of learning language

and the connection it gives you to the local culture. “ Anthropologist Edward Hall (1959) claims

that culture is communication and communication is culture” (Caputo et al., 2002, p. 297).

Therefore to adjust to culture, learning the language is an important first step. It is only a first

step though. Two of the participants, Milt and Amber shared that this was only the first step for

them and cautioned against thinking fluency meant you were adjusted to the culture. This echoes

the instruction of Caputo, et al., (2002) as they stress the importance of the nonverbal

communication that is culturally specific and that can be a barrier to effective communication (p.

309).

Acknowledging the challenges of language acquisition, many of the interviews stressed

the importance of motivation: ways of staying engaged. Caputo, et al. (2002) put it this way:

“However, because communication with others who are culturally different can be difficult, your

motivation to communicate is critical” (p. 311). Maintaining the motivation was a major focus of

the Moyer (2004) book. Moyer reveals, “That high satisfaction and motivational intensity are

connected to individual strategies initiated to improve language fluency” (p. 109). She found that

adult L 2 acquisition varied a great deal from individual to individual. One possible explanation

of the differing outcome is personal desire for proficiency in the language, contact with locals,

and identity. These factors were strongly reflected in the stories about language acquisition that


the participants shared. The style of learning (whether immersion or classroom style) does not

matter in the final outcome of L2 acquisition, but the greatest factor was opportunity for contact

within the host community. Given this important factor, Moyer stresses that “personal contact

with native speakers has not been adequately or consistently addressed . . . high levels of contact

may lead to certain social and cognitive strategies that directly impact language attainment” (p.

103). Along with contact with locals she also notes respect for the new language and culture are

positively correlated (p.107). This study supports these findings in that it was a sentiment that

was felt and expressed throughout the interviews: the participants were appreciative and involved

with their host culture. Negative thoughts or stories were not a part of their recollections.

Identity Shifts

! Participants consistently described their experiences as provoking profound change.

Osland (1995) echoes this: “The next part of the journey is the ultimate boon or the

transformation of the self” (p. 278). Osland goes on to point out these travelers are people who

have found ways of coping with great struggles, who have grown and matured because of them:

Finding ways to deal with the trials of the road result in an empowered person: a person who recognizes that he or she has grown and matured and fells better because of it, a person with a broader perspective on the world and an appreciation of differences; a person who not only has better work skills but can better lead others; a person with a wider base of knowledge and understanding; and finally a person who has developed closer richer personal and family relationships. (p. 278)

This identity shift is best captured by the Kim model of stress-adaptation-growth. All the

participants describe their journeys as challenging but rewarding; stressful, but transformative.

The Kim model predicts an intercultural identity that is “open-ended, adaptive, and

transformative self-other orientation” (p. 364). All the interviews confirmed this conclusion.


Like Osland’s magic friend—a real person who accompanies sojourners in their

adjustment—most of the participants recalled the importance of an “internal friend” who

accompanied them internally with their transition. These friends might be historical—like

Mother Teresa or Nelson Mandela—or fictional, like George Bailey or Jedi Knights. Either way,

these “friends” were meaningful and important and provided travelers with inspiration during

their cross-cultural journey.

Whether serving as role models or simply co-sojourners, these characters helped with

identity adjustment in a new place. Bochner and Ellis (2006) echo the same—life is lived based

on experiential meanings: “We’re not looking at communicating people as scientists. We’re

looking at them as poets and storytellers. The experiences that concern us usually are those

beyond the clutch of cause and effect” (p. 114). How these stories motivate and change the

sojourner’s meaning and their experiences is up to each individual. Of note though, is that they

all had accompanying characters that added value and inspiration for them on their journey.

Family Adjustment

A surprising finding from the interviews about the impact on marriages was the multiple

comments about how the journey strengthened the marriage. All the participants acknowledged

that there were incredible challenges and stresses to the marriage, but ultimately it resulted in

deepened friendships and reliance on one another. Stefan summed it up, “Every move has always

been stressful. It definitely tested our relationship. But it also deepened our relationship every

time.” The sentiment expressed was that if it didn’t kill you it makes you stronger. Montgomery

and Baxter’s relational dialectics is in effect within these sojourners. The stresses of the changes

can have a pushing apart effect, but the need for a friend that many mentioned as a pulling


together effect. Of interest to note, all of these participants were over 40 and have been married

for over twenty years. It is reasonable to assume that the faith based background and length of

marriage has strengthened those relationships in a way that might not always occur. As the

Family Matters study revealed, marital stress is the number one reason for failure to adjust. This

highlights the importance of studying the nature of relationships under stress. Magurie and

Sahlstein (2009) note the importance of studying the communication within the dyadic nature of

personal relationships.

The impact on the family seems to vary greatly depending on the age of the children. The

participants shared that changing locations with smaller children was much less complicated.

Scott and Linda who had made the transition with older kids called it “more intense” and “very

challenging.” The end result though is kids that are flexible and adaptable. Nancy also shares it

was the hardest to move when the kids were older, but the result was adaptable “third culture

kids”. Third culture kids is a term coined by Ruth Hill Useem in the 50’s to refer to kids who

follow their parents into a new society. David Pollock (2001) has done extensive study on them

and find them to know how to adapt and build relationships within each culture, but not having a

sense of belonging. This is in keeping with the findings, there are great challenges to the kids and

family but ultimately it results in high adaptability. Raising older kids in a high period of anxiety

anyway, add to that adjustment a new culture and language, and that provides a highly stressful

family situation.


Chapter 5

Summaries and Conclusions

Limitations

This study was limited by the time constraints of the project. It could have been enhanced

by more participants, and the ability to finish all the couple interviews. Having three of the six

interviews not able to be interviewed together was a limitation. It was also limited with only six

couples (12 participants). More information from a greater number of participants could confirm

the findings. Also, the study only involves those that have been selected for satisfactory

adjustment. Therefore the study focused on one perspective -- those who have adjusted. Would a

study with a group of dissatisfied (those that chose to return early) participants confirm the

findings? These participants were all married with kids. Would the study have a broader

application if it included singles that are sojourners for the same length of time, or marrieds that

have already launched their children? Or non-Christian faith-based couples?

Further study

Opportunity exists for further study in areas that this study uncovered. This study used

participants from several different home countries traveling to a variety of host countries. A study

of how each subgroup adjusts and do they use differing strategies would be a good follow up.

For example, Africans going to Asia, or Asians going to South America.

Language acquisition is also an area for further study. As Moyer (2004) points out, the

issue of local contact has yet to be demonstrated as a key strategy, but this research and hers

seems to indicate that it could be. A study focused solely on language acquisition and the local

contacts used is needed.


The inner stories that inspire and motivate a sojourner to keep going when it is

challenging was touched upon briefly in this study. It deserves a more in-depth study. How

identity is shifted and does that stay shifted even after return is an area for further research as

well.

Finally, there has been little research done on families that travel internationally. These

families and the stresses they encounter provide a needed opportunity to study and seek

understanding about the effects of sojourning on the family dynamic. Along with studying the

family, there is the need to study and understand the effect of family sojourning on the kids. Does

this produce third culture kids? What do these kids say about the effect this has had on

themselves, the family and their worldview?

Conclusions

This study of Global journeys was seeking insight into the process of cultural, language,

identity and family adjustment for longterm sojourners. This study used interviews focusing on

the stories people tell as a way to make sense of their experience. The result was insight about

the process of cultural adjustment for longterm success. The participants shared through their

stories the strategies they used to aid them in challenging adjustments. The findings confirm

much of what is known about how this adjustment occurs. The study supports the iceberg

analogy that deeper issues below the surface are the ones that even experienced sojourners find

challenging as they adjust. The model by Kim (2008) of stress-adaptation-growth was most

useful in understanding the process of identity adjustment, while the Friedman and Antal (2005)

theory of negotiated reality assumes a far greater level of self awareness than is possible in these

stressful situations. The findings also yielded insights about the importance of positive attitudes


towards the host country, and towards language acquisition confirming Osland’s (1995)

assertions about the importance of the role of positive attitudes within cross cultural adjustment.

The findings for language acquisition confirmed Moyer ‘s (2004) study about the most

successful strategies for this and confirmed the importance of contact with native speakers. The

findings for family adjustment were surprising in that it confirmed the great stress placed on

families, but these participants found it also brought strength to their marriage and positive

attributes for their children. This study was only a brief glimpse at families and this remains an

area of much needed study. The findings support that it is through a storied history that we make

sense and meaning of our lives.

Overall, findings support the usefulness of phenomenology and transcendence in

partnership as a way of understanding, and perhaps predicting, cross-cultural adjustment. The

ability of subjects to make valuable relational connections in local cultures afforded

communication experiences transcending their own self-embedded-ness, their own culture, and

even their own ongoing interpretations of their new environments. Transcendent communication,

then, significantly altered the interpretation of experience, changing the stories individuals and

families forged.

Transcendent communication emerges from desired relationships--a theme running

throughout the study. Each category of adjustment contained a relationship that assisted on that

part of the journey: the cultural adjustment included a “ magic friend” (Osland, 1995); language

acquisition needed relationship with a native speaker (Moyer, 2004); identity adjustments

included a relationship with an internal character that provided vision and inspiration, and in

family adjustment a partnering marriage relationship was paramount. May the understanding of


how to approach a global journey encourage more sojourners to embark on a great and fulfilling

challenge with success.


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Appendix A: Questions used for the Interviews

Cross Cultural Understanding:· Tell me about your first experience as an international sojourner?· What were some of the initial challenges you met with?· How did you navigate those challenges?· What sacrifices did you make or what had to be surrendered to make the cross-cultural

adjustment?· What values or previous experiences in your life were you able to draw upon to make the

adjustment?· Was there someone within the host culture that helped you with those challenges?· How did this person help you?· What aspects of the host culture have you embraced and changed you permanently?· What was the most significant work you were aware of personally doing to aid the

adjustment?

Language Learning:· If you have learned a new language can you tell me how working in a second or third

language affected you.· Is there a difference in your identity when you are engaged with others in that language?· In speaking a new language, what makes it hard, what makes it inviting, · What keeps you engaged with it?· How did learning a new language empower or inhibit your adjustment?

Identity:· Can you tell me a movie or story that capture this journey for you?· Is there a particular character you identify with?· In what way has your personal identity changed in this process of cross-cultural

adjustment?· What aspects of the host culture have you embraced and changed you permanently?· You have now lived in a second culture for X number of years, what is your identity

now?

Joint Questions:· How has this journey changed your relationship?· How did it effect you to have a partner on the journey?· What ways has being on this journey together made you more flexible or less flexible?· How has this journey affected your family?· Did being together in this process make adjustment easier or harder?


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