RtI and Roles Revisited: Opportunities for School Psychologists Ann Casey, Ph.D. & Holly Windram, Ph.D

RtI and Roles Revisited:Opportunities for School

Psychologists

Ann Casey, Ph.D.

&

Holly Windram, Ph.D.

Objectives for today

• Understand the links between your current skills and roles and those you will need in RtI functioning schools

• Understand that consultation and assessment continue to be highly valued skills, but may look different

• Learn of tools and resources that you can use to help your school in the implementation process

Fundamental Assumptions• All the students are all our responsibility• All students can make progress when given

the amount and kind of support needed• Teaching to the middle doesn’t meet all

students needs.• Therefore, we must use our resources in

new, different and collaborative ways to ensure each student is as successful as possible!

• http://youtube.com/watch?v=HAMLOnSNwzA

http://youtube.com/watch?v=HAMLOnSNwzA

What is RtI?

• RtI is the practice of: 1. Providing high quality instruction/intervention

matched to student needs

2. Using learning rate over time and level of performance to

3. Make important educational decisions.

NASDSE, 2005

3 Components & 3 Tiered System

• RtI is a process comprised of 3 main components:– Evidenced Based Instructional Practices– System of Universal Screening and

Progress Monitoring– Problem Solving as a decision making

system to determine who gets what interventions, when and by whom [all of which are the systems that support RtI]

Why a Pyramid?

Tier 3

Tier 1

Tier 2

An aerial view- emphasizing that all students need a strong foundation in core instruction and that all students are part of the same educational system.

What is not RtI• It’s not a prescription • It’s not a program, curriculum, strategy, or

intervention - some would say this is a paradigm shift

• RtI is a model that requires your school structure & resources be used in ways that improve individual student needs.

• RtI requires 3 components, and a tiered instructional framework, but it’s going to look different in your school than how it looks in mine.

Why does my school need a 3 tiered system?

• Are you satisfied with how all your students are achieving?

• Many schools have had few options for struggling students & have not been ideal methods in preventing failure

• In fact, special education has really been a ‘wait to fail model’

RtI as an Organizing System for Accelerating Achievement

• While RtI was conceived with low achieving students in mind, there is no reason the system can not be used for high achieving students as well

• First and foremost, Response to Intervention is a school improvement model

What happens when you implement an RtI system?

• St. Croix River Education District data– A small cooperative in east central

MN comprised of 5 rural districts

Percent of Students Meeting Benchmark Targets - GOM Reading (ALL SCRED)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

K Nov (LSF)KW (LSF)KS (LSF)1F (NWF)

1 Nov (NWF)

1W 1S 2F 2W 2S 3F 3W 3S 4F 4W 4S 5F 5W 5S 6F 6W 6S 7F 7W 7S 8F 8W

Grade and Season

Percent of Students

2007-08 SCRED2006-07 SCRED2005-06 SCRED2004-05 SCRED2003-04 SCRED2002-03 SCRED2001-02 SCRED2000-01 SCRED1999-00 SCRED1998-99 SCRED1997-98 SCRED1996-97 SCRED

ALL-SCRED - Historical 10th percentile scores (ORF)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

1F 1W 1S 2F 2W 2S 3F 3W 3S 4F 4W 4S 5F 5W 5S 6F 6W 6S

Grade and Season

Words Read Correct

2007-082006-072005-062004-052003-042002-032001-022000-011999-001998-991997-981996-97

Percentage of Students Receiving Services for Specific Learning Disability - St. Croix Education District (SCRED) vs. Region and MN State Totals

0.0%

0.5%

1.0%

1.5%

2.0%

2.5%

3.0%

3.5%

4.0%

4.5%

5.0%

Percent of Students

SCREDRegion 7STATE

SCRED 4.22% 4.35% 4.11% 3.91% 3.70% 3.71% 3.84% 3.39% 3.22% 2.76% 2.54% 2.41% 1.99% 2.34%

Region 7 3.66% 3.95% 3.97% 4.02% 3.91% 3.93% 3.96% 3.99% 3.83% 3.71% 3.51% 3.34% 3.22% 3.09%

STATE 4.02% 4.11% 4.23% 4.24% 4.21% 4.16% 4.13% 4.12% 4.21% 4.02% 3.80% 3.68% 3.54% 3.41%

94-95 95-96 96-97 97-98 98-99 99-00 00-01 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08

CHANGE

There are some challenges . . .

Whole Group Discussion

When you think about RtI -

what are your biggest challenges right now?

True or False?

People resist change

People resist change when they experience loss (or

the fear of loss)

More work.

Work I don’t know how to do.

“It’s a whole lot easier to look out a window than look in the

mirror.”

Roles for . . .

School PsychologistsLeadership for implementing

RtI framework

#1: We love data.

#2: We like problems

#3: We love solutions

#4: We like (most) people

School PsychologistsLeaders for implementing

a RtI framework

SCRED School Psychologists:Tier 1

Facilitate building level RtI

Collect & interpret screening data

Consult with general ed teachers

Tier 2

Facilitate problem-solving teams

Influence Standard Treatment Protocol

Ensure implementation integrity

Ensure research-based instruction

Facilitate regular data reviews

Tier 3

Facilitate intensive problem-solving

Ensure implementation integrity

Ensure research-based instruction

In-depth Problem Analysis

Facilitate regular data reviews

Chisago Lakes High School

• Facilitator of Problem Solving Process• Facilitator of using data for decision-

making• Leadership on research-based instruction• Coaching & support for regular ed. staff • Guidance for a systems viewpoint• Data collection and integrity checks

Minneapolis Public Schools• School Psychologists in MPS do not have

formal roles as previously described - yet they are the ‘keepers’ of the problem solving process– Ensuring problems are well defined and analyzed– That data are collected– And that interventions are changed if progress is

not made rather than immediately going to special ed. evaluation.

– That the system is working - helping people analyze and disaggregate data across the school so that resources are allocated appropriately

What is your role in RtI?

• There are a number of important roles for psychologists. But the key to well functioning RtI systems is collaboration among and between various roles groups.

• We have strengths that we need to capitalize on for the benefit of the system.

Evidence Based Practices

• The implementation of a tiered instructional delivery system rests upon the use of EBP at all levels or tiers

• How can school psychologists be of assistance in this endeavor?– Understanding of importance of controlled studies– Knowledge of various types of educational

journals – Skepticism is taught and valued - show me the

evidence that something is effective

QuickTime™ and aTIFF (LZW) decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

Do School Psychs Need to Know all the Research on

Reading, Math, and Behavior?• No - but we must be willing to ask the

tough questions when someone else suggests a particular approach, curriculum, or strategy be used:

Is there an evidence base for the effectiveness of this approach?

Assessment

• Most School Psychs think of themselves as having expertise in this area

• In RtI we shift this focus to the system as a whole, rather than focusing primarily on individuals

• We need reliable and valid data for universal screening and progress monitoring.

• When you are doing less individual formal assessment, you will have time for other roles such as helping teams view and analyze data to make good instructional decisions

Data Usage and Data Analysis

• This is an important skill in making RtI work - and initially, many educators may need assistance with how to use data to make good decisions for kids– Graphing behavior or skills– View trends in data across grades, years– Analyzing multiple sources of data across

individuals or small groups

Consultation• Problem solving which is a key component in RtI has it’s

roots in consultation

• Many of you have had training in behavioral, instructional, or collaborative consultation

• While these skills will continue to be very useful for students needing tier 3 interventions - one of the shifts school psychs will need to make is using these skills to focus on the system rather than individuals if we are serious about all students making progress

Consultation/Collaboration

• School Psychologists as educational translators

• We need to help staff see the connections!

• This is not more on the plate - RtI is the plate.

Consensus building

• Not a one time event

• Goals and consensus for achieving those goals needs to revisited often to keep focus and momentum going

• There is a role for you in this area

Think and Share: Whole Group

Integrity is _______________.

What’s in a word or phrase?

• Fidelity • Treatment Integrity

• Adherence • Intervention Integrity

“Intervention Integrity is the degree to which a planned intervention is implemented as

designed” Greshm, Gansle, Noell, Cohen, & Rosenblum, 1993

Ensuring Intervention Integrity is Important

Key Questions:

Is it being done?

Is is being done well?

What the reason for progress or no progress?

Why School Psychologists?

• Skilled at problem-solving

1. Trained observers of human behavior

2. Know the right questions to ask

BREAK

Problem-Solving Steps

1. Problem Identification

2. Problem Analysis

3. Plan Development

4. PlanImplementation

5. Plan Evaluation

Problem-Solving Process

• In an RtI model, we use a 5 step problem solving process to determine who gets Tier 2 or 3 support based on data - not on a referral process

What is problem-solving?


2. Problem Analysis

3. Plan Development

4. Plan Implementation

5. Plan Evaluation

ReviseModify

IntensifyWith Expanding Support

A decision making process

2 Levels of Problem Solving

• Grade level teams - for tier 2

• Building team - for tier 3

Collaborative Problem Solving

• Grade level teaching teams meet together on a regular basis to review student data and student progress toward important goals

• Students not making adequate progress receive additional targeted or intensive support

Steps of Problem-Solving

1. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

2. Problem Analysis

3. Plan Development


5. Plan Evaluation

Step 1: Problem Identification

Question: What is the discrepancy between what is expected and what is occurring?

1. List problem behaviors and prioritize2. Collect baseline data on the primary area of concern (target

student and peer comparison): Record Review Interview Observation Testing

w State discrepancy between target student performance and expected/peer performance.

Problem Identification Key Points• Collect & analyze school-wide data on top referral

concerns• Define “expected” (e.g. local norms / national norms /

criterion)• Group v. Individual interventions• Prioritize one concern• Concern is stated measurably• Multiple data sources certify the problem (RIOT)• Avoid problem glorification• “Who, what, when, where, how” plan for tasks

Tools to...• Review (R)

– Cumulative folder– Permanent products

• Interview (I)– Brief Problem Identification Interview– Instructional Planning Form (IPF)

• Observe (O)– Washington Classroom Observation– On-task – Frequency/Duration/Latency – Correct/Errors– Momentary Time Sampling: e.g., DENO, BASC, Social Play

• Test (T)– GOM / Early Literacy– MAP– Other norm or criterion referenced assessments

Basic Problem Identification Interview:

• What strengths have you identified regarding this student?

• List your current concerns for this student.• Which one concern would you like to work on first?• How could this concern be defined as an

observable, measurable problem?• Do you have any other data regarding this problem?• If this problem was magically fixed tomorrow, what

would look different for this student?

Instructional Planning Form (IPF)

Purpose: Examine current educational program and classroom environment– Activity (e.g., Focus or Skill, Teaching Strategy)– Materials– Arrangements– Time– Motivational Strategies

(Later) Focus on these alterable variables to develop hypotheses and interventions.

Goals of Problem Identification

• Establish a positive working relationship among team members

• Define the problem in observable, measurable terms.

• Identify the conditions under which the problem exists across setting.

• Provide a strength of the behavior across settings (e.g., how often, severe).

PRODUCT: Discrepancy Statement

Discrepancy StatementsDiscrepancy statement: A clear and measurable statement of the

student’s performance and same-age peer performance.• When given the Picture Naming IGDI Measurement tool, Sally is

able to identify 5 pictures correctly whereas same-age peers are able to correctly identify 18.

• When observed in circle time, Billy is on-task 30% of the time compared to classmates who are on-task 88% of the time.

• When observed during the art activity for 10 minutes, given 8 opportunities, Tina makes 7 following instructions errors compared to peers who make 2 following instructions errors.

One Minute Activity: Discrepancy Statement

Jimmy Same-age peers

Off task 9% 9%

Out of Place 0% 0%

Noise 40% 3%

Physical Contact 0% 0%

Total time academically engaged

51% 88%

What discrepancy statements could you make?

Jimmy is observed for 15 minutes during circle time.

Activity:Three Statements in One Minute

1. Tim is reading 10 words correct on 1st grade level CBM ORF probes. Tim is in first grade. The target benchmark is 52 wrc in the spring.

2. Holly blurts out 18 times in a 20 minute observation during circle time. Other kids blurt out 3 times.

3. Minnie has been referred to the Principals office 4 times this month. National data* show that students grades K-6 are referred .35 times per month.



2. PROBLEM ANALYSIS

3. Plan Development


5. Plan Evaluation

Step 2: Problem Analysis

Question: Why is the problem occurring?1. Collect additional RIOT data to

Differentiate between a skill and performance problem (e.g., can’t do v. won’t do).

Determine situations in which the problem behavior is most likely and least likely to occur.

Generate hypotheses2. Narrow down to the most validated and alterable

hypothesis.



2. Problem Analysis

3. PLAN DEVELOPMENT


5. Plan Evaluation

Make the link

Complete thorough problem analysis to

make the link between

identified problems intervention plans

Step 3: Plan DevelopmentQuestion: What is the goal?

A. Write the goal, a measurable statement of expected outcomes.

Question: What is the intervention plan to address the goal?B. Define logistics (e.g., what strategies/procedures will be used,

when and how often the intervention will occur, who will implement the intervention and where it will be implemented, and when it will begin).

Question: How will progress be monitored?C. Define logistics (e.g., what materials are used, when and how

often data will be collected, where data will be collected, and who is responsible).

D. Decide on decision-making rules for plan evaluation.

Plan Development Key Points• Determine rate of growth to reduce the discrepancy:

– Oral Reading Fluency: 2 words per week or to spring target

– Written Expression: 1/2 CWS per week or to spring target

– Math Facts: 1/2 fact per week or to spring target

– Behavior: 10% improvement per week

• Research-based intervention plan

• Technically adequate progress monitoring tool

• Role of master schedule in planning interventions

A. Write the Goal

– Specify desired behavior

– Specify measurement condition

– Specify criterion for success

In (number) weeks, when (condition) occurs, (learner) will (behavior) to a (criterion).

Could you graph this goal?

Check:– Is the behavior to be measured defined?– Are the measurement conditions clear?– Is the criterion for success specified?

ActivityThree Goal Statements in 1 Minute




Discuss & Document…

When will implementation begin?Start Date?Who is responsible for implementation?Where will the intervention take place?When and how often will the intervention occur?What strategies/procedures will be used?Who?Where?When?What?

Remember . . .

Objective of an intervention for behavior is not just to define and eliminate undesirable behaviors but to teach and reinforce effective replacement behaviors.

RememberThere should be a direct relationship between the severity of the problem and the amount of resources being used.

RESOURCES

NEEDS

What is it?

Accommodation?

Modification?

Intervention?

Progress monitoring objectively measures

intervention effectiveness so we can:• make data-based decisions,• know if an intervention is successful,• increase emphasis on student outcomes,• improve student outcomes,• and set clear expectations.

C. Define Progress Monitoring Logistics

Who will collect the data?Who?When will data be collected? How often?Where will data be collected?What materials will be used to collect data?How will data be collected?When?Where?What?How?

Discuss and Document . . .



2. Problem Analysis

3. Plan Development

4. PLANIMPLEMENTATION

5. Plan Evaluation

Response to “Failure to Implement” Intervention?

Step 4: Plan ImplementationQuestion: How will implementation

integrity be ensured?A. Select an intervention with high probability of

successB. Communicate a clear plan to interventionistsC. Provide specific training and support to

interventionists.D. Directly observe intervention in action.E. Make adjustments to the plan if needed.F. Collect and graph data on the goal.

Ensuring Intervention Integrity Rarely Happens

. . . fewer than 15% evaluated and reported data concerning intervention fidelity. (Gresham, Gansle, Noell, Cohen & Rosenblum, 1993)

Without checking on implementation integrity, teams cannot be sure that interventions are

being applied as designed (DuPaul & Stoner, 1994)

If the intervention is not applied as designed, progress (or lack thereof)

cannot be attributed to the specific plan (Kaufman & Flicek, 1995)

Student behavior change is correlated with intervention treatment integrity

(Noell et.al., 2005)

“We serve our children best by being circumspect . . . and not allowing our confidence in our teaching skills translate into a sense of infallibility.”

SCRED LD FAQs (Kerry Bollman)

Directly Observe the Intervention in Action

Wickstrom, et al. (1998) reported significant discrepancies between levels of treatment fidelity reported by teachers (54%) and as revealed by direct observation (4%).

Provide Specific Training and Support Interventionists

Initial training for interventionists (Hirallel & Martens, 1998)

1. Trainer explains the procedure to the interventionist

2. Trainer demonstrates the procedure

3. Interventionist practices the procedure with the trainer as mock student

4. Trainer provides specific feedback

5. Repeat steps as necessary

6. Application in the instructional setting

Plan Implementation Key PointsIntervention Scripts & Training

– Specifics of intervention are well understood by interventionist

– Interventionists like them!– Training: Modeling, practice, and feedback with

adults prior to use with students

Integrity checks- Was a direct observation done?- Do data support that plan was implemented as

designed?

Integrity doesn’t stop there . . .

Complete ongoing assessment of implementation through:– Participant Reports– Observation– Review of Permanent Product(s)

A Note About Participant Reports

• Self-report feedback from interventionists and students is useful and good.

BUT

• Participant report alone should not be used to evaluate treatment integrity

Making Adjustments to Plans

Consider a plan change when the current plan:– Is not acceptable to the interventionist

– Is not feasible to implement.

– Is not perceived as being effective.– Is highly disruptive to the classroom ecology.

Changes?

• Team decision

• Document!

Integrity of Progress Monitoring

• Collect and graph data on intervention goal• Monitor the progress monitoring plan • Provide support to those collecting the data. • If the data are not being collected designed

then – Give additional support OR– Change the progress monitoring plan



2. Problem Analysis

3. Plan Development


5. PLAN EVALUATION

Step 5: Plan Evaluation

Question: Is the intervention plan effective?

• Use data to determine student progress

• Evaluate intervention acceptability

• Determine as a team what to do next.

Plan Evaluation Key Points• What is adequate response to intervention?• SCRED Practice:

– CBM target scores for fall, winter, spring of each grade as linked to state test

– Inherent growth rate within these target scores is defined as our desired rate of growth

– Calculated confidence interval (Standard error of slope) around the target growth rate

– Students with growth rates below the bottom of the confidence interval are considered to not have adequate response to the intervention

GradeMinimum Growth

Expected Growth

Maximum Growth

2 1.03 1.31 1.59

3 0.75 1.03 1.31



2. PROBLEM ANALYSIS

3. Plan Development


5. Plan Evaluation

Problem Identification

Problem Identification

Question: What is the discrepancy between what is expected and what is occurring?

• Academic v. Behavior: – “Can’t read because won’t sit still or won’t

sit still because they can’t read?”

• Performance v. Skill– Can’t do v. Won’t do

Tools to...• Review (R)

– Cumulative folder– Permanent products

• Interview (I)– Brief Problem Identification Interview– Instructional Planning Form (IPF)

• Observe (O)– Washington Classroom Observation– On-task – Frequency/Duration/Latency – Correct/Errors– Momentary Time Sampling: e.g., DENO, BASC, Social Play

• Test (T)– GOM / Early Literacy– MAP– Other norm or criterion referenced assessments

Basic Problem Identification Interview:

• What strengths have you identified regarding this student?

• List your current concerns for this student.• Which one concern would you like to work on first?• How could this concern be defined as an

observable, measurable problem?• Do you have any other data regarding this problem?• If this problem was magically fixed tomorrow, what

would look different for this student?

Instructional Planning Form (IPF)(Handout)

Purpose: Examine current educational program and classroom environment– Activity (e.g., Focus or Skill, Teaching Strategy)– Materials– Arrangements– Time– Motivational Strategies

(Later) Focus on these alterable variables to develop hypotheses and interventions.

Review: Goals of Problem Identification

• Establish a positive working relationship among team members

• Define the problem in observable, measurable terms.

• Identify the conditions under which the problem exists: antecedent, situation, and consequent conditions across settings.

• Provide a strength of the behavior across settings (e.g., how often, severe).

Problem Identification Outcome: Discrepancy Statement

An observable and measurable statement of the student’s performance compared to

same-age peer performance.

Examples

• When given the Picture Naming IGDI Measurement tool, Sally is able to identify 5 pictures correctly whereas same-age peers are able to correctly identify 18.

• When observed in circle time, Billy is on-task 30% of the time compared to classmates who are on-task 88% of the time.

• When observed during the art activity for 10 minutes, given 8 opportunities, Tina makes 7 following instructions errors compared to peers who make 2 following instructions errors.

One Minute Activity: Discrepancy Statement

Jimmy Same-age peers

Off task 9% 9%

Out of Place 0% 0%

Noise 40% 3%

Physical Contact 0% 0%

Total time academically engaged

51% 88%

What discrepancy statements could you make?

Jimmy is observed for 15 minutes during circle time.

Activity:Three Statements in One Minute




Problem Analysis

• Goal of problem analysis is to understand the variables that may be contributing to the problem, to develop potential hypotheses from this learning, and design a plan to solve the problem.

PA: Scientific Method

• Observe and identify problem

• Develop relevant hypotheses

• Design procedures to test hypothesis

• Collect data

• Analyze and synthesize data

• Make a conclusion

Hypotheses and Level of Inference

• All hypotheses require some inference• What is known vs what is inferred• We want to rely more on low level vs high

level inferences - more explicit behaviors and environmental events

• These will lead to alterable variable, ones which we have control over– The instruction, curriculum, school environment

Shift in thinking

• If you are used to giving tests that purportedly give you information about something within the student that is contributing to the problem, then we are asking you to suspend this for a moment.

• While student characteristics are not unimportant, we want to investigate those lower level inferences first.

• We consider student characteristics when they interact with alterable variables

Thinking Differently about Students’ Problems

• Student problems can be defined and changed

• Questions will drive assessments

• Assessments will lead to instructional decisions

• Enabled learning rather than discrepancy or diagnosis is the goal

• Instead of diagnosing the learner, we begin by diagnosing the instruction. We identify flaws in the instruction and correct them, with the assumption that the learner’s problems were caused by flaws in the instruction (Engelmann & Carnine, 1982, p.18.

Asking the Right Question

What does this student

need in order to fix the problem

we have identified?

Problem Analysis Defined…

Problem Analysis is the process of gathering relevant information in the domains of the instruction, curriculum, environment, and the learner (ICEL) through the use of reviews, interviews, observations, and tests (RIOT) in order to evaluate the underlying causes of the problem.

Importance of Problem Analysis

• Interventions are derived from results (data) generated during problem analysis.

• Interventions linked to assessment information are more likely to be effective in meeting the desired level of performance.

• Ineffective interventions can lead to resistance to intervention by further supporting problem behaviors and making it harder to meet desired outcomes.

Warning!!!

• Teams: Do Not discuss hypotheses for why the behavior is occurring before you have defined the behavior you are considering.

• Team note takers should have a written discrepancy statement on the Problem Identification Summary Form before hypothesis discussions begin.

• This will help keep discussions more focused and efficient

Question: Why is the problem occurring?

• Based on what you know list possible causes for the student’s problem (hypotheses)

Consider all domains (Instruction, Curriculum, Environment, Learner)

Differentiate between skill problems and performance problems Determine situations in which the problem behavior is most

likely and least likely to occur

• For each hypothesis generated, list the data you have that supports or refutes the hypothesis

• Narrow down to the most validated and alterable hypothesis• Collect any additional data you need to validate the

hypothesis that the team considers to be the most likely This might be an observation or informal assessment to

examine skills - but you are looking for convergent data

Problem Analysis

This phase can be a bit circular…

Look at the data

you have

Think about what

hypotheses seem

possible given the

data you have, and list data for each

Collect any

additional data

you would need

to confirm or

refute your guess

A. Consider what you know about the target behavior that is relevant to determining why the problem is occurring and a possible solution

Relevant and Known

Relevant and Unknown

Irrelevant and Known

Irrelevant and Unknown

PA: Summary

• Interviewing is often a skill strength that many school psychologists have developed

• These skills are directly transferable to the Problem Analysis process, and will be a valuable asset to teams in solving problems

• This afternoon we will practice using a tool to help in this important part of the Problem Solving Proces

LUNCH!

Resources

• See Handout

Leadership

1. Name the five wealthiest people in the world2. Name the last five Heisman trophy winners3. Name the last five winners of Miss America.4. Name then people who have won a Noble or

Pulizter prize.5. Name the last half dozen Academy Award

winners for best actor and actress.6. Name the last decade’s worth of World Series

winners.

None of us remember the headliners of yesterday.

1. List a few teachers who aided your journey through school.

2. Name three friends who have helped you through a difficult time.

3. Name five people who have taught you something worthwhile.

4. Think of a few people who have made you feel appreciated and special.

5. Think of five people you enjoy spending time with.

The Lesson:

The people who make a difference in your life are not the ones with the most credentials, the most money, or the most awards.

They are the ones that care.

Documents

RtI and Roles Revisited: Opportunities for School Psychologists Ann Casey, Ph.D. & Holly Windram, Ph.D