ROSAPAT 11 Nigro an Absolute Iron Age Chronology

ROSAPAT 11 261

AN ABSOLUTE IRON AGE CHRONOLOGY OF THE LEVANT AND THE MEDITERRANEAN

Lorenzo Nigro

During the last two decades archaeologists and historians working in Southern Levant and the Mediterranean have multiplied their efforts to address the issue of Iron Age periodization and its absolute chronology, starting from the Dark Age of the last two centuries of the 2nd millennium BC1 and going down into the first half of the 1st millennium BC2. Ancient sources and archaeological record have been sounded out by scholars in search of chronological reference points, anchors to fix in time strata and related sets of material culture. A reliable timetable has been traditionally provided by the Egyptian Pharaohs list, recently also verified through a radiocarbon-based regeneration3. It was useful when Egyptian inscribed items were found in primary deposition, even though also Egyptian chronology has its own uncertainties. Furthermore, radiocarbon dating when used as a clue to check if one or another chronological reconstruction was reliable, proved to be not so accurate to become a decisive tool for 1st millennium BC chronology. The goal of these efforts basically was to support historical reconstructions. They actually needed a robust backbone, depending on sources always

Department of Sciences of Antiquities, Rome La Sapienza University. 1 Reliefs and inscriptions of Pharaoh Merneptah mentioning the clash with the Sea-Peoples in his 8th regnal year (1190 BC) and the city of Ras-Shamra/Ugarit destroyed with a group of cuneiform tablets of the royal archives attesting the date (1189 BC) and the causes (an invasion) of this destruction remain the main epochal reference points for the beginning of the end of the Late Bronze Age in the Levant (Liverani 1988, 635-638). This longue dure process, in facts, lasted until the end of the Ramesside Dynasty around 1070 [1076] BC (tabs. 1, 4). 2 For an overview on this issue see Mazar 2005; 2011; Finkelstein 2005; Finkelstein - Piasetzky 2011. 3 Manning 2006; Bronk Ramsey et al. 2010. Unfortunately, the latter study does not include dates later the end of the 20th Dynasty (Ramses XI). Anyhow, radiocar-bon dates (combined with reign-length information included in the model) for the New Kingdom cover a period from the 17th to the 21st Dynasties, and thus provide brackets beyond its beginning, and end. Results basically agree with the traditional chronology (von Beckerath 1997; Shaw 2000), in which the New Kingdom starts in 1550 BC, though radiocarbon dates imply that the period might have begun, and ended, earlier by about a decade than the traditional consensus date.

262 Lorenzo Nigro ROSAPAT 11

bearing a definite rate of incertitude. The questionable reliability attributed to sources pushed scholars to look for external supports to their reconstructions obtained through archaeology, stratigraphy, statistics, but also archaeometry, paleo-environmental studies, etc. The more these reconstructions were complex opposite of lex parsimoniae 4 the more they needed a spiders web of interrelated data to sustain them. Hence, intermingled connections of data have grown up apparently becoming an inextricable bush, or a M.C. Eschers lithography depicting a fascinating but often impossible construction (fig. 1). Moreover, chronological systems (and multiplied terminologies) have complicated the interrelation between sites and even regions, as it is evident if one tries to connect the Levant with central or western Mediterranean (tab. 4).

Fig. 1 - Eschers architec-ture: a possible metaphor of self-based chronological systems.

Conversely, if one considers chronology a tool and not a goal, the simplest scheme fitting the largest number of cases (in observance to the above mentioned lex parsimoniae) may help to better exchange archaeological information across the Mediterranean from Syria-Palestine to the Iberian Peninsula. For the sake of such task, that is an easier correlation of sites and strata, the following Levantine New Chronology (LNC) is suggested by the present author (tabs. 1-2). 4 This principle, introduced by Aristotle (384-322 BC), and transmitted by Averroes (Ibn Rush 1126-1198 AD), was a logic corollary of the method of science (about its limits: Courtney - Courtney 2008).


Damascus raids in the second half of the 9th century BC. A date around 840 BC might fit the stratigraphic evidence of several sites destroyed at the time, and fulfill the mean of various dating systems proposed11.

Period

Tell el-Mutesellim12

Hazor13 Tell es-Sarem/ Tel Rehov14

Lachish15

Arad16 Ashdod17

Beth Shan18

Tell es-Safi19

Iron IA 1200/1190-1136

VIIA [LB III]

gap (D7-D6) VI [LB III]

gap XIIIb VI (lower VI)

A7

Iron IB 1136-960

Early 1136-1070

VIB

XII/XI

VII (D5-D3)

gap

gap

XIIIa

upper VI/ lower V

A6

Late 1070-960 VIA XII-XI A5 Iron IIA 960-840

Early 960-925

VB

VI (D2)

V

XII

X

V

A4

Late 925-840 VA-IVB X-IX V (D1) XI IX Iron IIB 840-732/722/701

IVA VIII-V IV-III IV-III X-VIII VIII A3-A2 IV

Iron IIC 732/722/701-586

III IV II II VII-VI VII gap gap

Iron III 586-535

II III I gap gap VI gap gap

Tab. 2 - Iron Age Levantine New Chronology (LNC) and related stratigraphic sequence of some Palestinian key sites.

A glance to main sites in different areas of Palestine, with their stratigraphic sequences may substantiate the table on archaeological grounds (tab. 2), while very difficult remains at every extent to correlate strata and events known from different sources. A preliminary contribution is to enlist such events and corresponding documentary data within the grid of Levantine New Chronology. Finally, what it has been 11 Fiaccavento in this volume, 3.2.2. 12 Megiddo was used as example due to the wide popularity of its Iron Age stratigraphy put forward by the Oriental Institute of Chicago Expedition (see also Finkelstein - Zimhoni - Kafri 2000). However, the Megiddo stratigraphy still has many unsolved problems (see, for instance, Mazar 2008 versus Finkelstein 2009). 13 Mazar 2008; Ben-Tor - Ben Ami - Sandhaus 2012. 14 Mazar et al. 2005. 15 Ussishkin ed. 2004, Vol. 1, 60-95. 16 Herzog 2002. 17 Dothan - Zukerman 2004; Mazar 2007. 18 Panitz-Cohen - Mazar eds. 2009, 1-30. 19 Maeir ed. 2012, 19-56, fig. 1.3.

2014 An Absolute Iron Age Chronology 265

suggested for Palestine might be set into the Mediterranean panorama as illustrated on table 420.

Tab. 3 - Levantine New Chronology and major historical events/sources.

20 Pharaonic dating according to Hornung - Krauss - Warburton eds. 2006. 21 Hasel 1994. 22 Misgav - Garfinkel - Ganor 2009. 23 Ash 1999, 61. 24 Fisher 1929, figs. 8-9, 60-61. 25 Birnbaum 1957. 26 Dearman ed. 1989. 27 Biran - Naveh 1993; 1995; Athas 2003. 28 Pritchard 1969, 284-285; Luckenbill 1924, 32-33. 29 Gitin - Dothan - Naveh 1997. 30 Grayson 1975, 100-102. 31 Aharoni - Naveh 1981, 11-74. 32 Torczyner et al. 1938.

Period Dating Major historical events Main documents or sources

Iron IA 1200/1190-1136

Merneptah faces the Sea People/ Destruction of Ugarit, Hazor, Megiddo, Beth Shan

Stele of Merneptah21 (1208)

Iron IB Early

1136-960 1136-1070

End of the 20th Dynasty (1077)

Tiglath-Pileser I trip to the Levant

Late 1070-960 Last presence of Philistine pottery Khirbet Qeiyafa Ostrakon22 Iron IIA

Early 960-840 960-925

Palestine being occupied by new groups Early building activities in Judah and central hills

Inscriptions of Kings of Byblos: Ahiram, Ittobaal [] Yehimilk, Abibaal (on a bust of Shoshenq I)23, Elibaal (on a bust of Osorkon I), Shipitbaal

Late 925-840 925 raid of Pharaoh Shoshenq I Incipit of Omride dynasty in Samaria

Stele of Shoshenq I from Megiddo24 (925 ca.) [1 Kings 14:25-26]

Iron IIB 840-732/722/ 701

853 battle of Qarqar against Shalmaneser III (Israel allied of Hadad-ezer king of Damascus) 840 Hazael of Damascus

Jehu on Shalmaneser IIIs Black Obelisk Samaria Ostraka25 Stele of Mesha26 (840) [2 Kings 3] Stele of Tel Dan27 [2 Kings 10:32-33] Balaam text from Deir Alla

Iron IIC 732/722/ 701-586

Tiglath-Pileser III subjugates Aram-Damascus Shalmaneser V conquests Samaria Siege of Jerusalem (701) and takeover of Lachish (701) by Sennacherib

Sennacheribs inscriptions at Khorsabad28 (conquest of Samaria, 722, and siege of Jerusalem, 701) [2 Kings 17:3-6; 2 Kings 18:13-15] Ekron inscription29

Iron III 586-535 Nebuchadnezzar II destruction of Jerusalem (586) Cyrus Edict of Restoration (538)

Babylonian Chronicles30: destruction of Ashkelon (604) and siege of Jerusalem (597) [2 Kings 25] Arad letters31 Lachish letters32


Tab.

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The range of error of this system i.e. a timetable trying to minimize difference between different chronologies proposed so far and fixed chronological datum points is around 1.5 %, that is, on a period of ten centuries, 15 years. The latter is the maximum oscillation accepted for most reliable dates (for example Pharaoh Shoshenqs raid into Palestine: 925 BC)33 to validate the table, also considering astronomic periodical observations in ancient Egypt. The Levantine New Chronology is offered to scholars as a simple tool summarizing the efforts of many, to whom is addressed the author admiration for the continuous commitment towards a more convincing and firmly based historical reconstruction. Bibliography AHARONI, Y. - NAVEH, J. 1981 Arad Inscriptions (Judean Desert Studies), Jerusalem 1981. ASH, P.S. 1999 David, Solomon and Egypt. A Reassessment (Journal for the Study of the Old

Testament, Supplement Series 297), Sheffield 1999. ATHAS, G. 2003 The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal and a New Interpretation (Journal for

the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series 360; Copenhagen International Seminar 12), Sheffield 2003.

VON BECKERATH, J. 1997 Chronologie des pharaonischen gypten. Die Zeitbestimmung der gyptischen

Geschichte von der Vorzeit bis 332 v. Chr. (Mnchener gyptologische Studien 46), Mainz 1997.

BEN-TOR, A. - BEN AMI, D. - SANDHAUS, D. 2012 Hazor VI: The 1990-2009 Excavations. The Iron Age, Jerusalem 2012. BIRAN, A. - NAVEH, J. 1993 An Aramaic Stele Fragment from Tel Dan, in Israel Exploration Journal 43

(1993), pp. 81-98. 1995 The Tel Dan Inscription: A New Fragment, in Israel Exploration Journal 45

(1995), pp. 1-18. BIRNBAUM, S.A. 1957 II. Inscriptions. A. Ostraca in J.W. Crowfoot - G.M. Crowfoot - K.M. Kenyon,

The Objects from Samaria (Samaria-Sebaste. Reports of the Works of the Joint Expedition in 1931-1933 and of the British Expedition in 1953. No 3), London 1957, pp. 9-32.

BRONK RAMSEY, C. - DEE, M.W. - ROWLAND, J.M. - HIGHAM, T.F.G. - HARRIS, S.A. - BROCK, F. - QUILES, A. - WILD, E.M. - MARCUS, E.S. - SHORTLAND, A.J. 2010 Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt, in Science 328 (5985)

(2010), pp. 1554-1557.

33 Manning 2006, 351.


COURTNEY, A. - COURTNEY, M. 2008 Comments regarding On the Nature of Science, in Physics in Canada 64/3

(2008), pp. 7-8. DEARMAN, J.A. 1989 Studies in the Mesha Inscription and Moab, Atlanta 1989. DOTHAN, T. - ZUKERMAN, A. 2004 A Preliminary Study of the Mycenean IIIC:1 Pottery Assemblages from Tel

Miqne-Ekron and Ashdod, in Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 333 (2004), pp. 1-54.

FINKELSTEIN, I. 2005 A Low Chronology Update: Archaeology, History and Bible, in T.E. LEVY - T.

HIGHAM (eds.), The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science, London 2005, pp. 31-42.

2009 Destructions: Megiddo as a Case Study, in in J.D. SCHLOEN (ed.), Exploring the longue dure. Essays in Honor of Lawrence E. Stager, Winona Lake, In. 2009, pp. 113-126.

FINKELSTEIN, I. - PIASETZKY, E. 2011 The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing?, in Near Eastern

Archaeology 74/1 (2011), pp. 50-54. FINKELSTEIN, I. - ZIMHONI, O. - KAFRI, A. 2000 The Iron Age Pottery assemblages from Areas F, K and H and their

stratigraphic and chronological implications, in I. FINKELSTEIN - D. USSISHKIN - B. HALPERN (eds.), Megiddo III. The 1992-1996 Seasons (Tel Aviv Monograph Series 18), Tel Aviv 2000, pp. 244-324.

FISHER, C.L. 1929 The Excavation of Armageddon (Oriental Institute Communications 4),

Chicago 1929. GITIN, S - DOTHAN, T. - NAVEH, J. 1997 A Royal Dedicatory Inscription from Ekron, in Israel Exploration Journal 47

(1997), pp. 1-16. GRAYSON, A.K. 1975 Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (Text from Cuneiform Sources, V), New

York 1975. HASEL, M.G. 1994 Israel in the Merneptah Stele, in Bulletin of the American School of Oriental

Research 296 (1994), pp. 45-61. HERZOG, Z. 2002 The Fortress Mound at Tel Arad: An Interim Report, in Tel Aviv 29/1 (2002),

pp. 3-109. LIVERANI, M. 1988 Antico Oriente. Storia, societ, economia, Roma-Bari 1988. LUCKENBILL, D.D. 1924 The Annals of Sennacherib, (Oriental Institute Publications 2) Chicago 1924. MANNING, S.W. 2006 Radiocarbon Dating and Egyptian Chronology, in E. HORNUNG - R. KRAUSS -

D.A. WARBURTON (eds.), Ancient Egyptian Chronology (Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 1, the Near and Middle East, Vol. 83), Leiden 2006, pp. 328-355.


MAEIR, A.M. (ed.) 2012 Tell es-Safi/Gath I: The 1996/2005. Volume 1: Text; Volume 2: Plates

(gypten und Altes Testament 69), Wiesbaden 2012. MAZAR, A. 2005 The Debate over the Chronology of the Iron Age in the Southern Levant: Its

History, the Current Situation and a Suggested Resolution, in T.E. LEVY - T. HIGHAM (eds.), The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science, London 2005, pp. 15-30.

2007 Myc IIIC in the Land Israel: its Distribution, Date and Significance, in M. BIETAK - E. CZERNY (eds.), The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B.C. III (Contributions to the Chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean 9), Vienna 2007, pp. 571-582.

2008 From 1200 to 850 B.C.E.: Remarks on Some Selected Archaeological Issues, in L.L. GRABBE (ed.), Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIA (c. 1250-850 B.C.E.). Volume. 1, The Archaeology (European Seminar in Historical Methodology 7; Library of Hebrew Bible 491), London 2008, pp. 86-119.

2011 The Iron Age Chronology Debate: Is the Gap Narrowing? Another Viewpoint, in Near Eastern Archaeology 74/1 (2011), pp. 105-111.

MAZAR, A. - BRUINS, H.J. - PANITZ-COHEN, N. - VAN DER PLICHT, J. 2005 Ladder of Time at Tel Rehov Stratigraphy, archaeological context, pottery

and radiocarbon dates, in T.E. LEVY - T. HIGHAM (eds.), The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating: Archaeology, Text and Science, London 2005, pp. 193-255.

MISGAV, H. - GARFINKEL, Y. - GANOR, S. 2009 The Ostracon, in Y. GARFINKEL - S. GANOR (eds.), Khirbet Qeiyafa, Vol. 1.

Excavation Report 2007-2008, Jerusalem 2009, pp. 243-257. PANITZ-COHEN, N. - MAZAR, A. (eds.) 2009 Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean, 1989-1996. Volume III. The 13th-11th Century

BCE Strata in Areas N and S (Tel Beth-Shean Valley Archaeological Project Publication 3), Jerusalem 2009.

PRITCHARD, J.B. (ed.) 1969 Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Third Edition with

Supplement), Princeton 1969. SHAW, I. (ed.) 2000 The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Oxford 2000. TORCZYNER, H. - HARDING, L. - LEWIS, A. - STARKEY, J.L. 1938 Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir) I: The Lachish Letters (The Wellcome Archaeological

Research Expedition to the Near East Publications, Volume I), London 1938. USSISHKIN, D. (ed.) 2004 The renewed excavations at Lachish (1973-1994) (Institute of Archaeology

Monograph Series 22), Tel Aviv 2004.

[ROSAPAT 11] [PRIN 2009 - THE SEVEN PLAGUES]

OVERCOMING CATASTROPHES

Essays on disastrous agents characterization

and resilience strategies in pre-classical Southern Levant

Edited by LORENZO NIGRO

ROME 2014 LA SAPIENZA EXPEDITION TO PALESTINE & JORDAN

[PRIN 2009 - THE SEVEN PLAGUES]

OVERCOMING CATASTROPHES

Essays on disastrous agents characterization and resilience strategies

in pre-classical Southern Levant

Edited by

LORENZO NIGRO

with contributions by

L. NIGRO, M. LIVERANI, C. MORHANGE, A. SALAMON, G. BONY, C. FLAUX, E. GALILI, J.-P. GOIRAN, D. ZVIELY,

F. BRAEMER, B. GEYER, G. DAVTIAN, F. HFLMAYER, M. SALA, E. GALLO, A. MASSAFRA, C. FIACCAVENTO

ROME 2014

ROME LA SAPIENZA STUDIES ON THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF PALESTINE & TRANSJORDAN EDITOR: L. NIGRO EDITORIAL BOARD: M. SALA VOLUME 11 L. NIGRO (ed.) Overcoming Catastrophes. Essays on disastrous agents characterization and resilience strategies in pre-classical Southern Levant (= Rome La Sapienza Studies on the Archaeology of Palestine & Transjordan, 11) Copyright 2014 La Sapienza Expedition to Palestine & Jordan Sezione di Orientalistica - Dipartimento di Scienze dellAntichit P.le A. Moro, 15 00185 Rome ITALY All rights reserved. Copy or reproduction of parts of text or illustrations is strictly forbidden without the explicit written permission given by La Sapienza Expedition to Palestine & Jordan. pp. 272, 17 x 24 cm, B/W illustrations. ISBN 9788898154081 ISSN 1826-9206

ROSAPAT 11 i

CONTENTS

Premise by L. NIGRO - The PRIN 2009 Project: The Seven Plagues. Catastrophes and destructions in Palestine and Egypt during the pre-classical period ............... iii Section 1 - Methodology and framework of the project ............................ 1 L. NIGRO - The Seven Plagues Project: Method and Results ................................. 3 M. LIVERANI - Dealing with catastrophes ........................................................... 15 C. MORHANGE, A. SALAMON, G. BONY, C. FLAUX, E. GALILI, J.-P. GOIRAN, D. ZVIELY - Geoarchaeology of tsu namis and th e reviva l of neo-catastr ophism in the Eastern Mediterranean ............................................................................................... 31 Section 2 - Palestine .................................................................................. 53 L. NIGRO - The Archaeol ogy of C ollapse and Resilience: Tell es-Sultan/ancient Jericho as a Case Study ................................................................................. 55 F. BRAEMER, B. GEYER, G. DAVTIAN - Man/environment interactions in the Bronze Age Levant: clim atic crisis or fl uctuations, c hronology an d settlem ent pattern s in the Third Millennium Syrian arid steppe area villages .............................................. 87 F. H FLMAYER - Dating Catastr ophes and Collapses i n the ancient Near East: the end of the first urbanization in the Southern Levant and the 4.2 ka BP event ..... 117 E. GALLO - Destructions in Early Bronze Age Southern Levant ............................ 141 M. SALA - Archaeology versus Chronologies: a r eassessment of Early Bronze Age phasing in the light of the PRIN 2009 Project results at Khirbet al-Batrawy ........ 171 A. MASSAFRA - The end of the Middle Bronze age in Southern Levant: was Sharuhen the only city conquered by Ahmose? .............................................................. 185 C. FIACCAVENTO - Destructi ons toward s the end of the 2 nd and during the 1 st millennium BC in Southern Levant .................................................................. 205 L. NIGRO - An Absolute Iron Age Chronology of the Levant and the Mediterranean 261

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ROSAPAT 11 Nigro an Absolute Iron Age Chronology