Roots of philosophy summary

Czech Technical University in Prague

Faculty of Electrical EngineeringDepartment of Electroenergetics

Philosophy Summary

Author:

Minh-Quan Dang

January 12, 2016Prague

CONTENTS

Contents

Glossary 1

1 An overlook on western ancient philosophy 21.1 Philosophy definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 Branches of philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Philosophy by period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4 Mythological background of philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.5 Pre-Socratic Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Milesian school 82.1 Thales of Miletus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.2 Anaximander of Miletus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.3 Anaximenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Pythagoreans school 103.1 Pythagoras of Samos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.2 Alcmaeon from Croton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.3 Philolaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.4 Archytas of Tarentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.5 Heraclitus of Ephesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Eleatic school 124.1 Xenophanes of Colophon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124.2 Parmenides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124.3 Melissus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124.4 Zeno of Elea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5 Pluralist 135.1 Empedocles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135.2 Anaxagoras from Clazomenae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

6 Atomism 146.1 Leucippus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146.2 Democritus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

7 The Sophist 157.1 Protagoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.2 Gorgias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157.3 Thrasymachus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

8 Classical period 168.1 Socratic School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.2 Megarian School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.3 Cynic School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168.4 Cyrenaic School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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9 Platonism 179.1 Plato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179.2 Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

10 Epicureanism 19

11 Stoicism 19

12 Scepticism 19

References 19

CONTENTS

Glossary

1. Mysticism: Mysticism in its simplest and most essential meaning is a type ofreligion which puts the emphasis on immediate awareness of relation with God,direct and intimate consciousness of Divine Presence. [1]

2. Mythology : is a collection of myths, hiespecially one belonging to a particularreligious or cultural tradition of a group of people–their collection of stories theytell to explain nature, history, and customs–or the study of such myths.[2]

3. Ontology: ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or maybe said to exist, and how such entities may be grouped, related within a hierarchy,and subdivided according to similarities and differences.

4. anthropomorphism: treating gods, animals or objects as if they had humanqualities.

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1 AN OVERLOOK ON WESTERN ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

1 An overlook on western ancient philosophy

1.1 Philosophy definition

What is philosophy? The word philosophy comes from the Greek words philein-tolove and sophia-wisdom. This term is said by Phythagoras when he called himself alover of wisdom. But philosophy has been both seeking of wisdom and the wisdomsought.The first purpose is to explain everything in a rational way, to find a generalprinciple for all facts. This thinking is very close to science.[1] But the differencebetween philosophy with Mythodology or Mysticism is its critical systematic processes.

1.2 Branches of philosophy

• Metaphysic deals with subject-matter is ”being as such”, is the first causesof things and which does not change. (Ontology, Cosmology, Cosmogony, De-terminism and free will, Identity and change, Mind and matter, Necessity andpossibility, Religion and spirituality)[2]

• Epistemology episteme, meaning ”knowledge, understanding”, and logos, mean-ing ”word”) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope ofknowledge and is also referred to as ”theory of knowledge”. Much of the debatein this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledgeand how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification.(Noetics, Gnosiology ).[2]

• Ethics is moral philosophy, ethics investigates the questions “What is the bestway for people to live?” and “What actions are right or wrong in particularcircumstances?”.In practice, ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality,by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice,justice and crime.[2]

• Aesthetics dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creationand appreciation of beauty.[2]

• Philosophy of law studies basic questions about law and legal systems, such as”what is law?”, ”what are the criteria for legal validity?”, ”what is the relationshipbetween law and morality?”, and many other similar questions.[2]

• Logic concerned with the use and study of valid reasoning. Logic is often di-vided into three parts: inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductivereasoning.[2].

• Political philosophy is the study of topics such as politics, liberty, justice,property, rights, law, and the enforcement of a legal code by authority: what theyare, why (or even if) they are needed, what, if anything, makes a governmentlegitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect and why, what form itshould take and why, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimategovernment, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever.

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• Social philosophy is the study of questions about social behavior and interpre-tations of society and social institutions in terms of ethical values rather thanempirical relations. The social contexts for political, legal, moral, and culturalquestions, and to the development of novel theoretical frameworks, from socialontology to care ethics to cosmopolitan theories of democracy, human rights,gender equity and global justice. [2]

• Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature of themind, mental events, mental functions, mental properties, consciousness, andtheir relationship to the physical body, particularly the brain. The mind–bodyproblem, i.e. the relationship of the mind to the body, is commonly seen as onekey issue in philosophy of mind, although there are other issues concerning thenature of the mind that do not involve its relation to the physical body, such ashow consciousness is possible and the nature of particular mental states. [2]

• Philosophy of language is concerned with four central problems: the natureof meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between lan-guage and reality.

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1.3 Philosophy by period

Figure 1: Period of philosophy

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1.4 Mythological background of philosophy

Mythos in Greek is speech, tale or story. Myths are not true in literal sense butthey describe the facts of us, of our surrounding world and how we interpret the world.They contain inside it the typical or archetype model of insight or understanding. Thetruth in myths are hidden in figurative and metaphoric symbols.

The role of myth as a story is for old people narrate to their offspring. Inmyths they give the younger answer for many question even rule and regulation whichplay significant roles in human life and the life of society. Many facts is explained byconnecting to supernatural being, heroes, gods. For that reason, myth is used as basisof religion.

The philosophers desire to go further and attempt to formulate truth explicitly(metaphysics). This attempt eventually leads to science but if we look back into mythswe could see the truth is hidden inside the fog of mystery and fantasy. Things areonly myths once maybe have the truth in it. Myths before writing is invented is onlyby mouth spreading. Only their existence until now can proof that they must containcertain meaning in it.

Myth in ancient Greek were formed into 2 great epics (the Iliad and the Odyssey)by Homer’s poet (8-7th century BC). In his poet, the god is immortal and merelystronger than humans. They demand obedience. Fate is applied to god as to hu-man. God interferes with human affair and punish people for their lack of moderation.Homer’s poet is anthropomorphism that means all gods, or nature behave in aunpredictable way but not follow laws.

Another ancient Greek poet is Hesiod (8th century BC). His 2 works are Worksand Days and the Theogony. He divides time in to 5 ages which is similar to the Indianand the gods will control nature and behave in a less human way than Homer’s idea.Instead the gods commands are aim for the good of mankind.

1.5 Pre-Socratic Philosophy

The pre-Socratic philosophers had attention to nature (Physis) and can be consid-ered as primitive scientists. Under certain places when several condition converge thephilosophy was born. The objective conditions for born of philosophy is :

1. SCHOLE the free time designed for self-cultivation.

2. Development of language to describe abstractive idea

3. Homer’s methodology - anthropomorphism

4. Culture exchange

5. Wealth

6. Hospitable climate

7. Freedom

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2 MILESIAN SCHOOL

2 Milesian school

2.1 Thales of Miletus

Thales of Miletus (636-546 BC) is the first philosopher and founder of Milesianschool. He was was proficient in mathematics and physics. He found Thales theoremabout right triangle formed by 3 points on a circle. Thales predicted a solar eclipse in585 BC (11A5), introduced geometry into Greece from Egypt (11A11), and producedsome engineering marvels.

Thales philosophical approach: The entire world can be explained as variousforms of one single elementary cosmic matter call ARCHE.. For Thales theArche is water. The actual reason is unclear. The most important thing is he had raisedthe question about nature of the world and shift the explanation from mythologicalapproach to a scientific approach. However Thales still accepted the existence of soul(PSYCHE) like in the case of magnetism.

Thales sees nature as a complete and self-ordering system, and sees no reason to callon divine intervention from outside the natural world to supplement his account—wateritself may be divine, but it is not something that intervenes in the natural world fromoutside [3]

Thales is a monism who attempt to view everything from the position of a singleprinciple. His Reductionistic approach is very important and it is basis of all scienceand technology today. If we want to explain some unknown phenomenon we reduce itto known phenomena.

2.2 Anaximander of Miletus

Anaximander of Miletus (610-549 BC)is the student of Thales and inheritedhis master’s idea about Arche. For Anaximander, Arche is APEIRON - the infiniteor limitless and indeterminate. He tried to explain the process of the formulation ofthings form APEIRON as separation. Apeiron is identify with matter (HYLE) of divineorigin.

Anaximander is reported to have invented the gnomon, that raised piece of a sundialwhose shadow marks time (12A1), and to have been the first to draw a map of theinhabited world (12A6).

Anaximander’s notion of cosmos are cutting edge ideas. First, he said that thecelestial bodies make full circles and pass also beneath the Earth. Second, the Earthfloats freely and unsupported in space. And third, the celestial bodies are located atvarious distance and they lie behind each other.

Anaximander’s evolution theory is quiet similar to Darwin’s theory. The life camefrom the sea and time to time it come out onto dry land. He said ” In the beginningmen were born from creatures of a different sort, because the other animals quicklymanage to feed themselves, but man alone requires a long period of nursing; hence hadhe been like that in the beginning too, he would never have survived.”

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2 MILESIAN SCHOOL

2.3 Anaximenes

Anaximenes (585-528 BC) said Arche is Apeiron and it is AER - air. Bychanging the concentration (MANOSIS-rarefraction and PYKNOSIS-condensation) ofair everything is formed. From epistemological view Anaximenes has stated the ideaof differences in quality are caused by differences in quantity.

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3 PYTHAGOREANS SCHOOL

3 Pythagoreans school

3.1 Pythagoras of Samos

Pythagoras of Samos (582-494 BC) was a philosopher, mathematician, guru.He had found a school or a religious philosophical society. This society followed manystrict rules and strange religion compared to the same era standard.

Pythagoras classified 3 way of life respected to 3 types of soul (Psyche). The lowestclass pursuit wealth, the middle class pursuit honor or fame. The highest or noble classis philosopher who pursuit knowledge.

Pythagorean philosophical approach was spread to many disciplines then new con-cepts and terms is formed.

1. Mathematica is not only mathematics in nowaday meaning but it means any-thing which can be learned. This doctrines could be secret - ESOTERIC (not forthe public). It could be public - ACUSMATA and has the EXOTERIC (open)character. They believe in power of knowledge and by study mathematics andscience will purified the soul.

2. Arithmos for the Greek is positive integer 1,2,3... The ratio is called LOGOS.

Numbers give forms, limit or bounds to the APEIRON. In that sensethe numbers is ARCHE. Morever they believe that the number is not only cancreate anything but also can be used to differentiate one thing from another.

The Crisis of Mathematics is that the natural numbers and their ratio cannotexpress all value. For this problem the irrational number is introduced. Butduring the time of Pythagoras this leaded to the unthinkable mysterious infiniteboundless - Apeiron.

3. Cosmos original meaning from Homer’s epic is jewel or order, discipline. Pythago-ras used this word for Universe because order they observed and assumed.

4. Harmonia means harmony or consonance. It unifies everything in the world.

5. Musica Phythagoras introduced concept of music of the spheres as the soundsmade by movement of transparent rotating sphere has stars attached on it.

6. Medicine body like musical instrument and health is achieved when body is inharmony or proper ratio of certain opposite such as hot and cold, wet and dry...

7. Theoria the original meaning is theater but Pythagoras view Theoria is lookingby inner, mental sight.

8. Psyche and Metempsychosis the soul-Psyche and the body has indepen-dent relationship. The soul can immigrate to various sorts of living creatures-Metempsychosis (reincarnation).

9. Metrology Pythagoras wanted the unification of measurement and weights.

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3 PYTHAGOREANS SCHOOL

3.2 Alcmaeon from Croton

Alcmaeon from Cronton (5th century BC) was an astronomer and physician.He thought that the human soul was immoral and has a similar nature to the divineheavenly bodies and godly being- sun, planets. He performed the first autopsy andinvestigated the nerves ans the brain.

3.3 Philolaos

Philolaos (5th century BC) Central fire of the universe. The planetary system10 planets and anti-earth beneath the earth. The planets has spherical shape.

3.4 Archytas of Tarentum

Archytas of Tarentum (aprox. 428-347 BC) student of Philolaos and believein mathematics provided the path to the understanding of all things.

Mathematics: astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, music.He said that the universe is infinite.

3.5 Heraclitus of Ephesus

Heraclitus of Ephesus (535-475 BC) thought Arche is fire - PYR and it is notstatic but process, becoming. Everything is in a process of enternal flux and both godsand human must be inside the flux and finally come to destruction.

EKPYROSIS the world arose from fire ended in fire and raise again.Because the principle of the universe is flux then in the same time everything is and

is not. However even everything is changing but the remain their kernel of identity.Human have ability to know the eternal wisdom but cannot because of strife. But

strife is the cause of change, no strife nothing can exist.

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4 ELEATIC SCHOOL

4 Eleatic school

The thinking of Eleatic philosophers attempt to eliminate time, change and becom-ing. They considered time and changes were our illusions.

4.1 Xenophanes of Colophon

Xenophanes of Colophon (570-475 BC)was the founder of Elastic school. Herefused the anthropomorphic polytheism of old Homeric religion and said there wasonly one God, spherical in form and penetrating all things. He is intelligent and hasthe same nature as the universe. In one hand his God presents everywhere but in theother hand you cannot know the god presence. (Monotheism, pantheism, atheism)

His idea about nature is whatever is, always has been from eternity. So maybe atthe beginning there is always something exist and there is no nothing exist because ifnothing exist then no evidence for it existence.

He believe nature is One and without limit. One is same infinite, homogeneousincapable of change.

4.2 Parmenides

Parmenides (540-470 BC) was the ruler of Elea. He wrote a philosophicaldidactic poem PERI PHYSEOS (on nature). He rejects the reality of change. He saidif Arche exist then any change is absurd logically. He thought everything exist mustexist absolutely or not at all. The thing can be thought (NOEIN) that can be exist.

One important thought of Parmenides is we have to be careful in characteriz-ing anything as non-being (negative attributes). Things must be characterizedby positive features what they are not by what they are not.

4.3 Melissus

Melissus (5th century BC) was a philosopher and admiral. He supported Par-menides’s idea about things exist as always and he use the concept of vacuum - KENONfor nothing. Being of nothing is not being.

4.4 Zeno of Elea

Zeno of Elea (489 BC) formulated as set of paradoxes - APORIA. This para-doxes have to group against multiplicity and against motion. The arguments againstmultiplicity show that the continuous cannot be composed of units even small andmany.(paradox of a line segment). Arguments concerned motion (Achilles and thetortoise, the arrow) prove that motion was not possible.

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5 PLURALIST

5 Pluralist

5.1 Empedocles

Empedocles (490-430 BC) was a poet, philosopher and statesman. He was aeclecticism. He was influenced by Parmenides but instead of the One he purposedRIZOMATA - roots element as fire, air, earth and water. Also 2 principle PHILIA-loveand NEIKOS-strife created the world. Life and death is only mixture and separationof the roots. The roots is infinite but other things is not. Empedocles also realisedthat atmospheric air is something by experiment with pipette - KLEPSHYDRA

5.2 Anaxagoras from Clazomenae

Anaxagoras from Clazomenae (500-428 BC) was the one brought philosophyto Athens. He claimed that the Sun and stars are not gods but only burning rocks.He thought there are the ultimate element- SPERMATA. At the beginning everythingis together then mind-NOUS came and arranged them. This made him an Deism.He tried to give a mechanical explanation for everything he could (typical feature ofmateralism)

Deism is a philosophical approach explain that god provided only action at thebeginning of the world and let it develop itself.

There were several opposition to Anaxagoras about his idea of NOUS. Socrates andAristotle said he had not had the clear explanation on how Nous oder things and Nousis used like a theatrical device to answer the difficult question.

Even though Anaxagoras idea is close to natural science when he try to explaineverything not as something control or create by gods but formed and operate with aprinciple.

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6 ATOMISM

6 Atomism

Main concepts of Atomism are: Space, Atom and ANANKE (Order of Necessity)The atomists said that the universe is not governed by purpose but by unreasonable

nature. Everything happens by fate and no free will exists.

6.1 Leucippus

Leucippus (500BC-440BC) from Miletus was the founder of atomic teaching.He said space like a container that could be empty in some places and full in others.Everything is made by ATOMOI- atom, which is indivisible, no space inside, manysize and shape.

The beginning of cosmos by Leucippus is eternal number of atom constantlyimpinge upon each other until irregular shape atom combine into form and round atombecome soul and fire.

6.2 Democritus

Democritus (460-370 BC) from Abdera, Greece. His main works are MACRO-COSMOS and MICROCOSMOS.

Physical theories about motion, all motions are result of active and passive affection.Body and soul consisted of atoms. The sensation is caused by affect of outside atoms(images-EIDOLA) to soul atoms. He said belief in God caused by our incapacity tounderstand the phenomena we witness.

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7 THE SOPHIST

7 The Sophist

They were mostly professional teacher than philosophers. They teached many sub-ject but mostly about rhetoric to young politicians. They trained to gain influence onpeople and beat the opponents. They have nihilistic attitude toward truth and ethics.

About Atheism

1. Diagoras of Melos: God is used to fulfill the incapability of human.

2. Critias: religion is device of the rulers to make people comply with the laws.

7.1 Protagoras

Protagoras (480-411 BC) from Abdera. He practiced his profession for 40 years.He believe in God but not try to reason God existence. He is the first antimetaphysicist

MAN IS THE MEASURE OF ALL THINGS; OF WHAT ARE THAT THEY ARE;OF WHAT ARE NOT THAT THEY ARE NOT.

Each individual person is the standard of what is true to him.

7.2 Gorgias

Gorgias (483-378 BC) from Sicily was a rhetorician. Influenced by Elastic schoolbut not follow it seriously.

7.3 Thrasymachus

Thrasymachus (4 century BC) believed justice belong to the stronger andmorality is decided by power

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8 CLASSICAL PERIOD

8 Classical period

8.1 Socratic School

Socrates from Athens. He was a reformer.The Socratic method of teaching involved two stages:

1. negative stage, ask opponent question till he confess ignorance of the subjectdiscussed. (Socratic irony)

2. positive stage, use next series of questions to bring out some phase or aspect ofthe subject. Main aim is express knowledge under concepts or definition

Socrates did not concern the natural science which is not a positive heritage of him.Socrates though about virtue or good as knowledge and ignorance is evil or wrong.

Then he reduced ethics to epistemology.WHATEVER EXISTS FOR A USEFUL PURPOSE MUST BE THE WORK OF

SOME INTELLIGENCE.

8.2 Megarian School

They develop the doctrines of Socrates in a one-sided way only.Euclid of Megara (430-360BC) not the famous one, he loved controversy -

Reductio ad Absurdum (Reduction to the impossible) used for proofing. Epimenidesparadox of liars

8.3 Cynic School

They combined the dialectical and rhetorical method of Socratic, Eleatics andSophists.

1. Antisthenes (450-360BC) he denied the exist of universal object and every-thing is individual, unique

2. Diogenes of Sinope (403-323BC) He was student of Antisthenes. His syn-drome is disoder characterized by extreme self-neglect. He practiced self-control.- NOT TO HAVE ANY NEEDS IS GODLIKE

8.4 Cyrenaic School

They had trend to encourage the persuit of pleasure feeling and avoid painful one.

1. Aristippus founder, pleasure of body = virtue, culture, knowledge and artisticenjoyment.

2. Hegesias happy life is illusion and pursuit pain, death. (Death-Persuader)

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9 PLATONISM

9 Platonism

9.1 Plato

Plato (428-347BC) from Athens was one of 3 most famous classical philosophersand a poetic writer. He became Socrates’s student at the age of 20. He despaired ofdemocracy.

In 387 BC he founded the ACADEMY. His works include 36 dialogs. That wasdiscussion between Socrates with others.

Plato’s division of philosophy:

1. Dialectics - the science of Form in itself; a method of discovering the truthof ideas by discussion and logical argument and by considering ideas that areopposed to each other

2. Physic - knowledge of the Form as phenomena

3. Ethic - theory of the state, the Form in human actions and society.

Plato conclude the world as we see it is just shadow world. The real world, Pla-tonic Forms, we reach not by sense but by intuitive consideration and by memory(ANAMNESIS)

Plato divided various degree of reality (divided line). The lower part is visiblephysical world, the upper part is the ineligible world - world of the Forms (Ideal).Later he was influenced by Pythagorean and though Form could be interpreted interms of mathematics.

Plato’s approach to physic and cosmology: The world is animated by a divineWorld-soul, which do everything for the best. The world at the beginning is CHAOSand then divine craftsman- DEMIURGOS made the world. The matter made by 5solids - Platonic bodies ( Octahedron, cube, tetrahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron),

Plato’s Ethic: man’s highest good is happiness and can be archive by practice virtueand getting wisdom.

Plato’s Idea state has 3 orders: ruler, producers and warriors. After that he removedthe role of ruler and replace by impersonal law.

9.2 Aristotle

Aristotle (ARISTOTELES)(384-322 BC) from Stagira, Greece. At the age of17 Aristotle went to Athens and became student of Plato at the Academy. He was theteacher of Alexander the Great. He founded the Lyceum in Athens.

Aristotle’s works:First period when he was under Plato instruction, Aristotle wrote poetic language

with Platonic vision of the world (predetermined, fiction)Second period he formed the scientific writing style and turned away from Platon-

ism.Third period when he was in Lyceum, Aristotle composed great number of writing.Aristotle’s Philosophy:

1. Logic (Analytic): double-valued logic (right or not right)

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9 PLATONISM

2. Theoretical philosophy (Metaphysic, Mathematic..):

Ultimate causes of being are Material, Formal, Efficient and Final cause.

Aristotle said any substance is a composite of form (MORPHE) and matter(HYLE). They exist together and never exist separately.

According to Aristotle, all things were analyzable down to the basic bodies” (air,fire ,earth, water). Motion of things, action contain inside its material. Thingsmove to reach it nature places and then stop when they had reached.

About time and space, time is connected with movement and change. If we areunaware of change then we also unaware of time.

Earth is the center of the whole comic system, spherical and stationary.

3. Practical philosophy

Ethics: Intellectual virtual (understanding, science, wisdom, art, and practicalwisdom)

Politics: Man is a social animal then they can only have complete happinesswithin society.

Type of good government : monarchy, aristocracy, constitutional republic.

Type of wrong government: Tyranny, oligarchy, democracy.

4. Philosophy of art:

Art’s purpose is imitation of nature on a higher level, more perfectly.

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REFERENCES

10 Epicureanism

11 Stoicism

12 Scepticism

References

[1] “Dictionary of philosophy, http://www.ditext.com/runes/p.html.”

[2] https://en.wikipedia.org.

[3] P. Curd, “Presocratic philosophy,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy(E. N. Zalta, ed.), winter 2012 ed., 2012.

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Documents

Roots of philosophy summary