Rome, May 2011. A workshop held by Prof. Roberto Finelli, Rome 3 University. A sociological contribution to the concept of body in philosophy. Guido Frison

Rome May 2011 A workshop held by Prof Roberto Finelli Rome 3 University A sociological contribution to the concept of body in philosophy

Guido Frison

guidofrisonliberoit (private)

(1739-1811 )

(1872ndash1950)

Rome May 3th 2011 A workshop held by Prof Roberto Finelli Roma 3 University A sociological contribution to the philosophical concept of body

Technique Technology and their relationship with the Body

(A sociological theory on a very strange couple)

General Index(In-1) The content of the lecture is split in four units In=Introduction U1= A sociological model of technology U2= A sociological model of technique L= literature

In= Introduction U2- Mauss a sociological model of technique

U1- Beckmann a sociological model of technology

A conceptual Map of the Unit 2A A map of the scientific discussion of the couple techniquetechnologie

The set of concepts used in the present lecture 20- Maussrsquos concept of technologie remains without a sociological foundation

A conceptual map of the Unit 1111-The Emergence of Technological Knowledge in the West 112- The features of Technologie

21- ldquoLes techniques du corpsrdquo (1935) amp 23 ldquoLes techniques et la technologierdquo (1948)

115-The complex nature of Technologie12- Beckmannrsquos model of technological knowledge13-Marxrsquos Technologie

22- Manuel drsquoEthnographie (1947 ) amp 24 The foundation of the Institut drsquoEthnologie

14-Taylorrsquos changes of the labour process and his technological innovations

25-Durkheimrsquos Paradigm amp technologie

15-Pre-technological knowledge in the medieval scribal era rarrsee Literature

26-Mauss is the heir of the American School of technology

16-Embedded knowledge of production in non-literate cultures 27-Lemonnierrsquos analysis of technologyConclusions

Summary Three types of knowledge concerning production rarrL= Literature on specific subjects

The Strange Couple Technology amp Technique

i) Beckmann founded in 1777 a discipline called Technologie describing a sociological model for technological knowledge (Beckmannrsquos Model)

ii) Mauss wrote in 1935 a seminal work ( Les techniques du corps) which built the basis for defining an entirely sociological concept of technique

ldquoLes Techniques du corps (1935)

IOANNES BECKMANN Professor oeconomiae in academia Georgia Augusta natus Hoyae d 4 Jun 1739

Beckmann Technology without technique Mauss Technique without technology

May 10th 1872 ndash February 1th 1950

(In-2) Beckmann amp MaussJohann Beckmann

Marcel Mauss

Beckmann was a Linnaeusrsquopupil Cameralist historian of technology botanist and founder of many disciplines

Mauss was an anthropologist founder of the modern French school of Anthropology of techniques (technologie culturelle) He and his famous uncle Durkheim were both descendants of a large hebrew family

Beckmannrsquos Anleitung zur Technologie (1777) laid the foundations of a new science called Technologie taught at the Goumlttingen University

The Manuel drsquoEthnologie (1947) witnesses Mausslsquo interest on techniques of non-literate cultures which begins very early at the beginning of the 20th-century

Reviewer of the ldquoPhysikalisch-oumlkonomische Bibliothekrdquo ldquo 1770-1806 (23 vols)

Reviewer of the ldquoLrsquo Anneacutee Sociologiquerdquo for which he wrote endless papers and a great number of review articles

Starting from 1766 Beckmann taught at the Goumlttingen University various subjects and within them the discipline of Technologie

Starting from 1901 Mauss taught ethnological subjects at the Eacutecole Pratique des Hautes Eacutetudes and successively at the lInstitut dEthnologie de la Sorbonne and Collegravege de France The instructions for anthropological field work were a typical subject of his lectures

Beckmann was a vir doctissimus he spoke various modern languages learned Latin and Greek so well that he was able to write philological essays

laquo hellipil avait tout lu il avait tout retenu il avait tout assimileacute et repenseacute dune faccedilon magistrale raquo [1978 Laroche Marie-Charlotte Lenseignement de Maurice Leenhardt In Journal de la Socieacuteteacute des oceacuteanistes Ndeg58-59 Tome 34 pp 45-48 p45]

(In-3) Technique and Technology are two faces of the same coin

Obverse (left) Caesars head (wreathed) CAESAR DICT(ATOR) PERPETVO

We will see in the following slides that the dichotomy techniquetechnology is mirrored by other pairs such as emicetic

body technique instrumental technique sociological category naturalistic category

social sciencessciences of the naturemechanical machine algorithmic machine

The terms technique and technology i) refer to two different social factsii) have different sociological foundationsiii) have different historical origins

Mauss Technique without technologyBeckmann Technology without technique

ii) Technologie originated within the Cameralism movement a German school of thought and developed in a historical period where the concept of social science did not still exist

(In-4) The relationship between technique and technology

i) Before Beckmann the term Technologie had a complicated set of meanings and acquired a new modern meaning with Beckmann

rarriii) Beckmannrsquos Technologie entered into a crisis due the crisis of the Cameralism and the rising of the Nationaloumlkonomie

The determination of this relationship is much harder than celebrating the wedding of Renzo and Lucia Many factors hamper the actual understanding of these two concepts or terms and hide their complex relationship These are

v) The absence of the pair techniquetechnology in the lexicon of the classical and neoclassical school of economics ( three examples)

iv) The decline of Cameralism was accompanied by the rise of a sui generis German ideology centered on a multifaceted concept of Technik with its respective philosophy

vi) The big number of definitions of the term technology (at minimum 41) enounced after the 1777 Anleitung zur Technologie (see especially Beaune 1980)

(In-5 )The relationship between technique and technology

vii) At the beginning of the 20th century American Ethnology which had originally devoted great effort to describe the techniques of non-literate people entered into a crisis and its evolutive ndashdiffusionist paradigm was substituted by another paradigm centered on culture but not on techniques ( material culture)See Silverman ldquoThe Boasian and the invention of Cultural Anthropologyrdquo in Barth et ai 2005 pp 257-274 Stocking 1974 1996

David Hilbert (1862- 1943)

Similarly the technologist considers in an abstract way any set of body techniques and tries to connect them in new combinations

The modern technologist is like David Hilbert the great mathematician when he considered the Euclidian geometry on his Grundlagen der Geometrie Hilbert began his discussion by considering three systems of things which he calls points straight lines and planes andsets up a system of axioms connecting these elements in their mutual relations

The anthropologist of the techniques and the technologist are modern social actors who look at the same phenomenon with a scientific approach respectively of sociological and naturalistic type but with different aims

A conceptual map of the Unit 1 Technological pre-technological amp embedded knowledge

BeckmannrsquosModel of technology

Hoya an der Weser

111-The Emergence of Technological Knowledge in the West (U1-1)

Beckmann represents our starting point because from his time on the term Technologie indicated both a specific sociological institution and an academic autonomous discipline founded by Beckmann himself

Beckmann was a Linnaeusrsquos pupil( see for example the two following works i) Linnei sistema naturae in epitomen redactum 1772 ii) Lexicon Botanicum 1801)

By using Police ordinances the cameralist fulfilled his functions on the basis of a political obligation The cameralist sought to promote the exploitation of natural wealth and the development of productive arts by modifying the external conditions of the production process

Beckmann was a follower of Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi one of the leading German cameralist s of the 18th century

Cameralism

The Linnaean research program(Natural History)

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

Vollstaumlndige Abhandlung von denen Manufakturen und Fabriken 2 Baumlnde I (1758) II (1761)

Introduction to technology or to the knowledge of crafts factories and manufactures above all those which are in closer connection with agriculture Police and cameral science In addition to this contributions [ are given] to the history of arts

The features of Technologie 112-Technological knowledge is naturalistic (U1-2)

Technology is the science which teaches how to treat (Verarbeitung) natural objects (Naturalien) or the knowledge of crafts (Gewerbe) Instead in the workshops it is only shown [that] one must follow the instructions and the habits of the master in order to produce the commodity [on the contrary] technology provides in systematic order fundamental introduction[s] in finding the means to reach this final goal on the basis of true principles and reliable experiences and how to explain and to utilize the phenomena which take place during the treatment (J Beckmann Anleitung zur Technologie 2nd Ed 178017)

1131-Beckmannrsquos approach to production (U1-3)

his Beytraumlge zur Okonomie Technologie Polizei- und Cameralwissens-chaft (1777-1791 ) and his third edition of Justirsquos Vollstaumlndige Abhandlung von -den Manufacturen und Fabriken mit Verbesserungen und Anmerkungen von Johann Beckmann (1789)

Beckmann lsquo s idea of production mirrors the cameralistic idea of economics which begins from the natural state of materials and ends with the trade of the finished goods Beckmannrsquos point of view is twofold because from one side it is naturalistic and from the other it subsumes those of the single producers (manufacturer artisan or farmer) see

Beckmann devoted to each of these steps an essay or a worki) the process begins from raw materials of the agriculture and natural resources handled in his Grundsaumltze der teutschen Landwirtschaft 1769 then

1132- Beckmannrsquos approach to production (U1-4)

ii) It passes across the circle of production ( see the Anleitung zur Technologie 1777) and its correspondent innovation process (discussed in the Entwurf einer allgemeinen Technologie 1806)

iii) After that it becomes a final good which is studied by a specific science (Vorbereitung zur Waarenkunde 1795-1800 [waarenkunde= Science of commodities])

iv) Finally the good is traded (see the Anleitung zur Handelswissen-schaft 1789)

The features of Technologie 1141-The social actor interested on Technologie (U1-5)

It [Technologie] must not train any weaver any beer-maker nor in general any craftsman (Handwerker) because to practice their art they need great ability and dexterity which [both] have to be acquired separately through boring exercise but are useless abilities for those to whom I am referring (Beckmann Anleitung zur Technologie 1780 Vorrede of the 1st Ed)

Technologie is a discipline that interests only the subject who exerts legitimate Herrschaft and gives directions to the workers

1142-The social actor interested on Technologie (U1-6)

ldquoThe knowledge of crafts factories and manufactures is indispensabie to anyone who wants to dedicate himself to the

Police and Cameral sciencesrdquo Beckmann Anleitung zur Technologie (1780 Vorrede of the 1st edition)

In the eighteenth century Police Science(Polizeiwissenschaft) was the Science of Government or the ldquoscience ofhappinessrdquo as some scholars call it that is a very broad concept that encompassednearly all tasks of government

115- Summary the complex nature of Technologie amp a modest conclusion ((U1-7)

iv) However Technologie lsquos method is of naturalistic kind

A modest conclusion the field of Technologie is located at the interface of sociological and naturalistic facts

i) Technological knowledge is an etic knowledge this is a sociological fact

ii) The field to which Technologie is applied (production process) is again a social fact

iii) The form of power relationship which characterizes the Cameralist and the German absolutist Wohlfahrtstaat is a legitime Herrschaft

12-An ideal type (rarr) Beckmannrsquos Model consists of four parameters (U1-8)

The ideal type had already been published (Frison G ldquoSecond and third Part ldquoBeckmann and Marx Technologie and Classical Political Economyrdquo History and Technology 1993b 3161) and generalized to take account of some authors who handled one or both terms of the pair techniquetechnology (Marx Mauss Weber Taylor Schumpeter) The ideal type is appropriately modified for the needs of the present article

1-The object of Technologie

2- The social actor interested in technological knowledge

3-The ideology of the social actor interested in technological knowledge

4- The epistemological nature of technological knowledge

1- The sociological object of Technologie is something that can be defined as industrial labour

2- The social actor interested in technological knowledge is the one who exerts a legitimate domination ((rarr)) over the production process

3- The ideology of the social actor who exerts a legitime Herrschaft over the production process promotes changes of the labour-process

4-Technologie is a science or rather a naturalistic view point which examines what intervenes between the worker and his means of labour

131-Marx lsquos Technologie (U1-9)

Technology is defined in terms of the social process of modern industry the principle to resolve each process of production as considered in itself into its constituent elements and without any regard to their possible execution by the hand of man created the new science of technology (personal translation Marx 1974-83 I456 see also I434)

In his Economic Manuscript of 1861-63 (Marx 1976-82) Marx gives a different and complementary concept of technology just as the investigation of the use values of commodities as such [belongs] to the science of commodities so the investigation of the labour process in reality [belongs] to technology (Marx 1976-82 31 49 =Marx 1985 Collected Works vol 30 55 personal translation)

Marx is the only classical economist who was aware of the German concept of Technologie and is the one author who uses it in an economic frame Neither A Smith nor Ricardo nor JS Mill used this concept

132-Marxlsquos Technologie (U1-10)

The capitalistrsquos goal is to change the patterns of use of labour-power andor modify the means of labour in order to obtain a surplus-value The valorisation process is achieved by means of the labour process

Marxian theory moves the concept of technology from the field of political obligation typical of Beckmannrsquos work to that of economic obligation

The social actor interested in technological knowledge is the capitalist who has an undisputed authority over labourers within the labour-processldquo (Marx 1974-83 I336) The capitalist is represented essentially as an innovator who continuously tries to yield surplus-value from the production process

Are the labour processrsquo social relationships really split from other social facts in any kind of society

NB Production process = labour process + valorisation process

Braverman H Labor and Monopoly Capital Monthly Review Press New York- London 1974

The result of the changes Taylor made is that the production process is replicated in paper form before and after it takes place in physical form (Braverman 1974 125)T his appears to be the real cause of technology

141-The changes of the labour process brought by Taylor and the role of technology (U1-11)

Although Taylor never used the concept of technology Taylorrsquos Scientific Management (SM) marked both the rebirth and the increase of the functions ascribed to technology Taylor combined i) technological analysis of cutting metal machinery and studies on belting steam hammers and other tool machines with ii) organization and time prescriptions (technical directions) The most striking innovation of Taylorrsquos approach consists in the new procedures that workers were expected to comply with Although radically transformed these procedures still remain social facts in Maussrsquos sense

Such knowledge was preliminarily entrusted to the manager more exactly to his programming office as a separate knowledge and continuously

updated

For Taylor the manager was expected to be acquainted with naturalistic productive phenomena as well as with different methods which replicate the production through accounting and the organizationrsquos structure controls in such a way he could prescribe the norms that regulated production and in particular the use of means of labour

For a pre-technological knowledge click on

1 6- Embedded knowledge concerning production in non- literate cultures (U1-13)

Technological and pre-technological knowledge do not fit with non-literate knowledge of production Some authors highlighted how the chaicircnes opeacuteratoires of some cultures were linked to kinship relationships or to myths and religious acts (A Radcliffe-Brown E Will and L Dumont ) It t may be legitimate to suppose that knowledge of techniques is imbedded in other sociological systems

Pierre Lemonnier 2004ldquoil est illusoire de distinguer a priori les techniques des autres productions socioculturelles Cinquante anneacutees de technologie culturelle ont amplement deacutemontreacute que du fait de lrsquoinscription des repreacutesentations et des actions techniques dans toutes sortes de systegravemes de penseacutee et de pratiques raquo (2004 Pierre Lemonnier ldquoMythiques chaicircnes opeacuteratoiresrdquo Techniques amp Culture 43-44 httptcrevuesorg1054)

Summary- three types

of knowledge concerning production

(U1-14)

The knowledge of production procedures is usually transmitted via oral directions and by contact Beckmannrsquos model permits to distinguish three main classes

a) TECHNOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE the description of the production process is made with scientific procedures and is transmitted via printed matter See for example Beckmann Marx and Taylor

b) PRE-TECHNOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE

The description of the production process takes the form of prescriptive recipes it is of pre-scientific type and is transmitted via manuscripts

See for example the knowledge of pigments and dyes in the Middle Ages

c) EMBEDDED KNOWLEDGE the knowledge concerning production is inscribed in various kinds of social acts This is typical of cultures without literacy

A conceptual Map of the Unit 2

The three main works by Mauss on technique amp technologie

21- ldquoLes techniques du corpsrdquo (1935) (This seminal work founds a sociological concept of technique) Separation criterion of technique from magic and ritual

22 ndash Manuel drsquoethnographie (1947)It collects the lectures by Mauss given in a long period of time beginning from 1926

23 ldquoLes techniques et la technologierdquo (1948)

The determinants of the concept of technique

25- Durkheimrsquos paradigm and the role of the concepts of morphologie sociale physiologie sociale

24 ndash The foundation of the Institut drsquoEthnologie

27- The analysis of techniques by Lemonnier

26ndash Mauss may be considered the heir of the American school of technology

20- Maussrsquo technologie has no sociological basis

Preliminary remark Mauss defined a concept of technique of sociological type Moreover he tried to separate the technical act from the magic and ritual ones

Mauss lsquointerest on technologie dates back to the year 1900 In fact a section devoted to technology in the fourth volume of the Anneacutee Sociologique was established This occurred long before he defined the concept of technique in 1935 ( Les techniques du corps) or that of technologie (in 1948 Les techniques et la technologie)

laquo La technologie hellippreacutetend agrave juste titre eacutetudier toutes les techniques toute la vie technique des hommes depuis lrsquoorigine de lrsquohumaniteacute jusqursquoagrave nos jours raquo M Mauss raquo Les techniques et la technologie raquo 1948

20 Mauss Technique without technologie (U2-1)

However some criticisms can be made to Maussrsquo concept of technologie because in our opinion technologie is much more than a logos concerning techniques

i)According to Mauss the discipline of technologie does not need a sociological foundation because he thought that it was a logos concerning the description of techniques

This is likely due to the fact that Mauss found soon early at the beginning of his work a ready made ethnological tradition devoted to the description of techniques which although labeled under different names he called technologie

ii) Technologie is what today is called an etic ( rarr ) concept It seems unlikely that Mauss asked himself this question why is technology always an etic concept while technique may be a emic or an unaware knowledge

iii) Mauss was not aware that German Technologie anticipated his technologie about 150 years

iv) Leroi-Gourhan made the Maussian concept of technique an operative concept (see chaicircnes opeacuteratoire( rarr)

Andreacute Leroi-Gourhan (1911 ndash 1986) a Maussrsquopupil archaeologist paleontologist and paleoanthropologist

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

21 amp 23 -Les techniques du corps (1935) and ldquoLes techniques et la technologierdquo (1948) (U2-3)

As a starting point Mauss argues that the error of the past has been to think that there is a technique only when there is an instrument Bodily techniques are effectively like techniques but do not use any instrument Bodily techniques are a subset of techniques which may be handled as social facts that is as social institutions

With this paper Mauss introduced the new concept of body technique and at the same time laid the foundation of a concept of technique which is original in comparison to the German

discussion on Technik Like all groundbreaking work the 1935 paper creates many more problems than it solves

Gesture is not only the movement of the body just as language is much more than the movement of air through the larynx

laquo Les techniques du corps raquo is a widely read and discussed work (Farnell 1999 Crossley 2007 ) because it pointed towards a field of investigation previously overlooked at least by ethnologists A journal with the meaningful title of Body ampSociety has been recently founded (1995)

21-Definition of bodily techniques (U2-4)

Mauss M ldquoLes techniques du corpsrdquo Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique 1935 32 pp 271-293To download an electronic version of the 1935 paper see the following Urlhttpclassiquesuqaccaclassiquesmauss_marcelsocio_et_anthropo6_Techniques_corpstechniques_corpspdf

ldquoJrsquoappelle technique un acte traditionnel efficace (et vous voyez qursquoen ceci il nlsquoest pas diffegraverent de lrsquoacte magique religieux symbolique) Il faut qursquoil soit traditionnel et efficace Il nrsquoy a pas de technique et pas de transmission srsquoil nrsquoy a pas de traditions raquo Mauss (1935 )

According to Mauss there is no natural way in which men use their bodiesBeginning with a number of concrete examples Mauss tried to demonstrate cultural and historical influences on bodily activities (digging swimming walking marching) and introduced the concept of habitus

21-The concept of habitus (U2-5)

laquo Jai donc eu pendant de nombreuses anneacutees cette notion de la nature sociale de l laquo habitus raquo Je vous prie de remarquer que je dis en bon latin compris en France laquohabitusraquo Lemot traduit infiniment mieux qu laquohabitude raquo l laquo exis raquo l laquo acquis raquo et la laquo faculteacute raquo dAristote (qui eacutetait un psychologue) Il ne deacutesigne pas ces habitudes meacutetaphysiques cettelaquo meacutemoireraquo mysteacuterieuse sujets de volumes ou de courtes et fameuses thegraveses Ces laquohabitudesraquo varient non pas simplement avec les individus et leurs imitations elles varient surtout avec les socieacuteteacutes les eacuteducations les convenances et les modes les prestiges Il faut y voir des techniques et louvrage de la raison pratique collective et individuelle lagrave ougrave on ne voit dordinaire que lacircme et ses faculteacutes de reacutepeacutetition laquo (Mauss 1935)

ldquoLe corps est le premier et le plus naturel instrument de lhomme Ou plus exactementsans parler dinstrument le premier et le plus naturel objet technique et en mecircmetemps moyen technique de lhomme cest son corpshelliphellipLes techniques du corps sont bien laquo les faccedilons dont les hommes socieacuteteacute par socieacuteteacute dune faccedilon traditionnelle savent se servir de leur corps raquo (Mauss 1935)

23-The 1948 definition of technique (U2-6)

laquoon appelle technique un groupe de mouvementsdrsquoactes geacuteneacuteralement et en majoriteacute manuels organiseacutes et traditionnels concourant agrave obtenir un but connu comme physique ou chimique ou organiquerdquo Mauss 1948

The 1948 paper was Maussrsquo last work This paper is not much original with reference to his former worksHowever the concept of technique is defined in a way which fits well with his former concept of bodily techniques (Mauss 1935)

The idea that techniques were instrumental by definition was a well known idea Mauss firstly conceived bodily techniques as a a sub-set of instrumental techniques ( the instrument is the body itself) Secondly Mauss assigned to the concept of technique the same sociological features typical of bodily techniques

211-Five criticisms to the 1935 paper (U2-7)

1)-This paper is the transcription of an oral speech given in 1934laquo Le texte publieacute par Marcel Mauss est on le sait la retranscription eacutecrite drsquoune confeacuterence donneacutee agrave la Socieacuteteacute Franccedilaise de Psychologie Il porte la marque explicite de lrsquooraliteacutehellip Marcel Mauss choisit drsquoouvrir sa confeacuterence en revendiquant lrsquooriginaliteacute personnelle de son discours tenu agrave la premiegravere personne son caractegravere eacutesoteacuterique et en proposant un long laquoreacutecit de deacutecouverteraquo scientifique deacutebouchant sur lrsquoanecdote de la laquo reacuteveacutelation raquo des techniques du corps raquo Leveratto 2006 ) Maussrsquo biography by Fournier underlines that the transition from oral to written expression was becoming more and more difficult for Mauss in the 1930s ( 1994 p699)

1999 B Farnell ldquoMoving Bodies Acting selvesrdquo Annu Rev Anthropol 28 pp 341-732006 Jean-Marc Leveratto raquoLire Mauss Lrsquoauthentification des laquo techniques du corps raquo et ses enjeux eacutepisteacutemologiquesrdquo Le Portique 17 httpLeportiqueRevuesOrgIndex778Html22007 Nick Crossley ldquoResearching embodiment by way of lsquobody techniquesrsquo The Sociological Review pp 80-94

The 1935 paper is not a standard Maussian work and has been severely criticised

2)The separation of technique by other effective traditional acts is difficult or impossible from an emic point of view ( rarr )

212-Five criticisms to the Mauss 1935 paper (U2-8)

2008 Keith Hart Review Mauss Marcel (ed Nathan Schlanger) Techniques technology and civilisation laquo Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 14 467-9

4- The concept of body technique is not well defined laquohellipinstabiliteacute eacutepisteacutemologique de la notion de techniques du corps ndash qui peut deacutesigner selon les cas des actions physiques dirigeacutees et controcircleacutees consciemment des automatismes corporels des moyens de communication non-verbale etchellipCrsquoest en ce sens que Marcel Mauss ne propose pas qursquoune description scientifique de la notion de technique du corps mais fait ressentir agrave ses auditeurs et agrave ses lecteurs sa reacutealiteacute sensible et sa valeur affectiveraquo Leveratto 2006

5- The concept of body technique does not holdldquo[The paper] forced to bear the weight of being the most complete expression of his interest in techniques the piece just does not stand up It turns out to be conceptually confused methodologically unrealizable as a project and not even sociological in any systematic sense ndash a dead end in other words which has deservedly led to no further work in this linerdquo (Hart 2008)

3-Sources are wrongly mentioned i) a source is mentioned in a non-orthodox wayii) the word laquoonioniraquo ( a Maoris way of female walking) is transformed into laquoonioiraquo

21-Summary body techniques amp the concept of technique (U2-9)

3-According to Mauss the phenomenon of technique is basically a social fact and in this sense it does not involve any relationships with the idea of ldquonaturerdquo

1-laquo -la juste compreacutehension ethnologique de la notion [ de techniques du corps]] suppose une modification radicale du concept de technique laquo agrave la fois en extension et en compreacutehension raquo (Leveratto 2006 Segraveris 1994)

2-The historical separation of techniques amp body techniques from ritual and magic is still waiting for a sociological theory

4-Les techniques du corps sont donc arbitraires autrement dit elles sont laquoparticuliegraveres agrave chaque socieacuteteacute au point den ecirctre signeraquo (Schlanger 1991)

1991 Nathan Schlanger laquo Le fait technique total La raison pratique et les raisons de la pratique dans lœuvre de Marcel Mauss raquo Terrain 16 1994 Jean-Pierre Seacuteris La Technique Paris PUF 1994

22-Manuel drsquoEthnographie (1947) (U-10)

The Manuel drsquoEthnographie published in 1947 was made from notes taken during Maussrsquo lectures by Denise Paulme The different notes taken by his students do not converge on the effective content However the Manuel likely presents a picture of the nature of Maussrsquo course and gives indication of its scope Its recent translation into English has been criticised (Atkinson 2008)

2008 Paul Atkinson Manual of Ethnography ndash Edited by Marcel Mauss The Sociological Review Volume 56 Issue 4 pages 699ndash7002004 Emmanuelle Sibeud rdquo Marcel Mauss laquo Projet de preacutesentation drsquoun bureau drsquoethnologie raquo (1913) raquo Revue dHistoire des Sciences Humaines 10 pp 105-115

1972 James Urry ldquoNotes and Queries on Anthropology and the Development of Field Methods in British Anthropology 1870-1920 ldquo Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland pp 45-57

A former Maussian project (dated 1913) for the establishment of a Bureau of Ethnology failed ( Sibaud 2004)

Mauss lectured ldquoethnographic field directionsrdquo since the beginning of his lectures at the Eacutecole Pratiques des Hautes Eacutetudes in the year 1903-04 ( Œuvres III 354) and successively in a more systematic way at the Institut drsquoEthnologie from 1926 to 1939 soon after its foundation (1925)

The recipients of his lectures were scholars who became successively field anthropologists but also administrators or colonists who lacked professional training (for an account of the previous French and British anthropological directions until 1920 see Urry 1972)

24-The foundation of the Institut drsquoEthnologie (1925) (U2-11)

Mauss conceived ethnography as a descriptive science and his course dealt both with what to observe and how to observe it Mauss required the observer to be objective and strangely to fulfill an impossible duty that is to record everything The normative side of the directions is accompanied by a lack of any explicit anthropological theory in the Manuel drsquo Ethnologie

2004 Jean-Christophe Marcel ldquoMauss au travail autour de 1925rdquo LAnneacutee sociologique 54 1 pp 37-61

The aims of the lectures referred to laquo les meacutethodes de la recherche et de la description ethnographiques - les institutions des indigegravenes en particulier leurs langues leurs religions leurs coutumes leurs techniques - leur histoire et leur archeacuteologie - leurs caractegraveres anthropologiques raquo (Marcel 2004)

Paris Museacutee drsquo Ethnologie au Trocadeacutero

Section four of the Manuel is devoted to technology is important since it represents about one fifth of the entire book At the beginning of section four Mauss acknowledged that it is difficult to separate technical from aesthetical facts and technical facts from magic (for an introduction to this subject see rarr )

Mauss lsquo ideas of machine and of history of technology may be argued s see rarr

25 ndashDurkheimrsquos Paradigm amp technologie (U2-12)

1901Paul Fauconnet Marcel Mauss laquoSociologieraquo in La Grande Encyclopeacutedie Paris Socieacuteteacute anonyme de la grandeencyclopeacutedie 1901 t 30 pp 165-176 [OEuvres III pp 139-177]httpclassiquesuqaccaclassiquesmauss_marcelessais_de_socioT1_la_sociologiela_sociologiehtml 1900a Durkheim Emile laquo La sociologie et son domaine scientifique raquo version Franccedilaise drsquo un article publieacute en italien in Rivista italiana di sociologia reproduit in Durkheim Textes Paris Eacuteditions de Minuit 1975 pp 13-36

Why was Mauss interested in techniques Three different determinants are observable i) Maussrsquo lectures on anthropology ii) Durkheimrsquos paradigm iii) The American school of technology ( Powell amp Mason)

Durkheimrsquos ldquoMorphologie et physiologie Socialerdquo is the conceptual basis on which the concept of technique liesSocial morphology ( Andrews 1993) and social physiology are two concepts introduced by Durkheim after a long re-working (Durkheim 1900) these were accepted by Mauss still starting from his 1901 paper (Fauconnet amp Mauss)The category social morphology has to do with social structure -the composition of the group its internal organization and its distribution in space- (today it could be called social ecology or social demography) Social physiology refers to the social facts that happen in the group this comprises institutions and collective representations By institution Mauss and Fauconnet mean ldquoa group of acts or ideas already instituted which individuals find before themrdquo Techniques may be defined as social institutions and are located within the realm of social physiologyThe plan of the lectures at the Institut d lsquoEthnologie mirrored the content of his 1927 paper ldquoDivisions et proportions des divisions de la sociologierdquo ( Fournier 1994 pp 597- 608) which refers to the categories of social physiology and morphology

26-Mauss is the heir of the American School of technology (U3-13)

1873 J W Powel l with a Paiute laquo chief raquo Bureau of American Ethnology Collection

Mauss can be considered the heir of the German and American laquotechnologyraquo but he became aware that these technological traditions had been weakened laquo[Mason amp Powell] avaient proclameacute que la technologie eacutetait une partie speacuteciale et tregraves eacuteminente de la sociologie Ils lavaient fait indeacutependamment des savants allemands Bastian et ses eacutelegraveves Cette tradition seacutetait malheureusement affaiblie en Allemagne comme en Angleterre raquo Mauss 1927 Œuvres III195 196

Mauss highly appreciated John Wesley Powell (1834-1902) as the ldquofondateur dune technologie ethnographique ldquo(1927 ibid) and considered his work similar to Morgan being Powell and Morgan laquo esprits profonds et originaux et comment dirais-je trop ameacutericains ne peuvent ecirctre suivis quavec dinfinies preacutecautions raquo (La Nation 1920) This is likely due to the Powellrsquos foundation of the American Bureau of Ethnology

Section four of the Manuel drsquoEthnologie mentions many scholars who published their works in the American Anthropologist or the Reports of the U S Bureau of Ethnology that is Otis Mason (basketry traps travel amp transportation but also on the influence of environment upon arts) Frank Hamilton Cushing (Pueblo pottery) Clark Wissler (horse in the development of Plains Culture ) Franz Boas (Eskimo Kwakiutl and Jesup North Pacific Expedition)

Much later Lowie disagreed and sustained that concerning social organization Powell in no way advanced beyond Lewis H Morgan (1956) 1956 Robert Lowierdquo Reminiscences of Anthropological Currents in America Half a Century Agordquo American Anthropologist 58 pp 995-1016)

27-Lemonnierrsquos analysis of technology (U2-14)

There is no room in the present lecture to discuss the path of the French anthropology school of technology from Mauss to Lemonnier and the present debate via Leroi-Gourhan (see Coupaye 2009) Here it is sufficient to observe that Lemonnier develops the concept chaicircne opeacuteratoire and makes operative the concept of technique by means of five parameters

i) matter -the material on which the technique actsii) energy- the forces which move objects and transform matter iii) objects - artifacts toolshellipiv) gestures - they move the objects involved in a given techniquev) specific knowledge- it may be conscious or unconscious

NB Energy in physics Is the capacity of given body to do work therefore force and energy are not synonymous

It is apparent that Lemonnierrsquos technology being a meta-language which refers to techniques involves sociological and physical parameters showing once more that technology is an etic discipline which is located at the borders of natural and social sciences

Lemonnierrsquos frame handles a given technology and permits to focus three different levelsa) The relationships within the five parameters when one is changedb) The level of the relationships between different technologiesc) The relationships between a given technology and other social facts

2009 Ludovic Coupaye amp Laurence Douny laquo Un eacutetat des lieux de lrsquoanthropologie des techniques en France et en Grande-Bretagne raquo Techniques amp Culture 52-53 2009 pp 12-391992 Pierre Lemonnier Elements for an Anthropology of technology Ann Arbour University of Michigan 1992

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

We are convinced that technology and technique are not linguistic variants of the same concept but the first term refer to a logos which uses naturalistic and sociological categories and the second to an object firstly sociologically described by Marcel Mauss

Some advancements on the understanding of the couple techniquetechnology are due to

i) the efforts of the British Centre for Durkheimian Studies which published some of the works by Mauss into English

ii) the presence of a strong and compact French anthropology that always considered itself the heir of Marcel Maussrsquo approach to techniques

iii)By some recent papers ( see Schatzberg 2006 and Mitcham amp Schatzberg 2009)

Thank you for your attention

The End

(L-1) The set of terms and concepts used in the present lecture

FIRST ISSUE Johann Beckmann Technologie without technique

SECOND ISSUE Marcel Mauss technique without technologie

The Meanings of the term Technologie before Beckmann amp Beckmannrsquos meaning

Emic amp Etic

The various Meanings of the term Technik Chaicircne Opeacuteratoire

Three linked concepts Cameralism amp Polizei amp Wohlfartstaat

RitualIdeal type

Two Marxian concepts labour process amp production process

Magiclegitime Herrschaft

Historiography of technology Definition of Religion according to Durkheim

Economics and ldquotechnologyrdquo in the Classical and Neoclassical schools of economics

Culture

German Nationaloumlkonomie amp Old historical school amp Young historical school of economics

Social institutionKinematic concept of machine

For some of the following terms short definitions are given

(L-2) The Crisis of Cameralism ( first half of 19deg century) some determinants

Beckmannrsquos Technologie was a cameralist subject and entered into a crisis at the beginning of 19th- century with the crisis of Cameralism Polizei was in the later seventeenth- and eighteenth-century German-speaking states a principle of social normative and performative order but not primarily coercive On the meaning and legacy of Cameralism (see Tribe 1988 Lindenfeld 1997 Wakefield 2009) According to Backhaus amp Wagner (1987 2005) Cameralism cannot be treated as an example of German Mercantilism

iv) The ideology of the Cameralism which refers to the well-ordered police state was substituted by an another ideology leaning towards a conception of government by law and by a Kantian ideal of the person free from the paternalistic protection of the state

Wilhelm Georg Friedrich Roscher (1817 - 1894) is considered to be the founder of the old historical school of political economy which established the Nationaloumlkonomie as one the substitutes of Cameralism in the mid 19th century Roscher attempted to supplement classical economics with historical material to search for permanent laws of economic development ( see Tribe 1988 chapters 7-9)

Change in the ideology

2008 Richard Bowler ldquoMediating Creative Nature and Human Needs in Early German Political Economyrdquo History of Political Economy 404 pp 633- 669

The crisis of Cameralism was due to i) the Napoleonic warsii) the rise of new academic subjects called the sciences of the state (see Lindenfeld 1997 sections II and III) iii) the reception of the Wealth of Nations and the constitution of the Nationaloumlkonomie

(L-3) -The meanings of Technologie from the beginning of the 17th century until Beckmannlsquos Anleitung zur Technologie (1777)

Source 1978 Martin Fuumlssel Die Begriffe Technik Technologie technische Wissenschaften und Polytechnik Barbara Franzbecker Bad Saltzdettfurt after 1968 Seibicke W Technik Versuch einer Geschichte der Wortfamilie um τέχνη in Deutschland vom 16 Jahrhundert bis etwa 1830 VDI Duumlsseldorf

The late 19th century German sociology has lost the term Technologie but instead uses Technik with a larger semantic field The word Technik came to have so many meanings that it can no longer be precisely defined in a way that conforms its usage Technik entered German social science (Simmel 1900 Sombart 1901 1902-1908 1911 Schmoller 1904 ) through the discourse of late 19deg century German engineers ( see for example Reuleaux 1884 and von Engelmeyer 1899 ) In Sombartrsquos Der moderne Kapitalismus the concept of Technik plays a fundamental role For the transition Technologie to Technik see Frison 1998 and Mitcham amp Schatzberg 2009

1900 Georg Simmel ˝Die Herrschaft der Technik bdquo in Philosophie des Geldes Duncker amp Humblot Leipzig pp 520-535 1900-1094 Gustav Schmoller Grundriszlig der allgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre 2 Teilen Muumlnchen-Leipzig Dunckler amp Humblot erster Teil 1900 zweiter Teil 19041902-1908 Werner Sombart Der moderne Kapitalismus Historisch-systematische Darstellung des gesamteuropaumlischen Wirtschaftslebens von seinen Anfaumlngen bis zur Gegenwart Final edn 19281901 Werner Sombartldquo Technik und Wirtschaft bdquo Jahrbuch der Gehe-Stiftung zu Dresden VII pp 51-74 1911 Werner Sombart bdquoTechnik und Kulturldquo Archiv fuumlr Sozialwissenschaft 33 pp 305-347 1998 Guido Frison ldquoSome German and Austrian Ideas on Technologie and Technik between the end of the Eighteenth Century and the Beginning of the Twentiethrdquo History of Economic Ideas VI 1 pp 107-133 2009 Carl Mitcham and Eric Schatzberg ldquoDefining Technology and The Engineering Sciencesrdquo in Dov M Gabbay Anthonie Meijers Paul Thagard John Woods (Eds) Philosophy of technology and engineering sciences Elsevier pp 27- 63

Werner Sombart (1863 ndash 1941)

1884 Franz Reuleaux Kultur und Technik Wochenschrift d Niederoumlsterr Gewerbe-Vereins reprinted in n1925 Carl Weihe Franz Reuleaux und seine Kinematik J Springer Berlin 1899 Peter K von Engelmeyer ldquoAllgemeine Fragen der Technikrdquo Dinglers Polytechnisches Journal vols 311 312 313

(L-4) The Young Historical School Engineers economic sociology and Technik From Technologie rarr to Technik ( late 19th century)

(L-5) Technik and its meanings

Definitions may be of two types a) amp b)a) Essential definitions they are also often called connotative or intensional insofar as they specify the necessary and sufficient conditions for something to be a memberof a class One example might be the claim that technology ( Technik) is the systematic human making of physical objects andor the using of such objects technology is human behavior (genus) involved with the systematic making or using of artifacts b) Denotative or extensional (also enumerative) definitions these latter simply list all the members of the classsee 2009 Carl Mitcham and Eric Schatzberg

Source 1978 Martin Fuumlssl Die Begriffe Technik Technologie technische Wissenschaften und Polytechnik Bad Salzdethfurth p6

Seibicke W Technik Versuch einer Geschichte der Wortfamilie um τέχνη in Deutschland vom 16 Jahrhundert bis etwa 1830 VDI Duumlsseldorf

(L-6) - Pre-technological knowledge in the medieval scribal era The case of the manuscripts on dyes and pigments ( in short colours)

The second ideal-type is obtained by modifying Beckmannrsquos model -One parameter called the printing culture parameter is added to Beckmannrsquos model in order to take account of the medium features and the social process which transmits the written record

22 Variable four (a naturalistic description of the labour-process) is tenable only from the Anleitung zur Technologie on So we may have different kinds of pre-technological knowledge that can be more or less associated with rituals and magic ideas

2-Two parameters of Beckmannrsquos model are relaxed 21- Variable three should be weakened This links innovation the ideology of the social actor interested in technological knowledge and the knowledge of the production process

i) the kind of ruling relationship exerted on the production process

ii) the mechanisms of reproduction of the written record

iii) the specific cultural values of literacy

iv) The magnitude of the social distance between the worker and the writer of the manuscript

(L-7)- Pre-technological knowledge in the scribal era The case of the medieval manuscripts on colours

The type of knowledge transmitted by the manuscripts on colours depends by the following parameters

(L-8)- Pre-technological knowledge and literary activity

Six hypothesis regarding the Producers and the Recipients of the manuscripts on colours

According to the literature the mss on colours were written

1 ndash by and for alchemists2 ndashby painters (artisan-artists) and for painters (artisan-artists)

3 ndash for specific patrons4 ndash by and for apothecaries5 ndash for guilds and corporations6 ndash for literary aims with either cultural-ideological objectives or for a given system of cultural-philosophical values eg motivations of alchemic type or transmission of significant traditions etc

For an overview see Tolaini Tolaini F ldquoProposte per una metodologia di analisi di un ricettario di colori medievalerdquo in Il colore del Medioevo Arte simbolo e tecnica Atti delle giornate di studi (Lucca 5-6 maggio 1995) Lucca 1996 pp 91-116 Oppenheim A L ldquoThe Cuneiform Texts rdquo in Oppenheim A L Brill R H Barag Von Saldern A Glass and Glassmaking in Ancient Mesopotamia The Conning Museum of Glass Press Corning 2nd printing 1988 pp 1-104

Available evidence show s that hypothesis No 6 is the most likely The six different hypotheses quoted above may be traced back to one only by means of Oppenheimlsquos hypothesisOppenheim sustained that the clay tablets describing the glass production were the result of a literary activity Similarly the manuscripts on colours are likely the product of literary activity above all those of early Middle Ages

(L-9) -Pre-technological knowledge and literary activity Oppenheimrsquos Hypothesis

6 ndash for literary aims with either cultural-ideological objectives or for a given system of cultural-philosophical values eg motivations of alchemic type or transmission of significant traditions etc

(L-10) Emic amp Etic

Literature1954 Pike K L Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of the Structures of Human Behavior part 1 Glendale Calif Summer Institute of Linguistics [Preliminary ed]1976 1976 Marvin Harris ldquoHistory and Significance of the EmicEtic Distinction ldquo Annual Review of Anthropology 5 pp 329-350 1985 Kenneth E Lloyd ldquoBehavioral Anthropology a review of Marvin Harris cultural materialismrdquo Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior 43 pp 279-287

The neologisms ldquoemicrdquo and ldquoeticrdquo derive from an analogy with the terms ldquophonemicrdquo and ldquophoneticrdquo ( the terms were coined by Kenneth Pike in 1954)

The emic perspective refers to the intrinsic cultural distinctions that are meaningful to the members of a given society

The etic perspective relies upon the extrinsic concepts and categories that are meaningful for scientific observers this corresponds to the phonetic analysis which relies upon the extrinsic concepts and categories that are meaningful to linguistics (eg dental fricatives) From an etic point of view scientists are the sole judges of the validity of an etic account just as linguists are the sole judges of the accuracy of a phonetic transcription

(L-11)-The Chaicircne Opeacuteratoire

Literature1964 [1943ndash6] Leroi-Gourhan A Le Geste et la parole vol 1 Technique et langage vol 2 La Meacutemoire et les rythmes Paris Albin Michel (Translated in 1993 as Gesture and Speech by ABostock Berger Cambridge Mass MIT Press)

1975 Balfet Heacutelegravene inldquo Technologie rdquo pp 44-79 in R Cresswell (ed) Eacuteleacutements drsquoethnologie vol 2 Paris Armand Colin

1988 Pfaffenberger B ldquoFetishised Objects and Humanised Nature Toward an Anthropology of Technologyrdquo Man 23236ndash52

1991 Balfet Heacutelegravene (ed)Observer lrsquoaction technique Des chaicircnes opeacuteratoires pour quoi faire Paris Eacuteditions du CNRS

1992 Lemonnier P Elements for an Anthropology of Technology University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology Anthropological Paper No 88 Michigan University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology

2002 Audouze F ldquoLeroi-Gourhan a Philosopher of Technique and EvolutionrdquoJournal of Archaeological Research 10 4 pp 277-306

2004 Pierre Lemonnierrdquo Mythiques chaicircnes opeacuteratoiresrdquo Techniques amp Culture ldquo N43-44 ( see httptcrevuesorg1054)

2005 Colin Renfrew amp Paul Bahn Archaeology The Key Concepts Routledge London New York

2009 Ofer Bar-Yosef and Philip Van Peer ldquoThe Chaicircne Opeacuteatoire Approach in Middle Paleolithic Archaeologyrdquo Current Anthropology 50 1 pp 103-131

ldquoIn its basic definition the chaicircne opeacuteratoire (literally lsquooperational chainrsquo or lsquosequencersquo) refers to the range of processes by which naturally occurring raw materials are selected shaped and transformed into usable cultural productsrdquo Schlanger Nathan in Bahn amp Renfrew (2005) p 18

(L-12) -Literature on Cameralism

For an overall interpretation of Cameralism see 1988 Keith Tribe Governing Economy The Reformation of German Academic Discourse Cambridge U P1997 David F Lindenfeld The Practical Imagination The German Sciences of State in the Nineteenth Century University of Chicago Press2009 Andre Wakefield The Disordered Police State German Cameralism as Science and Practice University of Chicago Press

i) from a sociological point of view Small A W The Cameralists The Pioneers of German Social Polity Chi cago U Press Chicago 1909

ii) as a political phenomenon - 1966 Maier H Die aumlltere deutsche Staats- und Verwaltungslehre (Polizei wissenschaft) Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der politischen

Wissenschaft in Deutschland Luchterhand Neuwied am Rhein-Berlin - 1977 Bruumlckner J Staatswissenschaften Kameralismus und Naturrecht CH Beck Muumlnchen- 1968 Schiera P Dallarte di Governo alle Scienze dello Stato Il Cameralismo e lassolutismo tedesco Giuffregrave Milano - 19902 Schiera P Cameralismo in Bobbio N Matteucci N Pasquino G (Eds) Dizionario di Politica (1983) Utet Torino pp 124-

iii) and as an economic doctrine 1977 Tribe K Governing Economy The Reformation of German Economic Discourse 1750-1840 Cambridge U Press Cambridge 1988 Bruumlckner see above

iv) Backhaus a amp Wagner analyse the Cameralist Origins of Continental Public Finance and polemize against the interpretation of Cameralism as a kind of Mercantilism 1987 Juumlrgen Backhaus and Richard E Wagner Public ldquo The Cameralists A Public Choice Perspective ldquoPublic Choice Vol 53 1 pp 3-20 2005 Juumlrgen G Backhaus and Richard EWagner ldquoFrom Continental Public Finance to Public Choice Mapping Continuityrdquo History of Political Economy 37(Suppl 1)314-332

v) On the origin of the Cameralism stricto sensu see Schiera 1990 Tribe 1988 66 74-5 ( see above )

The so-called academic Cameralism began in 1727 the teaching of Technologie began much later and lasted until the first half of the 19th century

A Weberian model is an ideal type whose validity can be ascertained only in terms of adequacy and whose goal is to permit comparisons between different historical cases

(L-13) -Weberrsquos Legitime Herrschaft amp ideal type

According to Weber legitimate domination (Legitime Herrschaft) is a more consistent form of power relationship compared to the Macht a term usually translated with power Macht is a relatively timeless and space-less sociological type Legitimate Herrschaft unlike Macht allows for a high level of probability that a command with a specific content will be obeyed by a given group of persons because it is associated with voluntary compliance belief in legitimacy and a sustained relationship of subordination

Beckmannrsquos model is an ideal type

(L-14) -Weber the sociology of domination amp legitime Herrschaft

ldquoThe precise translation of Macht and Herrschaft is contested these terms entered into usage as power and authority respectively While there is a little controversy surrounding the translation of Macht as power there is considerable dissent surrounding the translation of Herrschaft as authority that was initiated by Parsons and Henderson in their edition of the Theory of social and economic organization (Weber 1947) Later translators do not follow this lead but instead translate Herrschaft either as ldquorulerdquo or as ldquodominationrdquo depending on the context of translationrdquo Wallimann et al 1977 Cohen et al (1975a 1975b) appropriately distinguish between Herrschaft and legitimate Herrschaft The three parameters that distinguish legitimate Herrschaft are i) Voluntary compliance or obedience individuals are not forced to obey but do so voluntarily because they have an interest in doing so or at least believe that they have such an interest ii) Belief in the legitimacy of the actions of the dominant individual or group is likely iii) Compliance or obedience is a sustained relationship of subordination so that regular patterns of inequality are established

1947 Max Weber The Theory of Social and Economic Organization translated by A M Henderson and Talcott Parsons edited with an introduction by Talcott Parsons New YorkOxford University Press 1975a Cohen Jere Hazelrigg E Lawrence Pope Whitney ldquoDe-Parsonizing Weber A Critique of Parsons Interpretation of Webers Sociologyrdquo American Sociological Review 40 2 pp 229-241 1975b Cohen Jere Hazelrigg E Lawrence Pope Whitney ldquoReply to Parsonsrdquo American Sociological Review 40 5 pp 670-674 1977 Wallimann Isidor Tatsis Ch Nicholas Zito V George ldquoOn Max Webers Definition of PowerrdquoAustralia and new Zealand Journal of Sociology 13 pp 231-235

(L-15) -Literature on Linnaeus and his relationship with Beckmann

On the intellectual relationship between Linnaeus and Beckmann and on the origin of Technologie see i) 1993 Frison G ldquoLinnaeus Beckmann Marx and the Foundation of Technology Between natural and social Sciences a Hypothesis of an Ideal Type - First part Linnaeus and Beckmann Cameralism Oeconomia and Technologierdquo History and Technology 3139-60

ii) 1999 Meyer T Natur Technik und Wirtschaftswacstum im 18 Jahrhundert Waxmann Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte der Technik Arbeit und Umwelt Bd 12 Muumlnster see chapters 4-5 and the literature quoted therein

iii) For a different interpretation of the Linnaeus-Beckmann relationship see 1997 Muumlller H-P ldquoDenksatz und Wirkungsgeschichte von Beckmanns bdquoEntwurf der algemeinen Technologieldquo in Banse G (Ed) Allgemeine Technologie zwischen Aufklaumlrung und Metatheorie SigmaBerlin pp 23-39

iv) Linnaeus - Beckmann correspondence is available in 1916 Bref och skrifvelser af och till Carl von Linnegrave (Hulth J M Ed) Uppsala- Berlin Afd II Del 1254-268

v) Linnaeusrsquos economic ideas were rarely systematic but their role in his taxonomic research program have been stressed by 1999 Koerner L Linnaeus Nature and Nation Harvard UPress Cambridge (Mass) Linnaeusrsquos economics should not be understood with todayrsquos point of view on economic behaviour but as a science of natural products and their use values

(L-16) - Literature on Beckmann

For current studies on Beckmann

i) 1992 Hans-Peter Muumlller Ulrich Troitzsch (Eds) Technologie zwischen Fortschritt und Tradition Peter Lang Frankfurt am Main

ii) 1999 Bayerl G Beckmann J (Eds) Johann Beckmann (1739ndash1811) Beitraumlge zu Leben Werk und Wirkung des Begruumlnders der Allgemeinen Technologie Waxmann Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte von Technik Arbeit und Umwelt Bd 9 Muumlnster

iii) 1999 Meyer T ldquoJohann Beckmann-Bibliographieldquo Bayerl G Beckmann J (Hrsg) Johann Beckmann (1739ndash1811) Beitraumlge zu Leben Werk und Wirkung des Begruumlnders der Allgemeinen Technologie Waxmann Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte der Technik Arbeit und Umwelt Bd 9 Muumlnster pp 361-385

2007 Bayerl G ldquoDie Anfaumlnge der Technikgeschichte bei Johann Beckmann und Johann Heinrich Moritz von Poppeldquo in Koumlnig W Schneider H (Eds) Die technikhistorische Forschung in Deutschland von 1800 bis zur Gegenwart Kassel U Press Kassel pp 13-34

- v) For a short biography see 1970 Klemm F Beckmann Johann in Gillespie C Coulston (Ed) Dictionary of Scientific Biography C Scribners Sons New York 1 pp 554-5

Beckmann as a bdquobiologistldquo see

1988 Wagenitz G Goumlttinger Biologen 1737-1945 Vandenhoeck amp Ruprecht Goumlttingen

vi) Meyer gives a bibliographic overview of the author

1999 Meyer T ldquoJohann Beckmann-Bibliographieldquo Bayerl G Beckmann J (Eds) Johann Beckmann (1739ndash1811) Beitraumlge zu Leben Werk und Wirkung des Begruumlnders der Allgemeinen Technologie Waxmann Cottbuser Studien zur Geschichte der Technik Arbeit und Umwelt Bd 9 Muumlnster pp 361-385

Beckmann was a Linnaeusrsquos pupil a botanist an erudite and connoisseur of classical languages a cameralist and an eminent professor of the Goumlttingen University Beckmann is recorded as a biologist by Wagenitz (1988 pp 22-23) He is quoted by historians of the science of politics as a cameralist (Lindenfeld 1997 pp 29-33) Beckmannrsquos Physikalisch-oumlkonomisch Bibliothek (23 vols Goumlttingen 1770-1806) is often quoted by art historians and his Beytraumlge zur Geschichte der Erfindungen (Leipzig 1780-1805) are still a valuable source for historians of technology

(L-17) Literature onTaylor rsquos technology

1-On tool working machines Taylor studied the relationships between speed feed tool geometry and machining performance in a research programme that lasted 26 years and ended in his famous ASME 1907 paper see

1997 Stephenson D A Agapiou J S Metal Cutting Theory and Practice Marcel DekkerNew York 2006 Astakhov V P ldquoAn opening historical noterdquo Int J Machining and Machinability of Materials 1 3-11

2-Taylorrsquos equation Taylorrsquo s equation that links the cutting speed and tool life known today as the Taylorrsquos tool life equation is still widely used (Astakhov 20064-5 Merchant 1998) 1998Merchant M E ldquoAn Interpretative Look at 20th Century Research on Modeling of Machiningrdquo Machining Science and Technology 2157 -163 3- Taylorrsquos technological papers were devoted to Siemens producers to belting and to cutting metal machining Taylor secured many patents especially the well known ones on high- speed tools the steam hammers and other tool machines (Kanigel 1997) 1997 Kanigel R The One Best Way Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency Viking New York 4-From a sociological perspective Taylorrsquos role represents the transition from a phase of institutionalization to a phase of professionalization of the technologist who played the role of engineer and manager Taylorrsquos work is an example of engineering practices in nineteenth-century America These developed in the period 1879-1932 into a complex system of management and a kind of organization theory determined by at least three interacting forces i) the professionalization process of mechanical engineers ii) the Progressive period (1900-1917) and its rhetoric on professionalism equality order and progress iii) labor unrest (see Shenhav 1995)

(L-18) Literature on Taylor rsquos technology

5- From the point of view of organisation theory see 1995 Shenhav Y ldquo From Chaos to Systems The Engineering Foundations of Organization Theory 1879-1932rdquo Administrative Science Quarterly 40 N 4 pp 557-585

6-Taylorrsquos ideology according to Taylor Scientific Management should restore social harmony in the interests of the whole people and render politics obsolete ( see 1993 Frison G ldquoTra storia scienze sociali e tecnologia per una inter pretazione dellrsquoopera di F W Taylorrdquo Rivista di Storia Contemporanea 2-3 461-498)

7-Kanigelrsquo s biography balances preceding biographies and displays his technological work1997 Kanigel R The One Best Way Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency Viking New York 8-For an annotated bibliography of Taylor see Cowan (2000 vol 115-70) 2000 Cowan A R ldquoAnnotated Bibliographyrdquo in Wood JC Wood M C (Eds) F W Taylor Critical Evaluations in Business and Management Routledge London 1 pp 15 -70

9-For an evaluation of Taylorrsquos legacy from the point of view of bussiness and management see 2000 Wood JC Wood M C (Eds) F W Taylor Critical Evaluations in Business and Management Routledge London 3 vols

(L-19) Literature onMarxrsquos Technologie

1986 Frison G Le diverse e artificiose macchine di Marx in AAVV Attualitagrave di Marx Unicopli Milano pp 207-2161989 Frison G ldquoTechnical and Technological Innovation in Marx History and Technology 4299-3241992 Frison G Smith Marx and Beckmann division of labour Technology and Innovation in Muumlller H-P Troitzsch U (editors) Technologie zwischen Fortschritt und Tradition Peter Lang Frankfurt am Main-Bern-New York-Paris pp 17-401993a Frison G ldquoLinnaeus Beckmann Marx and the Foundation of Technology Between natural and social Sciences a Hypothesis of an Ideal Type - First part Linnaeus and Beckmann Cameralism Oeconomia and Technologierdquo History and Technology 3139-601993b Frison G ldquoSecond and third Part ldquoBeckmann and Marx Technologie and Classical Political Economyrdquo History and Techno logy 3161-1731974-83 Marx K Capital translated from the third German edition by Moore S Aveling E and edited by Engels F Lawrence amp Wishart London 3 vols1976-82 Marx K Zur Kritik der politischen Oumlkonomie (Manuskript 1861-1863) MEGA II Bd3 Teil 1-6 Dietz Verlag Berlin1985 Marx K Engels F Collected Works v 41 Progress Publishers Moscow 1982 Marx K Die technologisch-historischen Exzerpte Muumlller H-P (Ed) Ullstein FrankfurtMain-Berlin-Wien

(L-20)- Literature on the various concepts of technology

For some authors technology refers to the generic activity of the genus Homo of producing and using means of labour (White 1940 and Singer 1954-1978) and for others the term art is synonymous with technology (see for example Eamon 1983 and Newman 1989) For an overview of the concept of technology see Moregravere (1966) Hall A R (1978) Sebestik (1983) Salomon (1984) Guillerme (1984) For an etymological approach to the family of words deriving from τέχνη see Heyde (1963) Seibicke (1968) A wide set of definitions of technology is given by Beaune (1980) who quotes 46 definitions of technology 41 of which were proposed after the Anleitung zur Technologie (1980 253-263) See also Fuumlssel (1978) for an overview of the linguistic use of the pair TechnikTechnologie in German speaking area and Schatzberg (2006) for the English-American area 1940 White L Jr ldquoTechnology and Invention in the Middle Agesrdquo Speculum 2 pp 141-1591954 1956 1957 1958 1958 1978 1978Singer C et al (Eds) A History of Technology Oxford U Press New York and London 1966 Moregravere J-E ldquoLes vicissitudes du sens de technnologie au debut du dixneuviegraveme siegraveclerdquo Thalegraves 12 pp 73-84 1978 Hall A R On Knowing and on Knowing how to History of Te chnology III pp 91-103 1978 Martin Fuumlssel Die Begriffe Technik Technologie technische Wissenschaften und Polytechnik Barbara Franzbecker Bad Saltzdettfurt1980 Beaune J-C La Technologie Introuvable Vrin Paris 1983 Eamon W Technology as Magic in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance Janus 70 pp 171-212 1983 Sebestik J ldquoThe Rise of the Technological Sciencerdquo History and Technology I pp 25-44 1984 Guillerme J Le liens du sens dans lhistoire de la technologie Cahiers STS 2 pp 23-29 1984 Salomon J-J What is Technology The issue of its origin and Definitionsldquo History and Technology1 pp 113-156 1989 Newman WldquoTechnology and Alchemical Debate in the Late Middle Ages ldquo Isis 80 3 pp 423-445 2005 R Kline ldquoConstructing Technology as lsquoApplied Sciencersquo Public Rhetoric of Scientists and Engineers in the United States 1880-1945rdquo Isis vol 86 pp 194-221 2006 Schatzberg E Technik Comes to America Changing Meanings of Technology Before 1930rdquo Technology and Culture pp 486-512 2009 Carl Mitcham and Eric Schatzberg ldquoDefining Technology and The Engineering Sciencesrdquo in Dov M Gabbay Anthonie Meijers Paul Thagard John Woods (Eds) Philosophy of technology and engineering sciences Elsevier pp 27- 63

Philology and Etimology1963 Jolis Erich Heyde ldquoZur Geschichte des Wortes ldquoTechnikrdquordquo Humanismus und Technik 9 1 pp 25-431968 Seibicke W Technik Versuch einer Geschichte der Wortfamilie um τέχνη in Deutschland vom 16 Jahrhundert bis etwa 1830 VDI Duumlsseldorf

(L-21)- Literature on Technik and TechnikphilosophieQuite always the topic of Technik has been

discussed in the German literature within the frame of dichotomies such as ZivilisationKultur ZivilisationLeben GeistSeele which developed later into an ideology which proposed a reconciliation between the antimodernist romantic irrationalist ideas and the modern Technik A sui generis Philosophie der Technik of German flavor originated from this discussion After the Weimar Republic the debate on Technik turned into a reactionary political orientation and a fully-edged acceptance of Technik defined by historian ldquoReactionary modernism ldquo( Herf 1984 Rohkraumlmer 1999 )

Reactionary Modernism1984 Jeffrey Herf ldquoThe Engineer as Ideologue Reactionary Modernists in Weimar and Nazi Germanyrdquo Journal of Contemporary History 19 4 pp 631-648

1999 Thomas Rohkraumlmer ldquoAntimodernism Reactionary Modernism and National Socialism Technocratic Tendencies In Germany 1890-1945rdquo Contemporary European History 8 1 pp 29 -50

Philosophie der Technik1877 Enrst Kapp Grundlinien einer Philosophie der Tecknik zur Entstehungsgeschichte der Cultur aus neuen Gesichtspunkten Braunschweig 1914 Eberhard ZschimmerPhilosophie der Technik vom Sinn der Technik und Kritik des Unsinns uumlber die Technik Jena Diederichs1927 Friedrich Dessauer Philosophie der Technik Bonn

Philology and Etimology

1968 Seibicke W Technik Versuch einer Geschichte der Wortfamilie um τέχνη in Deutschland vom 16 Jahrhundert bis etwa 1830 VDI Duumlsseldorf pp 161-284

(L-22) - Literature on Mauss1947 Mauss Marcel Manuel drsquoethnographie Paris Payot Engl Transl Manual of Ethnography edited and introduced by NJ Allen Durkheim PressBerghahn Oxford 20071950 Mauss Marcel Sociologie et anthropologie with an laquo Introduction to the laquo lrsquoŒuvre de Marcel Mauss raquo by Claude Leacutevi-Strauss Paris Puf1968 Mauss Marcel Œuvres 1 Les fonctions sociales du sacreacute Introduction by Victor Karady Paris Les Eacuteditions de Minuit1969 Mauss Marcel Œuvres 2 Repreacutesentations collectives et diversiteacute des civilisations Paris Les Eacuteditions de Minuit1969a Mauss Marcel Œuvres 3 Coheacutesion sociale et divisions de la sociologie Paris Les Eacuteditions de Minuit1993 Howard H Andrews ldquoSocial Morphologyrdquo in Stephen P Turner (ed) Emile Durkheim sociologist and moralist London New York pp 111-135 1994 Fournier Marcel Marcel Mauss Paris Fayard 1996 Mauss M lsquolsquoLrsquoœuvre de Marcel Mauss par lui- mecircmersquorsquo Revue Europeacuteenne des Sciences Sociales XXXIV(105) pp 225ndash2361997 Mauss M Ecrits politiques Marcel Fournier and Phillippe Besnard (eds) Paris Fayard 1997 Frison G ldquoPer una teoria sociologica della tecnologia e dei fatti tecnici un confronto fra Mauss e Weberrdquo La Critica Sociologica 122-12318-371998 P Besnard et M Fournier (eds) Durkheim Eacutemile Lettres agrave Marcel Mauss Paris PUF 2003 Mauss Marcel On Prayer Oxford amp New York Berghahn Translation of Mauss Marcel 1909 La Priegravere Paris Alcan Mauss Œuvres 1 357-477 2009 Marcel Mauss Techniques Technology and Civilization with an Introduction by Nathan Schlanger the Durkheim Press-Bargahan Books New York-Oxford

i) Only when the production process becomes socially separated from other social phenomena then it may be described technologically that is as a natural process where the worker may be considered absent ( Marx)However western pre-technological literature begins much earlier than the Anleitung zur Technologie

ii) When the production is subsumed by capital and the labour-process is submitted to ldquoreal subsumption by capitalrdquo( Marx) then this set of social relationships becomes a scene where social facts and naturalistic descriptions of the labour-process meet each other This is due to the conscious action of the entrepreneur The naturalistic descriptions of the labour process takes the form of prescriptions which become compulsory thanks to the competition of the various entrepreneurs who operate on the same market

iii) It seems impossible to define the concept of labour process for non-capitalistic or for non-modern societies in these latter the separation of magic from technical acts appear difficult or impossible from an emic point of view) ( rarr)

(L-23)-The separation of the production process from other social facts

(L-24)- Economics and ldquotechnologyrdquo in the classical School of Economics 12

Adam Smith (1723 ndash 1790)

David Ricardo (1772 ndash 1823)

Economists have been acutely aware of the fact that increases in the productivity of a representative bundle of inputs account for the bulk of aggregate economic growth In this way they rationalize this phenomenon with the concept of technology and erroneously apply this concept to authors who never used this concept But the term ldquotechnologyrdquo is not similar to the term ldquogravityrdquo which may be applied to Aristotelian physics too

i) The issues raised by rapid industrialization were not ignored by British economists who handled the dramatic changes of the Industrial Revolution by using terms such as useful arts machinery invention and industryThe pair techniquetechnology is absent in their vocabulary however modern economists handle Adam Smithrsquos division of labour as a case of technology David Ricardo too did not use the concepts of technique or technology when he argued Malthusrsquo tendency toward stagnation Instead he underlined that the improvement of machinery and the increasing skill in art and science

counterbalanced this tendency

(L-25)- Neoclassical economics and technology 22

Philip Henry Wicksteed (1844 ndash1927) See httpideasrepecorgbhayhetboowicksteed1894html to download his 1894 paper

ii) In neoclassical economic theory the formulation of technology has a long history going back at least to Wicksteed who in his ldquoThe Co-ordination of the Laws of Distributionrdquo (1894 p 52) states his central premise as follows lsquoThe Product being a function of the factors of production we have P = f(abc )rsquo This abstract way of representing the recipe for a production process has not changed in its essentials since then It is repeated without limit or significant variation in countless economic texts

An example of the concept of technology used by economists the production function by Wicksteedlsquos Co-ordination of the Laws of Distribution (1894)

iii) The 20th century American-English term technology comes from the translation of the German Technik (Eric Schatzberg ldquoTechnik Comes to America Changing Meanings of Technology before 1930 ldquoTechnology and Culture - 47 3 2006 pp 486-512)

However Wicksteedrsquos paper does not use the concepts of technique or technology as does presend standard neoclassical economic Wicksteedrsquos main aim was to establish the law of the redistributions of revenues between the factors of production

(L-26) -The separation of techniques from ritual and magic

Referring to the magic ( Esquisse 1904) ritual ( La priegravere 1909) instrumental techniques bodily techniques (techniques du corps) and aesthetics ( Manuel drsquoEthnologie 1947) Mauss utilized the same formula laquo actes traditionnel efficaces raquo All these five social facts implicate know-how dexterity and all these are socially transmitted by the tradition Mauss was completely aware that the differences between these social acts should be evidenced by different presuppositions on efficacy

1904 Marcel Mauss amp Henri Hubert laquoEsquisse drsquoune theacuteorie geacuteneacuterale de la magieraquo LrsquoAnneacutee Sociologique 7 pp1-146 1909 Marcel Mauss La Priegravere I Les origines die vertraulich von Fauteur verteilt wurde 176 Seiten [OEuvres I S 357-477]

In fact the real problem is the meaning given to the term effectivity because nobody criticises the concept of act neither the fact that the act is traditional (inscribed within a tradition) Mauss proposed different criteria to distinguishi) the ritual from other types of social acts by underlining that ritual efficacy was of a sui

generis type ( ldquoOn Prayerrdquo) ii) technique from magic on the basis of the fact that the consequences of a technical act

were homogeneous with the means used in the act itself

(L-27)- -The separation of techniques from ritual and magicRitual efficacy VS technique efficacy ( Mauss 1909)According to Mauss this difference lies in the manner in which the efficacy is conceivedlaquo Donc cest en consideacuterant non pas lefficaciteacute en elle-mecircme mais la maniegravere dont cette efficaciteacute est conccedilue que nous pourrons trouver la diffeacuterence speacutecifique Or dans le cas de la technique leffet produit est censeacute provenir tout entier du travail meacutecanique effectif Et cela dailleurs a bon droit car justement leffort de la civilisation a en partie consisteacute agrave reacuteserver aux techniques industrielles et aux sciences sur lesquelles elles reposent cette valeur utile que lon attribuait autrefois aux rites et aux notions religieuses Au contraire dans le cas de la pratique rituelle de toutes autres causes sont censeacutees intervenir auxquelles est imputeacute tout le reacutesultat attendu Lefficaciteacute precircteacutee au rite na donc rien de commun avec lefficaciteacute propre des actes qui sont mateacuteriellement accomplis Elle est repreacutesenteacutee dans les esprits comme tout a fait sui generis car on considegravere quelle vient tout entiegravere de forces speacuteciales que le rite aurait la proprieacuteteacute de mettre en jeu raquo Marcel Mauss 1909 La Priegravere emphasis added by the present author

For Mauss rites are actions they are traditional actions and are effective in that they achieve material ends A rite is therefore an effective traditional action of sui generis kind

(L-28) -Is magic separable from techniques

Critique of the Maussian criterion concerning technique effectiviness laquo hellipon ne peut pas comme le fait Mauss parler drsquoune efficaciteacute laquo sentie par lrsquoauteur comme drsquoordre meacutecanique physique ou physico-chimique raquo en dehors des socieacuteteacutes de lrsquoOccident moderne ougrave il existe des sciences physiques mdashsauf agrave tomber dans lrsquoethnocentrisme laquo (Sigaut 2003 )

2003 Franccedilois Sigaut laquo La formule de Mauss Efficaciteacute technique efficaciteacute sociale raquo Techniques amp Culture 40 pp 153-168 1995 Belier Wouter W ldquoCritique the Maussian criterion of technique efficacyrdquo Method amp Theory in the Study of Religion 7 2 1995 pp 163-184 1985 Van Baal Jan - Wouter E A van Beek Symbols for Communication Assen Van Gorcum

Is it possible to separate magic from religion According to van Baal amp Van Beek (1985 111) the distinction between magic and religion made by our authors [Mauss amp Hubert] is far from satisfactory and the overall trend of their discussion is to present magic as a by-product of religion In conclusion we feel justified in stating that all things considered Hubert and Mauss offered better arguments in favour of accepting magic as a form of religion than in support of the strict contrast on which they founded their comments For the reconstruction of the various criteria adopted by Durkheim and his school to separate magic from religion see Belier 1995

(L-29) -Is ritual separable from other efficacious and traditional acts

Ritual

The definition of ritual has long been debated simplifying we can affirm that at least two approaches to rituals exist the cognitive and the Durkheimian type because a belief in the supernatural and the separation between sacred and non-sacred things are involved i) Cognitive by applying to religious events cognitive

theories of religious rituals some scholars show that religious thought and action turn overwhelmingly on harnessing perfectly ordinary forms of cognition available to all normally equipped human beings

This approach does not agree with Mauss lsquo criterion

ii) Compatible with Durkheim rsquos definition of religion for other scholars rituals may be regarded as a subclass within religious events For example baptism is a religious ritual because an agent (the priest) acts (sprinkles water) upon a patient (an infant) for God to accept the child as part of the Church This approach is apparently compatible with Mauss lsquo criterion

For Durkheim a religion is a unified system ofbeliefs and practices relative to sacredthings that unite into one single moral community all those who adhere to them

(L-30)- A criticique to Maussrsquo concept of machine

1835 Andrew Ure The Philosophy of Manufactures or an Exposition of the Scientific Moral and Commercial Economy of the Factory System of Great BritainLondon Charles Knight1875 Franz Reuleaux Theoretische Kinematik Grundzuumlge einer Theorie des Maschinenwesens Verlag Vieweg amp Sohn Braunschweig

A further limitation of Mausslsquo analysis is the reception of Reuleauxrsquos concept of machine which is of kinematic type Reuleaux is considered the father of kinematic analysis and is likely the greatest of the machine theorists of the 19th century However kinematics does not permit the evaluation of the digital computer for which the algorithmic concept of machine fits better (for example the Turing machine) Sociologically Mausslsquo concept of machine does not permit a fruitful comparison with literature Industrial Revolution and the effects of the introduction of machinery in the modern

factory system ( see for example the classical works by Andrew Ure (see Ure 1835) or Karl Marx in Das Kapital)

Alan Turing ( 1912 ndash 1954))

Franz Reuleaux(1829 ndash 1905)

Andrew Ure ( 1778 ndash 1857)

( Reuleaux is erroneously mentioned in Mauss 1947 with the name Reuleau)

Reuleauxrsquos definition a machine is a kinematic chain of constrained elements that is a combination of resistant bodies so arranged that by their means the mechanical forces of nature can be compelled to do work accompanied by certain determinate motions

(L-32) - A critique to Maussrsquo Historiography of technology

1807-11 H M von Poppe Geschichte der Technologie seit der WiederhersteUung der Wissenschaften an das Ende des 18 Jahrhundert 3 vols Gottingen 2007 Guumlnter Bayerl bdquo Die Anfaumlnge der Technikgeschichte bei Johann Beckmann und Johann Heinrich Moritz von Poppeldquo in Wolfgang Koumlnig Helmuth Schneider (Eds) Die technikhistorische Forschung in Deutschland kassel University Press Kassel pp 13-342007 Helmut Lackner bdquo Von der Geschichte der Technik zur technikgeschichte Die erste Haumllfte des 20 Jahrhundertsldquo in Wolfgang Koumlnig Helmuth Schneider (Eds) Die technikhistorische Forschung in Deutschland kassel University Press Kassel pp 35-62

Maussrsquo approach to technology of non-literate cultures appears systematic but mainly descriptive However he erroneously affirmed that ldquoLhistoire de la technologie est une histoire reacutecente raquo (Mauss 1947) forgetting in such a way that modern history of technology began with Beckmannrsquos Beytraumlge zur Geschichte der Erfindungen (5 vols 1780-1805 ) and with his most important follower Johann H M von Poppe(1807-1811 see Bayerl 2007) German tradition continued with the works of in the second half of the 19th century with Karl Karmarsch Franz Reuleaux and Theodor Beck ( see Lackner 2007) At the beginning of the 20th century ( 1903) the Deutsches Museum was founded it is today the most important European Museum devoted to the History of technology

ai )the features of Cameralism aii) the causes of Cameralism decline and the fall

of the Nineteenth-century Technologieaiii) Beckmann lsquos model of Technologie

b) Economics Karl Marx and the introduction of Beckmannrsquos concept of Technologie onto the classical production theory

(L-33) At the end of the Unit 1 one should be able to evaluate the main lines of the following points

c) Epistemology the pre-paradigmatic nature of the discussion concerning the couple techniquetechnology

d) Economics black boxes and technology the example of Wicksteed

a) How Mauss came to give special emphasis to techniques and technology in his teaching and writing suggesting that they should be a major preoccupation of ethnography

c) An operative concept of technique Lemonnier and his anthropological analysis of technology

b) Maussrsquo three main papers that handle the couple tecnique technologie and the relationships of this pair with Durkheimrsquos sociology and the body

Maori women

d) Magic technical acts and rituals in which conditions can they be separated

e) Emic and etic point of view ( rarr)

(L-34) At the end of the Unit 2 one should be able to evaluate the main lines of the

following points

(L-35)-American anthropology between 1880 and 1920

1974 Stocking GW Jr (Ed) The Shaping of American Anthropology 1883-1911 A Franz Boas Reader Chicago University of Chicago Press

1977 Regna ldquoDarnell History of anthropology Historical Perspective rdquoAnn Rev Anthropol 6 pp 399-417

1981 Hinsley CM Jr Savages and Scientists The Smithsonian Institution and the Development of American Anthropology 1846-1910 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press

1994 Curtis M Hinsley The Smithsonian and the American Indian Making a Moral Anthropology in Victorian America Washington DC 1

1999 Richard B Woodbury and Nathalie F S Woodbury ldquoThe Rise and Fall of the Bureau of American Ethnology ldquoJournal of the Southwest 41 3 pp 283-296

2002 David R Wilcox and Don D Fowler ldquo The Beginnings of Anthropological Archaeology in the North American Southwest From Thomas Jefferson to the Pecos Conference Journal of the Southwest 44 2 pp 121-234

2006 Thomas Carl Patterson A social history of anthropology in the United States Berg Oxford-New York

1996 George W Stocking Volksgeist as method and ethic essays on Boasian ethnography and the German Tradition Madison University of Wisconsin Press

2005 Fredrik Barth et alii One discipline four ways British German French and American anthropology University of Chicago Press Chicago

2009 Michael Brian Schiffer ldquoEthnoarchaeology Experimental Archaeology and theldquoAmerican Schoolrdquo Ethnoarchaeology 1 1 pp 7ndash26

(L-36) A map of the scientific discussion of the couple techniquetechnologie

If one would describe a map of the scientific discussion on the couple technique amp technology then a subdivision in various disciplinary fields would appear and this would separate from the different national traditions For example the anthropological tradition of techniques is mainly French and the Technikphilosophie is eminently German Rarely the disciplinary approaches the national traditions and the operative definitions have been compared by scholars

A sociological model should permit an initial comparison of the disjecta membra of the discussion

Literature of the two IssuesConcepts Literature

Weber and the sociology of domination amp Ideal type Emic amp Etic

The separation of ritual from from other effective acts

map of the scientific discussion of the couple techniquetechnologie

Literature on Linnaeus amp his relationships with Beckmann Literature on Cameralism

The Chaicircne OpeacuteratoireEmic amp Etic

The separation of the production process from other social facts

Literature on Beckmann Literature on Marxrsquos Technologie

A critique to Maussrsquo machine

The separation of techniques from ritual and magic

American anthropology between 1880 and 1920

Economics and technolo-g y 3 examples

Is magic separable from techniques

Literature on Technik and Technikphilosophie

Historiography of technology

The meanings of TechnikThe crisis of Cameralism

Literature on Mauss Literature on Taylorrsquos technology

The meanings of Technologie until 1777

Medieval pre-technological knowledge and the scribal era

Literature on the various concepts of technology

The competences to be acquired at the end of t Unit 1 Unit 2

The Young Historical School Engineers and Technik

Technique Technology and their relationship with the Body (

General Index

(In-2) Beckmann amp Mauss

A conceptual map of the Unit 1 Technological pre-technologi

111-The Emergence of Technological Knowledge in the West

The features of Technologie 112-Technological knowledge is

1131-Beckmannrsquos approach to production (U1-

The features of Technologie 1141-The social actor interest

141-The changes of the labour process brought by Taylor and

142-The changes of the labour process brought by Taylor an

1 6- Embedded knowledge concerning production in non- lite

Summary- three types of knowledge concerning production (U1-14

20- Mauss technique without technologie (U2-2)

21 amp 23 -Les techniques du corps (1935) and ldquoLes techniques e

26-Mauss is the heir of the American School of technology (U3-

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

(L-1) The set of terms and concepts used in the present lect

(L-2) The Crisis of Cameralism ( first half of 19deg century)

(L-3) -The meanings of Technologie from the beginning of the

(L-4) The Young Historical School Engineers economic socio

(L-6) - Pre-technological knowledge in the medieval scribal

(L-7)- Pre-technological knowledge in the scribal era The c

(L-9) -Pre-technological knowledge and literary activity Opp

(L-14) -Weber the sociology of domination amp legitime Herrsch

(L-15) -Literature on Linnaeus and his relationship with Beck

(L-18) Literature on Taylor rsquos te

(L-19) Literature on Marxrsquos Technologie

(L-21)- Literature on Technik and Technikphilosophie

(L-22) - Literature on Mauss

(L-23)-The separation of the production process from other s

(L-24)- Economics and ldquotechnologyrdquo in the classical S

(L-27)- -The separation of techniques from ritual and magic

(L-29) -Is ritual separable from other efficacious and traditio

(L-33) At the end of the Unit 1 one should be able to eval

(L-36) A map of the scientific discussion of the couple techniq

Literature of the two Issues

General Index(In-1) The content of the lecture is split in four units In=Introduction U1= A sociological model of technology U2= A sociological model of technique L= literature

In= Introduction U2- Mauss a sociological model of technique

U1- Beckmann a sociological model of technology

A conceptual Map of the Unit 2A A map of the scientific discussion of the couple techniquetechnologie

The set of concepts used in the present lecture 20- Maussrsquos concept of technologie remains without a sociological foundation

A conceptual map of the Unit 1111-The Emergence of Technological Knowledge in the West 112- The features of Technologie

21- ldquoLes techniques du corpsrdquo (1935) amp 23 ldquoLes techniques et la technologierdquo (1948)

115-The complex nature of Technologie12- Beckmannrsquos model of technological knowledge13-Marxrsquos Technologie

22- Manuel drsquoEthnographie (1947 ) amp 24 The foundation of the Institut drsquoEthnologie

14-Taylorrsquos changes of the labour process and his technological innovations

25-Durkheimrsquos Paradigm amp technologie

15-Pre-technological knowledge in the medieval scribal era rarrsee Literature

26-Mauss is the heir of the American School of technology

16-Embedded knowledge of production in non-literate cultures 27-Lemonnierrsquos analysis of technologyConclusions

Summary Three types of knowledge concerning production rarrL= Literature on specific subjects

Marcel Mauss

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Marcel Mauss

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Marcel Mauss

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Hoya an der Weser

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Cameralism

Beckmannrsquos

Technologie

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

updated

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

(U1-14)

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

20- Mauss technique

without technologie

(U2-2)

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Emic amp Etic

RitualIdeal type

Culture

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Ritual

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Maori women

following points

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

General Index

CONCLUSIONS (U2-15)

The End

Documents

Rome, May 2011. A workshop held by Prof. Roberto Finelli, Rome 3 University. A sociological contribution to the concept of body in philosophy. Guido Frison