A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF A BUDDHIST VERSION OF THE EPIC OFGESAR OF LING

Volume 1 of 2 Volume 2 of 2

Robin Kornman

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY

IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE

BY THE DEPARTMENT OF COMPARATIVE LITERATURE

January 1995

©Copyright by Robin Brooks Kornman, 1994. All r i g h t s r e s e r v e d

A Compara t ive S tudy of a Buddhist Version of the Epic o f Gesaro f L ing

A b s t r a c t

The Gesar o f L ing Epic is the m a j o r s e c u l a r n a r r a t i v e o T*

B uddhis t Central Asia. It probably o r ig in a t e d in Tibe t , bu t v e r s i o n s

e x i s t in many o th e r l anguages , including Mongol and Chinese. It t e l l s

the s t o r y of a divine w a r r i o r / s o r c e r e r he ro who is born in T ibe t to

d e f e a t demon kings who have taken over all the g r e a t e m p i r e s and

c o u n t r i e s of Asia. G esa r has magica l w eapons , a f lying ho rse , all the

p o w e r s of a Buddha, and t h e aid of a v a s t pantheon of Buddhist and

local d e i t i e s . The ep ic is s t i l l sung today by T ibe tan ba rds in

n u m e ro u s d ia l e c t s , and s t r a n g e ly , i t c o n t in u e s to grow in s ize. It i s

a cc o m p a n ied by a panoply of r e l ig ious p r a c t i c e s , some based on the

n a t i v e re l ig ion of T ib e t and o t h e r s adap ted from Buddhist T a n t r i c

r i t u a l s which have a s s i m i l a t e d Gesar into the pantheon of

e n l ig h t e n e d guardian s p i r i t s .

The Gesar Epic i s s t i l l in i t s per iod of f lour ish ing and

com pos i t ion . More than a hundred v o lum e s of composed or

t r a n s c r i b e d m a t e r i a l s have been d i sc ove re d and more than 2 1 0 0

hours of oral p e r f o r m a n c e s have been recorded . The Gesar Corpus i s

w i t h o u t a doubt the l a r g e s t body of epic l i t e r a t u r e in e x i s tence .

Anthropological s t u u i e s of the Gesar have been done,

p a r t i c u l a r l y in Pa r i s w h e r e R.A. S te in e s t a b l i s h e d a t r a d i t i o n of

G e sa r s tudy and w he re h i s s t u d e n t s con t inue his work. This

d i s s e r t a t i o n , on the o t h e r hand, approaches the Gesar as a l i t e r a r y

iv

piece, looking at i t s p lo t s t r u c t u r e s and d ivine machinery . We

exam ine in p a r t i c u l a r one of the more l i t e r a r y v e r s i o n s of the ep ic ,

the v e r s io n of the Gesar e d i t e d in the 19th c e n tu ry by the g r e a t

scho la r , Mipham Gyatso. Large s e c t i o n s of t h i s v e r s i o n a re

t r a n s l a t e d along w i th r e l a t e d m a t e r i a l s and r e c e iv e a d e ta i l e d

l in g u i s t i c and l i t e r a ry com m e n ta ry .

With t h e s e m a t e r i a l s ava i lab le , we then c om pa re the Gesar

w i t h the Il iad. The c r i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n of A r i s t o t l e ' s Poetics and of

Horace is evoked and the T ib e tan epic is exam ined using these

t r a d i t i o n a l Western t oo l s of a n a ly s i s f rom the W es te rn t r a d i t i o n of

l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . This inc ludes a de ta i l e d s tudy of the cosmology

of the Mipham Gesar.

V

Table of C o n te n t s

A b s t r a c t 111

A cknow ledgem en t s vi

P r e f a c e 1

C h a p te r 1- In t roduct ion 2 2Notes 9 9

C ha p te r 11- Is There a "Comple te" Gesar 1 1 4Notes 164

Cha p te r III- The C e le s t i a l Machinery of The Epic o f Gesar o f L ing 167

Notes 2 6 0

Chap te r IV- T ra n s l a t i o n of Chapte r I of Lha Ling 2 7 0Notes 3 0 3

C h a p te r V- The His to ry of t h e Goloks 341Notes 3 3 4

C h a p te r V I -C onc lus ion 3 9 4Notes 4 1 2

Bibl iography 4 1 3

vi

A cknow ledgem en ts

A f t e r t r a in ing f o r nine y e a r s in the convent iona l s u b j e c t s and

m e th o d s of c o m p a ra t iv e l i t e r a t u r e , i t took a leap to choose as a

d i s s e r t a t i o n topic such an odd s u b j e c t a s a s tu d y of t h e Gesar Epic. I

owe a t r em endous deb t of g r a t i t u d e to all of my t e a c h e r s who have

encouraged me and s u p p o r t e d me during t h i s s t r a n g e undertaking.

Four men have given m e c o n s t a n t advice in t h i s p r o j e c t , each helping

me in c o u n t l e s s w a y s to con t inue a d i f f i c u l t r e s e a r c h : Raoul

Birnbaum, who worked w i t h me in the a rea of Chinese and T ibe tan

Buddhism, Andy Plaks, my general a dv iso r and guide, who provided a

v a s t v iew of the c o m p a r a t i v e s tudy of epic and a r i ch educa t ion in

the As ian novel, and A lexande r Macdonald, who opened every door to

the r ich w or ld of European Gesa r s c ho la r sh ip , and Andrew Ford, who

generous ly advised me in my adopt ive f ie ld of Hom eric s tud ies . I am

p a r t i c u l a r l y indebted to Ford and Macdonald for t h e i r c lo se read ing

and lengthy, de ta i led c o m m e n t s on the Greek and T ib e t a n s e c t i o n s of

t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

I would like to thank my or ig ina l d e p a r t m e n t a l cha i rm an a t the

U n ive rs i ty of Colorado, Ed Nolan, who insp i red me to e n t e r the a r e a

of c o m p a ra t i v e s t u d i e s in epic l i t e r a t u r e . Many of my m o s t

fundam e n ta l ideas o r i g i n a t e in his f i r s t l e c t u re s w hen I e n te red t h a t

d e p a r t m e n t . Paul Krol l, c h a i rm a n of Asian S tu d ie s a t the U n ive rs i ty

of Colorado, o f fe red bo th a v a s t c om p a ra t iv e v is ion and fundam enta l

t r a in in g in c r i t i c i s m of A s ian lyr ic forms. All the T a o i s t l i t e r a t u r e

vîi

I u s e in t h i s monograph o r ig in a ted in a wonderfu l s e r i e s of s e m i n a r s

he of fered .

In Pa ri s , under the guiding hand of Alexander Macdonald, and

suppo r te d by a g ran t f rom th e Chiang Ching Kuo Foundat ion and the

A m er ican Council of Learned Soc ie t i e s , I did the m a j o r r e s e a r c h for

t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . I would l ike to thank all of the s c h o l a r s t h e r e a t

t h e Unive rs i ty of P a r i s in N a n te r re s and the C en t re s d 'É tudes

T i b é t a i n e s for ge ne rous ly sha r ing t h e i r v a s t knowledge of the Gesar

Epic and making open to m e the full r e s o u r c e s of the Center . !

would like to thank them f o r welcoming me into t h e i r s c h o la r ly

com m uni ty , and fo r r ead ing many ear ly d r a f t s of t r a n s l a t i o n s and

e s s a y s . Of p a r t i c u l a r help have been S a m te n Karmay and Anne-Marie

Blondeau of the Cen tre Nat ional de la Recherche Sc ien t i f ique .

Karmay a n sw e re d my m o s t d i f f i c u l t t r a n s l a t i o n q u e s t io n s and

in t roduced me to the m o s t va luable in fo rm a n t s . Blondeau read ea r ly

d r a f t s and, like Macdonald, w a s most gene rous in her r e m a rk s . Some

of he r ideas about c a n o n i c i t y and choice of t r a n s l a t i o n s have been

e x t r e m e l y in f luen t ia l in the thinking t h a t w e n t into t h i s monograph

Special a c k n o w le d g e m e n t and thanks a re owed to R.A. Ste in,

the genius of the P a r i s T i b e t a n i s t e s t a b l i s h m e n t . Twice in my l i fe

he has provided me w i t h the h a rd - t o - f i n d m o s t su i t a b l e v e r s io n of

the t e x t ! w an ted to t r a n s l a t e . In 1976 he g rac ious ly l en t me and my

c o l l e a g u e s in Boulder , Colorado the b e s t copy we were to find of The

Rain o f Wisdom by Mikyd Oorje, which we t r a n s l a t e d and publ ished

th r e e y e a r s la ter . And again , he provided the source of a l l the work I

viii

did on Gesar , beginning in 1990. If th i s work l ea d s to s u c c e s s f u l ,

c o m p l e t e t r a n s l a t i o n s it i s s i m p l y a c o n t in u a t io n of a port ion of h is

v a s t r e s e a rc h e s .

Seve ra l T ibe tan lam as , l ea rned and r e a l i z e d individuals , have

c o n t r i b u t e d t h e i r w isdom and v a s t lore to t h i s w o r k — Khenpo

Pa laen Sherap, Lama Urgyen Shenp'nen, and m o s t of a l l , lama Tendzin

Samphel , who checked every l ine of my t r a n s l a t i o n during a y e a r of

w ork w i t h me in Par is.

Andrew Ford, of the C l a s s i c s Depar tm en t a t P r ince ton

Univesi ty , has been a c o n s t a n t s o u rc e of i n s p i r a t i o n and p e n e t r a t i n g

advice and w a s a m a j o r guide in the area of Homeric studK-s. He and

Allen Ginsberg worked to make my t r a n s l a t i o n p r a c t i c e bolder, more

a u th e n t i c , and more w o r th y of t h e t r a d i t i o n of Engl ish t r a n s l a t o r s of

ve rse .

Vivian Kurz proofed a v e r s i o n of the m a n u s c r i p t , combining the

t a l e n t s of a W este rn e d i t o r w i t h the knowledge and exper ience of a

Nyingma p r a c t i t i o n e r and combin ing s e n s i t i v i t y and d i s c r e t i o n w i th

p e n e t r a t i o n and a keen po l i t i c a l sense .

Finally , 1 would like to thank the Vidyadhara Chogyam Trungpa,

Rinpoche and His Holiness Dilgo Khyentse , Rinpoche, w i th o u t w hose

b l e s s i n g s , t each ings, and gu idance nothing of t h i s work would be

poss ib le . Their v a s t m inds pervade all of space and t h e i r w isdom is

b r igh t a s the c loud less sky. T h e i r c o m p a s s io n a t e ac t ion is the

c o m p le te m a n i f e s t a t i o n of Buddha Act iv i ty , the em bod im en t of Gesar

of Ling.

1

Pre face

This d i s s e r t a t i o n w i l l be a p re l im in a ry s tudy of the Mipham

e d i t io n of the g rea t T ib e t a n oral and w r i t t e n and p r in te d n a r r a t iv e ,

The Epic o f Gesar o f L ing (T ibe tan : g L i n g ) . ] It wi l l include a

t r a n s l a t i o n for i l l u s t r a t i v e purposes of the f i r s t c h a p t e r of the f i r s t

book of the epic. This monograph is a f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d s com ple t ion

of t h a t l a rge r p ro jec t . A t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s e n t i r e ve rs ion of the

epic , in four volumes, w ould amount to some 1600 pages in English,

including commentary . When my t r a n s l a t i o n and my c o m m e n ta r y of

the e n t i r e Gesar a re done, W es te rn l i t e r a r y s c h o la r s w i l l have the

m a t e r i a l s they need to e v a l u a t e t h i s Buddhist he ro ic n a r r a t i v e and

c om pare i t w i th the o t h e r g r e a t epic t r a d i t i o n s of the world. For the

f i r s t t im e they wil l be ab le to examine the language, s t r u c t u r e , and

meaning of a full v e r s io n of the epic using W este rn c r i t i c a l t e r m s

The aim of th is d i s s e r t a t i o n , then, is to begin t h i s p ro c e s s of

br ing ing the Tibetan Gesar Epic into the rea lm of W es te rn l i t e r a r y

c r i t i c i s m and the domain of l i t e r a r y theory. This work has a l ready

been done to bring A r i s t o t e l i a n l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and se ve ra l o t h e r

s c h o o l s of academic though t to bear on the g rea t Indian epics. There

is the com para t ive w ork of Gregory Nagy, which is phi lological and

l in g u i s t i c in i ts o r i e n t a t i o n . 2 There is the French school of m yth ic

a n a l y s i s founded by D um éz i l3 and cont inued by Biardeau and

H i l t e be i t e l . There is the w ork of van Buitenen and Vic to r Turner of

2

the Chicago school of History of Religion s tud ie s . And behind all of

th e s e th inke rs is the o v e r - a rc h in g inf luence of l i i r c ea Eliade wi th

h i s s e a r c h for r e l ig ious u n i v e r s a l i s m s common to all hum an i ty and

commonly underlying every legendary and ep ic tex t .

The work of Alf H i l tebe i te l a c tua l ly r e p r e s e n t s a m ed ia t ion of

t heory and method b e tw ee n t h e s e d i f f e r e n t schoo l s of t h o u g h t —

taking e l e m e n t s of Dumezi l ' s approach, which s e e k s a p r e - e x i s t i n g

s u b s t r a t u m of m yth o i as the b a s i s for every epic , and e l e m e n t s of

the m ore t e x tu a l ly based approach of 6 ia rdeau ,w ho m ake s t e x t of the

epic a cause in i t s e l f . Thus, Wendy Doniger d e s c r i b e s H i l t e b e i t e l s

ba lanced approach as a "both t e x t and epic" approach. 4 T hese are

som e of the pr incipal r e a l m s of Wes te rn methodology w hich have

d e a l t w i th Indian epic.

I would like to use t r e a t m e n t s like t h e i r s on the v a s t corpus of

m a t e r i a l s r e l a t e d to the s a g a s of the Cent ra l Asian hero, Gesa r of

Ling, bu t w i th one m a j o r d i f f e rence . My s tudy wi l l be l i t e r a r y

w h e r e a s t h e i r s is, le t us say, an thropologica l .

The home b a ses for m o s t of the above ment ioned s c h o l a r s are

d i s c ip l in e s in the social s c i e n c e s such as r e l ig io u s s tu d i e s ,

an thropology, and ethnology, folklore , l in g u i s t i c s , etc. None of them

a re using methods of s tudy na t ive to the f i e ld of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m

or c om para t ive l i t e r a tu re . My theo re t i c a l ba s i s , on the o t h e r hand,

is the world of approaches to t e x t which have descended f rom

Horace and A r i s t o t l e ’s Poetics.

One cannot properly e v a l u a t e the Gesar epic w i t h o u t exploring

3

in d e ta i l the r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n Tibe tan r e l i g i o u s obse rv an c e and

th e t ex t . So fa r as t h a t i s s u e is concerned, Dumézi l and th o se

i n f luenced by him are q u i t e helpful . Compari sons w i t h t h e Gesar

s u g g e s t e d by th e i r s t u d i e s of Indian epic should be f r u i t f u l of new

id ea s about Tibe tan epic. But t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e i r t e x t s

r e l i e s too exclusive ly on s t u d i e s of re l igion. I feel t h a t in t h e s tudy

of ep ic the re should a lso be a s t a b l e ground of l i t e r a r y phenomena to

o b s e r v e and app re c ia t e and e n jo y — the ve rse , the f i g u re s of

spe ec h , the un i t i e s and d i s u n i t i e s of plot, the vivid

c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s , the s e n s e of dream and r e v e r i e and f u l f i l l m e n t of

d r e a m s in f ic t iona l evo ca t io n , the play of n a r r a t i v e voice, the play

of humour, the l i t e r a r y a ro u s a l of l i t e r a ry e m o t i o n s such as

c a t h a r s i s , irony, and d e l ig h t in the grotesque. One should s tudy the

p a r t i c u l a r kinds of l i t e r a r y p l e a su re the t e x t c r e a t e s , in f luence of

p rev io u s l i t e r a r y t e x t s , t h e t r iba l dynamic of m e m o r i z e d v e r s e

a cc o u n ts , the reg ional a f f i l i a t i o n s w i th the ep ic which develop as it

is w r i t t e n and sung. T h es e a r e p r imary f e a t u r e s of epic t e x t and are

phenomena bes t s tud ied by l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and c o m p a r a t iv e

l i t e r a t u r e . My i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of one ed i t ion of the Gesar Epic as

l i t e r a t u r e is an innovat ion in the domain of Gesa r s t u d i e s s im p ly

b e c a u s e it wi l l be based on t h i s kind of l i t e r a r y reading.

There is, however , a l r e a d y a r ichly e l a b o ra t e d W es te rn

t r a d i t i o n of reading the T ib e t a n vers ion of the Gesar Epic — a

t r a d i t i o n developed in P a r i s by Rolf A. S te in and h is s tu d e n t s , it is

founded on s t r u c t u r a l i s t e thnograph ic p r in c ip le s of a n a ly s i s

4

deve loped In Pa r i s c o n te m p o ra n e o u s ly w i th Levi S t r a u s s . But i t is

no t a c t u a l l y based on Levi S t r a u s s ’s work. It is, r a t h e r , a d i f f e r e n t

schoo l of anthropologica l s t r u c t u r a l i s m — an e x p re s s io n of S t e in ' s

ow n s c h o l a r l y vision.

R.A. S te in began h is c a r e e r a s a s ino logis t . In the 5 0 s , he w a s

doing r e s e a r c h on the T ibe tan m a r c h e s of China, in w h a t w a s then

c a l l e d T a - c h i e n - l u and is now K'ang- t ing hsien in t h e reg ion in Sz

Ch'uan. This is an a re a w h e re T ib e t a n and Chinese m er - .ha n ts have

m e t f o r c e n t u r i e s on the road b e t w e e n Lhasa and the Chinese cap i ta l .

T here he d i scove red a woodblock p r i n t of the T ib e t a n ep ic and,

rec o g n iz in g i t s pecu l ia r va lue , t r a n s c r i b e d it us ing the P e l l io t

ro m a n iz a t io n . With the help of an in fo rmant who knew T ibe tan and

could c o m m u n ica te w i th him in Chinese, S te in p roduced a p a r t i a l

t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t t h r e e books of th i s t ex t .5

From t h i s poin t o n w a r d s S t e i n ' s r e s e a r c h e s expanded v a s t l y

in to C en t ra l Asia. He acqu i red T ib e t a n and the use of o t h e r Central

As ian languages. He produced a s i g n i f i c a n t corpus of w o r k s on or

r e l a t e d to the Epic. 6 This c o rp u s e x p r e s s e s a d i s t i n c t c r i t i c a l

agenda in epic s tu d ie s , an agenda b a sed on S te in ' s e x p e r i e n c e in

As ian r e a l m s of thought and the s c i e n t i f i c conce rns of hi s p a r t i c u l a r

school of anthropology. My u n d e r t a k in g to t r a n s l a t e a l l vo lum es of

the xylograph which he found in t h e border reg ions of E a s t e r n T ibe t

is a c o n t in u a t io n of his w ork and the scholar ly agenda s he and h i s

s t u d e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d in P a r i s over the l a s t fo r ty y e a r s .

My deb t to S te in e s p e c i a l l y s h o w s in the m a t r i x of t e x t s I

5

have chosen to t r a n s l a t e in t h i s th e s i s . One of the g r e a t

a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s of S t e in and his s u c c e s s o r s has been to produce

b ib l iog ra h ie s of o t h e r T ibe tan l i t e r a r y and r e l ig io u s w orks r e l a t e d

to his ed i t ion of t h e Gesar. They su g g e s t e d a h e r m e n e u t i c — a

s p e c i f i c fash ion in w h ich t h e s e t e x t s w e r e connec ted w i t h each

o th e r to form a d i s t i n c t m ethoo of unde rs t and ing and an

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n a t iv e to the Eas te rn T ibe tan oral t r ad i t ion . This

a f f i l i a t i o n of s t o r i e s , oral a ccoun ts , Buddhis t and na t ive l i tu rg ies ,

and T ibe tan s c r i p t u r e s is p a r t i c u l a r ly ev iden t in S t e in ' s g lo s sa r i e s .

In his a b b rev ia t ed t r a n s l a t i o n of the Gesar t e x t S te in p r e s en te d a

48 page reasoned g l o s s a r y of epic t e r m s and c o l loqu ia l i sm s . The

g lo s sa ry w a s d iv ided into severa l c a t e g o r i e s : vocabula ire général ,

vocabulaire re l ig ie u x , ép ithètes, and m ots d e s c r ip t i f s . .7 To th is he

added an index of p ro p e r na m e s (S te in '56. pp. 1 4 1 - 1 6 6 ) which f inds

the epic c h a r a c t e r s no t s im p ly in the G esa r , but a l so in the o ther

l i t e r a r y and re l i g io u s t e x t s in his bibl iography. Fol lowing in S te in ' s

f o o t s t e p s se vera l P a r i s i a n sc h o la r s have cont inued to explore in

t h e i r g l o s s a r i e s , c o m m e n t a r i e s , and a n a l y s e s of vocabulary the

p rev ious t e x t s of t h e Gesar, thereby showing f u r t h e r the shape of

the t r a d i t i o n .3 To id e n t i fy t h i s t r a d i t i o n w a s no mean fea t ,

cons ider ing the im m e n se s i z e of the Gesa r corpus w i th in which it is

nes ted .

My i n t e r v i e w s w i t h T ibe tan Buddhist l am as in Nepal and in the

West conf i rm the c o n n e c t i o n s Ste in no t iced in the t ex t s . There does

indeed s e em to be a 19th cen tu ry t r a d i t i o n of s p e c i f i c w r i t t e n and

6

s e m i - o r a l w r i t i n g s which su r round S te in ' s v e r s i o n of the Gesar and

which evoke i t c o n s t a n t ly They a re read and s tu d i e d and sung and

chan ted by a group of T ibe tan l am as whom I have in t e r v i e w e d in the

l a s t decade. Most of t h e s e i n f o r m a n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i r fam i l i e s

w e r e r e l a t e d to people l iving in the v i c in i ty of t h e E a s t e r n Tibetan

a re a of Derge and a reas n e a r the Magyal Pomra m o u n ta in range.

These people w e r e all e i t h e r d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y s t u d e n t s of the

g r e a t E as te rn Tibetan poet , s c h o l a r and m a s t e r of m e d i t a t i o n , Dilgo

Khyentse (mKhyen r t s e ) Rinpoche. T oge the r they p r o j e c t a single

c u l tu ra l i d e n t i ty which is c onnec te d w i t h the co rpus of t e x t s S te in

iden t i f ied . To read his Gesar w i t h o u t looking a t t h i s corpus, th is

h e rm e n e u t i c r e t in u e to the Gesar, is to m i s s much of the impor t of

the tex t .

T h e re fo re in order to give the shape of the w ho le Eas te rn

T ibe tan s u b - t r a d i t i o n , I p r e s e n t in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n t r a n s l a t i o n s not

j u s t of the epic, but of s e l e c t i o n s from t h i s r e l a t e d l i t e r a tu r e .

F i r s t t h e re is a t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t c h a p t e r of w h a t I call "the

Mipham Gesar" — S te in ' s xylograph. This t r a n s l a t i o n wil l be

accompanied by a lengthy in t roduc t ion and an e l a b o r a t e l ingu is t i c

and fo lk lo r ic commentary . Then the re w i l l be a t r a n s l a t i o n of a

t r iba l h i s to ry connected w i t h the epic, the "History of the Goloks,"

as I cal l it. A f t e rw a rd s , t h e r e a re a lso t r a n s l a t i o n s and l i t e ra ry

a n a ly s e s of a s e r i e s of l i t u rg i c a l p r a c t i c e s d e d ic a t e d to Gesar

h i m s e l f w r i t t e n by Mipham.

The p re senc e of the Gesa r re l ig ious chan t ing t e x t s requ i res

7

som e explanat ion. We have a lready d i s c u s se d s t u d i e s of the

r e l ig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n s of the Mahâbhârata and the Ramâyâna.

Connected w i t h t h e s e t w o w orks is a v a s t t r a d i t i o n of r e l i g i o u s

p r a c t i c e da t ing f rom the Indian middle ages and founded in p a r t on

the medieval s c r i p t u r e s known as Purânas and in p a r t on the anc ien t

s c r i p t u r e s known a s Vedas.. 9 S tud ies abound which r e l a t e the

l i t e r a r y c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s of the heroes of the Mahâbhârata to the

p r a c t i c e s which w o r s h i p them in th e i r hero de i ty cu l t s . This is

e a s i ly done, b e ca u se we can s t i l l observe the v a s t r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t y

which surrounds the Indian epics.

The sam e is t r u e for the Gesar Epic. A s so c ia t e d w i t h the

popular oral n a r r a t i v e s which recoun t the e x p lo i t s of G esa r and his

companions a re a w o r l d of chant ing p r a c t i c e s which w o r s h ip and

su p p l i c a t e t h e s e h e ro e s as gods. Some of the e d i t i o n s of the epic are

exp l i c i t ly r e l a t e d to p a r t i c u l a r t r a d i t i o n s of r e l ig io u s p rax is . For

example, the l i t u r g i e s whose pa r t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n s a re in C ha p te r Ml

a re w r i t t e n by the f am ous 19th cen tu ry lama, Mipham Gyatso. One

could say t h a t he w a s the supe rv i s ing e d i to r of the e d i t ion of the

Gesar used by S te in , for the ed i t ion w a s produced by one of his

d i s c ip l e s a t h i s com m and and under h is c lo s e s u p e rv i s io n . His

l i t u r g i e s a re m e a n t to accompany t h a t vers ion . This w a s a s su m e d by

Ste in, who c r o s s - r e f e r e n c e d e xpre ss ions in the Mipham l i t u r g i e s

w i th e x p re s s io n s in the Mipham Gesar.

This b r ings up a very i n t e r e s t i n g po in t in c o m p a r a t i v e

l i t e r a tu r e . If we s t e p back and look a t the v a s t a c t i v i t y of the

8

Indian and T ibe tan ep ic t r a d i t i o n s , one th ing is obv ious— how

d i f f e r e n t th i s is f rom the f ie id of a c t i v i t y of the Homeric epics . The

I l ia d and the Odyssey p recede any o ther r e c o r d s of Greek rel ig ion.

P la to remarked on t h i s po in t in the Republic, say ing t h a t w h a t we

know of t^e gods c o m e s from Homer and the p o e t s . 10 R e c o n s t r u c t i o n s

of an c ien t Greek r i t e s and c u s t o m s are based on c lo se e x a m in a t io n s

of the language of Homer, his hymns, Hesiod, and a very few o t h e r

w o r k s regarded as r e l i c s of the Mycenaean age. 11 It is a s if Homer

h i m s e l f w e re one s o u rc e of Greek re l ig ious ideas .

Some c l a s s i c i s t s in t h e i r spe c u la t i o n s abou t Greek re l ig ion in

p re -H om er ic t i m e s imagine a remarkab le , e x c e p t io n a r e l a t i o n

b e tw e e n myth and fo rmal re l igion in which n a r r a t i v e t e x t s r e t e l l

m y th s and seem to both p recede and o r ig ina te e l e m e n t s of fo rm al

re l igion . Take, fo r example, Helene Foley's s p e c u l a t i o n s on the

theo logy of the m y s t e r i e s — sp e cu la t io n s w h i c h accompany h e r

t r a n s l a t i o n of the Hymn to Demeter. She be g ins by saying , "Greek

re l ig ion had no fo rmal theology, no p r i e s t l y c l a s s of i n t e r p r e t e r s of

an a u th o r i t a t i v e d iv ine sc r ip tu re . Greeks e x p e r i en c ed re l ig ion

through r i tua l and myth , and the myths (and, though s o m e t i m e s more

s lowly , the r i t u a l s ) w e r e end less ly changed and r e im ag ined f o r

eve ry genera t ion by i t s a r t i s t s and poets." 12 She goes on to exp la in

t h a t the re is no Greek equ iva len t to the "powerfu l e xege t i ca l

t r ad i t ion" of C h r i s t i a n i ty , Juda i sm , or Is lam. In o th e r words , t h e r e

is no s ingle, or thodox in s t i tu t i o n a l i z e d re l ig ion or f ixed s c r i p t u r a l

b a s i s for the epic n a r r a t i v e s , the Homeric poems, or for the r i t u a l s

9

to which they r e fe r . The rea d e r , in o rd e r to u n d e rs t a n d Greek epic,

m u s t bring t o g e t h e r a f loa t ing w or ld of m ean ings and m y thos from

the ocean of p o e t i c w r i t i n g s : '‘. . .myth such as t h a t to ld in the Hymn to

Demeter de r ived t h e i r meaning from the n a r r a t iv e i t s e l f , f rom the i r

r e l a t i o n to r i t u a l , and from t h e i r s i m i l a r i t y to c lo s e ly r e l a t e d

myths. The r e a d e r o r h e a r e r of the n a r r a t i v e is l e f t to f i l l in w ha t

we exper ience a s t h e gaps and to expla in the r e l ig io u s s ign i f i cance

of the s to ry in ;he c o n te x t of h i s / h e r knowledge of o th e r and

s o m e t i m e s c o n f l i c t i n g n a r r a t i v e s about gods, humans, and the

re l a t i o n b e tw e e n the two." (p.85)

Whether t h i s is t rue or not, i t c e r t a i n l y m a r k s a fundamenta l

d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n the Greek n a r r a t i v e s and Asian epics . Nobody

would ever think of say ing such a thing for Asian epics . The

Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Cesar a re not o r ig ina ry so fa r

a s t h e i r r e l ig io u s e l e m e n t s a re concerned. They are much l a t e r

de ve lopm en ts than th e s c r i p t u r e s of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e re l ig ions , and

those s c r i p t u r e s a r e around for us to examine. The r e a d e r of Asian

e p ic s has a s e n s e t h a t the re is a s t a b l e b a s i s for i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in

the surrounding i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e l i g i o n — th e s e long-s tand ing

re l ig ions w i t h t h e i r fu l ly e l a b o ra t e d canons a re the cosm olog ica l

and mytholog ica l ground of the n a r r a t iv e s .

This is so d i f f e r e n t f rom the s i t u a t i o n fo r Greek re l ig ion and

epic. Perhaps the c l a s s i c i s t s like Foley are c o r r e c t — t h a t the

e p ic s are indeed o r ig ina ry , a re indeed one source of Greek religion.

If they are not, then the rea l source of Greek rel ig ion , the t ru ly

10

p r im a ry t e x t s , be l i e fs , and r i tu a l s t r u c t u r e s a re hidden from us and

m u s t be un e a r th ed and r e c o n s t r u c t u r e d th rough a rcheo log ica l

r e s e a r c h and specu la t ion . But for Asian l i t e r a t u r e eve ry th ing is

e i t h e r ful ly documented or p r e s e n t and obse rvab le . We can see the

Indian,Tibetan, and Chinese s c r i p t u r e s f rom which th e re l ig ion of the

Asian e p ic s evolved. We can see the o r ig in s of the v e r s e fo rm s in

e a r l i e r poetry. We can document more than a thousand y e a r s of

obse rvance preceding the rel ig ion of the ep ic s . And m o s t

im por tan t ly , w e can observe the c u l t s of the e p ic s in c o n tem pora ry

s o c ie ty , fo r the rel ig ions of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the

Gesar are s t i l l p rac t ic ed , a lm o s t a s w id e ly as ever in t h e i r hi s tory .

And so, in th is s ense the Homeric e p i c s appea r to be

a bso lu te ly unique. Does t h i s make a real d i f f e r e n c e in the t e x t u a l i t y

or r e c e p t io n of the e p ic s? Do we read Homer d i f f e r e n t l y f rom Gesar

because Homer has no p r e - t e x t ? This is a q u e s t io n w h ich can be

a n s w e re d e xper ien t ia l ly by reading c a r e f u l l y the c o m m e n ta ry I have

provided to the t r a n s la t io n of Book I, C ha p te r I of the Mipham Gesar.

My personal feeling (and t h i s is not m e a n t as a c o m p le te

a n sw e r ) is t h a t there is a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e in r ec e p t ion , but in a way

it is only a m a t t e r the confidence a s c h o l a r m igh t f ee l in hi s or her

knowledge. In many p laces whe re Homeric c o m m e n t a r i e s a re based

on s p e cu la t io n and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n — the c o m m e n ta ry on the Gesar

is based on f ie ldwork and pos i t ive ev idence and unques t ionab ly

c o r r e c t id e n t i f i c a t i o n s of p rev ious t e x t s Where we m u s t be

s p e c u la t i v e about the rel igious meaning of e l e m e n t s of the I l ia d we

can be c e r t a i n about the Mipham Gesar— for p r i e s t s in Mipham’s

t r a d i t i o n can be in te rv iew e d and give a u th o r i t a t i v e rep l ies . Thei r

a n s w e r s can be checked by obse rva t ion of ce re m on ie s and bard ic

p e r fo rm a nce s . It wi l l be seen, for example, tha t some of the

r e l i g io u s conundrums t h a t a ro s e in the t r a n s l a t i o n of Book I w e r e

a n s w e r e d by ask ing a s ingle T ibe tan lama and then c ro s s - c h e c k e d by

in te rv i e w in g tw o or t h r e e o t h e r s on the sam e sub jec t . The r e s u l t is

a s e n s e of confidence in our knowledge of the con tex t and the

read ing exper ience of the epic.

This is not to say t h a t the f ie ldwork we can do on the Mipham

Gesar t e l l s us a u th o r i t a t i v e ly about anc ien t re l ig ious or l i t e r a r y

h is to ry . It t e l l s us the r e l a t i o n s h ip be tw ee n t ex t and t r a d i t i o n ,

b e tw e e n pe r fo rm ance and r e a d e r recep t ion in the modern pe r io d —

the per iod which co inc ides w i t h the f lour ishing of t h i s v e r s io n of

the epic. That is the knowledge which canno t be had for the Iliad. 13

There is ano ther im p o r t a n t way in which the Greek e p ic s seem

to d i f f e r from all the Asian grand epic t r ad i t ions . We can obse rve

the v a r i e ty of v e rs ions of the epic sagas t h a t ex i s t in Asia. There is

a much g r e a t e r d iver s i ty of na r ra t ives . For example, we have more

than a hundred volumes of w r i t t e n down Gesar ep ic s in Tibe tan.

There a re more than 2 1 0 0 hours of record ings of Gesar

p e r f o r m a n c e s archived in Lhasa and Peking. Beyond th a t t h e r e are an

as y e t uncounted numbers of l i t u rg ie s which concern Gesa r and his

r e t i n u e as c u l t ob jec ts . And co l l a te r a l v e r s io n s of the Gesar fan out

a c r o s s Centra l Asia and the Far East.

12

The sa m e goes for the Indian epics . It is, of c o u r s e , a m a t t e r

of con t rove rsy in the case of the Mahabharata. Van Bu i t enen ' s

English t r a n s l a t i o n r e l i e s on the s o - c a l l e d Nor thern R ecens ion and

p e r i p h e r a l i z e s a g r e a t number of v a r i a n t ed i t ions . S t o r i e s which

appea r in t h e s e o t h e r v e r s io n s a re seen a s " in te rp o la t i o n s" in the

epic. The a s s u m p t io n is t h a t the Northern v e r s ion is e a r l i e r than the

o thers . There a r e numerous p rob lem s w i th t h i s vi ew; Hi 1 t e b e i t e l

and Biardeau s p e ak for the more inclusive canon. And t h e r e is much

r e c e n t work w h ic h e m b ra ce s t h i s d i v e r s i t y . 14 In t h i s s e n s e the

obse rvab le a c t i v i t y sur rounding th e s e ep ic s is much g r e a t e r than the

a c t i v i t y su r round ing the I l iad, the Odyssey, and Hesiod. The

d iv e r s i t y of the Gesar m a n i f e s t a t i o n s c o n t r a s t s s t a r k l y w i t h the

s in g l e n e s s of Homer.

To me t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t a t one t im e Homer w a s su r rounded by

an equal ly v a s t a r r a y of com pe t ing t e l l i n g s of the s t o r y of Troy.

This po in t wi l l be c ons ide red again l a t e r in t h i s monograph,

a f t e r we have c ons ide red m some de ta i l the d i v e r s i t y o f

m a n i f e s t a t i o n of j u s t one p rov ince ’s ve rs ion of the Gesar. We will

r e s o r t then to c onc lus ions su g g e s t e d by r e c e n t s t u d i e s of Indian epic

in con tem pora ry l i fe , p a r t i c u l a r ly a co l l e c t io n of e s s a y s e d i t e d by

Paul Richman e n t i t l e d Many Ramayanas: The D iv e rs i ty o f a Narra t ive

Trad it ion in South Asia. 15

In t h i s c o n te x t it shouid poin ted out t h a t th i s s t u d y of an

E as te rn T ibe tan vers ion is na r row compared w i th the v a s t n e s s of the

t o ta l Gesar corpus . The epic d i f f e r s g r e a t ly f rom v e r s i o n to vers ion

13

and i t is im p o s s ib l e a t t h i s po in t to e va lua te in de ta i l i t s fu l l range.

In 1959 Ste in a t t e m p t e d to do t h i s by giving a r ichly a n n o t a t e d

bibl iography of the ep ic in every language. He included c h a r t s which

com pared the c o n t e n t s of v e r s i o n s he had l is ted . S t e i n ’s e f f o r t to

s u rv e y the e n t i r e c o rp u s fai led fo r the s im ple reason t h a t a g r e a t

many more e d i t i o n s and bard ic p e r f o r m a n c e s w e re d i s c o v e r e d in the

nex t t h re e decades . In fac t , the w ork of ba rdic c o m p o s i t i o n i t s e l f

s t i l l cont inues. Even if in c e r t a i n s e n se s , w i t h the invas ion of Tibet

and the T ibe tan d i a s p o ra , the ep ic has begun i t s decl ine, s t i l l in

a n o th e r sense the ep ic has not y e t r eached i t s full g row th .

My approach has been to deal w i th the m a s s i v e n e s s of the

Gesar by c o n c e n t r a t i n g on one v e r s i o n — a vers ion w h o s e r e t i n u e of

a s s o c i a t e d t e x t s h a s been p a r t i c u l a r l y wel l def ined by S t e i n and his

P a r i s i a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t .

Even t h a t v e r s i o n is too lengthy to cons ider in one s tudy . It

w i l l t ake a decade s im p ly to r ea d ca re fu l ly and t r a n s l a t e c o r r e c t l y

the full four or s ix volumes . T he re fo re , w h a t I have done h e re is to

t ake one event f rom the epic, one saga, one ep isode o r locus , and

com pare it a c r o s s s e v e ra l d i f f e r e n t edi t ions. Thus, in t h i s s tudy,

wh ich focuses on th e f i r s t book of the G esar , we can look a t and

c om pare a number of d i f f e r e n t beg inn ings to the epic. It a p p e a r s

t h a t the s t y l e s of beginning have som eth ing to do w i t h bo th re l ig ious

and geographic a f f i l i a t i o n s of the au tho rs or audience or readersh ip .

And i t seem s t h a t s e v e ra l Buddhist ve rs ions of the Gesar a s su m e

the sam e s to ry a s background, bu t decide to te l l d i f f e r e n t por t ions

14

or it.

In t h i s con tex t some c o n s id e r a t i o n w i l l be given to T ibe tan

and Chinese scho la r ly t r e a t m e n t s of the Gesar. T hese go back

s e v e ra l c e n tu r i e s , ac tua l ly . For example , s ince the beginn ing of the

Ch’ing Dynasty the Chinese nave d e a l t in a s y s t e m a t i c way w i t h the

epic as an e le m en t in the fo rm a t io n of T ibe tan p o l i t i c a l iden t i ty .

Edi t ions of the Gesar have been used to fu r th e r Chinese Central

As ian d ip lom a t i c policy. There is room fo r f ie ld work in rega rd to

t h i s issue. There fore , in t h i s e s s a y f u r t h e r l ines of r e s e a r c h both

into h i s to r i c a l Chinese u se s of the Gesar and the c u r r e n t pol icy of

the Peop le ’s Republic of China t o w a r d s i t wi l l be su g g e s t e d .

Outline of the D i s s e r t a t i o n

We wi l l begin (Chapter I) w i t h a general su rvey of the Gesar

Epic as a l i t e r a r y work. Actual ly , f rom th i s point of v i e w th e r e is

no such thing as a Gesar Epic. The huge corpus of t r a n s c r i p t s ,

m a n u s c r i p t s , pr in ted c h a p te r s , l i t u rg i e s , fo lk ta le s , and p a in t ings is

too la rge and d iverse to c o n s id e r a s a s ing le work w i t h v a r i a t i o n s .

One is not t e m p ted to e m m u la t e Dumézi l and van Bui tenen in looking

fo r a pr imord ia l text .

But we can subm i t the g rea t , va r ied body of G esa r t ex tua l

m a t e r i a l s to an a na lys i s accord ing to p lo t m o t ives and w e can

e x t r a c t f rom the hundred plus v o lum e s by d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s or sung

by d ive r se bards an ou t l ine of a c o m p le te epic.

15

The out l ine would give us an image of a pu t a t i v e c o m p l e t e epic

and each pu ta t iv e c h a p t e r in the ep ic would e x i s t in many d i f f e r e n t

e d i t i o n s and ve rs ions . For example , t h e r e a re a t l e a s t t h r e e

v e r s i o n s of the epic which begin w i t h a book devo ted to the

m a c h in a t io n s of d e i t i e s who br ing about the b i r th of Gesar in human

form. These d e i t i e s m e e t in a divine counci l .

Now the s t o r y of the divine counci l is p r e s e n t in one w a y or

a n o t h e r in m o s t r e t e l l i n g s of the Gesar, bu t no t every v e r s i o n of the

ep ic d e v o te s a whole book to t h i s event. In so m e ve r s io n s t h i s

beginning s to ry is no t n a r r a t e d a t all. In o t h e r s i t is s im p ly a few

se n t e n c e s . In o th e r s , such a s the Mipham v e rs io n , it c o n s t i t u t e s the

e n t i r e f i r s t book of the Epic.

On the o t h e r hand, t h e r e a re not, as f a r a s I know, b a rd s who

only s ing th is saga. That honor is r e s e r v e d f o r the po r t ions of the

ep ic which are c ons ide re d "core c hap te r s " or "kernels." For exam ple ,

the s t o r y of Gesar 's conques t of the Demon of the North o c c u r s on i t s

own in some c a s e s — unconnec ted w i th any e x p l i c i t full r e c o u n t in g

of the adven tu res of Gesar. And m o s t c o l l e c t i o n s of Gesar s t o r i e s

w h ic h are thought to be "complete" include t h i s chapter . So The

Conquest o f the Demon (bdud g l ing ) is c o n s id e r e d by a num ber of

s c h o l a r s to be one of the kernel c h a p t e r s in the epic.

Picking out the e s s e n t i a l plot e l e m e n t s in th is way, w e can

c o n s t r u c t a hypo th e t i ca l c o m p le te Gesar. This has been done by

s e v e r a l s c h o la r s who have done s p e c u l a t i v e s t u d i e s of the e n t i r e

corpus . In the in t roduc t ion we wi l l te l l the whole s tory of the Gesar

16

us ing the m a t r i c e s deve loped by th e s e scho lars . Along the way , a s

w e bui id up the c o m p l e t e s to ry , we w i l l look a t a num ber of i s s u e s

in c om p a ra t iv e l i t e r a t u r e which are r a i s e d by t h i s exam ina t ion . We

w i l l compare the Gesar w i th the tw o g r e a t Indian e p ic s , w i t h the

Homeric epic t r a d i t io n , and, in o rder to cons ider a theo log ica l

quesion, w i t h The D iv ine Comedy. The q u e s t io n s and i s s u e s r a i s e d

in t h i s s e c t i o n c anno t , of course, be d e a l t w i th in de ta i l in t h i s

d i s s e r t a t i o n . But they could be t r e a t e d in depth in f u tu r e l i t e r a r y

s t u d i e s of t h eGesar.

Having su rveyed in a sense the p lo t of the e n t i r e co rpus , w e

w i l l then begin to fo cu s in on more m anageab le s u b j e c t s . F i r s t w e

w i l l c on s ide r the Mipham vers ion of the epic, de sc r ib ing som e of i t s

p e c u l i a r i t i e s and argu ing for why it should be t r a n s l a t e d be fo re

o t h e r ve rs ions . Then w e wi l l c o n c e n t r a t e on the f i r s t book of the

Mipham Gesar. The f i r s t c h ap te r of t h i s book is t r a n s l a t e d in t h i s

d i s s e r t a t i o n . It i s conce rned ch ie f ly w i t h the r e l ig io u s a s p e c t s of

t h e Gesar s t o r y — th e a f f a i r s and plans of the gods who rule in an

Olympian manner ove r the unfolding plot . Like the beg inn ings of so

many ep ics , t h e s e opening c h a p te r s a re deeply concerned w i t h

divine t e l e o lo g y .16 Our in t roduc tory s tudy , t h e re fo re , w h i le

proposing numerous a r e a s of l i t e r a ry r e s e a r c h which could

i l l u m in a t e the T ib e t a n epic, wil l n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n c e n t r a t e on a

l i t e r a r y e xam ina t ion of two points: the beginnings of the s t o r y and

the cosmology of the G e s a r — the t w o s u b j e c t s for which the

accompanying t r a n s l a t i o n s provide the reade r w i t h d i r e c t ev idence .

17

We wil l not look a t cosm ology in the f ash ion of r e l ig io u s

s t u d i e s , but r a t h e r as c r i t i c s of ep ic l i t e r a t u r e do. That is, we wi l l

look a t the divine f igu re s who a p p e a r in the opening c h a p t e r s of the

Gesar as the div ine machinery of the plot. The use of such

m ach ine ry in a t r a d i t io n a l T ib e tan n a r r a t iv e c o n te x t w i l l be

i l l u s t r a t e d by a lengthy t r a n s l a t i o n of the f abu lous "History of the

Goloks"— the m yth ic s to ry of the founding of a t r ibe of T ibe tans

a s s o c i a t e d genea log ica l ly w i t h Gesa r of Ling. In fac t , the Golok

H is to ry wi l l provide in n a r r a t i v e form a s o r t of guide through the

c om ponen ts of indigenous T ib e tan rel igion a s i t r e l a t e s to Gesar. In

t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s l a t i o n we w i l l see the gods not as f igu res in

l i t u r g i e s and ph i losophical t e x t s , but as ac tua l personae w i t h

p e r sona l i n t e r e s t s and in ten t ions . We wil l s e e the gods uni ting w i th

the r a c e of men to produce divine l ineages of T ib e tan kings. We will

s ee the Buddhist and non-Buddhist gods descending to i n t e r f e r e

p o l i t i c a l l y w i th human a f f a i r s , and we will s e e human be ings

r e c ip ro c a l ly involving t h e m s e l v e s in "Olympian" p o l i t i c s .

Cont inuing our s tudy of the cosmology and divine mach inery of

the Gesar we wil l move to a d i s c u s s io n of the Gesa r l i t u r g i e s

w r i t t i e n by Mipham. In those church s e rv ice s and chant ing p r a c t i c e s

w e w i l l see these gods t r a n s f o r m e d from c h a r a c t e r s in a s to ry into

a b s t r a c t divine pr inc ip les . In t h i s way, by compar ing the sam e

f i g u r e s as they appear in the epic , in Tibetan fo l k t a l e s , and in

Mipham's l i tu rg ies we wil l be ab le to document in g r e a t de ta i l the

r e l a t i o n s h ip s b e tw e e n the e p ic ’s d r am a t ic f i g u re s and the

18

surrounding r e l i g io u s con tex t .

Chap ter II w i l l ask the ques t ion "Is t h e r e a c o m p le te Gesar

Epic ?" The sense of t h i s ques t ion is s im ply to wonder w h e t h e r

t h e r e i s a s ingle a c c o u n t which m igh t under l ie the d ive r se c h a p t e r s

and p e r f o rm a n c e s w h ic h have been a c c u m u la te d a c r o s s the c e n t u r i e s

and a c r o s s Central Asia. R.A. S te in a t t e m p t e d to a n s w e r t h a t

q ue s t ion through a s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n a ly s i s of the plo t e l e m e n t s in all

e x t a n t ve rs ions . S a m te n Karmay, in a paper c i r c u l a t e d a t the

Centres d'Études T ibé ta ines in P a r i s 17 argued for a p r im ord ia l s t o r y

of Gesar based on th e book of the Gesar e n t i t l e d , "Taming the Demon

of the North." T he i r a rg u m e n t s use an th ropo log ica l da ta , exposing

plot m o t iv e s such as a re ca ta logued in the Aarne-T hompson Motive

Index . I8

The sam e q u e s t io n can be a n s w e r e d using a t echn ique f rom the

t r a d i t i o n of A r i s t o t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m — an a n a l y s i s of the beginning

of the epic to p r o j e c t the middle and end.19 J u s t as the plo t of the

I l ia d could be se en a s a f u l f i l lm e n t of the “ends of Zeus" as

announced in the proem, so the opening l ines of the Mipham Gesar

s u g g e s t an out l ine of the s t r u c t u r e of the e n t i r e epic based on the

ends announced by th e Buddhist gods in Book I, Chapte r !.

Chapter III w i l l be a c o m p a r a t i s t s tudy of the cosmology of the

Mipham Gesar. W ithou t a d e sc r ip t i o n of the pan theons used in the

epic , the t r a n s l a t i o n s t h a t fol low would be m e a n in g le s s e x ce p t to a

few T ib e t a n i s t a n th ro p o lo g i s t s . And the gods of Gesar a re

i n t e r e s t i n g in t h e m s e l v e s as wel l , for , as one might expec t of a

19

w ork w r i t t e n in p ro x im i ty to the Si lk Route, t h e machinery of the

ep ic is incredibly he te rogenous . In Chapter III, I have t r ied to

i n d ic a te the d iverse pa n th e o n s employed in the Gesar and to iden t i fy

them accord ing to t h e i r na t iona l or igins . Thus, t h e Chinese d e i t i e s

and divine fo rce s w i l l be d i s t ingu ished from the Nat ive T ibe tan and

Indian d e i t i e s and t h e i r s e v e r a l and d i s t i n c t l i t e r a r y funct ions wi l l

be d i scussed .

This anatomy of the divine machinery w i l l inv i t e a final

c o m p a r a t i v e s tudy a t t h e end of Chapter 111: the a u th o r of the

h ip h a m Gesar w a s a T ib e t a n Buddhist. Like h i s C h r i s t i an

c o u n te r p a r t s , he used co lo r fu l non-Buddhist d e i t i e s to enrich the

imagery and make the a rg u m e n t p lea san t ly more in t r i c a te . There a re

a c t u a l l y many s i m i l a r i t i e s be tw ee n the C hr i s t i an ep ics which use

pagan machinery and the Buddhist ep ics which a s s i m i l a t e all s o r t s

of non-Buddhist de i t i e s . We wil l observe a f e w of the se s i m i l a r i t i e s

and s u g g e s t a fu ture s tudy in compara t ive l i t e r a t u r e which could

look a t the phenomenon of c e l e s t i a l a s s i m i l a t i o n in more de tai l .

This port ion of the d i s s e r t a t i o n wil l be b a s e d on the s t u d i e s

and thinking of Thomas Greene in pa r t i cu la r , bu t a l s o in a more

d i f fu s e way on the ap p ro a c h es of Francis Yates and J a n e Harr ison on

the p r e s e n c e of r e l i g io u s e l e m e n t s in C las s ica l W es te rn n a r r a t i v e s

and c r i t i c i s m .

One l a s t point of in t roduc t ion about the cosm ology chapter : the

cosmology of the Mipham Gesar wi l l be documented by Mipham's own

r e l ig io u s c o m p o s i t i o n s — p r a c t i c e s he w ro te f o r the pe r fo rm a nce s

20

of s e r v i c e s of worsh ip of Gesar. Mipham w a s one of the m o s t

e x t r a o rd in a r y theo log ians in the h i s to ry of Buddhism and one of i t s

g r e a t e s t m e ta phys ica l thinkers . For him to be r e s p o n s ib l e fo r an

ep ic would be like giving Thomas Aquinas o v e r s i g h t of w r i t in g the

Divine Comedy. Taking t r ad i t iona l e l e m e n t s of the c u l t of Gesar ,

Mipham v i r tu a l ly des igned a new re l ig ious sec t . He then had h is

s tu d e n t , a c e r t a i n 'Thub bs tan 'Gyur med, e d i t / c o m p o s e an epic to go

w i t h it. It is as if the Bible had been composed to f i t w i th J e w i s h

r i tu a l and theology in s t e a d of the reverse .

This makes the Mipham Gesar as f a s c i n a t i n g a s i t is, p e rh a p s

u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the en t i r e Gesar Corpus. It i s w o r th t r a n s l a t i n g

because it i s m ag n i f i ce n t , profound, and beau t i fu l . But i t s p r e s e n t

popu la r i ty in China and Tibe t is an acc iden t of r e l i g io u s p o l i t i c s and

the v a g a r i e s of Asian publ ishers . My t r a n s l a t i o n w i l l prove t h i s by

c l e a r ly point ing out the non-oral e l e m e n t s and l i tu rg ica l c i t a t i o n s

l i f t e d from c l a s s i c a l Buddhist l i t e r a t u r e and i n s e r t e d in th is

e d i t i o n — t r a n s l a t i o n s of Sansk r i t t e x t s , p a s s a g e s of kavya

( S a n s k r i t Court Poe try) , and learned re l ig ious s e r m o n s which an

i l l i t e r a t e bard could never have m as te red . I have t r i e d in the s h o r t e r

t r a n s l a t i o n s to give a s e n s e of how d i f f e r e n t t h i s ed i t ion is f rom

some of the o the r s which are perhaps of a more ora l provenance. But

only t im e and f u r t h e r s tudy wil l show us in w h a t degree it is

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e and in w h a t degree it is unique.

All of the w orks I employ as po in ts of co m p a r i so n are f rom

T ibe tan woodblock p r i n t s and th e re fo re even when they appear to be

21

t e x t s which a re r e l i c s of ancien t days , such a s the Ladakhi Gesar

d i sc ove re d by Francke , a re s t i l l f u n d a m e n ta l ly a r t i f a c t s of w r i t t e n

cu l tu re . A s tudy of t r u l y and undeniably oral Gesar m a t e r i a l s m u s t

w a i t fo r ano ther s e a s o n of s c h o la r s h ip and fo r the t im e we all hope

w i l l come when th e Chinese and T ib e t a n s c h o l a r s in the People ' s

Republ ic wil l be ab le to c o l l a b o ra t e a t length and in depth w i t h

W es te rn scholars .

Chapte r IV w i l l be a t r a n s l a t i o n w i t h e l a b o r a t e c o m m e n ta ry of

the f i r s t chap te r of t h e epic. The c o m m e n ta ry w i l l a d d r e s s l i t e r a ry

i s s u e s pr imar i ly , bu t i t wi l l a lso d i s c u s s any l in g u i s t i c p e c u l i a r i t i e s

in the language. The c om m en ta ry is ba sed on seve ra l y e a r s of work

w i t h a va r i e ty of n a t i v e in formants .

Chapter V w i l l be an exp lana t ion and t r a n s l a t i o n of a n a r r a t i v e

w r i t t e n by ano the r f am o u s lama in the t r a d i t i o n of Mipham, Do

Khyen tse Yeshe Dorje. In his au tob iography he w r o t e a b r i e f h i s to ry ,

som e t w e n ty fo l io s long, of the Golok t r i b e — a loose co n fe d e ra t io n

of w a r r i o r s living in E as te rn T ibe t and Amdo, near the Amnye

Machen. These peop le a re heavi ly i m p l i c a t e d in the Gesar epic and

t h e i r h i s to ry wil l t e l l us much abou t the re l ig ion and cosmology of

the epic. It is inc luded a s an add i t iona l docum en ta t ion to the

c o m m e n t s and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s I p r e s e n t in Chapter III, the

Cosmology Chapter.

22

Chapter I - In t roduc t ion

The Gesar o f L ing Epic is the Central As ian equ iva len t of the

c om p le te Indian epics , the Mahábharata and the Ramáyana. 20 If t h e

I l ia d and the Odyssey had been a com p le te r e c i t a l of the s to ry of

the T ro ja n war , then the Gesar would have been equ iva len t to them

as w e l l . As i t is, one c h a p te r of the Mipham e d i t io n of Gesar is

a pp ro x im a te ly the length of the I l i a d . And so we m u s t say t h a t t h e

Gesar Epic is r ea l ly comparab le only to the h y p o th e t i c a l ly g r e a t e r

"epic c y c l e , " , the m u l t i - a u t h o r e d s e r i e s of Greek e p ic s t e l l ing the

ful l t a l e of the Tro jan War. 21

Although, the Gesar is an oral epic, the v e r s i o n s s tud ied here

wi l l be ones which a l ready have been c o m m i t t e d to wr i t ing .

Although they have been w r i t t e n down, they a re s t i l l sung,

s o m e w h a t in the s ty l e of bards who give orai p e r f o rm a n c e s .22 These

v e r s i o n s of the Gesar a re p ros im et r ic . That is, they a re composed

in v e r s e s which a l t e r n a t e w i th prose n a r r a t i v e p a ssa g es . In t h i s they

are s o m e w h a t l ike the Chinese p ien-wen d i s c o v e re d a t Tun-huang

and t r e a t e d by V ic to r Mair. 23The v e r s e s a re b a l l a d s sung to epic

tunes qu i te s i m i l a r in s t y l e and usage to the m e lo d ie s found in

W es te rn oral he ro ic song cyc les such as the Russ ian b y l i n y 24. The

m e lod ies are a lso like those observed by Lord in Se rb ian oral

23

e p i c s , 25 th a t is, they are highly r e p e t i t i v e and do not involve

melod ic o r ig ina l i ty ; the m elod ies a re convent ional tunes sung in

numerous co n te x t s . They are not e s p e c i a l l y r e l a t e d to the con ten t ,

but s imply f u n c t io n as an epic melodic v e h ic le for the v e r s e . 26 I

would say, however , t h a t they a re lovely m e lo d ie s— a f a c t which

s t r ik ing ly d i s t i n g u i s h e s them from m o s t T ibe tan Buddhist re l ig ious

music .

The Gesar i s sung in numerous d i a l e c t s of T ibe tan and in

s evera l o th e r languages as we l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y d i a l e c t s of Mongolian.

But, l ike the Greek and Indian epics , the Gesar has u n a l t e r a b ly

dep a r ted the wor ld of purely oral phenomena and e n te re d the rea lm

of be lles le t t res . I t has en te red into p r in t and now has e d i t i o n s in

numerous m a n u s c r i p t s , in woodblock p r in t i n g s , 27 and in t y p e - s e t

forms. This p r o c e s s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n into l i t e r a t u r e began a t l e a s t

a s ea r ly as the 17th cen tury , when the Manchu emperor of China,

K’ang Hsi, sponso red the publ ica t ion of a Mongolian ed i t ion of Gesar.

The Chinese i n t e r e s t has cont inued s ince t h a t t im e and is

p a r t i c u l a r ly s t r o n g today. The People 's Republic of China has taken

g r e a t i n t e r e s t in the Gesar and Mandarin t r a n s l a t i o n s of c h a p t e r s

f rom severa l e d i t i o n s have appeared in a popular , re adab le form. The

t r a n s l a t i o n s a re d i r e c te d to w a rd s an i n t e r e s t e d Han read ing public, a

publ ic for whom the Gesar, like T ibe tan c u l tu re a t large, s e e m s to

r e p r e s e n t the e l e m e n t of the e x o t i c ,28 a s o r t of Chinese ve rs ion of

or ien ta l ism . 29 The Chinese t r a n s l a t i o n s a re p ic tu resque , en joyable ,

24

and of qu i te va r i a b le accuracy. Along w i th t h e s e t r a n s l a t i o n s t h e r e

has been cons ide rab le Chinese scho la r ly a c t i v i t y both in Peking and

in the reg ions which b o a s t large T ibe tan p o pu la t ions , such as Kansu,

S z - c h ’uan and the c i t y of Chendu.

There have r e c e n t l y even been g o v e rn m e n t sponsored p r o -

Gesa r propaganda cam paigns t h a t highl ight t h e anc ien t r e l a t i o n s

b e tw e e n Tibe t and China.30 Pa r t of the epic r e c o r d s the s t o r y of how

Gesa r m ar r ied a Chinese pr incess . The son of t h i s match is h i m s e l f a

hero and c e r t a in e p i s o d e s are devoted t o t a l l y to his adventures .

These ep isodes em phas iz ing the Chinese son of Gesar are now to u te d

by the Chinese governm en t and p o s t e r s of the son can be found

a c r o s s Tibet . The s t o r y echoes an h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t im por tan t in the

c o n s t ru c t io n of the T ibe tan national i den t i ty , t he mar r iage of King

Songtsen Gampo (Srong b tsan sGam po) to a T'ang pr incess . Song tsen

Gampo w a s the founder of the e ighth cen tu ry T ib e tan empire.

Although, obviously, a layman, he is c o n s id e re d to be a Buddhist

s a i n t who con t inues to r e in c a rn a t e among th e T ibe tans as a r e l i g io u s

leader . The c u r r e n t s of typological r e f e r e n c e he re are f a s c i n a t i n g ,

fo r the Chinese son r e p r e s e n t s warm r e l a t i o n s w i th the Han people

w h i l e a t the sam e t i m e making of Gesar a type of Songtsen Gampo

and thus exc i t ing T ib e tan ethnic pr ide.31

This J a n u s - f a c e d s t r a t e g y , facing s im u l t a n e o u s ly t o w a r d s a

s u b j e c t people and t o w a r d s the imperia l ly f av o re d racial groups , is a

t r i e d and t rue method for the Chinese imper ium. The same s o r t of

agenda w a s undoubted ly p resen t in the K’ang Hsi Mongolian e d i t i o n of

25

Gesar . For, during t h i s per iod i t w as Manchu pol icy to un i te the

T ibe tans , Mongolians, and Manchu bannerm en through common

re l ig ious cu l t s . The p ropaga t ion of the c u l t of Gesar and his

un i f i c a t ion w i t h t h e Chinese god of w a r w a s p a r t of th i s overa l l

plan.

That does no t m ean th a t the Mongolian ed i t ion w a s the f i r s t

w r i t t e n ve rs ion of Gesar. We ac tual ly have no s t rong proof t h a t t h i s

epic ever e x i s t e d in an exc lus ive ly oral form. To say t h a t i t is oral

a t t h i s point s im p ly m e a n s t h a t m os t of t h e w r i t t e n t e x t s w e have

d i scovered a l so e x i s t e d a t one t im e or a n o th e r in an oral form as

c h a p t e r s m em o r i z e d by T ibe tan s inge rs . It is, a s a m a t t e r of fac t ,

qu i te d i f f i c u l t to t e l l w h e t h e r spec i f i c c h a p t e r s of the Gesar w e re

or ig ina l ly oral or o r ig in a l ly w r i t t e n . As w e wi l l see when we look

a t the publ ishing h i s t o r y of the Mipham ed i t ion , exper iences of

in sp i ra t ion and divine g rac e can give T ib e t a n e d i t o r s a t r em endous

s e n s e of a u t h o r i t y — a u th o r i t y so g r e a t t h a t they feel c o m p e ten t to

r e w r i t e the Gesar Epic or even, as the c h a p t e r s w r i t t e n by modern

T ibe tan l am as prove, augm en t the epic w i t h lengthy v e r s e a cc o u n t s

of new adventures .

Fu r the rm ore , t h e r e is a kind of c u l t of the w r i t t e n word among

the T ibe tans which m u d d ie s the s c ho la r ' s v i s ion of t ex tua l origins .

Many Gesar ba rds proudly use h a n d w r i t t e n prompt t ex t s . As one

would expec t f rom Lord and Parry 's t h e o r i e s of o ra l i ty and

m em or iza t ion , t h e s e p ro m p t t e x t s are n e v e r p rec i se ly w h a t the

bards a c tua l ly s ing, and the u t te r ed t e x t changes from pe r fo rm a nce

26

to pe rformance . N e ver the le ss , l ike a lm o s t any w r i t t e n m a t e r i a l s in

Buddhist cu l tu re , the t e x t s are o b j e c t s of s a c r e d regard. Even

i l l i t e r a t e ba rds s o m e t i m e s p re tend t h a t in p e r f o r m a n c e s they are

a c tua l ly reading aloud from the t e x t s s i t t i n g in t h e i r laps. 32 Thus,

i t i s d i f f i c u l t to prove t h a t any t e x t is of oral provenance.

On the o ther hand, c a s e s of t h e re being a w r i t t e n provenance

to oral t e x t s have been qu i te well documented. Alexander Macdonald,

f o r example , recorded more than a hundred hours pe r fo rm e d by an

i l l i t e r a t e T ibe tan ba rd in India. The p e r f o rm a n c e s showed all the

fo rm u la ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of oral v e r s e n a r r a t i v e numerous

r e p e t i t i o n s , f a l s e s t a r t s , fo rmula ic e p i th e t s , and complex fo rm ula ic

e l e m e n t s used in te rchangeab ly . Macdonald o r ig ina l ly took the bard 's

p e r fo rm a n c e s to be a large, genuinely oral Gesar. P o r t ions of the

pe r fo rm a n ce , however , tu rned out to have had a w r i t t e n background.

T ex t s the s in g e r had heard monks read aloud w e r e impor ted into the

r e c i t a l , t r a n s f o r m e d into addi t ional s t o r i e s added to the epic. Some

of the se s t o r i e s w e re s t r a n g e indeed, in one the a n c i e n t Tibe tan

king S ro n g -b t sa n sGam-po met w i th the Dalai Lama, an h i s to r i c a l l y

im poss ib le incident and one th a t would not be found in any one

w r i t t e n t e x t the monk had heard. Macdonald had o r ig ina l ly thought

to publ ish a t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the pe rfo rm ance , bu t decided not to,

because it included so much m a te r i a l of w r i t t e n provenance. He

rem a rked t h a t the way the bard included e x t r a n e o u s s t o r i e s in the

n a r r a t i v e reminded him of o ther s t o r y - t e l l e r t r a d i t i o n s such as the

ro -sgrung s t o n e s , w h ich he had t r a n s l a t e d e a r l i e r . [Macdonald,

27

1 9 9 0 ] 33

The re l i g io u s background of the epic is a l s o a m a t t e r of

c on t ro v e r sy . Francke , one of the e a r l i e s t W e s t e r n s c h o l a r s of the

Gesar Epic, 34 be l ieved t h a t the legend i t s e l f w a s p re -B u d d h i s t and

he a t t e m p t e d to d e m o n s t r a t e t h i s by pub l ish ing a Ladakhi ed i t io n

w h ich happened to be ve ry d i f f e r e n t f rom the usua l popular T ibe tan

Gesar. The Ladakhi e d i t i o n had some Buddhist e l e m e n t s , bu t s e e m e d

to fo reground na t ive T ibe tan rel ig ion much m ore than the Buddha

Dharma, so t h a t one is a l m o s t t em p ted to ca l l i t a "Bon Gesar ."35

From the po in t of v iew of l i t e r a ry s t r u c t u r e , the Ladakhi

Gesar is even l e s s Buddhist , for it does no t r e f l e c t a Buddhist

agenda in the p lot a rg u m e n t laid out in i t s f i r s t chap te r . Tha t i s to

say, un l ike for exam ple t h e Mipham vers ion , i t does not d e s c r i b e the

b i r th of Gesar as the r e s u l t of a c om p l ic i ty of Buddhis t d e i t i e s who,

lead by Padm asam bhava , help Gesar fu l f i l l the div ine plan of

ove rcom ing a plague of an t i -D ha rm ic demons.

Although F ra ncke ' s th eo r ie s a re not broadly held today, he is

c e r t a i n l y r igh t about one th ing— the re c e r t a i n l y a re a g r e a t number

of p lo t m o t i v e s and legends der iving from non-B uddh is t m y th s and

e p ic s both Eas t and V/est of Tibet. Whether any of t h e s e c u l t i c

e l e m e n t s and non -B uddh i s t s t o r i e s are u l t i m a t e l y n a t iv e to Tibe t

depends on w h e t h e r one th inks tha t the popu la r re l ig ion of T ibe t

o r i g in a t e d in t h a t coun try . We wil l see in C ha p te r II t h a t the re are

legends in the Ladakhi Gesar which have found t h e i r way a c r o s s

T ibe t to the N o r th ea s t and become p a r t of the or ig in t a l e s of the

28

Golok t r ib e sm e n . Now, the Goloks c la im t h a t t h e i r founder cam e

from Upper T s a r i , w h ic h s e e m s to be lo c a t e d n e a r Ladakh, in t h e

West . So i t is p o s s i b l e to imagine t h a t t h i s non-B uddh i s t v e r s ion of

Gesa r p a r t a k e s a t l e a s t in degree of som e p r e - e x i s t i n g r e s e r v o i r of

t a l e s and founda t ion m y t h s from West of T ibe t . W h e th e r Francke 's

Ladakhi Gesar is the p r im ord ia l ve rs ion or not , i t g ives an a u t h e n t i c

p i c tu r e of im p o r t a n t Bon and na t ive T ibe tan t h e m a t i c s which a re

in teg ra l to the Gesar corpus.

As f a r as l i t e r a r y inf luences a re conce rned , the Gesar i s an

e x t r e m e ly h e t e r o g e n e o u s work. P o r t ions of the Ramayana s eem to

be p r e s e n t and th e r e a r e even s t o r i e s f rom the B yzan t ine Romance o f

Alexander w h ich s e e m to have found t h e i r way in to t h e Gesar.36 In

fac t , w i th the help of the Tun-huang T ib e tan and Mongolian

m a n u s c r i p t s , we can even t r a c e the p r o g r e s s by w h ic h some of t h e s e

legends moved from the Wes t to the East. Th is po in t wi l l be

d i s c u s s e d in C hap te r III when we examine the i n f lue nce of Centra l

Asian sh a m an i sm and Chinese T ao is t r e l i g io u s m o v e m e n ts on the

Gesar. S t e in '59 d e v o te s severa l c h a p t e r s to the s u b je c t .

The Plot of the Gesar

The broad o u t l in e of the plo t is given in Alexandra David-Nee l ' s

1931 prose sum m ary , La Vie Surhumaine de Guesar de Ling.37 The

ou t l ine of the ep ic s h e gives in her i n t roduc t ion to t h a t book is a l so

exce l l en t . A d e ta i l e d sum m ary and c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s of the p lo t

29

t h e m a t i c s is given by R.A. Ste in, 1959. Geoffrey Sam ue ls , re ly ing on

a d e ta i l e d Chinese bibl iography by Wang Yiyuan ,^ g ives an even

d e n s e r sum m ary . Both Wang's and S a m u e l s ’s s u m m a r i e s purpose fu l ly

leave out many famous ep isodes. But they have the advan tage of

c lo s e ly fo l low ing the E as te rn T ib e t a n (Khams) v e r s io n s from which

the Mipham e d i t ion derives . So l e t u s survey now th i s ve rs ion of the

p lo t of Gesar.

The Eastern Tibe tan (K h a m s ) ve rs ion of Gesar

The s t o r y begins w i th a saga w h o s e t i t l e I would t r a n s l a t e as

The Land o f Ling, a Genesis - l i k e d e s c r i p t i o n of the c r e a t i o n of the

coun t ry of Ling, which is t aken to be the sam e as the modern

prov ince of gLing tshang in E a s te rn Tibet . A few w o rd s should be

sa id about t h i s local i ty , which is d i s c u s s e d so much in S te in , '59. 39

The pr inc ipa l tow n in modern Ling be fo re the Chinese invas ion w a s

Derge, once and now again a g r e a t pub l ish ing cen ter . When it w a s

known as gLing tsang it had a king and th i s King of Ling w a s

p e r s o n a l ly involved in the p roduc t ion of the Mipham Gesar, providing

t e x t s of the epic which w e re c o n s id e re d p a r t of the p a t r im ony of the

a n c e s t r a l land of the hero. 40 In the 1 9 th cen tury a group of lamas

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th is d i s t r i c t deve loped a ph i losophica l m ovem ent

r e l e v a n t to the cosmology of the Gesar. Many of the se l am as were ,

in fac t , r e l a t e d to the a r i s t o c r a t i c c la n s of t h a t p r inc ipa l i ty . As we

shal l see, the descendants of th e s e t e a c h e r s , both t h e i r d i s c ip l e s

30

and t h e i r r e i n c a r n a t io n s , have been a c t iv e in modern t i m e s in

popu la r iz ing the c u l t of Gesa r in Tibe tan r e fugee c om m u n i t i e s . The

p r e c i s e loca t ion of Ling, t h e r e f o r e , is an im p o r t a n t i s su e when

cons ide r ing the Gesar Epic in the 19th and 2 0 t h c e n tu r i e s . Wang,

however , being Chinese, is not pe rsona l ly involved in the r e l i g io u s

agenda of T ibe tan é m i g r é s and does not include t h i s ep i so d e in his

l is t .

This c h a p t e r is ca l l ed in Tibe tan the S r id g l in g or G r id p a ' i

le'u. The name i t s e l f is i n t e r e s t i n g , be ca use the word s r id m eans

both "society;* in the s e n se of a po l i t i ca l e n t i t y , and "world" o r

"cosmos." Ambigui ty b e tw ee n th e s e tw o c o n c e p t s of u n iv e r s e and

s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y is s y s t e m a t i c in the s p i r i tu a l ph i lo soph ies

which a s s o c i a t e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h the epic .41 The s a m e am bigu i ty

f i g u re s even in the non-Buddhist ve r s io n s of the epic. In F rancke ’s

Ladakhi ed i t ion of the Gesar t h e r e is a d e s c r i p t i o n of the c r e a t i o n of

the wor ld . This c r e a t i o n l i s t s the c r e a t u r e s and th ings w h ich come

into being f i r s t the e l e m e n t s e s s e n t i a l to the c o n s t r u c t i o n of

human kind and human soc ie ty . In the more e l a b o r a t e Buddhis t

v e r s i o n s of the epic, th i s l i s t has become a l i s t of the c h a r a c t e r s

and th ings which Gesa r a cq u i r e s in o rder to suc ce e d and to enr ich

the land of Ling. The l i s t includes va r ious m ag ica l h e lp e r s who m us t

in c a rn a t e a long w i t h him and a s e r i e s of magica l w eapons and

m i ra cu lo u s d ev ices which w i l l be hidden in Mount Magyal Pomra

a g a i n s t the t im e of his coming. Thus, w h a t w a s p r im ord ia l in the

Ladakhi ve rs ion , th in g s involved in a d e s c r i p t i o n of the c r e a t i o n of

31

the un ive r se , have become h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s in the Buddhis t vers ion.

It is, of course , for th is r eason t h a t Francke be l ieves the more

p r im ord ia l ve rs ion , the e a r l i e r v e r s io n , is the Ladakhi ed i t ion . For i t

d e s c r i b e s , no t the c rea t ion of a s p e c i f i c soc ie ty , but t h e c r e a t i o n of

the e n t i r e human world.

Francke 's be l ie f th a t h is Ladakhi ve rs ion is e a r l i e r is based in

p a r t on the phi lological a s s u m p t io n t h a t a p r i m o r d i a l i s t accoun t is

n a tu r a l l y e a r l i e r in t ime than a m o re s o p h i s t i c a t e d or e l a b o ra te d

account . And accoun ts which have no r e f e r e n c e to documented ,

m a t e r i a l i s t h i s to r iography a re n a t u r a l l y e a r l i e r than "h i s to r ic a l "

accoun ts . This is a p re jud ice and i t is not t rue enough to be a

genera l rule. For example, the d e s c r i p t i o n of the c r e a t i o n of the

w o r ld composed by the modern T ib e t a n lama Chogyam Trungpa,

Rinpoche, does not pretend to be an e a r l i e r compos i t ion . And yet , it

i s u t t e r l y p r im o rd ia l i s t in i t s tone. It is a new co m p o s i t io n meant

to c o m p le m e n t works on modern p o l i t i c a l con sc io u s n es s and s t u d i e s

of modern s p i r i tu a l p ro b l e m a t i c s in a W este rn indus t r ia l

env i ronm ent . And yet, if we did not know the author, w e m igh t

think, f rom the language and s u b j e c t m a t t e r , t ha t it w a s a piece of

e a r ly T ibe tan, perhaps even p r e - B u d d h i s t l i t e r a t u r e . 42 Actual ly ,

how ever , i t is an intent ional l i t e r a r y anachronism, l ike S p e n s e r ' s

Faerie Queene. The language of the Buddhist T an t ras i s o f t e n

p r i m o r d i a l i s t in tone. But few W e s te r n s c h o la r s take t h e m to be

e a r ly compos i t ions .

It is t r u e t h a t the Ladakhi d i a l e c t p re s e rv e s an e a r l i e r

32

pronunciation of T ibe tan , because s i l e n t l e t t e r s in m o d e rn T ib e t an

a re s t i l l sounded in Ladakhi. This can make w o r k s of even r e c e n t

Ladkhi c o m p o s i t i o n sound ant ique.

We should exp la in a t t h i s point t h a t t r a n s l a t i o n of T ib e t a n epic

c h a p t e r t i t l e s in to Engl ish is e x t r e m e ly d i f f i cu l t . Every c h a p t e r of

the Eas te rn T ib e t a n Gesar i s ca l l ed “ gLing." T here a r e s eve ra l

w a y s t h i s word could be t r a n s l a t e d as a t i t l e . It could be s h o r t for

" of Gesar of Ling." In t h a t case , S r id g l ing would m ean "The Saga

of the Gesa r of Ling Epic on the World.” This is e x a c t l y the kind of

t i t l e a c r e a t i o n n a r r a t i v e might have. On the o t h e r hand, g l in g

could j u s t mean “the land of Ling" 43and then every c h a p t e r of the

Gear Epic would t r a n s l a t e , “ of the land of Ling." Both

t r a n s l a t i o n s a re probably co rr ec t . Geoffrey S a m u e l s ' s t r a n s l a t i o n of

the S r id g l ing a s "The Origins of Ling" is t h e r e fo r e p e r f e c t l y

a c c e p ta b le and a c c u ra t e .

One f inal r e m a r k on the Srid Ling : being the c h a p t e r on the

c osm ic d imens ion of the epic , it is roughly e q u iv a l e n t to the

f a m i l i a r opening c h a p t e r s of Puranas and it r e a d s ve ry much l ike

them. As such, i t s p re s en c e in a l i s t of Gesar s a g as g iv es the e n t i r e

epic a c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s s e n s e t h a t f i t s wel l w i t h the l i t u rg i c a l

agenda I wil l d i s c o v e r in the course of th is monograph on the Mipham

edi tion. The s t o r y of the c re a t io n of the land of Ling is given from

the c re a t ion of the world to approx imate ly the 8 th c e n tu ry , the t im e

of the f lou r i sh ing of the g r e a t T ibe tan kings. We have no t found,

however , a Mipham v e rs io n of the S r id gLing.

33

The human ac t ion of the heroic t a le , how ever , t ru ly begins

w i t h t h e Lha gLing. The word ¡ha is s imply the gene r i c T ibe tan te rm

fo r gods. 1 have t r a n s l a t e d t h i s t i t l e a s "The Divine Assembly."

l i t e r a l l y it means s im p ly “god (or gods) l ing." Th is could be

t r a n s l a t e d "The Chapter of the Gesar Epic on the Gods." Or i t could

be t r a n s l a t e d "The Gods and Ling." In any case , the p lo t is t h a t evil

demons have r e in c a rn a t e d as kings of g r e a t e m p i r e s and powerful

na t io n s in Central Asia. In p a r t i c u l a r the re are four g r e a t demon

kings surrounding Ling a t t he four cardinal p o in t s of the compass .

Royal demons also i n f e s t the coun t r i e s of the i n t e r m e d i a t e

d i r ec t io n s . As a r e s u l t of t h e i r p e rve r t ed g o a ls or, to u se a more

tec hn ica l term, "pe rve r t ed a sp i ra t ions , " the coun t ry of Tibet is

t h r e a t e n e d w i th po l i t i c a l and social chaos and th e e n t i r e world, in

f ac t , is in danger .44

Here at the beginning of act ion we should d i s c u s s the broad

logic and dynamics of t h i s epic plot. "Pe rve r t ed a s p i r a t i o n s " ( log

pa 'i smon 1am ) is the o p e ra t iv e word in the a rg u m e n t of t h i s

Buddhist ve rs ion of the Gesar. it r e f l e c t s a key po in t in Mahayana

d o g m a t i c s — the idea t h a t , as f a r as r e l ig ious conv ic t ions a re

concerned , the fundam en ta l d i f f e rence b e tw e e n ind iv idua ls is not a

d i f f e r e n c e in natu re , bu t a d i f f e re nce in genera l in ten t ion . I would

like to use th i s as a po in t of compar ison w i t h C a tho l i c he ro ic

n a r r a t i v e s , but f i r s t l e t us examine the Buddhist concep t of evil as

a s p i r a t i o n s which are log pa , which are l i t e r a l l y "turned" or

pe rve r ted .

34

Aspira t ion i s the f a c t o r which d i s t i n g u i s h e s the d i f f e r e n t

s o r t s of beings on the p a th to Enl ightenment . There a re those w i th

common a s p i r a t i o n s or i n t e n t io n s (seeking m a t e r i a l w e l f a r e and

su c c e s s ) , those w i t h noble ( arya ) i n te n t ions ( seek ing en l igh tenm ent

f o r the be ne f i t of o th e r s ) , and those w i th pe rv e r t ed in ten t ions .

Ordinary beings (skt: pudgala jana ) have vague in t e n t io n s r e l a te d to

s e l f - a g g r a n d iz e m e n t , s e l f - d e f e n s e , and the cont inua l need to

conf i rm the e x i s t e n c e of ego. Bodhisa t tvas , l i t e r a l l y ,

" en l igh tenm en t beings," have, on the o ther hand, a spe c ia l intent ion.

They a re s p e c i f i c a l ly devoted to the a t t a in m e n t of en l igh tenm en t fo r

the b e n e f i t of others . They have th e re fo re given b i r th to a special

though t or in ten t iona l a c t ca l led bodh ic it ta , " the thought (or mind)

of en l ightenment ." I have t r a n s l a t e d th is p o e t i c a l ly a s "the

aw akened h e a r t , ” fo l low ing the l i t e r a l S a n sk r i t meaning of bodhf a s

" aw aken ing” and the genera l tendency of Asian l anguages to use

"hear t" and "mind" in te rchangeab ly . B odh i sa t tvas a re beings who

have “genera ted the aw akened hear t" (skt: b o d h ic i t ta utpadaya; tib:

byang chubs sems dpa' skyes ): they have abandoned t h e i r own s e l f ­

b e n e f i t in favor of the b e n e f i t of o thers , indeed, of all s e n t i e n t

beings.

The bodh i sa t tva t h e r e f o r e pe r fo rm s r e p e a te d ly a c e r t a in

f am ous ceremony in w h ic h he or she r e p e a t s monlam (tib: smon iam,

skt: pranidhana ), a s p i r a t i o n p r a y e r s — prayers w h ic h s t a t e c lea r ly

the goal of l ibera t ing all s e n t i e n t beings. This is the asp ira t ion

which d i s t i n g u i s h e s a b o d h i sa t t v a and all the p r in c ip le he roes of the

35

Gesar f rom ordinary beings.

These be ings of h ighes t a s p i r a t i o n s a re s y s t e m a t i c a l l y

opposed by a wor ld of v i l l a in s who, in e f f e c t , c o n s t i t u t e a third s o r t

of ind iv idua l— beings w i th demonic or p e r v e r t e d a sp i r a t i o n s . These

a re c r e a t u r e s who have a c tu a l ly taken v o w s and p e r fo rm e d

a s p i r a t i o n p r a y e r s exp re s s ing an in te n t ion o p p o s i t e to the

b o d h i s a t t v a vow. They have sw o rn to oppose Buddhism and i t s

s p r e a d in o r d e r to cause harm to s e n t i e n t beings. It is an i n f e s ta t io n

of such c r e a t u r e s , tak ing over ru le r sh ip of the e m p i r e s of Asia,

w h ich s t i m u l a t e s the act ion of a heaven ful l of Buddhist gods. These

gods have c o r r e c t in tent ions : have "given r i s e to the mind of

en l igh tenm ent ." That is, they have t ak e n the b o d h i s a t t v a vow to

w ork fo r the b e n e f i t of beings.

The e x i s t e n c e of such c r e a tu r e s , demons and bo d h i sa t tv a s ,

w i t h t h e i r c o n f l i c t in g in ten t ions , is the f i r s t or e a r l i e s t cause of

the a c t i o n of the epic. The b o d h i s a t t v a s have had th e s e in ten t ions

fo r t h o u sa n d s of years . The extended ( va ipu lya ) Mahayana s u t r a s

such a s the Lotus Sutra m em o r i a l i z e the f i r s t m om en t when a

d i s c ip l e t a k e s t h i s vow and becom es a b o d h i sa t t v a . It prov ides in

som e w a y s a model for the a c t io n of the Gesar. The second division

of the f i r s t chuan of the Chinese v e r s ion of the Lotus h a s the

conven t iona l t i t l e "Upaya" or "ski l lful means." There the Buddha

r e v e a l s to Sa r ipu t ra , the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the Hinayana teach ings ,

t h a t h is p rev ious t each ings on the L e s s e r Vehic le have been taught

a s an a c t of sk i l l fu i m eans and are not the a b so lu te t ru th . He is

36

abou t to revea l the e x i s t e n c e of b o d h i s a t t v a s w i t h t h e i r more lof ty ,

more a l t r u i s t i c in ten t ions . La ter in the f i f t h chuan w e wil l s e e

r e v e a l e d m i l l i o n s of b o d h i s a t t v a s who have been s tudy ing the

Mahayana in s e c r e t fo r myr iad yea r s . They have been living "under

the ear th" and now “we l l up out of the ground" and p r e s e n t

t h e m s e l v e s to the assembly .

But he re in the c h a p t e r on sk i l l fu l m eans the Buddha a p p ea r s to

h e s i t a t e . He t e l l s S a r ip u t r a t h a t he does not d a re to revea l t h i s

more su b t l e , more rad ica l , more powerfu l d h a rm a — t h i s " lotus of

the t r u e law" (as opposed to the exped ien t law). This is a r e f l e c t i o n

of the scene from his l i fe s to ry in which Brahma m u s t ask him to

begin to t e a c h s e n t i e n t beings. The Buddha a t t h a t po in t r e s i s t e d ,

say ing t h a t h is e n l igh tenm e n t is too s u b t l e to teach . He does t h i s

again:

Cease, cease! No need to speak.My dharma is su b t l e and hard to imagine.Those of ove rw een ing pr ide,If they h ea r it, sha l l su re ly n e i t h e r r eve re it nor

be l ieve in i t .45

S a r ip u t r a , j u s t like Brahma be fo re him, r e q u e s t s again the

t e a c h i n g s and the Buddha r e l e n t s and g ives them , exposing the

a l t r u i s t i c pa th of the G re a te r Vehicle. Then d i s c i p l e s full of p r ide

abandon h i s assembly:

While he w a s speaking th e s e words , in the a ssm bly

bh iksus, bh iksunls , upasakas , and u pa s ikas to the number of

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f ive th o u sa n d s t r a i g h t w a y r o s e from t h e i r s e a t s and, doing

o b e i s a n c e t o t h e Buddha, w i t h d r e w . For w h a t r e a s o n ? This

group had deep and grave r o o t s of s in and o v e rw ee n in g pr ide,

imagin ing t h e m s e l v e s to have a t t a in e d and to have borne

w i t n e s s to w h a t in f ac t they had not. Having such f a u l t s as

t h e s e , t h e r e f o r e they did no t s tay. The World-Honored One,

s i l e n t , did no t r e s t r a i n them.

These p r id e f u l d i sc ip le s r e f u s e to develop t h e s e l f l e s s

in t e n t io n s of the b o d h i s a t t v a s and so abandon Buddhism. In the

Cesar i t is such d i s c i p l e s who becom e the e n e m i e s of the Dharma,

develop p e r v e r t e d a s p i r a t i o n s and through t h e i r p e r v e r t e d vow s are

reborn as Demon kings. The m oment of th e i r r e v o l t is the ac tua l

e a r l i e s t c a u s e of the ac t ion of the plot. This m o m e n t is not

r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e Mipham Lha gLing, but it is p a r t of the g r e a t e r

legend. There a r e s e v e ra l v e r s io n s of it. A lexande r David-Neel gives

one in her p a r a p h r a s e / s u m m a r y of the Cesar. In h e r ve rs ion the re is

an a rg u m e n t b e t w e e n a fa i th fu l m o t h e r and a r e b e l l i o u s daughter .

The m o t h e r goes o f f to seek the Buddha and is f i n a l l y b l e s s e d into

heaven by Am itabha . The daughte r r e b e l l s , s u f f e r s ill fo r tune , and

s t a r v e s to d e a t h c u r s in g the Buddha. She and h e r s o n s become the

four demon k ings .46

Pe rhaps the m o s t impor tan t p rev ious t e x t fo r the s to ry of th is

rebe l l ion is the l i t e r a t u r e desc r ib ing the r e v o l t of Matram Rudra.

The s t o r i e s of p r id e f u l d i sc ip le s ' r ebe l l ion a g a i n s t the t each ings of

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the L e s s e r and Grea te r V e h ic le s is pa ra l le led by the s t o r y of the

T a n t r i c d i sc ip le 's r e v o l t a g a i n s t the Vajrayána. T h is is one of the

m o s t im p o r t a n t m o t i v e s in T ibe tan Buddhist l i t e r a t u r e . Rudra, of

cou rse , is an im por tan t w r a t h f u l a spec t of the Hindu god of

d e s t r u c t i o n , Siva. In one v e r s io n of the s t o r y it i s a l so the name of a

t a n t r i c d i sc ip le who k i l l s h i s own guru and is s e n t to Vaj ra Hel l—

the i n d e s t r u c t ib l e p e rm a n e n t hell r ese rved fo r v i o l a t o r s of t a n t r i c

v o w s .47

In ano the r ve rs ion o f the s to ry Rudra is a c t u a l l y the god Siva.

He has been convert ed to Buddhism and is known a s Mahesvara, "the

Great Lord." He is c o n s id e r e d by the Buddhist s to be the god of all

l o w e r dem ons— pisacas, apasmaras, e tc . — the m o n s t e r s who

dwe l l in charnel grounds and feed on human beings. Mahesvara

r e b e l l s a ga in s t the t a n t r i c t each ings and m u s t be t a m e d by the

q u i n t e s s e n t i a l god of t a n t r a , V a j ra sa t tva . Fina l ly , a f t e r much

b a t t l in g , he is conver t ed t o Buddhism and made a dharmapála, a

p r o t e c t o r of the t e a c h i n g s — in fac t , the m o s t f am o u s among th is

c l a s s of de i t i e s , the g r e a t black p r o t e c to r Mahákala. This s to ry is in

the Tathága ta -ta ttva -sam graha , the second c h a p te r , t he sec t ion

e n t i t l e d "Tri loka-v i jaya" (Victory on the Tree Worlds). 48

Another im p o r t a n t v e r s i o n of the Rudra s t o r y is a l so mentioned

in the Padma Thang Yig, t h e myth in which Rudra is t a m e d by the

su p re m e t a n t r i c d e i t i e s Hayagriva and Vajrayogini . These two

d e i t i e s a re impor tan t c h a r a c t e r s in the Mipham Gesar. They are

p a r e n t s of G e s a r s p rev io u s incarnat ion and a c t iv e i n t e r c e d e r s in his

39

adven tu res . Hayagriva, in some v e r s io n s of the s to ry , a c tua l ly

r e i n c a r n a t e s as Gesar 's Uncle Trotung.

i t f i t s w i th the non-dua l i sm of Buddhist m e t a p h y s i c s t h a t the

e n e m ie s in the epic shou ld be mere ly p e rv e r t e d as opposed to

fundam en ta l ly evil. In f a c t , t h i s o f f e r s an i n t e r e s t i n g com par ison

w i t h o th e r ca re fu l ly composed re l ig ious epics. Like C a tho l ic i sm ,

Mahayana Buddhism doe s not recognize the e x i s t e n c e of evil as a

d i s t i n c t su b s ta n c e or e s sence . There a re many phi losophical

p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h i s poin t , but if we take , fo r example, the

Tathagatagarbh* School of Mahayana phi losophy as r e f l e c t e d , l e t us

say in the M ahayanotta ra tantra sas tra 49, then i t is c l e a r t h a t a

demon cannot have a s e p a r a t e , evil m o t iv a t io n for h is nega t ive

ac t ions . His behavior m u s t be a r e s u l t of a p e rv e r t e d a t t e m p t to

e x p r e s s the bas ic goodness of his buddha na tu re , his

tathagatagarbha, for all beings p o s s e s s by n a tu r e the gotra (Tib:

r ig s ) or fami ly of the Buddha. Thus, the demon kings who oppose

Gesar , Ling, and the Buddhist re l igion a re explained to be a c tua l ly

descended from t a n t r i c Buddhist p r a c t i t i o n e r s who became

p e rv e r t e d in the i r unde rs t and ing of the pa th and thus by deg rees

becam e e n em ies of man.

This s to ry is found throughout the n a r r a t i v e s of T ibe tan

Tant ra . There is a good example in the Padma Thang Yig .50 A t a n t r i c

m a s t e r has two d i s c ip l e s . They debate t h e i r unders tand ing of the

d o c t r in e of t r a n s m u t a t i o n and f ight a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r

d i s a g ree m e n t . One of the d i sc ip le s b ecom es a s a i n t a s a r e s u l t of

40

h i s c o r r e c t understanding. The other , re ly ing on a p e rv e r t e d

unders tand ing , becom es a power-hungry m o n s t e r and is rebo rn in

numerous in c a rn a t io n s as a demon and enemy of re l igion.

The Mipham Gesar p r e s e n t s t h e s e demons as f o r m e r t a n t r i c

p r a c t i t i o n e r s who have v io la ted t h e i r vow s through a

m is u n d e r s ta n d in g of the t e a ch in g s and who thus produce p e rv e r t ed

a s p i r a t i o n s .51

On the o t h e r hand, many non-Buddhist ve r s io n s of t h e s e

legends a re much more dua l i s t i c . In the "History of the Goloks" we

w i l l see a t r iba l v i s ion of enem ies in which those who oppose the

hero do so by v i r t u e of mere a c c id e n t s of b i r th and a l l e g ia n c e or e l s e

be ca u se they a re d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s of beings. The Golok s t o r y begins

w i t h a b a t t l e b e tw e e n the black demons (bdud, skt : m ara ), who are

c a u s e s of s i c k n e s s and death and by n a tu r e a n t i t h e t i c a l to man, and

the w h i t e gods ( / ha ), who are by na tu re a lw ay s ava i l ab le for

f r i endsh ip w i t h man. In the Ladakhi ve rs ion of the Gesar, which is

t aken to be an e s p e c i a l l y non-Buddhis t ed i t ion, a w h i t e and a black

divine b e a s t f igh t , r e p re se n t in g again the w h i t e and black de i t ies .

This c o lo r opposi t ion is p re s e n t th roughout the language of

indigenous T ibe tan rel ig ion and is a lso p r e s e n t in the non-Buddhis t

Bon rel ig ion of Tibe t . Many W es te rn sc h o la r s , speaking of the

s u c c e s s of Manichaeism in Centra l Asia , have a c tu a l ly t ak e n th is

m o t i f in i t s many fo rm s to r e p r e s e n t an Iranian in f luence on Tibe tan

mythology. They s tudy not only s t o r i e s of black and w h i t e gods in

e te rna l opposi t ion, but also the Bon c r e a t io n m yths w h ich seem to

41

r e f l e c t a Manichaean p e r s p ec t iv e . So convinced a re s o m e s c h o l a r s of

t h i s connec t ion t h a t Per Kvaerne has a c t u a l l y w r i t t e n a su rvey of

W es te rn sc h o la r ly thought on the p o s s i b i l i t y of I r an ian in f luence on

T ib e t .52

The n o n -d u a l i sm involved in t h e Gesar's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of

demons and e n e m ie s is a lso an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in the spec ia l

ph i losophica l school of Mipham. Mipham Gyatsc, a long w i t h Jam gon

Kongtrul t h e Great , and Jam yang Khyen tse Wangpo, w a s one of the

ch ie f exponen ts of the E c lec t ic school o f Tibe tan Buddhist

phi losophy. We wi l l have occas ion to d i s c u s s th is school in more

depth l a t e r in t h i s th e s i s . I t ' s n o n -d u a l i sm was of a sp e c i a l nature .

All Mahayana s e c t s s t a t e t h a t every s e n t i e n t being p o s s e s s e s buddha

na tu re , the inna te p o t e n t i a l i t y to gain c o m p le te e n l igh tenm e n t . The

S a n s k r i t w o rd for t h i s is tathagatagarbha, which l i t e r a l l y means,

"the e s s e n c e or womb of the T a t h a g a t a s , the B u d d h a s . "

The t ea ch ing t h a t all people p o s s e s s buddha n a t u r e is an

i m p o r t a n t p a r t of i n s t r u c t i o n s in the h i g h e s t Mahayana and

Vaj rayana m e d i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s . For if one be l ieves t h a t the na tu re

of e n l ig h t e n m e n t e x i s t s as an innate p o t e n t i a l w i t h in one, then i t is

e a s i e r to have the conf idence n e c e s s a r y to p r a c t i c e the very re laxed

approaches of Buddhist m e d i t a t i o n known as m aham udra and ati .

But when i t came to exp re s s ing an ontology to back up the

concep t of an inna te ly p e r f e c t p o te n t i a l such as th is , m o s t Tibe tan

p h i lo sophers e x p re s s e d r e s e r v a t i o n s — h e s i t a t i n g to p o s i t buddha

n a tu re as an e x i s t e n t thing. It w a s the c u s to m , p a r t i c u l a r l y among

42

p a n d i t s of the p redom inan t Gelugpa s e c t , to hold the buddha na tu re

t e a c h i n g s as not u l t i m a t e l y t rue , bu t m ere ly exped ien t ly t rue. Thus

in the complex Buddhist h e r m e n e u t i c s t h a t developed, the

t a t h á g a t a g a r b h a s ü t r a s w e r e c o n s id e re d to be of m e re ly

" i n t e r p r e t a b l e meaning" ( drang don ) and no t u l t i m a t e l y t rue , t h a t is,

of "de f in i t ive meaning" (nges don ). 53

But Mipham's school suppor ted the c o n t e n t s of t h e s e s u t r a s as

large ly of d e f in i t iv e meaning. Thus, they a t t i m e s proposed the

e x i s t e n c e of an u l t im a te , indwel l ing e s se n c e , a t ru ly e x i s t e n t buddha

natu re . This p e r f e c t n a tu r e and p o ten t i a l of man w a s de sc r ib e d in

the c l a s s i c a l Indian t ex t , the U tta ra ta n tra and suppor ted

po lem ica l ly by Mipham in tw o s h o r t w o rk s of madhyamikan

a g o n i s t i c s . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t to our d i s c u s s io n is The Lion's Roar:

The Great Essentia l Exposit ion o f Gugatagarbha 54 and The Lion's

Roar o f O ther . 55 These w o rk s argue t h a t the buddha e s s e n c e is

s u b s t a n t i a l l y e x i s te n t . These e s s a y s are r em a rk ab ly f r e sh and

or ig ina l and they show f o r t h a new approach to Buddhist m e d i t a t i o n

which insp i red a cen tu ry of ph i losophica l , l i t e r a ry , and sc ho la r ly

p roduct ion some have c a l l e d "the Tibe tan Renaissance." The

r e p e r c u s s i o n s of th i s on to log ica l r evo lu t ion w e r e v a s t , but the one

r e l e v a n t to our p r e s e n t d i s c u s s io n can be sum m ed up in Chogyam

Trungpa, Rinpoche’s aphor i sm, "From this [nature] one b re a k s the law.

From i t one keeps the law."56 The point is t h a t all a c t s of evil and

s in a re as much a r e s u l t of the p e r f e c t na tu re of man, as a re all

v i r tu o u s ac t s . Evil does not have a s e p a r a t e l y e s t a b l i s h e d ex is tence .

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Fur thermore , t hose who have made t h i s pe r fe c t po t e n t i a l , t h i s

buddha nature , m a n i f e s t exhibi t the magical p o w e rs of a buddha and

h is c o u n t l e s s s p e c ia l qua l i t ies . They are like he roes such as Gesar

— v a s t , m ag ica l ly powerfu l beings of in sc ru tab le and inconceivable

wisdom. The h e ro e s and demons in the Mipham Gesar body fo r th th is

a b s o l u t i s t and i m m a n i s t philosophy.

The ph i losophica l point of the d i f fe re nce b e tw e e n a d u a l i s t i c

approach to evil and a non -dua l i s t i c one has been d i s c u s s e d in the

W es te rn f ield of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m a s well. Perhaps the s c h o la r s

Kvaerne d i s c u s s e s a r e influenced, fo r example, by the d i s c u s s io n s

of a no n -d u a l i s t i c v i e w of the na tu re of evil in Ch r i s t i an ep ic s such

as The Divine Comedy. There Dante m u s t r e p r e s e n t evil so t h a t i t is

c lea r ly not a s e p a r a t e subs tance. For to do o th e r w i s e would be to

fal l into Manichaen h e r e s i e s th a t w e r e well unders tood during the

XINth Century. Thus, evil in the Comedy m us t be r e p r e s e n t e d as

p o w e r l e s s and e s s e n c e l e s s in i t s e l f , incapable of o r ig ina t ing act ion,

incapable of im ag ina t ion or c r e a t i v i t y — only capable , in fac t , of

exp re ss ing i t s e l f through a parody of goodness .57 This is r a t h e r like

the v i l l a in s in the Gesar Epic. They seem powerful to the ordinary

man, but ac tua l ly they are l i f e l e s s puppe ts in the hands of the e v e r -

manipu la t ing Cesar.

Like the Buddhist Gesar, The Divine Comedy m u s t c a re fu l ly

r e p r e s e n t evil so t h a t is c lear ly not a s e p a r a t e subs tance . This is

done through the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the damned a s pa rod ies of the

good r a t h e r than a s d i s t i n c t l y evil. So, in the wor ld of the Comedy,

44

as one r e c e d e s from the good, one w i t h d r a w s from e x is te nce i t s e l f ,

b e ca u se evil is not s e p a ra t e ly e s t a b l i s h e d — noth ing in i t s e l f , bu t

only a c e r t a i n s o r t of d i s tanc ing from the good. Thus the f inal p i t of

Hell is f rozen and Sa tan is locked h e lp l e s s and inac t ive in the ice.

To put it ano the r away, evil can only be de f ined as a lack, as

an absenc e of some good thing. Thus, fo l lowing A r i s t o t l e ' s

de f in i t io n of t ru th as the good of the in te l l e c t , in Canto III of

Inferno, Virgil speaks of the damned as p o s s e s s i n g in te l l e c t , bu t not

"the good of the inte l lect . " Canto III, the e n t r a n c e to Hell, i s a

p a r t i c u l a r l y good point to examine the c onsequences of t h i s

phi losophy of the e s s e n c e l e s s of evil. The in sc r ip t io n on the

g a te w a y says not only t h a t J u s t i c e , Power, and Wisdom p a r t i c i p a t e d

in the c re a t io n of Hell, but a lso "Love Supernal ." Dorothy S a y e rs , in

he r com m enta ry on t h i s sect ion, e l a b o r a t e s the doc tr ine of God's g i f t

to man of f ree will and the power of choice .58

The point is f u r t h e r e labora ted in Purgatorio, where i t s

consequences to s a lva t ion are presen ted . Sin is a m a t t e r of choice.

Choosing to turn away from God and the good is the e ssence of sin.

Choosing the good is the e s se n ce of b l is s . In Purgatorio the dead

sou ls s u f f e r the sam e pun ishm en ts as the damned, but s u f f e r them

joyfu l ly , because they have chosen the good and hope for even tua l

e xp ia t ion of the i r sins. To use Buddhist t e rm ino logy , you could say

t h a t the fundmanental d i f f e re nce b e tw e e n the p u rg a to r i a l s and the

damned is tha t they do not p o s s e s s pe rv e r t ed a s p i r a t i o n s and have

not made a choice which turned them from the good. 59

45

The i n t e r e s t i n g po in t is t h a t t h i s sam e approach could be used

to explain the behav ior of the w a r r io r b o d h i s a t t v a s who f igure in the

epic , They c o m p a s s io n a t e all s e n t i e n t be ings and a t the sam e t im e

c o m p a s s io n a t e ly oppose the s o -c a l l ed evi l demon kings. Thei r

g r e a t e s t e n e m ie s are a c tu a l ly fo rm er Buddhist p r a c t i t i o n e r s .

Figures of r e v e r s a l of the poles of good and evil abound thorughout

the epic. One of the p r inc ipa l vi l l a ins , for example, Uncle Trotung, is

a c tu a l ly cons idered by som e to be an inca rna t ion of a t a n t r i c buddha,

Hayagriva..

The Dantean exp lana t ion of the n a tu r e of evil , informed a s it

is by a m edieva l s c h o l a s t i c concern to avoid Manichaean h e re s i e s ,

could a s e a s i l y explain the "perver ted asp i ra t ions ." These

a s p i r a t i o n s which def ine the Buddhist e nem ies could as wel l s e rv e

to def ine the damned who s u f f e r in the Divine Comediy. For choice is

the def ining and c o n s t i t u t i v e f ea tu re in t h e i r demonhood

Here I am rely ing on the approach to the Divine Comedy of the

Inklings. Of course , to re ly on the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of Sayers ,

Wil l iams, and C.S. Lewis is to ignore se ve ra l w o r ld s of academic

c r i t i c i s m which have o t h e r complex v i e w s of Cathol ic theology. The

Inkl ings w r o t e as modern Ca thol ics a t t e m p t i n g to expla in the

r e levance of Dante to modern audiences. They did not , the re fo re ,

spend much t im e t ry ing to d i s t ingu ish p r e c i s e ly t h e T hom is t

in f luences on his work from the A v e r r o i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s —

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s which som e say one m u s t cons ider because Dante

placed a supposed ly A v e r ro i s t phi losopher , Siger de Brabant , in

46

P a rad i s e .60 Saye rs , ignoring th e s e fine po in ts , p r e s e n t s a s ing le

c o h e re n t ve rs ion of the s y n t h e s i s of the h u m a n i s t and Ca thol ic

p r in c ip l e s Dante e f f e c t e d in h i s map of e th i c a l rea l i ty .

But, of c ou rse , t he s i t u a t i o n is not s i m p l e t h e r e a re

c o n t r o v e r s i e s a t every turn as one def ines the A r i s t o t e l i a n and Neo-

p l a t o n i s t c o n t r i b u t io n s to Dante and d i s t i n g u i s h e s them from

C hr i s t i an v i e w s and then f u r t h e r asks w h e t h e r they en te r ed Dante 's

work via the c o n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e Thomist Schoolmen or the

A v e r r o i s t s or v ia a l e s s de f in i t e academic ph i losophica l fo rmula t ion .

Since the d e t a i l s of Dante ' s educa t ion are not w e l l documented ,

t h e s e m a t t e r s are c o n t r o v e r s i e s which fi ll the l i t e r a tu re .

But, avoiding th e s e c om plex i t i e s , in t h i s e s sa y I w i l l re ly

s im p ly on the v iew of one school because it is c lea r , a c c e s s i b l e to

the n o n - s p e c i a l i s t such as m yse l f , and involved w i t h a d i s t i n c t

l i t e r a r y agenda which p a ra l l e l s in an i n t e r e s t i n g sense t h a t of

Mipham.

Sayer 's p r e s e n t a t i o n of Dante 's non -dua l i sm as c o r r e c t

Catho l ic doc t r ine is p r e s s e d in her d i scuss ion of modern

m ot iva t iona l psychology , pp. 3 1 - 44. She is w r i t i n g here a g a i n s t a

Freudian i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the symboli sm of B e a t r i c e using the

w r i t i n g s of Maud Bodkin as a t e r r i b l e example .61 The Freudian view

of modern sym bo l i sm as founded on a typology of neu roses is

r e j e c t e d on m e t a p h y s i c a l grounds: "But w h a t the opposi te pa r ty [i.e.

Bodkin] is in danger of f o rg e t t i n g is the doc t r ine , well known to the

47

Schoolmen, t h a t it i s evil which is a p a r a s i t e upon the good, and not

the o th e r way round. Only good can o r ig ina te anything: evil can only

de fo rm and co r rup t the good a l ready ex is t ing . The e r r o r l ie s in

a c c e p t in g the pe rve r s ion as the norm..." [Sayers, Purgatorio, p. 31 ]

This point ha s a c e r t a i n Buddhis t ring to it. A f o l lo w e r of

Mipham's school could e a s i l y have e x p re s s e d the s a m e s e n t i m e n t —

t h a t e r r o r does not l ie in a l l eg iance to an evil power , but in a

fu n d am e n ta l m isu n d e r s t a n d in g abou t the na ture of the s e l f - e x i s t i n g

norm, the Dharma o r the Tao. The locus c lass icus f o r t h i s Buddhist

p o s i t i o n would be the M aháyanotta ra tantra s a s t r a , wh ich a s s e r t s

t h a t Buddha na tu re is the only p o s i t i v e ly , t ru ly e x i s t in g , t ru ly

e s t a b l i s h e d s u b s t a n c e — an e t e r n a l , s e l f - e x i s t i n g iden t i ty , innate ly

f r e e f rom su f fe r ing , and produc t ive of the c o u n t l e s s q u a l i t i e s and

p o w e r s of a Buddha.62

There is an i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e , however , b e tw ee n the

C a tho l ic v iew of cho ice and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y based on human f r ee wil l

and the Buddhist v iew of m ora l i ty b a sed on n o n -p e rv e r t e d

a s p i r a t i o n s . Will and a sp i r a t i o n a re no t p r ec i s e ly equ iva len t

p sycho log ica l c o n s t r u c t s . Will im p l i e s the s i n g u l a r i t y and u t t e r

un i ty of human i d e n t i ty and i n te l l e c t . "Aspiration' ' in the Buddhist

s e n s e does not. C h r i s t i a n i ty , as S a y e r s i n s i s t s aga in and again, is

b a sed on the h i s t o r i c a l s i n g u la r i t y of J e s u s as the only inca rna t ion

of the abso lu te into "the s e r i e s of t ime." And S a y e r s m us t i n s i s t

w i t h equal force on the uni ty and ind iv idua l i ty of the human soul.

Maháyana Buddhism is founded on a be l i e f t h a t t h e r e is no s ing le and

46

unchanging soul and t h a t t h e re a re num erous incarna t ions , some

h i s t o r i c a l and som e u t t e r l y beyond q u e s t io n s of h i s to ry and

convent ional t ime.

And so, I bel ieve S a y e rs is c o r r e c t in i n s i s t i n g t h a t Cathol ic

m o t iva t iona l s t r a t e g i e s should be kept d i s t i n c t f rom the "myst ica l"

C h r i s t i an sc h o o l s popular , for example, w i t h f o l l o w e r s of w h a t

J a co b Needleman cal led " the New Age Re l ig ions .63 For example,

again arguing a g a in s t the Freudians, she says : "...it is seen to be

e sp ec ia l ly r e l e v a n t t h a t C h r i s t i an i ty , w h ich very no to r ius ly makes

use of the P a ren ta l Image, is i n s i s t e n t to deny th a t God's love is

"possess ive" in the sense compla ined of. God does not, in the m a n n e r

of the Gnos t ic 's Absolute Being, de s i re the abso rp t ion of the many in

the One; His love is anxiously d i r ec te d to conf i rm each individual

soul in his own ident i ty , so that , the n e a r e r i t d r a w s to Him, the

more t ru ly it becom es i t s unique and pe rsona l s e l f . " [p. 37]

She goes on a paragraph l a t e r to d i s c u s s Dante 's use of the

f igure of B ea t r i ce , which she c h a r a c t e r i z e s a s an incarna t ion of God

in the p a r t i c u l a r f igure of a woman. She s e e s th i s as an example of

Dante 's profound unders tand ing of the C h r i s t i a n r eve la t ion as a thing

th a t happens b e tw ee n individual and e t e r n a l l y d i s t i n c t souls:

This c h a r a c t e r , which has a l so been cal led the ' 'scandal ' ' ,

of p a r t i c u l a r i t y , s t a m p e d upon C h r i s t i a n i ty , is of i t s very

e s se nce , and governs all the imagery of i t s poets . Because of

it, Dante 's encoun te r w i th an individual living woman can be

49

made the Image of the soul ' s e n co u n te r w i t h a pe rsona l living

God. The I n f in i t e came once into the f i n i t e as a s in g le and

p a r t i c u l a r Pe rson ; the company of His e l e c t is made up of

s ingle and p a r t i c u l a r persons, each having s ing le and p a r t i c u l a r

r e l a t i o n s h ip s w i t h Himself , and w i t h each other . If w e t ry to

e f face from t h e Chr is t ian r e v e l a t i o n the brand of s ingu la r i ty ,

then w ha t w e shal l have l e f t is not C h r i s t i a n i t y a t all . The

symbol i sm of he Commedia wi l l be un in te l l ig ib le to us un less

w e r e m e m b e r t h i s basic pr incip le , w h ich at every level runs

coun te r to con tem pora ry no t ions of w h a t a r e l ig ious r eve la t ion

should be.

This "scandal of p a r t i c u l a r i t y ” is handled in Buddhist t e x t s

qu i te d i f f e r e n t ly because of the fundam enta l Buddhist b e l i e f tha t

the s e l f is compounded and f ragmenta ry . The buddha n a tu re , on the

o th e r hand, is no t f ragm enta ry . But then, i t i s not the s e l f e i the r .

And in m os t Mahayana phi losophies it would be wrong to sa y t h a t

buddha na tu re is an individual. In o th e r w o rd s , it is not one and i t is

not many. It is o f t e n taken by modern t h in k e r s to be akin to a

c e r t a i n c o n te m p o ra ry popular unde rs tand ing of Gnostic m y s t i c i s m

and to the Upanishadic conception of an Over-Soul into which

individual s e lv es d i s so lv e or of which they w e r e a lw ay s

fundam enta l ly a pa r t . This is c lo s e r to the t r u th , but s t i l l no t

co rr ec t . As we w i l l s ee in the c h a p te r on cosmology in t h i s

d i s s e r t a t i o n , t h e r e is no Buddhist not ion of a t rue s e l f e i t h e r

50

iden t i f ic a ] w i th or d i f f e r e n t from any p a r t i c u l a r absolute .

There fore the Buddhist not ion of inca rna t ion as r e p r e s e n t e d in

consc ious ly s c h o l a s t i c Buddhist f i c t io n such as the Lha Ling, i s

s t r u c t u r e d like the Ca tho l ic Tr in i ty , bu t is on to log ica l ly a t v a r i a n c e

w i t h it. And so t h e r e a re m u l t ip le inca rn a t io n s , whe re the

C h r i s t i an s have, a s S a y e r s in s i s t s , bu t one.

Mipham's p r e c i s e view as to the u n i t a r i n e s s of buddha n a t u r e

is subt le. The buddha n a tu re p o s s e s s e d by an individual is not i t s e l f

a being who could produce a c t s of wil l . It can, however , be the

p r im a ry cause of a m o m e n t of a sp i ra t ion . I t s n a tu r e thus f a l l s

b e tw e e n the e x t r e m e s of sol id, u n f r ag m e n ta ry e x i s t e n c e and th e

n ih i l i sm implied in the concept of the f r a g m e n ta r y consc iousness .

Here is the r e l e v an t quo te f rom the f i r s t page of The Lion's Roar o f

Sugatagarbha:

The e s s e n c e of the speech of all the v ic to r ious ones who

e x i s t in the t h r e e t im es , the c e n t e r of t h e i r r ea l i z a t i o n mind,

the one main po in t of all the t e a c h in g s of the s u t r a s and th e

t a n t r a s , is only this : a l l - p e r v a s i v e suga taga rbha [ano ther w ord

for buddha na ture ] . Because t h i s approach is very profound, i t

is sa id t h a t even the g rea t lo rds of the ten bhumis have

d i f f i c u l ty in c o m p le te ly unders tand ing th i s approach of

suga tagarbha . Like t ry ing to s e e a form in the da rkness of

n igh t ....

Moreover, s o m e t i m e s when the Teacher , the Sugata ,

51

spoke, he e luc ida ted the e s s e n c e of suga taga rbha by m e a n s of

t e a c h in g empt iness . S o m e t i m e s he e luc ida ted the n a t u r e of

su ga taga rbha by m e a n s of t e a c h in g that i t is p r i m o rd i a l l y

endowed with the q u a l i t i e s of a Buddha the p o w e r s and

the r e s t [However] s o m e people ...take up the v iew of

e t e r n a l i s m in which s u g a t a g a r b h a is not e s s e n t i a l l y empty.

Some people c ling to j u s t e m p t i n e s s alone and then dw e l l in

the v iew of n ih i l i sm , the s i d e of denial, which can no t

e s t a b l i s h suga taga rbha a s p r imord ia l ly in se p a ra b le f rom the

q u a l i t i e s of the Buddha....

It t u r n s out tha t the buddha na tu re , a lthough d i f f e r e n t f rom the

s e l f , i s d i r e c t l y r espons ib le fo r every ac t iv i ty w h ic h is o r d in a r i l y

a t t r i b u t e d to self. And i t is f rom t h i s e s sen t ia l n a tu r e t h a t a c t s of

choice o r ig ina te . Pos i t ive c h o ic e s a re d i rec t e x p re s s i o n s of the

na tu re . Negat ive or s in fu l c h o ic e s a re thwar ted , t w i s t e d a t t e m p t s

to e n a c t t h i s n a tu re — a t t e m p t s ba sed on a m is u n d e r s t a n d in g of the

n a tu re of human c o n s c i o u s n e s s a m isapprehens ion of the so u rc e

of human m ot iva t iona l s t a t e s .

All t h i s d iscuss ion is s i m p l y to indicate t h a t t h e r e is no t a

p e r f e c t s i m i l a r i t y be tw ee n the Dan tesque view of w i l l and cho ice

and the Buddhist one of a s p i r a t i o n and commitment . Both s y s t e m s

are n o n - d u a l i s t i c wi th r e s p e c t to t h e not ions of good and evi l and so

both s y s t e m s r ep re se n t s in a s a m a t t e r of f ree cho ice and

fundam en ta l desire. But B uddh is t a sp i r a t i o n s a re no t a c t s of w i l l ,

52

b e ca u se there is no s e l f which could be a b a s i s fo r the wil l ing.

One of the s i m p l e s t and m o s t d i r ec t s t a t e m e n t s of th i s

pr inc ip le of cho ice I have found is ac tua l ly in ye t a n o t h e r Chris t ian

he ro ic n a r r a t iv e of e p i c p ropor t ions , the t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y French

novel, Lancelot du Lac. This , of course, is t he novel F ra n c e sc a di

Rimini r e f e r s to in t h e Vth Canto of the Comedy when explaining her

fa l l into Hell. It i s a w o rk which d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t s e l f f rom other

French rom ances of t h e per iod by i t s good s t r u c t u r e and by the

r e a l i s m of i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of w a r and the p o l i t i c s of w a r in

medieval soc ie ty , i f w e are to bel ieve i t s c u r r e n t e d i t o r s , it also

r e f l e c t s , like Dante, a s e n s i t i v i t y to medieval S c h o l a s t i c philosophy.

In his in troduc t ion to a r e c e n t ed i t ion and pa ra l le l t r a n s l a t i o n

F ranco is Mosés s u m m a r i z e s the Lancelot's a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s evil

w i t h these words: "...ce Dieu, p a r to u t p résen t dans ce bas monde, qui

es t la p ré f ig u ra t ion de l 'autre, y a placé l'homme, un homme dont i l a

ta n t aimé la l ib e r té q u ' i l ne l'a créé ni bon n i méchant, m a is l ibre

d'ê tre l'un ou l 'autre. I l dépend de lu i-même, au p r i x d'un e f fo r t sans

re lâche de s'amender.' Le m al est l 'e f fe t , non de l' ignorance, de la

m isè re ou de l 'oppression, m ais d'une vo lon té désordonnée."64

If the re w e r e suc h a thing as volonté in Buddhist psychology,

then volonté désordonnée would be an a lm o s t p e r f e c t exp lana t ion of

the psychology of Gesar's demons, the r e v e r s e b o d h i s a t t v a s . The

above formula a im s to d e sc r ib e the psychology of m a l e f a c t o r s in

theologie la ly i n fo rm e d C h r i s t i a n chiva l r i c n a r r a t iv e s . S u b s t i t u t e

"buddha nature" for D ieu and " intention" (sems , c i t t a or sems

53

skyes, c i t to tp a d a ) f o r "vo lonté. " and the s t a t e m e n t would be va l id

fo r Mahâyâna Buddhism of the school we are consider ing .

This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t rue for the c ausa l c o n seq u e n c es of

volonté and " in ten t ion." A pe rve r se in tent ion , l ike a volonté

désordonnée, l e a d s to r e b i r t h in lower r e a l m s , u su a l ly in the

color ful Buddhist hells . A proper in tent ion l ea d s to r e b i r t h in the

rea lm of the gods. A p e r f e c t intent ion leads to t h e sa in thood of a

bodhi sa t tva .

It is e s p e c i a l l y a p p ro p r i a te to d i s c u s s t h i s m a t t e r in a

sum m ary of the p lo t of the Lha Ling, because the a s p i r a t i o n s u t t e r e d

in the Divine A s se m b ly a re the s t ru c tu r in g p r in c ip l e of the plot of

the r e s t of the epic. The gods and buddhas who m e e t in t h i s a s se m b ly

m u s t plan the r e m e d ia l a c t i o n s to be i n s t i t u t e d on the Earth. Their

i n te n t ions a re u t t e r e d as p ro m is e s and become "asp i ra t ions ." In

Buddhist n a r r a t i v e s the word "aspirat ion" (mônlam ) does not usua l ly

mean mere ly a d e s i r e or ambit ion . It a lso is a p r a y e r u t t e r e d in

o rder to bring t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of th is desire . In f a c t , mônlam

( sanskr i t : pranidhana ) is probably b e t t e r t r a n s l a t e d not a s

a sp i ra t ion , but a s a s p i r a t i o n prayer . A sp i ra t ion p r a y e r s have the

fo rce of vows and, l ike v o w s in Vedic and Indian n a r r a t i v e s , they

a lw a y s have e f f i c a c y — i t is one of the s o - c a l l e d " laws" of ka rm ic

cause and e f f e c t . A sp i r a t ion prayers u t t e r e d by e n l igh tened beings

a lw a y s lead to c o n se q u e n c e s in keeping w i t h the i n t e n t io n s u t t e r e d

in the prayer. T h i s is such an impor tant f a c t t h a t "The Path of Cause

and Effect" ( rgyu 'bras lam ) is one of the o f t e n used s i m i l e s fo r the

54

Mahayana path.

To unders tand the fo rce s a t work In the s t r u c t u r i n g of the plot

w i th i t s n o n - d u a l i s t i c oppos i t ions be tw ee n s a i n t s and demons, we

m us t desc r ibe one more s o r t of v o w — a vow unique to T an t r i c

Buddhism, the samaya vow ( dam tsh ig ). Whereas the b o d h i s a t t v a s

have u t t e r e d a s p i r a t o n s to help s e n t i e n t be ings, t h e i r t a n t r i c

eq u iv a len t s have taken samaya vows, "vows of c o m m i tm e n t , " to the

sam e e f fec t . The sam aya vows are sea led w i th powerfu l oaths . The

o a th s are a d m i n i s t e r e d by t a n t r i c m a s t e r s in t ru ly i n t im ida t ing

ceremonies . The v o w - t a k e r m u s t drink b le s sed w a t e r out of a

sku l lcup fash ioned from a human head. Vio la t ions of such vow s

would lead to f ea r fu l , d i s a s t r o u s consequences . In the second book

of the Gesar Epic the f o l lo w ers of Gesar c e m e n t t h e i r o a th s of

f e a l t y to him w i t h the drinking of oath w a te r , s e a l i n g to g e t h e r ru le r

and ruled w i th the t e r r i b l e fo rce of samaya. The t e r m s of the

ceremony spec i fy t h a t if the o a t h - t a k e r s v io la t e the samaya , the

w a t e r of oath wi l l begin to turn into lead. If the t r a n s g r e s s i o n is

not pur i f ied through r i t u a l s of r ec onc i l i a t ion , the v i o l a t o r w i l l be

d e s t ro y e d from the inside o u t— j u s t the way Rudra w a s des t royed

by the ho r se -h ea d ed t u t e l a r y de i ty Hayagriva, who b u r s t through his

skin from the inside out.

The demons who plague the wor ld w e re once f a i t h fu l Buddhist

p r a c t i t i o n e r s . In an a t t e m p t to gain en l ig h ten m e n t quickly, they

e n te r e d into spe c ia l t a n t r i c r e l a t i o n s h ip s w i th t h e i r t e a c h e r s and

engaged in sam aya vows tha t bound them even m ore t ig h t ly to both

55

guru and the re l ig ion i t s e l f . These t a n r i c p r a c t i t i o n e r s then v io la ted

or "corrupted" t h e i r s a m a y a s — th e i r t a n t r i c vows . Misunders tanding

the sym bo l ic t e a c h in g s of t a n t r a , they c om m i te d s ins . They enac ted

f i g u r e s of speech, tak ing sym bol ic i n s t r u c t i o n s l i t e r a l l y .

When they w e re c r i t i c i z e d by t h e i r gurus, they tu rned away

f rom the Buddha Dharma a l t o g e th e r . That tu rn ing a w ay produced

s e v e ra l powerfu l r e s u l t s . F i r s t of all , because of the magica l pow er

in v es te d in the s a m a y a vow s , they w e re reborn in t h e i r next

l i f e t i m e s a s powerfu l , d i f f i c u l t to kill m o n s t e r s or evil kings. In

t h a t second l i f e t im e t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s were s t i l l p e r v e r t e d and they

a c ted as e n e m ie s of the Dharma. If the l aw s of ka rm a w e re a l lowed

to p roceed w i t h no in te r v e n t i o n from divine f i g u re s , t h e s e demon

kings and m o n s t e r s would a u to m a t i c a l l y in the nex t l i fe , be reborn in

Hell. But like the e n e m i e s of Krsna in the Indian e p ic s , t h e i r

d e s t r u c t i o n by Gesar may bring them so close to r e l i g i o u s pur i ty

t h a t they a re ac tua l ly saved from hell even as they a re des t royed by

the s a i n t l y war r io r .

We wi l l s e e t h a t in the indigenous re l ig ion a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

the Gesar (In Chapter IV) t h e s e v io la t ions of s a m a y a have become

dua l ized into r i tua l im p u r i ty which is palpable and can even be

t r a n s m i t t e d by touch. This t r a n s fo r m a t i o n of the co n ce p t of

p e rv e r t e d a s p i r a t i o n in to ac tua l evil could be r eg a r d e d a s an

a s s i m i l a t i o n of Buddhism into local re l ig ion or i t could be seen, as

w e wil l p r e s e n t it in C h a p te r III s imply as the h e te r o g e n e i ty of the

r e l ig io u s con tex t of the epic.

56

Let u s now speak of the b o d h i sa t t v a s , the ones w i t h p o s i t iv e

i n t e n t io n s , who p a r t i c i p a t e in the epic. There a r e t h r e e gods who

e s p e c i a l l y p r e s i d e in the T ibe tan t r a d i t i o n over the c o m p a s s io n a t e

a c t io n of t h e buddhas. These are Amitabha , the buadha who p r e s i d e s

over a pure land or p a ra d i se in the Wes t , A v a lo k i t e s v a r a , the g r e a t

b o d h i s a t t v a who i n s t a n t i a t e s the v i r t u e of c o m p a ss io n , and

Padm asam bhava , the supe rna tu ra l t a n t r i c yogin who supposed ly

b rought E s o te r i c Buddhism to Tibet. The f i r s t t w o f i g u r e s are, of

cou rse , c onnec te d to g e t h e r in the Pure Land s e c t s of Northern Asia.

In the e s o t e r i c i s m of the T ibe tan Nyingma t r a d i t i o n they a re o f t en

un i ted w i t h Padm asam bhava to make a kind of t r i n i t y — th ree

e x p re s s io n s , or pe rhaps l eve l s of m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h e com pass ion of

en l ig h ten e d mind. In the Mipham v e rs io n of the ep ic t h e i r e s o t e r i c

i d e n t i t y w i t h each o th e r is exp re ssed by th e i r c o m p l i c i t y in a plo t to

save the w or ld from demons. They jo in t o g e t h e r and in typica l epic

f ash ion hold a s e r i e s of divine a s se m b l i e s . They dec ide in council to

send a he ro to e a r t h in o rder to d e fe a t the a n t i - b u d d h i s t demons. We

wi l l see t h a t in the phi losophica l t e x t s of Miph3m and in h is church

l i t u r g i e s Gesar , Padmasambhava , A va lok i t e sva ra , and Amitabha a re

not a c t u a l l y rega rded as d i s t i n c t ind iv idua ls , but m u l t i p l e

e m a n a t i o n s of one being. This unity w i l l be d r a m a t i z e d l i t e r a l l y in

the f i r s t c h a p t e r of the t r a n s l a t i o n when A v a l o k i t e s v a r a l i t e r a l ly

d i s s o l v e s in to Padmasambhava , who then e m a n a t e s r a y s of l ight

which becom e a f t e r s evera l i n t e r m e d i a t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s Gesar.

This hero is h im s e l f a Buddhist s a g e / d e i t y . His divine

57

p a re n tag e is g iven— which gods a re h is f a t h e r and mother ,

g r a n d f a t h e r and grandmother , and then the c i r c u m s t a n c e s of hi s

fu tu re i n ca rn a t io n a s Gesar are explained. The s e c t i o n which

p r e s e n t s the l ineage of Gesar is c e n t r a l to the Lha Ling, because i t

i s the po in t which a t t r a c t s the g r e a t e s t w e igh t of Buddhist

dogm at ics . It i s he re t h a t Gesar 's r e l a t i o n s h ip w i t h general and

a b s t r a c t p r in c ip l e s of m e ta phys ic s and cosmology a re most c lea r ly

expressed . This po in t , the m e ta p h y s i c s of Gesar 's bi r th , will be

explored in de ta i l in Chapter III. We wi l l examine in t h a t chap te r the

r i tu a l agenda r e f l e c t e d in the Lha l ing and echoed in the rel ig ious

c e r e m o n ie s which surround th is epic, c e r e m o n ie s w r i t t e n by Mipham

h im se l f . We w i l l iden t i fy a d i s t i n c t agenda fo r n a t iv e Tibetan

r e l ig ion a lso c l e a r l y p r e s e n t in t h i s c h a p t e r and f a s c in a t in g ly echoed

in the non-Buddhis t v e rs ions of th Lha Ling.

In the Lha Ling, The Divine Assembly, Gesar appears as a

c e l e s t i a l b o d h i s a t t v a living in a Buddhis t heaven. There his name is

not Gesar , but Joy fu l to Hear (Tib:t/ios pa dga ba, pronounced Thopa

Gawa). In t im a t io n s of his coming inca rna t ion occur to leaders of the

land of Ling as d r e a m s and m ys t ic vis ions. These v i s ions are

d i s c u s s e d in d e ta i l and a sage, Thangtong Gyalpo, an adv isor to the

c h ie f s of Ling, is inv i t ed to cons ider the omens.

Meanwhile in heaven, the Buddhist god, Thopa Ga (Joyful to

Hear) ,65 a d d r e s s e s the assem bled d e i t i e s and a g re e s tha t he wil l

t ake on f lesh to oppose the evil which t h r e a t e n s the world. Buddhas

and b o d h i s a t t v a s in the assembly vow to help him and they

58

t h e m s e l v e s become involved in r eb i r th a s f l e s h ly beings. The f u t u r e

Gesa r l i s t s the m ag ica l weapons and s p e c i a l a t t r i b u t e s he m u s t have

as a human being. T hese include such t h i n g s a s a magical horse ,

divine a rmor , and a f em in ine consor t of unp a ra l l e l e d beauty. The l i s t

is r e m i n i s c e n t of the t r a d i t io n a l e ight t r e a s u r e s of a Universal

Monarch (skt: cakravart in ; tib: 'khor lo 'gyur pa 'i rgya l p o ' i ).

Guru Padm asam bhava , the Lotus Born Guru, is the m o s t a c t i v e

de i ty in the epic. In T ib e t a n cul tu re he is rega rded a s the founder of

Buddhist Tant ra in Tibet . He is the Indie yogin who tam ed the

demons of T ibe t so t h a t they would abandon th e i r na t iona l o p p os i t ion

to the im p o r ta t io n of the Indian Buddhist t e a c h in g s .66 In th e M ip h a m

ed i t ion i t is exp la ined t h a t Lotus Born’s f a i l u r e to c om ple te ly t a m e

all opposing n a t iv e p o w e r s is the reason t h a t Gesar m u s t be c a l l ed

up. Thus, f rom hi s m ag ica l palace on the Copper Colored Mountain on

the c o n t ine n t of Camara (rnga yab ), P adm asam bhava su p e r v i s e s the

a c t ion of the epic. His methods are sneaky and full of indi rect ion ,

like those of Gesar h i m s e l f — i l l u s t r a t i n g an approach to the

Buddhist p r incip le of sk i l l fu l means (upaya) found throughout

popu lar Buddhist n a r r a t i v e s , pa r t i cu la r ly t h e avadanas and j a t a k a

t a l e s . 67

Lotus Born p r e p a r e s the way for the b i r th of Gesar by

t r ave l ing to Jam budvipa , the "Rose-Apple” c o n t in e n t inhabi ted by

humans. There he d iv es into the ocean and t r a v e l s to the u n d e r w a t e r

kingdom of the nagas— dragons— m y th ic a l , magical , sh a p e -

changing, t r e a s u r e guarding se rp en t s found throughout the Indian and

59

C hinese t r a d i t i o n s . Through t r i c k e ry he conv inces the nagas to

s u r r e n d e r to him t h e i r p r in c e s s , Dzeden im dze Idan, "Beauty" or

"Beau t i ful " ). She wil l become the m o th e r of Gesar.

At l e a s t in t h i s r ega rd the logic of i n ca rn a t io n s e e m s to be a

t r a n s c u l t u r a l phenomenon. Like o ther i n c a rn a t i o n s of p e r f e c t io n ,

G e s a r m u s t have a m o th e r who is an e s p e c i a l l y pure ve sse l . One

s p e c i a l t w i s t in T ibe tan ep ic n a r r a t i v e s is t h a t the m o th e r is no t a

human a t all , but a c tu a l l y a s p i r i t from the local re l igion. Dzeden,

fo r exam ple , is a nagini, a f em a le s e r p e n t s p i r i t . The nagas w i t h

t h e i r v a s t u n d e rw a t e r kingdom a re a comm onplace of Indian Buddhis t

n a r r a t i v e s . But the T ibe tan word f o r n a g a is k lu (pronounced 1u ).

Now the lu are na t ive p re -B u d d h i s t s p i r i t s . They a re s h a p e - s h i f t e r s ,

have v a s t w e a l th , and are f ea red fo r t h e i r a b i l i t y to cause all s o r t s

of " w a t e r d i s e a s e s " such as leprosy. They a re tnought to inhab i t

e v e r y s i t e whose topography s u g g e s t s w a t e r , even the l ea s t b i t of

m o i s t u r e , or any sugge s t ion of the se rpen t ine . P a dm asam bhava ' s

c h o ic e of such a being a s the hero ' s m o th e r in e f f e c t a l l i e s G e sa r

w i t h the fo r c e s of n a tu re and the p o w e rs of p re -B u d d h i s t re l ig ion in

T ibe t . At the sa m e t im e i t f u l f i l l s the r e q u i r e m e n t s of r i tua l p u r i ty

w h ich , a l though not a p a r t of c l a s s i c a l Buddhist phi losophy, a re an

a b s o l u t e n e c e s s i t y in the wor ld of t a n t r i c r i tua l .

When we speak of inca rna t ion or a v a t a r in the T ibe tan c o n t e x t

w e a r e deal ing w i th the unique Tibe tan d o c t r i n e of spruJ sku

(p ronounced tu lku ), “in ca rn a t io n s of h igher beings." L i t e ra l ly tu lku

is t h e t r a n s l a t i o n for the S a n s k r i t te rm nirmanakaya , the

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e m a na t io n body of the Buddha, p a r t of t h e d o c t r in e of the t h ree

bod ies or kaya of the Buddha. Ord inar i ly the theory of the t h ree

kayas i s taught in o rde r to explain the o n to log ic a l s t a t u s of t h e

v a r io u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of buddhahood w h ic h could occur in the

human realm. The buddha who is an h i s t o r i c a l pe rsonage is an

"em ana t ion body" or tu lku of the p r inc ip le of ab so lu te buddhahood,

the mind of the Buddha, which is beyond t im e and space.

In Tibe t , however , the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of such "emanat ions" w e re

exp lo red in a p r a c t i c a l way and developed in to t h e rem arkab le

s y s t e m of "r e incarna t ions" who w e re t h e b a s i s f o r the T ibe tan

t h e o c r a t i c s t a t e . The c la im w a s made t h a t the g r e a t t e a c h e r s and

p o l i t i c a l l eade r s of T ibe t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y in c a rn a t e d again and again

a s t h e m s e l v e s in o r d e r to con t inue to lead t h e i r m o n a s te r i e s , o r in

the c a s e of the Dalai Lama, to lead the T ib e tan federa l government . I

have not ye t found a c l a s s i c a l n a r r a t i v e or s c h o la r ly t ex t which

e xp la in s in de ta i l the dynamics of such i n c a r n a t i o n s as they a re

commonly unders tood in Tibet . However , t he re is a vas t oral lore

abou t tulkus. It invo lves s p e c i f i c w a r n in g s abou t wha t w om bs

would be a pp rop r i a te v e s s e l s for the en l ig h ten e d c o n sc io u s n es s

which m u s t e n te r the wor ld of f lesh. Some of t h i s lore is r e l a t e d in

the Gesar Epic i t s e l f . For example, we w i l l s e e in the t r a n s l a t i o n of

C hap te r I of the Lha Ling a de ta i l ed d e s c r i p t i o n of the a lchem ica l

p h a s e s in the c r e a t i o n of an em ana t ion into the s p i r i t rea lm. We

w i l l see Padmasambhava em a na te r a y s of l igh t which r e p r e s e n t an

a s p e c t of hi s divine a c t iv i ty . These r a y s of l igh t will i n t e r a c t w i th

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a v a r i e ty of d e i t i e s and in several s t a g e s give b i r t h to a new d e i t y

ca l l ed "Joyful to Hear." Joyful to Hear w i l l in a l a t e r book

r e i n c a r n a t e as Gesar . The d e sc r ip t ion of t h i s e s o t e r i c dec lens ion of

a b s o lu te p r in c ip l e s in to phenomenal m a n i f e s t a t i o n s is unusual,

pe rha ps unpa ra l l e l ed in Tibetan n a r r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e . And it g i v e s an

unusua l ly e xp l i c i t g l im p s e of the f o r c e s a t w ork in the p rocess of

“emanat ion."

In "The H is to ry of the Goloks" we w i l l r ead more about t h e

s c i e n c e of em ana t ion . The plot t h e r e is t h a t t h e g rea t b o d h i s a t t v a

J i g m e Lingpa, in o r d e r to be inca rna ted in human form, must have a

m o th e r who is a r e i n c a r n a t e d s p i r i t — in t h i s case , the p ow e r fu l

F le sh -E a t ing Dakini. The na r ra t ive e m p h a s i z e s the impor tance of

r i tu a l pu r i ty in the r e b i r t h of th i s s a i n t and my commenta ry on t h i s

s e c t io n , d rawn f rom in te rv iew s w i t h T ibe tan s cho la r s , will d e lve

deeply into the r e a s o n i n g behind the r i tu a l n e c e s s i t y t h a t the m o t h e r

be an e spec ia l ly "pure vessel." I have sa id t h a t the journey of

Padmasambhava in The B ir th o f Gesar to the Kingdom of the Nagas

is a s ign of his m a s t e r y over the wor ld of local sp i r i t s . It is a l s o a

s ign t h a t Gesar is a union of local and c l a s s i c a l indian f igures , a

m a s t e r of both Bon and Buddhist p r inc ip les .

This dual m a s t e r y is e s se n t i a l to the s p e c ia l notion of upaya

e m phas ized in T ib e t a n Buddhism It is compounded of t r icke ry and

the p o s s e s s io n of so r c e r o u s powers. In the Gesar Epic t r i c k e ry and

ind i rec t ion are e m p loye d even in the a c t i o n s of the great

b odh isa t tva s . A va lok i t e sva ra , when he goes to a l e r t Lotus Born

62

(Padm asam bhava) to the u rgen t problem of Jam budv ipa 's demonic

i n f e s ta t io n , t r a v e l s d i sg u i s e d as a small chi ld . Padmasambhava ,

when he a r r i v e s in the r ea lm of the nagas h id e s his purposes and

engages in complex m a c h in a t io n s to force t h e se rp en t kingdom into

his se rv ice . La te r Gesar h im se l f , an e m a n a t io n of these tw o d e i t i e s ,

Padm asam bhava and Avalok i tesvara , wi l l change his form and t r av e l

in d i sg u i se w heneve r he w i s h e s to conquer an enemy.

This spec ia l mode of act ion of buddhas and bodh i sa t tva s , a

p roduc t of t h e i r insigh t into the t rue n a t u r e of r e a l i t y and t h e i r

unique unders tand ing of the dynamics of t h e r e l a t i v e world, is a l so

e s p e c i a l l y p r ized in Buddhist Tantra. There the Buddhist concep t of

sk i l l fu l m ea ns ( upaya ) i s expanded beyond th e m ach ina t ions and

f o re v i s io n s of Mahayana d e i t i e s and b e c o m e s the abi l i ty to p r a c t i c e

all s o r t s of magic .68 The sk i l l fu l means o f Gesa r is even more

spec ia l . It e x tends to the ab i l i ty to pe r fo rm all s o r t s of s h a m a n i s t i c

f e a t s and ce re m on ie s f rom Central Asian re l ig ion . At t im e s he u s e s

the magical r i t e s of Va j rayana or Tant ra , a t t i m e s the p r a c t i c e s of

local T ibe tan rel igion. With these s o r t s of magic he ach ieves goa ls

t h a t h e ro s of Weste rn e p ic s can achieve only through bravery and

g re a t s t r eng th . I think t h i s is one of the h a r d e s t things to

unde rs t and about Gesar. His v i r tue s have no th ing to do w i t h the ep ic

v i r t u e s t h a t occur in W es te rn nar ra t ives . He is not honest , noble, or,

in e f f e c t , brave. He does not , p a r t i cu la r ly in the ear ly c h ap te r s ,

show the ’apeTfj we expec t from, for exam p le , Achi lles. He is not

brave to a c c e p t his f a t e , choosing death o v e r dishonor. In fac t , he

63

n e v e r s e e m s to f a c e d i f f i c u l t moral c h o ic e s a t all . This is because

fundam en ta l ly he is a god and a d e a t h l e s s being. It would be

l i t e r a l l y unna tura l f o r him to know d e fe a t in any form.

There is s o m e th i n g a lm os t c r im ina l abou t Gesar 's t r icks , in

h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s he sh o w s a c e r t a i n a r ro g a n c e and i r reve rence

even t o w a rd s the popu la r re l ig ion— an i r r e v e r e n c e which m u s t a t

t i m e s d i s c o m fo r t the T i'betan reader . For exam ple , a t t im e s the

a c t i o n s of Gesar s e e m designed to d i sa buse people of the i r f a i th in

the local gods. One of h i s favor i te m e thods of des t roy ing an enemy is

to t ake the form of the enemy's pa tron d e i ty and then de l iver f a l s e

p rophec ies in v i s i o n a ry dreams. He p o l lu t e s and d e s t ro y s the s a c r e d

s p o t s of o the r r e l i g io n s , a l t e rn a t e ly f r i g h te n in g h i s enemies w i t h

the ill omens as he d e s e c r a t e s th e i r s h r i n e s w h i l e consoling them in

t h e i r d ream s w i t h s p e c i o u s p red ic t ions of f u t u r e v ic to r ies . The

r e s u l t is tha t through f a i t h in the i r inhe r i t ed re l ig ion his enem ies

lud ic rous ly c e l e b r a t e in the face of impending d i s a s t e r . He does the

s a m e thing at t i m e s w i t h fai th fu l Buddhist s , appear ing to them in

the form of th e i r t u t e l a r y d e i ty — u t t e r i n g fa l s e h o o d s even when he

has a s sum ed the persona of a buddha.

We have s u g g e s t e d th a t the sn e a k in e s s and c o n s i s t e n t

d i shone s ty of the b o d h i s a t t v a s in the Gesar i s fundam enta l ly an

e x p re ss ion of the T a n t r i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Buddhist concept of

sk i l l fu l means. But the t r i c k s te r is a lso a popu la r m oti f in the

mythology of nomadic and herding people a c r o s s the world and an

i m p o r t a n t e le m en t in c e r t a i n c la s s ic a l r e l ig ions . See, for example,

6 4

the f igu re of Coyote in the legends of the P la in s A m e r i - l n d i a n s or, in

a n o th e r m o d a l i ty , the epic f igure of Krsna in the PurSnas. The

do m in a t io n of t h i s theme in the Ladakhi v e r s io n s u p p o r t s t h i s

a l t e r n a t i v e , non-Buddhist read ing . E i ther way, w h e t h e r it is an

e x te n s io n of the Buddhist m o t i f of sk i l l fu l m e a n s or an in f luence

from s h a m a n i s t i c rel igion, t r i c k e r y and de ce p t io n a re e s s e n t i a l to

the p lo t of all the c h a p t e r s of the epic.

To r e tu rn to our sum m ary of the epic , in the Mipham

vers ion , Padmasambhava , having employed an e l a b o ra t e and

d e s t r u c t i v e ru se to gain c on t ro l of the naga p r in c e s s , Dzeden, br ings

h e r to E a r th so tha t she may eventua l ly give b i r th to Gesar. Dzeden

w a n d e r s in to the land of Ling and becom es a c h a t t e l of Senglon ( Seng

blon ), a l e a d e r of the t r i b e s of Ling. These e v e n t s occur in the th i rd

m a j o r c h a p t e r of the Gesar Epic, The B i r th o f Gesar (mKhrungs

gling). She is v i s i t e d by a s o r t of epic de i ty , in fused w i th the

embryo of Gesar, and g ives b i r th to him. The b i r th is accompanied by

the usual m iracu lous s igns , v i s ionary d r e a m s , and prophec ies . But

no t j u s t t h a t . Even in h i s m o th e r ' s womb Gesa r begins to m a n i f e s t

a s a j o k e s t e r and a t r i c k s t e r . In a parody of the b i r th of the Buddha,

f rom w i t h i n her womb he a s k s his m o th e r through which p a s sa g e he

sha l l em e rg e , f r igh ten ing h e r badly. Once again I would like to

s u g g e s t compar ing th i s s t o r y w i th the Golok t a l e of the b i r th of

J i g m e Lingpa. There too the b i r th of a m ag ica l emanat ion , a t u l k u ,

i s a ccom pan ied by m y s t e r i o u s s igns and t h r e a t e n i n g e ven ts t h a t put

a t r e m e n d o u s p re s su re on the mother. But in the Golok s to ry the

65

r e a s o n s why the m o t h e r is bound to be confused and to s u f f e r a re

m ade c lea r . She is ignoran t of the meaning of t h e magical e v e n t s in

w h ic h she i s involved because they a re pa r t of a l a rg e r sc hem e

i n i t i a t e d by d e i t i e s who reign over the inv is ib le wor ld of s p i r i t s —

a w o r l d v a s t e r and p o s s s e s s e d of a more c om p le te p e r s p e c t iv e on

the s ig n i f i c a n c e of even t s .

In both c a se s , t he s to ry of the b i r th of G esa r and t h a t of J i g m e

Lingpa, human beings a r e ludic rously confused by divine s igns. They

s e e m to be the but of co sm ic jokes. The Golok s to ry makes s e n s e out

of th is . It i s because they do not and cannot s e e how they are p a r t

of a l a r g e r picture. To unde rs tand t h e i r own p lace in cosm ic e v e n t s

and the p o l i t i c s of heaven would be synonymous w i t h the a t t a i n m e n t

of Buddhahood. And then they would no longer be humans, bu t

t h e m s e l v e s divine be ings. To unders tand the l a rg e r p ic tu re they

w ould have to be able to r e m e m b e r e ven ts f rom t h e i r previous

l i f e t i m e s ; they would have to be able to behold d i r e c t l y the w o r l d of

s p i r i t s and they would have to be able to journey to the land of

s p i r i t s invis ib le to humans , w h a t one T ibe tan lam a once ca l l ed " the

o t h e r side": the r ea lm and so c i e ty of demons and gods.

On a broader level the m o th e r ’s f ea r has a t r ad i t io n a l r e l i g io u s

and m e ta p h y s i c a l i n t e rp r e t a t i o n . In the M ahayanottara tantra sa s t ra

t w e n t y symbols for buddha n a tu re a re given. One is t h a t buddha

n a t u r e i s l ike the embryo of a king growing in t h e womb of a poor

woman. If she knew t h a t her son would become a g re a t king when he

g rew up, she would no t be a f ra id of poverty and the hard t i m e s

66

w hic h lie be fo re her. She would r e a l i z e tha t , a l though she may be

poor and w i th o u t r e s o u rc e s r i g h t now, her s a lv a t io n is growing

inside her. As i t is, however , t he s e n s a t io n of pregnancy is j u s t one

m o re burden in addi t ion to her poverty. She cannot guess t h a t he r

s a l a v a t i o n is in her womb and imag ines , r a the r , t h a t the ch i ld w i l l

be j u s t ano the r unbearable r e s p o n s ib i l t y . J u s t so i n t i m a t i o n s of

buddhahood f r igh ten beginning m e d i a to r s , but if they unders tood the

s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e s e f ee l ings of d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n and openness , they

would w e lcom e them as s igns of a f u tu r e en l igh tenment .

A f t e r being born, Gesar i n s t a n t l y m a n i f e s t s as a m i r a c u lo u s

chi ld , d i splay ing magical p o w e rs and the in te l l igence of an adult .

T ro thung (khro thung ), an uncle of Gesar , j e a lous ly a t t e m p t s to

d e s t r o y the child, but fa ils . Tro thung wi l l con t inue throughout the

ep ic as a com pe t i to r , opposing Gesa r w i th in his own kingdom.

Trothung is a m a j o r f igure. Like so much of the Gesar epic ,

h i s c h a r a c t e r and role are c o n s t a n t l y involved in moral ambigui ty .

Al though he is the h e ro ’s enemy, Tro thung is h im s e l f a doughty

w a r r i o r and an im por tan t f i g h t e r on the s ide of the good. His

pe r r e n i a l j ea lousy of Gesar is doomed to f r u s t r a t i o n and h is many

a t t e m p t s to des t roy Gesar a re fo redoom ed to fa i lure . For in the

Divine Council he w a s a ss igned d u t i e s in the fu r the r ing of Gesa r 's

cause . He is, as a m a t t e r of f a c t , an inca rna t ion of the yidam or

t u t e l a r y dei ty , Hayagriva. Hayagriva is the ho r se -hea ded t a n t r i c

buddha whose s p e c ia l ty is the t am ing of demons. And so, knowing his

d e s t in y , we do not r ec e iv e Tro thung as a fundamenta l t h r e a t to

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Gesar. Instead , we enjoy the comic r e l i e f o f fe red by h i s h a p le s s

a t t e m p t s to ove r th row the invulnerab le super -hero .

Throughout hi s childhood Gesa r l ives e s s e n t i a l l y in d i sgu ise ,

his divine f e a t u r e s hidden by an ugly ex te r io r . He and h is m o th e r

l ive in ex i l e in the savage land of rMa and he a p p ea r s to the wor ld

as J o r u or Jo s é , a s o r t of hunchbacked j e s t e r . When th e t im e comes,

Gesa r ’s appearance w i l l t r a n s fo rm and he wil l m a n i f e s t as an

e f f u l g e n t Buddhist w a r r io r . These e v e n t s occur in t h e fou r th kernel

saga of the epic, The Horse Race ( r t a rgyugs ).

The ch ap te r beg ins w i th Gesar 's nàga mother demanding th a t

he f ina l ly a s su m e hi s t rue form. J o r u m us t become Gesar , t ake

cont rol of the Kingdom of Ling, take posses s ion of h i s divine horse

and d e s t i n e d beau t i fu l consort , f ind and d i s t r ibu te a cache of

magical weapons and a rm o r hidden by the gods in Mount Magyel

Pomra ( rma rgya l spom ra ) a t the t im e of his incarnat ion. All these

a t t r i b u t e s , the t r e a s u r e s of Gesar , w e r e l is ted by the god Joy fu l to

Hear a t the Council in Heaven as p r e r e q u i s i t e s to hi s incarnat ion .

In o rder to t ake pos s e s s io n of t h e s e t r e a s u r e s Gesar convinces

Trothung to hold a horse race to dec ide the su c c e s s io n to the

ru le r sh ip of Ling. The w inne r of the r a c e will r ec e iv e the magical

weapons , become king, and mar ry the beau t i fu l d a u g h te r of a no the r

ch ie f ta in , the lovely Drugmo Cbrug mo ), or "dragoness ." This is one

of the m o s t popular c h a p te r s in the epic. Mireil le H e l f f e r has

t r a n s l a t e d the songs in “The Horse Race" into French from the

p r o s i m e t r i c Mipham version. Her t r a n s c r i p t i o n and t r a n s l a t i o n are

68

accompan ied by an e x c e l l e n t m us ico log ica l s tu d y of the ba rd ic

s ing ing s t y l e . 69

8y the end of The Horse Race, Gesa r has a s su m e d h i s t r u e form

and un i ted the people of Ling under his l eadership . He then p ro ce e d s

to conquer the a fo re m e n t io n e d demon kings. The w a r s of G esa r of

Ling have e labora ted in to t e n s of chap te rs . But Sam ue l s m e n t io n s in

hi s l i s t the m os t popular and, in theory a t l e a s t , the o ld e s t b a t t l e s

in the Eas te rn Tibe tan ve rs ion . The f i r s t in the l i s t is e n t i t l e d The

Demon and Ling (bdud gLing ). This r em inds us of the s t a n d a r d

e x p re s s io n bdud 'dul ( t am in g demons) in Buddhis t l i t e r a t u r e and

r e p r e s e n t s an a c t i v i t y p e r fo rm e d by all t a n t r i c lam as in the c o u r s e

of t h e i r l i fe s to r i e s . At a c e r t a i n point, when a yogin has a t t a i n e d

en l igh tenm en t , he beg ins to show his magical p o w e r s by c o m p e t in g

w i t h demons, h e r e t i c s , and magic ians , d e fe a t in g them, and then

binding them to the s e r v i c e of the Buddha Dharma. In th i s c a s e the

demon happens to be Lutsen (k lu btsan ), the w icked king of a land to

the nor th of Tibet. S a m u e l s t h e re fo re ap t ly t r a n s l a t e s the t i t l e ,

Dudul (bdud 'dul) as Taming the Demon-King o f the North.

Lutsen is a c tu a l ly the proper name of one of the or iginal

n a t iv e d e i t i e s to oppose the coming of Padm asam bhava to Tibet , in

some a c c o u n t s 70 the re w e r e ten g re a t t enm a (bstan ma ), pow er fu l

local gods who opposed the bringing of Buddhism to Tibet.

Padmasambhava conver ted t h e s e demons to the Dharma, but

g radua l ly over t im e they abandoned t h e i r o a th s and had to be t am e d

again by o the r yogins. For example, the re is the famous t a l e of the

69

r e t a m in g of the d e m one ss T se r ingm a by Milarepa. 71 The m e d i t a t i o n

Lotus Born o r ig ina l ly pe r fo rm e d in o rd e r to be able to t a m e t h e s e

c r e a t u r e s w a s , as a m a t t e r of f a c t , a p r a c t i c e of v i s u a l i z a t i o n based

on the t a m e r of o b s t a c l e s , Hayagriva.

Lutsen is a l so the name or de s ig n a t io n of a c l a s s of de i t i e s .

They are ha lf nagas and half tsen. Naga is the S a n s k r i t t e r m for

the s e r p e n t c l a s s of d e i t i e s . The T ibe tan word lu (k lu ), however ,

w h i l e used as a t r a n s l a t i o n of naga, is rea l ly the d e s i g n a t i o n a

n a t iv e s p i r i t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h bod ies of w a te r . In t h i s s e n s e the

w ord lutsen evokes local T ibe tan snake s p i r i t s r a t h e r than the

c l a s s i c a l s e r p e n t s of the Hindu epics .

We have expla ined Ju, but w h a t a re tsen.? Tsen a re g ro te sque

m o n s t e r s from n a t iv e T ibe tan rel igion. They are usua l ly m a le v o le n t

d e i t i e s inhab i t ing the red rock s i d e s of mountains . The King named

Lutsen is the b e s t known of t h e s e c r e a tu r e s . His full n a m e is byang

bdud k lu btsan, Lutsen, the Demon of the North. N ebesky -W ojkow i tz

f inds t e x t s in which he is d e s c r ib e d as pos s e s s in g "nine ho rns of

copper and iron, nine eyes , and nine long arms..." (Nebesky-

Wojkowitz , 309) .

The s to ry of G esa r ’s c o nques t of t h i s nor thern demon

r e s o n a t e s w i th p lo t m o t i f s f rom the Odyssey, w i th i t s

t h e m a t i z a t i o n of a hero ' s d i s t a n t t r a v e l s , the r a v i s h m e n t of his

conso r t , the p o s s e s s i o n of the homeland by enemies, and the

im pr i sonm en t of the hero by a s o r c e r e s s . The s to ry b e g in s when

70

Lutsen kidnaps one of Gesa r ' s c o n s o r t s , Meza Bumkyi (me bza' 'bum

s k y id ) Queen Myriad J o y s 72. Gesa r d e s t r o y s t h e demon king w i th the

help of Meza and the c om pl ic i ty of one of Lutsen s c o n so r t s , Atag

Lhamo (a stag Iha mo ), P r im ord ia l T ige r Goddess. But having d e a l t

w i t h t h e f a m i l i a r epic r a v i s h m e n t of the hero ' s w i fe , Gesar then

m u s t deal w i t h a Circean inte r lude. Meza Bumkyid drugs and

hypno t izes Gesar into f o rg e t t i n g the Kingdom of Ling and his genera l

m is s io n to d e fe a t the o the r demons. Instead of re tu rn ing to h is

d u t ie s he r em a in s her love s lave in the Northern Demon Realm unt i l

l a t e r awakened and rescued.

From the l i t e r a r y po in t of v iew th i s is a very i n t e r e s t i n g

p a s sa g e , because we see an a p p a re n t ly invulnerable hero

exper ienc ing human w e a k n e s s e s . As we wil l d i s c u s s in Chapte r III,

t h e re is a theory t h a t the epic genre should be subdivided in o r d e r to

d i s t i n g u i s h human ep ics f rom divine or s h a m a n i s t i c epics . This

approach proposes t h a t th e r e are "modern" epics , so to speak, such

as the I liad, in which the hero e x p e r i e n c e s human d i f f i c u l t i e s

be ca use he is p o s s e s s e d of e s s e n t i a l l y human w e a k n e s s e s and

l im i t a t i o n s . There is, on the o t h e r hand, according to t h i s theo ry , an

e a r l i e r , in a sense l e s s advanced kind of hero ic t a l e in which the

hero is com ple te ly div ine— a kind of s h a m a n / w a r r i o r w i th m ag ica l

p o w e r s and a des t iny compounded of one inev i tab le v ic tory a f t e r

a n o th e r .73 In general Gesar a p p e a r s to be such a sh a m a n i s t i c hero.

But the episode in which he is en s laved by a royal w i t c h r e p r e s e n t s

him in a s t a t e of w e ak n e s s and m ake s him a t l e a s t a cand ida te fo r

71

being the more Homeric, h e t l e n i s t i c and human kind of h e ro — a

f ig u re w hose saga and p rob lem at i c o c c u r on a more human s c a l e . 74

For some l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s th i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n , t h a t t h e t a l e

c a r ry a moral comprehens ib le w i th in t h e f ram ew ork of human

l i m i t a t i o n s , is n e c e s s a r y if they a re to c o n s id e r i t in any s e n s e an

epic. It m u s t show both the highs and l o w s of the cen t ra l c h a r a c t e r .

C.M. Bowra o r ig ina l ly put fo r th th is t h e s i s in 1952.75 It w a s l a t e r

taken up by Thomas Greene in his s tudy of the development of

W e s te rn epic in the Renaissance .76

S t r u c t u r a l l y The Demon and Ling i s a cen t ra l book. In C h a p te r

II we w i l l d i s c u s s Samten Karmay's p roposa l t h a t t h e m a t i c a l l y t h e r e

is a co re to the Gesa r cyc le— the s t o r y of the Demon Kings of the

Four Orien ts . The four c h a p t e r s in w h ich Gesa r d e fe a t s t h e s e fo u r

kings would thus be the c e n te r of the ep ic and the e a r l i e s t p a r t of it.

The Du Ling is t he pro to type and model of t h e s e s e p a ra t e w a r

n a r r a t i v e s and the c e n te r of t h e s e four c h a p t e r s on the d e f e a t of the

main demons.

If Karmay is r ight, then we could s p e c u l a t e tha t o r ig in a l ly the

ep ic w a s j u s t the s to ry of a King f igh t ing th e s e four kings. T h i s

would be the kernel of the Gesar l egend— a kernel f rom w h ic h the

c h a p t e r s r e p r e s e n t in g l a t e r and e a r l i e r pe r iods of his l i fe w ou ld

have grown. For example all the c h a p t e r s we have d i s c u s se d so f a r

would be j u s t a bui ld-up to t h i s f i r s t g r e a t b a t t l e w i th the Demon of

the North, Lutsen. They would have been composed a f t e r the f a c t to

provide a ba s i s f o r th i s Du Ling.

72

One f ac t m a k e s Karmay's sc ena r io p a r t i c u l a r l y be l ievab le .

There a re a g r e a t m any ve rs ions of the Dü Ling— m ore than m o s t

o t h e r chap te rs . As f a r as w a r s t o r i e s are conce rned , it i s t he sine

qua non of the ep ic h is to ire . Because of i t s c e n t r a l i t y , Ydnten

Gyatso of the École F rança i se d 'Éxtreme Orient is doing a

c o m p a r a t iv e s tudy of all the e x ta n t e d i t ions of t h i s chap te r . Today

the b a t t l e s Gesa r f i g h t s w i th d i s t a n t and su r round ing n a t i o n s have

m u l t i p l i e d into t h e dozens. But if they had a s ing le p ro to ty p e , t h i s

chap te r , the m o s t n um erous of the Gesar c o n q u es t s t o r i e s , m ight

we l l be the p ro to ty p e .

Karmay's a r g u m e n t s are anthropological in na tu re , but in

Bowra 's concep t of w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a t rue ep ic w e have a s o r t of

l i t e r a r y a rgum en t f o r the c e n t r a l i t y and p r i m o r d i a l n e s s of the Dü

Ling, i t is the c h a p t e r of the Gesar which has the p lo t s t r u c t u r e of

an A r i s t o t e l i a n c o m p l e t e narra t ive : it has a c l e a r beginning w i t h a

q u e s t of the hero, r e v e r s a l s and an exposure of the he ro ' s w e a k n e s s

and a f inal r e s o l u t i o n which involves a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the main

c h a r a c t e r s as they work w i th t h e i r humanness .

T i b e t a n i s t s have been quick to compare t h e Gesar w i t h the

c l a s s i c a l t r a d i t i o n of Weste rn heroic poems.77 The i r o b se rv a t io n s ,

however , tend, in t h e s t y l e of anthropologica l and fo lk lo r i c s tud ie s ,

to no te r e s o n a n c e s on the level of s to ry m o t iv e s . They have l i t t l e to

do w i t h q u e s t io n s of genre as they a r i s e in modern c r i t i c i s m and

c om p a ra t iv e l i t e r a t u r e . Gesar the w a r r io r may be s i m i l a r to

Achi l l e s , but t h a t d o e s not mean t h a t the Gesar Epic is the sam e

73

s o r t of l i t e r a r y w o rk a s the Odyssey. In t h i s r eg a rd , the Demon and

L ing c h a p te r is qu i te s ig n i f i c a n t , because , as f a r a s c o n te m p o ra ry

genre theory is conce rned , i t rea l ly does p r e s e n t a p lo t s t r u c t u r e

m ore in keeping w i t h t h e European epic.

The next saga w h i c h Sam ue ls and Wang pick a s p a r t of t h e epic

ke rne l is The War Between Hor and Ling (hor g l in g g.yul 'gyed). Hor

is a n o th e r Central A s ian country. Some people id e n t i fy i t w i th the

Uighurs, bu t t h i s is v e r y uncer ta in . 78 Led by the demon king Gurkar

( gur dkar ), White T en t , they take advan tage of G esa r ' s absence to

invade Ling and abduc t Drugmo, his pr incipal w i fe . Drugmo is raped

by White Tent and has a child. Gesar is f i na l ly brought back to Ling.

He k i l l s White Tent , r e g a i n s Drugmo, and co n q u e r s Hor.

Two more i m p o r t a n t ep isodes cont inue the t h e m a t i c of

conquer ing all the k ingdom s of Asia: The War be tween Jang and Ling

Cjang g l ing g.yul 'g y e d ) and The War between Mon and Ling ( mon

g i in g g.yul 'gyed ). J a n g are thought to be the Naxi, a m ino r i ty people

l iving in Yunan. The Naxi a re t h e m s e l v e s an i n t e r e s t i n g people,

engaged accord ing to J.F. Rock in a s h a m a n i s t i c r e l ig ion very much

l ike t h a t of Tibet. 79 They s t i l l e x i s t today and a re known among

o r i e n t a l i s t s fo r t h e i r p e c u l i a r p i c tograph ic w r i t i n g s y s t e m used

a l m o s t exc lus ive ly f o r the p re s e r v a t io n of t h o u sa n d s of s h a m a n i s t i c

l i t u rg ie s . The Mon are supposed ly a Himalayan e th n i c group

inhab i t ing the r eg ion of modern day Nepal, S ikk im, and Bhutan. 80

The i r demon lea de rs , S a th a m (sa tham ) and S h in g t r i ( shing k h r i ),

a re d es t royed by G e s a r and, like Hor, J a ng and Mon become p a r t of

74

the Ling confe de ra t ion .

Other c h a p t e r s a r e not e sp ec ia l ly pa r t of the w a r m o t i f , but

are s t i l l cons idered i n te g ra l to the plo t of the Gesar. Wang n a tu r a l l y

p icks for his l i s t of c e n t r a l t a l e s The China Episode ( nag po rgya

g l ing ky i le'u ). In t h i s s a g a Gesa r v i s i t s China and is given the hand

of a Chinese p r i n c e s s in m ar r iage . In each of the s a g a s Gesar does

not mere ly des t roy an evil inf luence and gain an a l ly f o r Ling. He

also, in typ ica l Centra l Asian fashion, s t e a l s for the b e n e f i t of his

t r ib e some na t iona l t r e a s u r e of c u l tu re or s c i e n c e / l o r e or weal th .

For example, the p o s s e s s i o n of a Chinese p r i n c e s s is a t r e a su re . The

T ibe tan c h ro n ic le r s r e g a r d the Chinese w i fe of S o n g t s e n Gampo

(Srong b t sa n sGam po) a s a g re a t p a t r o n e s s of B uddh is t cu l tu re . She

is famous fo r having b rough t to Lhasa the s t a tu e a t J o w o Kang, one

of the m os t famous s h r i n e s in Tibet. She is, in e s s e n c e , a cu l tu ra l

agg rand izem en t fo r the T ibe tan Empire.

R e m in iscen t of the in t e rn a t io n a l ly and t r a n s h i s t o r i c a l l y

popular t a l e of the a r h a t saving his m o th e r from hell 81 is the Gesar

in HeJJ saga id m ya i g l in g ), l i t e r a l l y Hell and Ling. G esa r a c tua l ly

v i s i t s hell and s a v e s h i s m other , in som e v e r s io n s h i s w i fe , f rom the

t o r t u r e s of t h a t region. In some v e r s io n s th is is h i s l a s t adventure ,

bringing, in theory, an end to the epic and re tu rn ing G e sa r to Heaven.

The Hell ep isode is cons idered qu i te i n t e r e s t i n g by Buddhist

l am as of the Nyingma ( rn y in g ma ) l ineage because i t supposedly

includes s o p h i s t i c a t e d sym bo l i c t each ings about the n a tu r e of the

h ig h es t p r a c t i c e s of m e d i t a t i o n , the Great P e r f e c t io n ( rdzog chen )

75

p r a c t i c e s . The r e l ig io u s e le m en t in t h e plot c o m e s abou t when

Gesa r , s e a r c h in g ou t his m o the r in he l l , a t t e m p t s to f r e e hell be ings

f rom t h e i r t o r m e n t s . His w eapons p a s s through the b od ie s of the

demons who t o r t u r e them. And when he topples ove r a v a t in which

pun ished hum ans a re being boi led, the pot is n a t u r a l l y r e tu rn e d to i t s

s t a n d in g p o s i t i o n and the people a g re e a b ly climb back in. I t tu rns

out t h a t all t h e a g e n t s and i m p l e m e n t s of t o r tu r e a re u n r e a l —

m e r e ly the m e n ta l p r o j e c t i o n s of the people undergoing punishment .

Hell is a f a n t a s y e x i s t i n g in the m in d s of deluded be ings. I t cannot

be conquered like o th e r kingdoms and so Gesar m u s t t e a c h the hell

be ings , p r in c ip a l ly h is mother , to p r a c t i c e the h i g h e s t fo rm of

Buddhis t m e d i t a t i o n : the Great P e r f e c t io n . This i s a p r a c t i c e in

which you f r ee y o u r s e l f f rom your own p ro j e c t io n s , r e a l i z i n g th a t

the phenomena l wor ld is mere ly a p r o j e c t i o n of your mind. It is

th rough t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t the he l l be ings a re f i n a l l y l ibe ra ted , by

se e ing hell as an imaginary n a tu re and a s mere im pu ta t ion .

This and the Horse Race c h a p t e r have been the o b j e c t of

e l a b o r a t e r e l i g i o u s com m e n ta r ie s . In any case, d e s p i t e the f ac t t h a t

t h e r e a re add i t iona l c h a p t e r s occu r r in g in h i s t o r i c a l l y l a t e r t im e s

and even s a g a s of con tem pora ry com pos i t ion , Wang and S am ue l s

ag ree on making the Gesar in He l l s a g a the l a s t in t h e i r l i s t of core

Gesa r t a l e s .

T ra n s l a t i n g the Gesar w i th C om m en ta ry

76

This d i s s e r t a t i o n in t r o d u c e s a larger p r o j e c t , t h e t r a n s l a t i o n

and c o m p a r a t i s t s tudy of the Centra l Asian Epic o f Gesar o f Ling.

The t o t a l undertaking w i l l involve some thousand p a g e s of English

t r a n s l a t i o n of a l i t e r a r y , t h a t is non-oral , e d i t ion of t h e Gesar Epic.

It w i l l provide a genera l running commentary and a l so , w h e r e

appropr ia te , a l i n e - b y - l i n e commentary. The c o m m e n t a r y wil l

provide cu l tural and r e l i g i o u s background where n e c e s s a r y , ind ica te

p rev ious t e x t s and t h e i r s ign f icance , note T ibe tan l i t e r a r y

convent ions, and make p o i n t s of l i t e ra ry c r i t i c i s m . It wi l l include a

l in g u i s t i c com m enta ry a s we l l .

The l ingu is t i c c o m m e n ta r y wil l be qu i te e x t e n s i v e and is

m ea n t mainly fo r T ib e t a n t r a n s l a t o r s who would l ike to unde r take

the render ing of o th e r c h a p t e r s in the Gesar corpus. In i t wi l l be

found a host of g r a m m a t i c a l and le xicographical o b s e r v a t i o n s on the

language of the Gesar o f Ling Epic. Outside of M ire i l l e H e l f f e r ’s

b r i e f rem arks on epic language in an appendix to he r m u s ico log ica l

s tudy, there is no work in any language on the d i a l e c t in which th is

epic is wr i t ten . This language appears in f ac t to be t h e d i a l e c t of

T ibe tan spoken in Khams or E as te rn Tibet in the 19 t h c e n tu ry when

l i ipham was alive. Many o th e r ve rs ions of Gesar a p p e a r to be

w r i t t e n in the sam e d i a l e c t . That a t least is the op in ion of a number

of Tibe tan in formants .

A number of French s c h o l a r s have c o l l e c t e d m a t e r i a l s which

con t r ib u te tc an u n d e r s t a n d in g of this d ia lec t , p a r t i c u l a r l y R.A.

Ste in, who provided a g l o s s a r y of epic e x p re s s io n s in h i s ed i t ion of

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the Mipham Gesar. 82 Alexander Macdonald of the C e n t r e Nat ional de

la Recherche S c i e n t i f iq u e has provided e x c e l l e n t l i n g u i s t i c

m a t e r i a l s on a col loquial s t y l e of s to ry t e l l ing which r e l a t e s to t h i s

d i a l e c t . 83 S t e in , Macdonald, and Hel ffe r t o g e t h e r p rovide a kind of

in t roduc t ion to the d ialect . But a v a s t e r t r e a t m e n t coming from the

sa m e French com m un i ty of S e s a r i s t s is s t i l l in m a n u s c r i p t form and

journeying s t e a d i l y to w a rd s publ icat ion. It i s a t r a n s l a t i o n of a l e s s

Buddhis t ic Gesar t e x t which e x i s t s in m a n u s c r i p t a t the Centres

d'Êtudes Tibétaines. This work , accompanied by the e x t e n s i v e

com m en ta ry and l in g u i s t i c r e m a r k s w i th which i t is p r e s e n t l y being

equipped may be the m o s t im p o r t a n t c on t r ibu t ion of all to a W este rn

unders tand ing of the d i a l e c t in which the Gesar t e x t s of E as te rn

T ibe t are composed. This t e x t , however , s u f f e r s f rom th e s a m e

problem as the Mipham v e r s i o n — tha t is, w e canno t t e l l a t t h i s

po in t how r e p r e s e n t a t i v e it m igh t be of the l a rge r corpus . It is a

r e l a t i v e ly s h o r t v e r s i o n — one brought to P a r i s by Alexandra David-

Neel and thus va lued as fo rming pa r t of the p a t r im o n y of t h e

venerab le P a r i s i a n T ib e t a n i s t e s t a b l i s h m e n t . T r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s

ed i t ion is s u p e r v i s e d by Anne-Marie Blondeau, a d i r e c t o r of s t u d i e s

in the CNRS. Work is done by a c o m m i t t e e which inc ludes s e v e ra l

T ibe tan in fo rm a n t s , s c h o la r s in both Eas te rn and W e s te rn t r a d i t i o n s ,

including S a m t e n Karmay and Yonten Gyatso.

Until it and and my t r a n s l a t i o n are publ ished, t h e r e w i l l be no

com ple te r ead ing o r unrave l ing of any T ibe tan Gesar t e x t in a

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W este rn language. And, w h e r e a s T ibe tans from Khams usua l ly c la im

t h a t the Mipham Gesar i s e a sy to read, I have n e v e r m e t a Weste rn

s c h o l a r who could a c t u a l l y unde rs t and all of i t .84 The need for a

com ple te , s e n t e n c e by s e n t e n c e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e t e x t is

t h e r e f o r e grea t . Until we have tha t , i t wi l l be d i f f i c u l t if not

im poss ib le to read and t r a n s l a t e o t h e r volumes of Gesar.

The t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t chap ter , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l include

ex te n s iv e n o t e s on the d i a l e c t i t s e l f . These n o t e s a r e d raw n from

se v e ra l sources : Khenpo Pa lden Sherap, Rinpoche i s a Nyingma pandi t

and fo r m e r p r o f e s s o r a t Varanas i S a n s k r i t Univers i ty . He is a

s p e c i a l i s t in the w o r k s of Mipham. His b ro ther , Khenpo Tsewang,

Rinpoche is a iso a pand i t and in addi t ion a T ib e tan -E n g l i s h

in t e r p r e t e r . The r e m a r k s of th e s e two b ro th e r s have been e s p ec ia l ly

helpful in the ear ly p a r t of the f i r s t c h a p t e r and in my c o l l a t e r a l

read ing of Mipham’s G e sa r r i tu a l s .

There is a lso e x t e n s i v e c om m en ta ry c o n t r ib u t e d by the

a l r eady m ent ioned r e s e a r c h e r s a t the Centre Na t iona l de la

Recherche S c ie n t i f iq u e in Par is . S am ten Karmay, has been

p a r t i c u l a r ly a c t i v e in adv is ing me on s p e c i f i c t r a n s l a t i o n s and

c o r r e c t i n g my m i s t a k e s . He did not, however , exam ine every line and

all m i s t a k e s t h a t do o c c u r in t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n a re my f a u l t alone.

Dr. Karmay' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ex tend beyond na t ive f luency in Tibetan.

He is the a u tho r of an i m p o r t a n t s tudy on the T ib e t a n s y s t e m of

m e d i t a t i o n known as rdzog chen , the Great P e r f e c t io n , severa l

w o rk s on the Bon re l ig ion , numerous a r t i c l e s , and an im p re s s iv e

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piece of v i sua l a rchiv ing w i t h commentary. e5 He is h i m s e l f a Bonpo

p r a c t i t i o n e r , a t r a in e d a n th ropo log is t and a s p e c i a l i s t in the native

r e l ig ion of Tibet . Although he has a knowledge of the Khams d ialect ,

he does no t come from Eas te rn Tibet, but f rom the neighboring

province of Amdo.

Lama Tendz in Samphel , Rinpoche is a g ra d u a t e of t h e m onas t ic

co l lege in Katmandu founded by His Hol iness Dudjom Rinpoche. He is

a l so a s p e c i a l i s t in the w r i t i n g s of Mipham Gyatso and an ac t ive

p r a c t i t i o n e r of the c u l t of Gesar. He has a thorough knowledge of

Mipham's r i t u a l l i t e r a t u r e , of the re l igious m anua l s and c u l t

p r a c t i c e s Mipham composed , a s well as Mipham’s ph i losoph ica l

works . This r e l i g io u s educa t ion of ten guided him in his

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the t e x t and made his read ing d i f f e r e n t f rom tha t

of m o s t o th e r na t ive in fo rm an ts . As one would expec t , however , he

w a s o f t en in a g r e e m e n t w i t h the readings of Sherap Palden,

Rinpoche, who is a lso a s p e c i a l i s t in Mipham's teach ings .

I pe rsona l ly agree w i t h t h i s view of the tex t . The Gesa r

l i t u r g i e s w r i t t e n by Mipham should indeed be used a s a guide in our

unde rs t and ing of Mipham's ed i t ion of the epic. The Mipham version

p o s s e s s e s a d i s t i n c t l i t u rg ica l agenda. Th is w i l l be ev iden t in the

c o m m e n ta ry I have w r i t t e n on the t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t chapter .

Another i m p o r t a n t in fo rm an t was Lama Urgyen Shenphen, now

deceased . He w a s a T ibe tan s c h o l a r - p r a c t i t i o n e r f rom the region of

Derge in the province of Khams (Eastern Tibet) . I have worked wi th

him fo r t w e n t y y e a r s t r a n s l a t i n g and anno ta t ing T ibe tan re l ig ious

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t e x t s . Bes ides being a m a s t e r of Tibe tan g r a m m a r and r e l ig ious

phi losophy, Lama Urgyen w a s also a p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r t on the r i t u a l s

and hagiographica l w r i t i n g s of T an t r ic Buddhism, both of the

Nyingma and the Kagyü l ineages. His death t h i s y e a r is a l o s s to

Buddhist s c ho la r sh ip a c r o s s the world. Al though he w a s a humble

man, h i s m e t i cu lo u s w ork has made poss ib le the t r a n s l a t i o n and

pub l ica t ion of a t l e a s t f o r ty T ibe tan w o rk s in to English. As Dilgo

Khyen tse ' s personal s e c r e t a r y he worked a c t i v e l y on the acqu i s i t ion ,

ed i t ing , and p r in t ing of l i t e r a l l y hundreds of vo lum es in the g rea t

PL480 corpus of T ibe tan t ex t s . The U.S. Congress iona l Act PL480,

under the d i r ec t ion of Gene Smi th of the L ibra ry of Congress ,

b rough t to America and made avai lable to u n i v e r s i t y l ib r a r i e s a huge

c o l l e c t i o n of re l ig ious , phi losophica l , and l i t e r a r y t e x t s f rom South

and Centra l Asia.

V a j racarya the Ven. Chogyam Trungpa, Rinpoche is o f ten c i t ed

in the com m enta ry and in o th e r p a r t s of the d i s s e r t a t i o n . I s tud ied

the t r a d i t i o n s of Mipham and the g rea t Khampa t e a c h e r s of the 19th

c e n tu ry w i th him for m ore than f i f t e en years . He did not l ive to s e e

a s ing le line of t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n , but his e x p la n a t io n s of the Gesar

t r a d i t i o n and of the t r ib a l t each ings of the Mukpo clan inf luence

every a sp e c t of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . And more im por tan t ly , as one of

t he g r e a t t e a c h e r s of T ibe tan Tan t ra in the Wes t , h i s view of t a n t r i c

phi losophy pervades the r e l ig ious e xp lana t ions p r e s e n t in the

f o o t n o te s and the body of t h i s d i s se r t a t i o n .

Given t h a t I have used all of these in fo rm a n t s , one note of

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w a r n in g is ca l l ed for. As w i l l be evident f rom the l ingu i s t i c

c o m m e n ta ry , no tw o T ib e t a n s r ead th is t e x t e x a c t l y alike. The

d ivergence in i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of even s imple p a s s a g e s has been

rem arkab le . It s e e m s tha t , w h e r e a s many T ib e t a n s , both learned and

u n l e t t e r e d , feel they can e a s i l y unders tand the language of the

Mipham Gesar, none of them unde rs t and i t in p r e c i s e l y the same

way. Like C la s s i c a l Chinese v e r s e , the a lm o s t m onosy l lab ic

language of the poe t ry is highly ambiguous. Is t h i s a spec ia l qual i ty

of the T ibe tan ep ic or would w e di scover the s a m e phenomena if we

c o n s u l t e d w i t h f ive na t ive s p e a k e r s of English on the t r a n s l a t i o n of

a s in g l e English t e x t ? We w i l l d i s c u s s the q u e s t io n in more de tai l in

the c h a p t e r on the re l ig ion of the Gesar, for my own fee l ing is tha t

one ’s f a m i l i a r i t y and s e n se of r e l a t ionsh ip w i t h the r e l ig ious agenda

is the m o s t i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e in the na t ive i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the

tex t .

This t r a n s l a t i o n w i l l a l s o be accompanied by a s y s t e m a t i c

c r i t i c a l t r e a t m e n t of the Gesar, a t r e a t m e n t w h ic h a im s to bring

the s tu d y of T ib e t a n epic l i t e r a t u r e into l ine w i t h our venerable

W es te rn t r a d i t i o n of epic c r i t i c i s m . This t r a d i t i o n , as I conceive it,

s t a r t s w i t h P la to and A r i s t o t l e and has con t inued w i t h small

i n t e r ru p t io n un t i l the p r e s e n t day. It w a s a l t e r e d by medieval moral

c r i t i c i s m , r e s u r r e c t e d and r e i n t e r p r e t e d by r e n a i s s a n c e c r i t i c i s m ,

and cha l lenged s c i e n t i f i c a l l y by the higher c r i t i c i s m t h a t emerged in

the the 18th c e n tu ry under the hands of s c h o l a r s such as F.A. Wolf,

who w e r e insp i red by new c r i t i c a l s tud ie s of the Bible.

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A f te r Wolf c am e a rcheo log ica l and l i n g u i s t i c r e s e a r c h which

even tua l ly gave b i r t h to a na ly t ica l m o v e m e n ts seemingly in

oppos i t ion to A r i s t o t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m . S pe c i f i ca l ly , A r i s t o t l e ' s

t r e a t m e n t of Homer involved the p r e s u p p o s i t io n t h a t Horner w a s a

s ing le individual and t h a t the two poems he w r o t e w e re whole and

d i s c r e t e works. His in ten t ion to make the I l ia d and the Odyssey

l i t e r a r y u n i t i e s gave them beginnings, m id d les , ends and a c e r t a i n

i n t e g r a l i t y of p lo t s t r u c tu r e . Whether t h i s i n t e g r a l i t y w a s t r u e of

Homer or not, i t w a s the rule in the i m i t a t i o n s of Greek epic, in the

iong hero ic n a r r a t i v e s w r i t t e n by succeed ing genera t ions . The

a n a ly t ic a l "higher c r i t i c i s m " t h a t fo l lo w s a f t e r Wolf cha l lenges ,

however , the un i ty of the Homeric ep ics , tu rn ing away from the

p re s u p p o s i t io n s of c o m p l e te n e s s and c lo s u re and u n i t a r i a n i sm

a s su m e d in A r i s t o t l e ' s t r e a t m e n t of epic in the Poetics.

Fur ther c h a l l en g e s occurred when s t u d i e s of o ra l i ty , such as

those of Lord and Parry, put into ques t ion the concep t of s ing le

a u tho r sh ip in the Greek epics . At the s a m e t i m e as th e s e s t u d i e s of

oral ity, the re have been s o p h i s t i c a t e d w orks based on a com b in a t io n

of modern p r in c ip l e s of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t

in phi lology and l i t e r a r y archeology. These t h e o r i s t s of epic, people

such a s G.S. Kirk and C.M. Bowra, t ake a middle path b e tw ee n the

a n a ly t ic a l and Uni tar ian read ings of Homer, producing broad,

sy n th e t i c , s c i e n t i f i c a n a ly se s which a lso show sub t le and r e f in e d

l i t e r a r y ta s te .

Original ly I had intended to ex tend the c o m p a ra t iv e po r t io n s

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of t h i s s tudy to the Mahâbhârata and the Râmâyana, the g r e a t Indian

l i t e r a r y epics. There is a c r i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n in the West w h ich has

been brought to b ea r on them producing i n t e r e s t i n g in s igh t s w h ich

touch upon the n a tu re of epic a c r o s s the world. A good r e c e n t

e x am p le of t h i s work is Alf Hi 1 t e b e i tel s c r i t i c a l study, The R i tu a l o f

B a t t le , Krishna in the Mahâbhârata . H i l t e b e i t e l ’s exam ina t ion is

b a s e d on a soc io log ica l approach to ep ic s c h o la r sh ip founded on a

French school of Indological r e s ea rch . The ch ie f th inke rs he

r e p r e s e n t s in t h i s a r e a a re George Dumézi l , Madeleine Biardeau , and

J.A.B. van Buitenen, who t r a n s l a t e d t h e Mahâbhârata into English.

He a l s o con t inues the v a s t app roaches of c om p a ra t iv e mythology

r e p r e s e n t e d by V ic to r Turner and Mircea El iade.86 Wendy Doniger

O 'F laher ty s u m m a r i z e s t h e s e schoo l s in he r p re fa c e to H i l t e b e i t e l

and t h e r e the d i f f e r e n c e s in the app roaches of the se va r ious

s c h o l a r s are c le a r ly p re s e n te d . All of them are alike, however , in

t h e i r s e a rc h for underly ing m y tho log ie s t h a t w i l l reveal s o m e th in g

abou t an anc ien t Indo-European cu l tu re . They seek to g e n e ra l i z e

abou t the na tu re of W e s te rn re l ig ion in epic n a r r a t i v e s and t h e i r

a t t e n t i o n is to plo t m o t i v e s a s ev idence of broad re l ig ious

t e n d e n c ie s . They s e e m , in t h i s sense , to be a con t inua t ion of the

r o m a n t i c impetus of the phi lo logica l m o v em e n t in the 19th century .

Although I r e s p e c t t h i s approach and f ind it i n t e r e s t in g , I have

ch o sen in the c r i t i c a l c h a p t e r s of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n to c o n c e n t r a t e on

A r i s t o t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m a t the expense of the schoo ls of r e l i g i o u s

s t u d i e s and c o m p a r a t iv e mythology r e p r e s e n t e d by these soc ia l

84

s c i e n t i s t s . The reason is s imple. Dumézil and h i s s u c c e s s o r s a r e

more concerned w i th oral epics and e p ic s which a re of oral

provenance, than they a r e w i th be l les le t t re s and e p ic s composed in

w r i t in g . But as c h a p t e r s Chapte rs II and III wil l argue, c lose and

d e t a i l e d t ex tua l s t u d i e s of the Mipham Gesar show t h a t even though

T ib e t a n s today s ing i t to each o ther , i t is not an e spec ia l ly oral

work. Everywhere in the t e x t one s e e s the c o n s t r u c t i v e in f luence

no t of t r ad i t io n , but of one man, the T ibe tan Buddhist theologian,

Mipham Gyatso.

The Gesar Corpus a t large may deserve a p lace in the

a t t e n t i o n s of the D um éz i l / Biardeau ax is and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e

U n ive rs i ty of Chicago school of Rel ig ious Studies . But not the

Mipham v e r s i o n — i t i s too far f rom oral c u l tu re to s tand as a good

r e p r é s e n t a t i v e of the b e l i e f s and m yth ic s y s t e m s of anc ien t

c iv i l i z a t i o n s , i t be longs much more w i t h Dante, Milton, Spense r , and

Joyce . And i t belongs w i t h Homer as Virgil read him and as Bow ra

r e c o n s t r u c t s him to be the single au thor of the I liad.

Original ly I had thought to examine the o r a l i t y of the Gesar by

doing a c lose s tudy of the formula ic language in the Mipham ve rs ion .

The more of i t I t r a n s l a t e d , however , the more I w a s convinced t h a t

t h i s w a s a c a re fu l ly c r a f t e d work of be l les le t t re s and not a

t r a n s c r i p t i o n of a b a rd ic performance . It e x p re s s e s a v a s t

m e t a p h y s i c a l vision. The au thor or e d i t o r lea rnedly quotes

s c r i p t u r e s to which only the e x t r e m e ly l i t e r a t e might have a c c e s s .

Never the le ss , t he Mipham Gesar is m ea n t for the d e l e c t i o n of

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a v a s t public. And, r ead ing from the pub l i shed t e x t , T ibe tan s in g e r s

o f t e n e n t e r t a i n t h e i r aud ie nce s w i th p e r f o r m a n c e s of it. But the

f a c t t h a t the language is co l loquial and e a s y to u nde rs t and does not

mean t h a t i t is of oral provenance, but r a t h e r t h a t i t involves a

c l e v e r use of the ve rnacu la r . Many songs a re undoubtedly r e l i c s of

ba rd ic pe r fo rm ances . But t h e r e are o t h e r s o r t s of poems which a re

c a r e fu l l a m a i s t i c c o m p o s i t i o n s — some in the col loquial d i a lec t ,

som e in C lass ica l T ibe tan .

Perhaps the l a t e r vo lum es wil l be m ore bardic. H e l f fe r ’s

t r a n s l a t i o n of The Horse Race con ta ins main ly oral m a te r i a l . But

then, i t is no t a t r a n s c r i p t i o n and t r a n s l a t i o n of the e n t i r e epic, but

only of the epic songs w i t h in it. Until the o th e r vo lumes have been

t r a n s l a t e d in t h e i r e n t i r e t y and the t e x t of them care fu l ly analyzed,

w e m u s t a s su m e t h a t t h i s is not a work of a n c i e n t compos i t ion , but

a 19th cen tu ry rew ork ing of the epic by s c h o la r s .

A r i s t o t l e l i a n c r i t i c i s m is thus w e l l designed to deal w i th

such an immense n a r r a t i v e and the non-ora l i m i t a t i o n s of Homer are

p rope r compar isons . If Bowra is c o r r e c t t h a t the I l ia d is more the

work of a s ing le a u tho r than a natural , s e l f - e x i s t i n g product ion of

t r a d i t i o n , then the I l ia d is a lso an a p p ro p r i a t e c o m p a r i s o n — but

w i t h in the t r a d i t io n and d i sc ip l ine of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m r a t h e r than

a s an o b j e c t of a t t e n t i o n of the social s c i en c es . And so the

d i s s e r t a t i o n wil l keep to A r i s to t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m and avoid the

v a s t e r , an th ropo log ica l ly o r ien ted Dumezi l ian p e r s p e c t iv e s . It may

be a p p ro p r ia te for the Gesar Corpus a t large, bu t i t does not f i t the

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Mipham ve rs ion ve ry wel l .

At the sam e t im e , to r ep e a t a po in t m ade e a r l i e r , we wil l not

abandon the use of S t e i n ' s e thnograph ic , an th ropo log ica l , and

m ytho log ica l o b s e rv a t i o n s , for w i t h o u t them w e would not be ab le to

iden t i fy the c o l l e c t i o n of w r i t i n g s which a r e t r e a t e d here as a

s ing le corpus.

C r i t i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s on the Corpus a t Large

I would no t l ike, however , to abandon e n t i r e l y H i t lbe i te l or

Blardeau or O'Flaherty. The en t i re corpus of T ib e t a n epic m a t e r i a l s

does indeed inv i t e the use of a Dumezi l ian approach. The

Mahabharata and the Ramayana are , r e s p e c t iv e l y , oral and w r i t t e n

in t h e i r or igins . But they are accompanied by a v a s t , m u l t i - n a t i o n a l ,

m u l t i - l i n g u i s t i c c u l t u r e of legends, p i c to r i a l , m us ica l , and d r a m a t i c

a r t . As q u a s i - s c r i p t u r e s , they a re one of the m a i n s t a y s of a

p o p u la r i s t i c re l ig ion s t i l l p r a c t i c e d a c r o s s Asia. They are in t h i s

way s i m i l a r to the Gesar Corpus. For it too is not j u s t a s ingle

work of l i t e r a t u r e , bu t a va s t m u l t i - l in g u a l c o l l e c t i o n of Central

Asia s t o r i e s , p e r fo r m a n c e s , cul t a c t i v i t i e s , and w o rk s of a r t

o rgan ized around a s ing le heroic s u b j e c t and n a r ra t ive .

C o m p a r a t i s t s in the West have e xper ienced s u c c e s s in applying

m e thods of a n a l y s i s f rom the d i sc ip l ine of h i s t o r y of re l ig ion to

Indian epics. Now w e can bring to t h i s W es te rn d i sc ip l ine t h a t new

corpus a s a v a s t new s t o r e of data .

87

However , speak ing on th i s level of the Gesar co rpus a t large ,

t h e r e is one i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n the T ib e t a n l i t e r a ry

o b j e c t and all o ther epics . The Gesar m a t e r i a l s a re much more

n u m e r o u s and ex tens ive t h a n those ava i l ab le fo r o t h e r epics. For

e x am p le , w h e r e a s t e x tu a l 1y we have noth ing m ore than a few

v e r s i o n s of tw o c h a p t e r s f rom the s t o r y of the Achaean s iege of

Troy , fo r the Gesar Epic t h e r e are huge n u m b e r s of rad ic a l ly v a r i a n t

t e x t s and a t l e a s t 18 d i f f e r e n t sagas , each a p p ro x i m a t e ly the length

of the I liad. Actual ly , a l though T ibe tan b a rd s be l i e v e in i t s

e x i s t e n c e , t h e re is a t l e a s t physica l ly no such thing as a s ingle

Gesar Epic. Rather , t h e r e is a v a s t c o l l e c t i o n of d iv e r s e m a t e r i a l s

— m o s t l y lengthy p r o s i m e t r i c n a r r a t iv e s . All t e l l p o r t ions of the

s a m e s to ry . Thus the Gesar o f Ling is the l a r g e s t body of p r imary

m a t e r i a l s r e p r e s e n t in g an oral n a r r a t i v e in the world. It is many

t i m e s l a rg e r than the ve ry l a rg e s t ep ic s p rev io u s ly s tud ied . There

a r e e d i t e d and unedi ted t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , o r ig ina l l i t e r a r y

c o m p o s i t i o n s based on t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , c o u r t l y w r i t t e n c o m p o s i t io n s ,

l a rge c o l l e c t i o n s of d i sc on t inuous ba l lads , c o l l e c t i o n s of

i l l u s t r a t i o n s , plays, r i t u a l t e x t s , and c o m m e n t a r i e s . 87

The mere f a c t of i t s unpreceden ted e x t e n s i v e n e s s r eq u i r e s an

e x p la n a t o r y e f f o r t — why is the re so much m o re of the Gesar than

of any o t h e r epic in human h i s t o r y ? The a n s w e r may be t h a t more of

t h e oral m a t e r i a l s w e re a va i l ab le for ph i lo log ica l s c h o la r sh ip than

h a s e v e r been the c a se befo re . The Gesar m a t e r i a l s w e r e d i scove red

by the V/est during the pe r iod of the Gesar's f l o u r i s h in g and not , a s

88

w a s probably the c a s e w i t h the Homeric ep ics , in l a t e r c en tu r ie s

a f t e r i t had d im in i shed and become a t r e a s u r e d ant ique . Chapters of

the Gesar, on the o t h e r hand, epic a re s t i l l sung today by Tibetan

bards . The re l ig ion of Gesa r is s t i l l w id e ly p r a c t i c e d and in f ac t is

growing and con t inu ing to be propagated. In t h i s r e l ig ion , he and t h e

o th e r c h a r a c t e r s f rom the epic are Buddhas, p r o t e c t i v e gods, and

fam i ly genii . The Indian e p ic s s t i l l th r ive in r e l i g io u s p r a c t i c e and

in t h i s way c o m p e te w i t h the e x te n s iv e n e s s of the G e sa r cult. But

the c en t r a l epic co rpus no longer undergoes g ro w th and addi t ion .88

C hap te r s of the epic a re s t i l l being composed by T ib e tan lamas and

e rud i t e s . These a dd i t iona l chap te r s are p a s s e d around among the

au tho rs ' d i s c ip l e s and even tua l ly publ ished fo r popu la r consumption.

in r e c e n t decades numerous reco rd ings have been made of oral

Gesar by Chinese, Russian, French, German, Scandinavian , and

English scho la r s . The p r a c t i c e of co l l ec t ing and publ ish ing v e r s io n s

of c h a p t e r s f rom the epic, however , a c tu a l ly goes back to a period

be fo re European a ca d e m ia became i n t e r e s t e d in it. The e a r l i e s t

publ ished v e r s io n is in the t im e of the Manchu e m p e ro r K’ang Hsi in

the 17th century .

The p r a c t i c e of w r i t i n g down the ep ic may go back even

f u r t h e r than th i s , but not in the sense of producing e d i t i o n s for a

reading public. Rather , i t has been the cus tom among many of the

bards to have a kind of h a n d - w r i t t e n p rom p t book, a m anusc r ip t ,

which is i t s e l f , in e f f e c t , an edit ion of a s ing le chap te r .

Recently t h e r e have been ca re fu l ly ed i ted v e r s i o n s of the ep ic

89

pub l i shed fo r a T ibe tan reading publ ic . But t h i s is a new

phenomenon— pa r t , one might say , of the d e s t r u c t i o n of the ora l

t r a d i t i o n a s i t begins to move th rough m a n u s c r i p t into pr in ted

cu l tu re .

The Problem of Beginnings

The unp reced en ted e x t e n s i v e n e s s poses a s p e c i a l problem and

p ro d u ce s spec ia l i n s i g h t s because of th i s huge e p i c ' s he te rogene i ty .

For exam ple , my t r a n s l a t i o n when com ple ted in s ix volumes wil l be

the f i r s t t r a n s l a t i o n in to English of one ve r s io n of the epic. T h a t in

i t s e l f is a problem, because the dec i s ion to begin w i t h the Mipham

v e r s i o n of the Gesar i s f rom the point of v iew of canon de sc r ip t i o n s

a l m o s t an a r b i t r a r y decis ion. And ye t , if the t r a n s l a t i o n ever is

c o m p le te d and publ ished, s c h o la r s w i l l rely on i t a s if i t were the

c e n t e r of the 6 e s a r corpus. I ts a c c e s s i b i l i t y in Engl ish wil l tend to

e c l i p s e sc h o la r ly i n t e r e s t in the many o the r q u i t e probably o lder

v e rs ions .

The Mipham Gesar, as we w i l l see, is a v e ry p a r t i c u l a r form

the s to ry . It is Buddhicized to the nth d e g re e — to such an e x t e n t

t h a t i t may be a poor r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of oral v e r s i o n s from the

n i n e t e e n t h cen tury or e a r l i e r , b e ca u se i t inc ludes so much non-oral

m a t e r i a l and quo tes f rom e s o t e t i c Buddhist s c r i p t u r e s . We wi l l see

when we look a t Alexander Macdonald 's f i e ld w o rk in Tibetan s t o r y

t e l l in g , t h a t sgrung mkhan, bards , do inco rpo ra te w r i t t e n m a te r i a l

90

in to t h e i r r e c i t a t i o n s . But not , as f a r as I know, q u o t e s f rom t a n t r a s

and Buddhist ph i losophica l t ex t s .

Until w e have e s t a b l i s h e d c r i t i c a l e d i t ions and da t ings fo r a

la rge num ber of oral and w r i t t e n Gesars , i t w i l l be im poss ib le to

c o n f id e n t ly p lac e the Mipham Gesar in i t s proper con tex t . By the

s a m e reason ing , we m u s t be care fu l not to eva lua te h a s t i l y the v a s t

c o rp u s f rom d a ta we find in t h i s one e d i t io n alone. The same

warn ing m u s t be made when w e e v a lu a t e the language of the Mipham

Gesar. When the e n t i r e t r a n s l a t i o n is f in ished, t h e r e wi l l be a v a s t

amount of d a ta about the s u b - d i a l e c t s of the tw o v e r s i o n s

t r a n s l a t e d by S t e i n ’s and his s t u d e n t s ( the Mipham Gesar and the

David-Neel vers ion) . That is s t i l l not s u f f i c i e n t to ge n e ra l i z e about

the oral n a tu r e of the Gesar and the o ra l d imens ion of i t s language.

We do not a s a s c h o la ry communi ty p o s s e s s a t p r e s e n t a conf iden t

knowledge of the d i a l e c t s of the oral Gesars r e c o rd e d by Macdonald

and the 2 0 0 0 plus hours of s inging a rch ived in China.

Anne-Marie Blondeau, who has been d i r ec t ing the t r a n s l a t i o n

in to French of the s h o r t e r and l e s s Buddhist i c David-Neel m a n u s c r i p t

G e s a r , r e c e n t l y po in ted out t h a t a c o m p le te t r a n s l a t i o n of the

Mipham t e x t could becom e a s o r t of "Vulgate G e sa r ,” used by

s c h o l a r s in c o m p a r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e to the d i s a d v a n ta g e of the

u n t r a n s l a t e d g r e a t e r m a s s of m a te r i a l . This would be e x t r e m e ly

undes i rab le .

It is in the end, a problem of beginnings. One m u s t begin

so m e w h e re and t h i s ed i t ion , desp i te the f a c t t h a t it may be

91

u n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the oral m a t e r i a l s , recommended i t s e l f f o r

s e v e r a l rea sons . To begin w i th , i t h a s been pub l ished s e v e r a l t i m e s

in the 2 0 t h cen tu ry and is c u r r e n t l y popular among Buddhist

T ibe tans . It w a s publ ished in bo th Ssu ch’uan and Kansu in e d i t i o n s

under the d i r e c t i o n of Thubten Nyima, Rinpoche, a T ibe tan

e n c y c lo p e d i s t of the Nyingma l ineage and a r ecogn ized s p e c i a l i s t on

C e sa r .89 This l ama 's edi t ion has been qu i te popular and c e r t a i n

c h a p t e r s of it w e re t r a n s l a t e d in to Chinese a s wel l .

At the sa m e t ime, as w e w i l l s e e in Chap te r III, the Mipham

l i t u r g i c a l p r a c t i c e s have become popular among T ibe tan r e fu g e e

c o m m u n i t i e s and, s t range ly , in the W es t as w e l l among A m er ican

B u d d h i s t s .90

In addi t ion , i t is a r t i s t i c a l l y a cc o m p l i sh e d w e l l w r i t t e n

and v a s t l y conceived, w i th many leve l s of meaning and a

s o p h s i t i c a t e d s t r u c t u r e and in ten t . A more a u th e n t i c a l l y oral

e d i t i o n m igh t not be as a r t i s t i c a l l y stunning. Like modern nove ls ,

t he Mipham Gesar is e sp e c i a l l y he te rogenous and e m b r a c e s an

e x t e n s i v e domain of e x p re s s iv e p o s s ib i l i t i e s . It inc ludes the whole

range of T ib e tan l i t e r a ry g e n r e s — all except d ram a .91 It

e x p r e s s e s , in sho r t , the depth and v i s ion of i t s a u t h o r / e d i t o r and

s u p e r v i s o r — being of unusual e ru d i t io n and c r e a t i v i t y . T hese are

the main r e a s o n s th i s Buddh is t ic ve rs ion should be t r a n s l a t e d into

Eng l i sh— because it is ioveiy, i n t e r e s t i n g in i t s e l f , and popular .

But t h i s is not the t e x t w h ic h wil l r en d e r us the m o s t

i m p o r t a n t e thnograph ica l in fo rm a t ion . If we knew the co rpus b e t t e r ,

92

t h e r e a re qu i te l ik e ly severa l oral v e r s i o n s con ta in ing more

h i s t o r i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c t r e a s u r e s — v e r s i o n s which, in the s e rv ice

of g ro w th in ou r s c i e n t i f i c u n d e rs t an d in g would have been s tu d i e d

f i r s t , had w e only known the e n t i r e t e r r a i n be fore we undertook i t s

c ro ss ing .

The Lha Ling as t h e beginning of the epic

In a way i t i s too bad t h a t a t r a n s l a t i o n of the Gesar m u s t

begin w i t h the f i r s t chap ter . For the beginning is not much l ike the

r e s t of the book and in th i s e d i t io n the beginning is qu i te long— a

c o m p le te c o m p o s i t i o n in i t s e l f . It s u f f e r s , in f ac t , from a prob lem

t h a t many epic be g inn ings have, w h ic h is t h a t i t moves s l o w l y and is

d i s t a n t f rom w h a t people love m o s t about the Gesar, the b a t t l e

c h ap te r s . Here w e e ncoun te r the prob lem of how to begin an epic and

w h e re i t should beg in and w ha t be g inn ings mean.

The S to ry of Troy is an e x c e l l e n t exam ple of t h i s problem:

L a t t im o re in h i s t r a n s l a t i o n of the H i ad e n t i t l e s i t The Anger o f

A c h i l l e s 92. T h is t i t l e e m p h a s i z e s the f a c t t h a t Homer did no t

a t t e m p t to n a r r a t e the en t i r e w a r , b u t m e re ly ten days of i t s act ion,

the days in w h ic h the f a t e s of A c h i l l e s and Hecto r and t h e r e f o r e by

ex te ns io n th o se of the en t i re Achaean f l e e t and Troy i t s e l f w e r e

decided. L a t t i m o r e in the i n t ro d u c t io n to h is t r a n s l a t i o n a t t e m p t s

to d e sc r ib e the g r e a t e r epic of w h ic h Homer 's c on t r ibu t ion would

have been but t w o c hap te r s . Like m o s t c o m m e n t a t o r s he holds tha t

93

m o s t of the o t h e r c h a p t e r s w e re w r i t t e n a f t e r the I l ia d and the

Odyssey. We have seen t h a t the sa m e s o r t of a r g u m e n t is used f o r

the c e n t r a l c h a p t e r s of the Gesar.

C r i t i c s f rom A r i s t o t l e fo rw a rd did no t spend much energy

imagin ing the l a rge r corpus. Until the 17 t h c e n t u r y and Wolf 's

Prolegomena adHomerum 93 the a n a ly t i c a l app roach to Homer w a s

not s e r i o u s l y considered . C r i t i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s r e g a rd e d each of h i s

tw o w o r k s as a uni ty (or as a hope le s s fa r rago) , bu t a l w a y s ignored

t h e i r p o s s ib l e place in a l a rg e r opus or a more e x t e n s i v e , pe rhaps

m ore am orphous corpus. The concep t ion is t h a t t h e p rev ious " tex t"

fo r Homer w a s only a c o l l e c t i o n of legends or h i s t o r i c a l f ac t s . From

th e s e Homer composed tw o co m p le te and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t w orks w i t h

c l e a r beg inn ings , middles , and ends. He chose to begin in medias res

and t h i s s t y l e of beginning w a s c ons ide red a s a c o m p o s i t i o n a l

t ec h n iq u e in i t s e l f . 94

Horace, descr ib ing the a r t of t h e s e p r e s u m p t i v e ly o r ig ina ry

p o e t s p r e s c r i b e d th a t an epic should begin in the m idd le of th ings a s

if t h e r e w e r e no actual w r i t t e n beginning. His 3dvice is to modern

p o e t s t h a t they be as w i s e as Homer, the p r ima l poe t . The one who

c o m p o s e s the f i r s t a c c o u n t— even he should beg in in the middle of

things : “semper ad eventum fe s t in a t e t in medias r e s / non secus ac

notas aud ito rem rap it , et quae/ desperat t r a c ta ta n i tesce re posse,

re l inqu it , . . . " [ l in e s1 4 7 - 1 4 8 ] The advice here is to "has ten to the

c r i s i s " and no t to t r e a t a top ic so large t h a t the e f f e c t on the r e a d e r

is not im pre ss ive . To te l l the e n t i r e s t o r y from beginning to end

94

would be to "fe tch sm oke from a f lash" r a t h e r t h a n " l ight from

smoke." “non fumum ex fulgore, sed ex fumo dare lucem And by

beginning the a cco un t w i t h the m o s t s t r i k i n g and e s s e n t i a l a c t ion of

the plo t , w e have a ha rm ony of beginning, middle , and end— a

harmony which is c o n s id e re d good n a r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e : "...primo ne

medium, me dio ne d isc repe t imum. "95

But looking a t t h e m e a s u r e l e s s n e s s of t h e Gesar corpus we

begin to r e a l i z e t h a t in medias res may be r a t h e r a n e c e s s i t y than a

w r i t e r l y decis ion . If t h e epic is t ru ly v a s t , i t may be near ly

im p o s s ib le to f ind i t s beginning. And if one doe s indeed d i s c o v e r a

causa l i n i t i a t i o n to the chain of e v e n t s t h a t l ead to the epic a c t ion ,

i t may be a beginning so d i s t a n t in t im e and s p a c e from the c e n t r a l

o c c u r r e n c e s of the e p i c — the im p o r t a n t b a t t l e s c e n e s , the g r e a t

dea ths , the f inal d e s t r u c t i o n and d i sp o s i t io n of the the p r inc ip le

c h a r a c t e r s — t h a t t h e in t roduc t ion may b ea r l i t t l e r e s e m b la n c e in

tone, qu a l i ty or s u b j e c t m a t t e r to the r e s t of the s tory.

Or to put it a n o th e r way, i t i s only the t w o c h a p t e r s of the Epic

o f Troy, viz. the I l ia d and the Odyssey t h a t begin in medias res. In

o rder to imagine a m u l t i - c h a p t e r e d g r e a t e r w o r k t h a t r e c i t e s the

whole s t o r y , we m u s t pos i t an in t roduc t ion t h a t p l ac e s us not in the

m i d s t of th ings , bu t a t the ac tua l beginning.96

This n on -H ora t i a n c o m p re h e n s iv e n e s s is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

found in t h e o th e r g r e a t oral ep ic s which we p o s s e s s in "complete"

edi t ions. The Mahabharata begins , for example , w i t h the s to ry of

the enm i ty b e tw e e n the divine bird Garuda and the snakes or nBgas.

95

T h e m a t i c a l l y t h i s legend is seem ing ly p r e s e n t j u s t to expla in t h e

r i t u a l ga th e r in g a t w h ic h the Mahabharata i s f i r s t r e c i t e d to King

J a n a m e g a y a , a d e s c e n d a n t of t h e s in g le s u r v i v o r of the b a t t l e of

K u ru k s e t r a — a b a t t l e in which the m ora l un ive r se of a n c i e n t India

is de s t royed . Thus t h i s f i r s t chap te r , the Adiparvan, t h e "pr imordial

chap te r , " is nothing b u t a f r a m e n a r r a t i v e fo r the c e n t r a l act ion. It

j u s t i f i e s the r e c i t a l of the epic as the t e l l in g of an o r ig in t a l e fo r

th e royal l i s t e n e r , the king of Bhara t or India. It ha s no o t h e r

obvious connec t ion un t i l a t h i rd of the w a y through th e parvan.

E f fe c t iv e ly the f r a m e n a r r a t i v e is a d i s t i n c t l i t e r a r y p iece and

cou ld have been a c h a p t e r in i t s e l f . It is d i f f e r e n t in them e , con ten t ,

c h a r a c t e r s , and s t y l e f rom the r e s t of the epic , as has been no ted by

s c h o l a r s who s u g g e s t t h a t the e n t i r e parvan i s a c t u a l l y a l a t e r

a d d i t i o n .97

But when we d i s c u s s the Adiparvan, the s o - c a l l e d "p r imord ia l

c hap te r , " we are a c t u a l l y only c o n s id e r in g one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the

c o rp u s of Mahabhara ta m a t e r i a l s . As w e have a l ready noted , t h e r e is

s i g n i f i c a n t d i s a g r e e m e n t about the c o m p o s i t i o n of the canonica l

t e x t s of t h i s epic. T here is the s o - c a l l e d “Nor thern recens ion ,"

w h i c h inc ludes m a t e r i a l s in c lo se ly r e l a t e d Indo-European languages

such as Nepali , Bengal i , and Sanskr i t . The s o - c a l l e d "Southern

recens ion" inc ludes m a t e r i a l s in l anguages of a whol ly d i f f e r e n t

l i n g u i s t i c group such a s Telugu and Malayalam. When w e think of the

g r e a t e r v a s t n e s s and d i v e r s i t y of m a t e r i a l s beyond even w h a t is

included in t h e s e tw o m u l t i - l in g u a l b o d ie s of tex t s : legends , epic

96

lays , composed c h a p te r s , cour t poetry, and re l ig ious hymns, then we

begin to w onde r i f the re can be a t ru e and de f in i t ive beginning.

In a s e n s e the I l ia d has the same problem. We do not p o s s e s s

a l a rge r work which c o n ta in s the Homeric epics . But if we did,

w he re would i t beg in? Richmond L a t t im o re c i t e s the ou t l ine

provided by P roc lus and sum m ar iz ed by Phot ius; he s p e c u l a t e s on the

e x i s t e n c e of a s e r i e s of e p ic s beginning w i th the Cypria, a poem t h a t

t akes the a c t io n from "the deci s ion of the gods to cause the T ro jan

war" to the po in t where the I l ia d beg ins (Lat t imore, p. 27).

L a t t im o re be l i e ves , however , tha t the real beginning of the s t o r y

should be w i t h t h e judgem en t of Pa r i s w he re a quarrel b e tw e e n

th ree g o d d e s se s l eads to P a r i s ’ kidnapping of Helen. But why s top

th e r e ? Some think t h a t the t rue causal or iginat ion of the e v e n t s

which lead to the plo t of the I l ia d should be the m ar r iage of Pe leus

and T he t i s , to which the poem indeed r e f e r s . At th a t union of a

m or ta l king and an im m or ta l s e a nymph the apple of d i scord w a s

th rown among the guest s . This i n i t i a t e d the confusion which lead to

the Ju d g e m e n t of Pa r i s and f inal ly to the Tro jan war. The Apple of

Discord w a s th ro w n a t the very sam e t im e t h a t Achi lles , the man

whose p r o w e s s w i l l d e s t ro y Troy, w as conceived. Perhaps he re is

the t rue beginning of the h is to ire .

But Cypria i t s e l f may also al low us to place the beginning of

the ac t ion of the epic back even fur ther . Paul Mazon in his French

edi t ion and t r a n s l a t i o n of the I l ia d 98 t a k e s the express ion "the

des igns of Zeus” from I l ia d 1.6 to r e f e r to Zeus’ plan to depopula te

97

t h e ove r-bu rdened e a r t h by caus ing a s e r i e s of d i s a s t r o u s w a r s .

Then again, t h e r e is a n o th e r p o s s ib l e read ing which would

se ek the r e l e v an t o r ig in s in y e t a n o t h e r quarte r . J a m e s Redfield, in

Nature and Culture in the Iliad: The Tragedy o f H e c t o r " , conce ives

t he s t o r y of the w a r f rom the p o in t of v iew of the T ro jans , and u se s

t he A r i s t o t e l i a n ge ne r ic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to iden t i fy the hero of the

t r ag e d y a s Hector, not Achi lles. If we then think of the Aenead as

t h e i m i t a t i v e c on t inua t ion of Homer’s w orks , the t r u e o r ig in s of the

s t o r y would be in the b i r th of the T ro jan s t a t e — a s u b j e c t heavi ly

t h e m a t i z e d in Virgil, and l e s s so in Homer. Here the causa l o r ig ins

change depending on w hose s to r y one th inks the T ro jan w a r is: the

s t o r y of Par i s and Helen, the t r agedy of the h a l f -d iv in e w a r r io r ,

A c h i l l e s , or the t ragedy of the b rave man doomed to d e fea t , Hector.

It is i n t e r e s t i n g to compare t h e s e approaches to expla ining

the boundar ie s of the Greek epic w i t h Asian epics . The Puranas, for

example , are def ined a s beginning w i t h the c r e a t i o n of the world.

Not all of them a c t u a l l y do, but the r e a so n for making the p o in t is

c lear . These epic c o l l e c t i o n s of t a l e s and d ia logues are theogon ies

l ike Hesiod and m u s t begin w i th the or ig in of all th ings because they

t e l l t h e s t o r i e s of the gods of all th ings. But the Ladakhi v e r s io n of

the Gesar epic a lso beg ins w i th the c re a t io n of the world, based on

t h a t m ore or l e s s s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e of Buddhism t h a t c a u s a l i t y

s t o r i e s m u s t go back to the l i t e r a l o r ig ina l cause, which is the

e f f i c i e n t cause of all e x i s t e n t th ings .

In all of th e s e epic cyc les the beginning of the cycle is qu i te

98

d i s t a n t f rom the c e n t r a l even ts and, a l though l inked in very obvious

w a y s , q u i te d i f f e r e n t in s ty le and c o n te n t f rom w h a t it in t roduces .

In t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n I wi l l t r a n s l a t e and comment upon th e

f i r s t c h a p t e r of th e Mipham ve rs ion of the Gesar Epic. In t h i s

v e r s io n the i n t r o d u c to ry c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s the counci l in heaven in

which i t is decided t h a t the re wil l be a hero named Gesar who w i l l

i n c a r n a t e to save t h e world from a plague of evil demons. The div ine

o r ig in s of the god who l a t e r in c a rn a t e s as Gesa r are desc r ibed and

om ens a re de l ive red to the t r iba l s t a t e of Ling ( gLing ) wa rn ing t h i s

w a r l i k e people t h a t a g rea t hero wi l l be born am ongs t them.

Padm asam bhava , " the Lotus Born," the founder of Tan tr ic Buddhis t

c u l t u r e in Tibet , t r a v e l s throughout the u n iv e r s e using his s p i r i t u a l

p o w e r s and s ly s t r a t a g e m s of sk i l l fu l m eans to bring t o g e th e r the

e l e m e n t s needed to produce the inca rna t ion of a god as a hero. All of

t h e s e e v e n t s form an except iona l n a r r a t i v e e n t i t l e d Lha gLing, the

Divine (Assembly ) o f Ling.

Now, in o r d e r to do a s tudy of Mipham's very popular and

im p o r t a n t ve rs ion of the e n t i r e Gesar Epic, w e m u s t s t a r t w i t h the

Lha gLing. It is, however , a chap te r m o s t un typ ica l of o the r e d i t i o n s

and c o l l e c t i o n s of the epic. Of the many v e r s i o n s d iscovered and

ed i ted , only two inc lude such a chap ter . There is good r ea son fo r

the r e s e r v a t i o n s t h a t Ste in and Francke e x p r e s s about the m a t e r i a l

in t h i s c h a p t e r — t h a t it is e spec ia l ly r e l i g i o u s and f ee l s l ike a

l a te , e c c l e s i a s t i c a l augmenta t ion of the o r ig ina l story, it is an

e x t r e m e ly theo log ica l book— i t s s u b j e c t m a t t e r is m ee t in g s of

99

gods, spon taneous tan t r i e r i t u a l s in heaven, and m ag ic a l even ts

t o t a l l y devoid of w a r f a r e or any sense of h e ro ic oppos i t ions . We wi l l

p u r su e t h i s po in t in more de ta i l l a t e r in t h i s monograph. But a t th i s

po in t I would l ike to a d d re s s the ques t ion c o m p a ra t iv e ly . The Lha

gLing p u r s u e s the o r ig ins of the epic to one of t h e i r logical s t a r t i n g

po in t s , going back not only in t im e by t r a c in g the c ausa l chain, but

r ec e d ing m e ta p h y s ica l ly a s w e l l r eced ing to the onto log ical

o r ig in s of the na tu re and be ing of Gesar. It is a n o th e r example of the

l i t e r a r y p r inc ip le tha t the in t roduc to ry c h a p t e r s of the to ta l

n a r r a t i v e of a Great M a t te r tend to be fundam en ta l ly unl ike the main

c h a p t e r s of the s tory.

For t h i s reason , an in troduc t ion to the Mipham Gesar which

be g ins w i t h an exp lanat ion of i t s f i r s t c h a p t e r m u s t be unl ike the

t r e a t m e n t of the r e s t of the epic. Such w i l l be the c a s e indeed in

t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . While desc r ib ing broadly the Gesar n a r r a t iv e

m a t e r i a l s , the main s u b j e c t of e xam ina t ion wi l l be the m a t t e r

t r e a t e d m o s t i n s i s t e n t l y the Lha gLing, wh ich is the n a tu r e of gods,

the divine machinery and theogony a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Gesar.

I Three editions are used for the translation: R.A. Stein's transcription of the Lha gLing:

R.A Stein, L'épopée tibétaine de Gesar dans sa version lamaique de Ling, (Pans: Presses

Universitaires de France, 1956), pp. 167-215; Lha gLing gab tse dgu skor Ge sar, reproduced

from the the i960 Szechuan People's Publishing House edition, (Gangtok: Sherap Gyaltsen

Palace lionestery Gantok-Sikkim, 1983). This is a pirated edition of the Chinese publication;

and Lha gLing gab tse dgu skor, ed. by ’Thub stan Nyi ma, Rinpoche, (Gansu: Gan su'u mi yigs

dpe skrun khang, 1982). These three editions show many variations, but rarely are they

significant. I have done a critical edition based on theGantok edition. When there were

variations, I accepted the advice and decisions of Lama Tendzin Samphel, Rinpoche. There is a

Bhutanese edition as well, but the circumstances of its preparation are so doubtful that I was

100

advised not to consult it at all.

The Stein '56 edition is a printing of a transcription he did by hand while living in

Kallmpong for a short period. It contains many orthographic errors, as Professor Stein is the

f irs t to admit. I t should be pointed out that Tibetan manuscripts and xylographs often contain

numerous errors. Stein corrected in his transcription some errors he believed were the in

woodblocK print, which was his basis. These corrections are the result of advice from Chinese

speaking native informants in Kalimpcng. Stein included a v e r/ useful Tibetan-French glossary

with his transciption.

The original Tibetan woodblock prints from which he worked, known as the Xylographs

of gLing have not been found yet.

2 See for example, Gregory Nagy, Comparative studies in Creek and Indie meter,

(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974) Gregory Nagy, Comparative studies in Greek

and Indie meter, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974) which despite its t it le is a

work comparing Greek and Indie mythology in the epic tradition.

3 Georges Dumézil, Mythe et épopée, (Paris: Gallimard, 1968)

4 A good example of these studies are two works by Alf Hi Itebeitel, The ritual of battle •

Krishna in the Mahabharata (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990) and The cult

ofDraupadi (Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1988) The Ritual of Battle begins with an

introduction by Wendy DonigerO'Flaherty which gives an excellent outline of the modem

schools of sociological and literary studies of Indian Epic most popular in the United States and

Europe. Wendy Domger's introduction to the English version of Dictionnaire des mythologies et

des religions is even more encompassing: in its map of Asian epic studies it actually includes

an analysis of R.A. Stein's structuralist approach to the Cesar Epic. See mythologies, compiled

by Yves Bonnefoy, (Chicago: University Press, 1991).

I characterize Biardeau as "more textually based' in the sense that she accepts a much

broader textual base for the epic. Dumézil and Van Buitenen supported a critical edition of the

Mahâbhârata which removes from active consideration a great diversity of other MahSbhSrata

texts, if you credit those texts and work from this larger, more diffuse evidential base it is

possibe to illuminate challenging passages by intertextual reference and one is not always

called upon to reduce every explanation to a pre-existing religious foundation. See Wendy

Domger in The Ritual of Battle, pp. 14-18

5 Stein told me in an conversation at his home in 1992 that there still existed two or

three volumes of this version which had never been found. He had never seen them and they

have never been republished. But he had heard reports. He urged me to go to lanchou and

search for those xylographs, it is not certain they exist or have ever existed, if they exist,

then the translation I am undertaking would be perhaps a thousand pages longer in the end.

6 The three principal works in this corpus are: R.A. Stein, L'épopée tibétaine de Cesar

dans sa version lamaigue de Ling, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1956), Recherches

sur l'épopée et I barde au Tibet, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959), and Les

tribus anciennes des marches sino-tibetaines, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1961 ).

His theory of ethnographic strucutralism is most clearly presented in Rolf A. Stein, Le monde

en petit : jardins en miniature et habitations, dans la pensee religieuse d'Extreme-Orient (

Paris : Flammarion, 1987). The English translation is The World 1n Miniature: Container

Gardens and Dwellings in Far Eastern Religious Thought (Stanford: Stanford University Press,

1990).

7 S te in ,‘56: pp. 351-399 .

8 I am particularly thinking of the vocabulary notes provided by Mireille Helffer in her

translation of songs from the second book of the Gesar and Alexander Macdonald's vocabulary

notes to a collection of Tibetan folktales. See Mireille Helffer, Les Chants dans l'épopée

tibétaine de ge-sar d'après le livre de la course de cheval, (Paris: Librairie Droz. 1977) and

A.W. Macdonald, Matériaux Pour L'Etude de la Littérature Populaire Tibétaine Vols. I and II,

(Nanterre: Société d'ethnologie, 1990).

9 Vast beyond consideration are the religious tracts in Hindi and all the languages of India

connecting the Indian epics with Indian religion. The much tinier body of Western scholarly

studies is s till quite extensive. See, for example, Mahabharata : myth and reality : differing

views, editors, S. P. Gupta, K. S. Ramachandran; foreword by Niharranjan Ray, (Delhi: Agam

Prakashan, 1976), Ruth Cecily Katz, Arjuna In the Mahabharata : where Krishna is, there is

victory (Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1989), Jacques Scheuer, Siva

dans le Mahabharata, ( Paris : Presses universitaires de France, 1982), and James Wiiliam

Laine, Visions of God : narratives of theophany in the Mahabharata (Vienna : Institut fur

Indologie der Universität Wien, 1989).

10 Glaucon is discussing with Socrates the origin of Greek religion. ‘And even if there

are gods, and they do care about us, yet we know of them only from tradition and the

genealogies of the poets...* Republic, Book II. The Dialogues of Plato, trans. by Benjamin

Jowett, (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, inc., 1952), p. 314. See also Herodotus,

Herodotus. Greek with an English translation by A. D. Godley (Cambridge: Harvard University

Press, 1981 ), Book 2, chapter 53.

11 See. for example, Jane Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion

(Cambridge: University Press, 1903) or Helene P. Foley (ed.) The Homeric Hymn to Demeter:

translation, commentary, and interpretive essays, (Princeton: University Press, 1993).

12 Foley, opus cit. p. 84.

13 in fact, we may speak historically with more confidence as well for a very interesting,

albeit controversial reason. The lineages of generation-to-generation transmission of lore do

not appear to have been interrupted in the East as they have in the West. This is a

controversial issue, but the argument is plausible. In both the Buddhist and the Gesar traditions

it is the case that there is better documentation of the activity of handing on a text from one

generation to the next. The customs of reading involve scrupulous recording of the situation in

which the previous edition was conferred on the present editor. Even the handing over of a text

from one readr to another is often accompanied by a ceremony of "textual transmission* (lung )

And so, in some cases it is easier to reconstructe the history of a text in Eastern religion than

102

tn Western.

14 Paul Richman (ed.), Many RSmSynas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition tn South

Asia, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).

15 Ibid.

16 Of course, this does not appear to be literally true. For example, The Iliad does not

actually begin with the Council of the Gods scene. But then, in the model of the epic which we

w ill be discussing, the Iliad would not be considered the beginning of the Greek epic cycle of

Troy. At the same time, as we w ill remark, its firs t words refer to the 'designs of Zeus* and

point, according to many interpretations, to the firs t events in the matter of Troy—events

which give the telos of the entire epic cycle.

17 Samten G. Karmay, 'The Four Adversaries of Gesar: a Theoretical Basis of the Tibetan

Epic (with reference to a 'chronological order" of the various episodes in the Gesar Epic)’ — a

paper privately circulated at the Centre d'Êtudes Tibétaine in Paris.

18 Antti Aarne, The types of the folktale : a classification and bibliography, translated and

enlarged by Stith Thompson, 2d revision (Helsinki : Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1973).

19 My analysis here is heavily influenced by Peter Brooks, Reading for the p lo t . design

and intention in narrative .(New York : A.A. Knopf, 1984).

20 A. H. Francke, the Moravian missionary who f irs t published in the West translations of

complete versions of the Gesar epic did short comparative studies of the Gesar with the Indian

epics, and the PurSnas. Francke's approach was heavily influenced by the 19th century

philological movement and the romanticism of orientalists of that period. A summary by R.A.

Stein of Francke's theories along with his principal articles has been published in the m ulti-

volumed Bhutanese edition of the Gesar materials: See The Epic of Gesar, Vol. XXIX, (Thimbu,

Bhutan: 1981 ), particularly pages xvi-xviii.

21 This thesis is put forward and discussed \nThe Iliad of Homer, trans. by Richmond

Lattimore, (Chicago, University Press, 1951), pp. 2 4 - 33.

22 This strange fact has already been recorded by Mireille Heifer, who easily succeeded in

getting a Tibetan singer to perform an entire written manuscript from the second volume of the

Mipham Gesar. Lama Tendzin Samphei informed me that his family and the equivalent of his

village in the Tibetan refugee community of Orissa had him sing aloud portions of the Mipham

Gesar on a yearly basis.

23 For a iist of Mair's work on pien-wen, see bibliography and later citations in this work.

24 For a general introduction to Russian heroic oral poetry see Yurii Matveevich Sokolov,

Russian Folklore, (Hatboro, Pennsylvania, Folklore Associates: 1966), trans. by Catherine

Ruth Smith with intro, and bibliography of Felix Oinas; Nora K. Chadwick, Russian Heroic

Poetry, by Nora K. Chadwick, (Cambridge, University Press: 1932); Felix J. Oinas, Essays on

Russian Follkore and Mythology, (Columbus: University Press, 1985); Isabel Florence Hapgood,

The Epic Songs of Russia, (New York: Scribner, 1916).

25 Albert Sates Lord, Epic singers and oral tradition, (Ithaca : Cornell University Press,

103

199 U and The Singer of Tales (Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 1960).

26 For an ethomusicological discussion of the melodies in the GesarEpic, a discussion

which proceeds based on Lord and Parry’s original analyses of Western oral epic, see M ireille

Helffer, Les Chants dans l'épopée tibétaine de ge-sar d'après le livre de la course de cheval,

(Paris: Librairie Droz, 1977). Helffer’s study of melody In Tibetan oral epic did discover one

referential element: each character had a particular melody attached to his or her persona.

So, for example, whenever Gesar sang, it was always w ith the same tune. His enemy Trctung

sang his songs in another tune, but always the same tune. Interestingly, Helffer reports that

the Tibetan bards did not seem to be particularly aware of this fact about their own singing.

27 There are several major studies of the editions of the Gesar. In this monograph l wi 11

rely principally on the magesterlal, founding study by R.A Stein and a series of more recent

articles by Geoffrey Samuel, along with some recent Chinese research by Wang Yinuan.

R.A Stein, L'épopée tibétaine de Gesar dans sa version lamaïque de Ling, (Paris:

Presses Universitaires de France. 1956), Recherches sur l'épopée et 1 barde au Tibet, (Paris:

Presses Universitaires de France, 1959).

Some of Samuels' studies:: Geoffrey Samuel, 'Gesar of Ling: the Origins and Meaning of

the East Tibetan Epic." In Proceedings of the 5th International Seminar on Tibetan Studies,

Narita, Japan, 1989 ; 'Music and Shamanic Power in the Gesar Epic.' in fletaphon A musical

Dimension. Ed. by Jamie Kassler, (Sydney: Currency Press); 'Gesar of Ling: Shamanic Power

and Popular Religion." In Tantra and Everyday Religion. Ed. by Geoffrey Samuels, (New Delhi:

Aditya Prakashan). Wang Yinuan, "Incomplete Statistics of Sections and Lines in the Tibetan

King Gesar, "(Sichuan...) In Gesar Yanjiu l : 18-4-211.

Samten Karmay deltvered a paper at the International Gesar of Ling Conference in

Lhasa, August 1991, which surveyed the various editions of the epic in a new way—

thematically, listing each version according to its content, gathering constellations of texts and

editions around specific episodes and heroes. The definitive edition of this bibliography is still

in progress. This bibliography of Gesar editions will be quite interesting for literary

theorists, because it is based on the assumption of Tibetan bards that there really is a single,

complete GesarEpic, with a plot, a beginnng, middle, and end. We w ill discuss Karmay's artic le

more fully in Chapter 11.

28 a good example of the Chinese fascination with the 'magic and mystery of Tibet would

be Shih lun Ge Sa Er WangZhuan qan sheng de bei zhing nai qing xiang' by Jing Hua, in Hsi

Tsang Yan Chiu, 1990.1, pp. 130-139. (Lhasa: Hsi tsang yen chiu pien chi bu, 1990).

29 I use this term in the sense developed by Edward Said in Orientalism,. Edward w.

Said,Orientalism (New York : vintage Books, 1979).

I have often observed in conversations with scholars from the People's Republic that many of

them regard Tibetan culture as an exciting and mysterious place, as the embodiment of a

pleasing alterity and some kind of promise of magic and a magical society, beyond what was

dreamt of in Marxist materialism and the determinism of Social Darwinism.

104

30 I am indebted to several scholars at the Centre d'Êtudes Tibétaines in Paris for

information about current Chinese activities with respect to the Gesar epic. At Christmas

time in 1990-91 the People's Republic of China sponsored an international gathering of Gesar

specialists in Lhasa Reports from this conference were delivered to Tibetanists in Paris

during Dr. Anne Marie BloMeau's Tibetan studies seminar at the Sorbonne in Spring of '92. I

am particularly beholden to her, Dr. Heather Stoddard-Karmay, and Dr. Samten Karmay for

their intelligences in this regard. The general conclusions I present in the above paragraph,

however, are my own.

31 in the late 50s there was an anti-Gesar campaign, when Gesar was conceived, as

ALexander Macdonald puts it, "as the Satan of Chinese marxism.“ Personal communicaton from

Alexander Macdonald.

32 Alexandra David-Neel and Lama Yongden, The Superhuman Life of Gesar of Ling, (New

York: Claude Kendall Publisher, 1934), pp. 8-9. The particular bard mentiond in this section

presented himself as a poet/shaman. He considered himself a reincarnation of Dikchen, one of

the accessory heroes of the epic and he claimed that he periodically visited the court of Gesar,

which continues to exist in a magical land. When this singer performed, he would sit with a

blank sheet of paper in his lap, claiming that the written characters of the epic appeared on the

page— as David-Neel says, “a rather strange assertion on his part, considering he did not

know how to read.“ This passage in David-Neel adequately illustrates the widely attested

Buddhist textual bias— a bias so strongly in favor of written texts that some Tibetans might

tend to deny oral provenance, even were it the case.

33 The whole story of Macdonald's informant is not relevant to this chapter, but it is

worth teiling for its color and the sense of background it gives. Before the invasion of Tibet,

the regent to the present Dalai Lama was the chief lama of Reting Monastery. He was a

controversial figure and the politics of church factionalism and theocratic intrigue finally saw

his assasination by a particularly cruel method. During his heyday, however, the Reting Regent

was a great amateur of the Gesar Epic and used to hold contests between bards in his court. It

was there that this young monk heard and memorized performances of the epic. Later he was

forced to flee Tibet because of crimes he had committed, including, allegedly, murder. He met

Alexander Macdonald in Kalimpong, who recorded many hours of Gesar performance from him.

34 Stem ‘59 (p. 5) indicates three versions of the epic as the earliest known in the West:

Benjamin Bergmann's report on a Mongolian version m 1804, Bergmann, Nomadische

Streifereien unter den KalmQken indenJahren I802und ¡80S, vol. I l l ( Riga: 1804), l.J.

Schmidt's study of another Mongolian version, I.J. Schmidt, Die Thaten des vertilgers der Zehn

Uebel in den zehn Gegenden, des verdienstvoHen Helden Bodga Cesser Chan; elne mongolische

Heldensage, nach einen in Peking gedruckten Exemplare aufsneue abgedruckt, mongol ian text

and translation published in 1836 and 1839 in St. Petersburg; new edition (Berlin.- Auriga

Verlag, 1925), and the Francke edition and translation cited below, the first Western notice of

a Tibetan version.

35 A.H. Francke, A Lower Ladakhi Version of the Kesar Saga, in Biblioteca Indica, n. 1543,

105

(Calcutta, 1904). For a bibliography of Francke's work on Gesar, see R.A. Stein, Recherches

sur L'épopée et le barde au Tibet, (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1959), pp. 12-14.

36 Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 22, 1959, ‘ Francis Woodman Cleaves, ‘ An

Early Mongolian version of the Alexander Romance." (Cambridge: Harvard Yenchlng Institute,

I959)pp. 1-99. The existence of this Mongol Ian text and its connection with Near Eastern and

Central Asian versions in other languages leaves ü tt ’»: doubt '. 'a t the Turkic, Persian, and

Greek collections of marvelous tales about the aoventures of Alexander the Great found their

way to Tibet in one form or another.

Stein argues, particularly pp. 280-282 of Recheres sur l'epopée et le- barde au Tibet,

that this lineage of texts traveling from the Byzantine Empire eastward along the Silk Route to

Mongol ia and Tibet constitutes a source for key stories in the Gesar Epic. His argument is

two-fold. I ) In certain versions of the Gesar, Gesar is identified as the King of Rhom or From-

— Persian and Turkic expressions for Alexandria. This means that the concept of his being

emperor of Rome must have come from the geographical locus of the Byzantine Empire and not

from any Chinese or North Asian source and not from knowledge of the Italian Rome. Other

evidence makes this extremely likely. 2) There are homologies in the legendary descriptions of

Kaniska, Asoka, and Alexander that lead us to connect all three of them in legend to the master-

myth of the cakravartin, the ’ wheel-turning monarch" or ‘ universal monarch.- The

similarities go so far as to include a common legend about demon enemies in the Four Quadrants

or Directions with especial reference to the especially d ifficu lt Demon of the North.

My own feeling is that the arguments Stein uses and the evidence he deploys are

inconclusive. The legends of the Indian King Asoka are so widespread that they could have

traveled from East to West and penetrated the Romance of Alexander. Cleaves, in fact,

speculates that the Turkish version of this legend may be the earliest among the four groups of

texts (Greek, Persian, Mongolian, and Turkish) he examines. If this is so, then elements of the

stories found in the Romance could have come from India or one of the great Central Asian

Buddhist kingdoms such as Khotan or Kucha for the geographic flow of influence is westward

from the orient in this case.

This scenario becomes more plausible as our knowledge of the history of Central Asia

improves. With the growth of studies in Late Antiquity and studies of the medieval kingdoms of

the Silk Route, we are becoming increasingly aware of a cosmopolitan cultural and political

world whose center was East of Byzantium and West of China— between the traditional space

of the Persian Empire and the space of the Chinese imperium at its greatest extensica It is

difficult to see the history of this area clearly, because it is swamped in the 7th and 8th

century by the the Arab Caliphate in the West and the T'ang in the East. At the end of the 8th

century the Tibetan Empire itself occupies this imperial space, taking the ‘Four Garrisons’

from China between 751 and 790. By then Tibet has dominated numerous Central Asian

Kingdoms: Nepal, Knotan, Kucha, Kashgar, and faces on its Western frontier north of Baltistan,

north of Kashmir, the Caliphate. See Christopher I. Beckwith, The Tibetan Empire in Central

Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs, and Chinese

106

during the Early Middle Ages , (Princeton: University Press, 1987).

37 Alexandra David-Neel et le lama Yongden, La Vie Surhumaine de Guésar de Llng, (Paris:

Éditions Adyar, 1931).

38 Geoffrey Samuel, a privately circulated article not yet published.

39 stein, 1959: pp. 183-241 is a detailed discussion of 'le cadre géographique' of the

Gesar Epic.

40 Alexander Macdonald met the descendant of this King of Ling in Kalimpong in 1959.

41 See for example, the poem which introduces the firs t chapter of Shambhala, the Way of

the Warrior, by Chogyam Trungpa, Rinpoche, (Boston: Shambhala Press), where srid pa'I me

long is translated as 'cosmic mirror.' The entire passage, however, describes not the

creation of the world, but the creation of human society. Srid when it means 'existence' is at

times a poetic term for samsâra, or cyclic existence, the realm of illusion. This usage is tim e-

honored in native Tibetan texts. It probably comes from the translation of srid pa as Skt.

bhava, becoming, and then the use of bhava in compounds such as bhava-sukha, 'existence and

bliss' or 'samsâra and nirvana.' See Jeffrey Hopkins (ed.), Tlbetan-Sanskrlt-Engllsh

Dictionary Pa-A, (Free Union, Virginia: published at Kinkos, 1985), p. 1222. Here the source

is the index to the MahâyânasQtrâlamkâra, by Gadjin Nagao (Tokyo: Nippon Gakujutsu Shinko-

kal, 1958). The reference there is actually not the conjunctive 'becoming and bliss,' but 'the

bliss of becoming."

Srid is also the term appearing :n modern compounds which contain the idea of

'p o litica l.' Melvyn C. Goldstein (ed.), Tibetan-English Dictionary of Modern Tibetan,

(Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar, 1975), pp. 1181-1183.

42 Ven. Chogyam Trungpa, Rinpoche, Gong ma rigs ¡dan gyi thang yig las lha lung gser gyi

thlgpa (.The Epic or the Golden Dot:: drawn from the Chronicles of the Divine Rigdens)—

Tibetan unpublished manuscript

43 gLing is also the Tibetan translation for the Sanskrit dvlpa, which means literally

"island or land.’

44 Stein, 1959. Stein deals with the theme of the Kings of the Four Directions throughout

his work, but particulary beginning on page 249 and then recurrently thereafter. On pages 254

to 261 he gives a chart comparing the geographic basis for this motif across a great range of

Asian texts, chromcals, and epigraphs.

45 Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, trans. from the Chinese of

Kumârajlva by Leon Hurvitz, (New York: Columbia University, 1976), p. 28.

46 Alexandra David-Neel et Lama Yongden, La Vie surhumaine de Guésar de Ling, (Paris:

Editions Adyar, 19 3 1 ), pp. 1 - 1 1, the Prologue.

47 This story is told in Meditation in Action, by Chogyam Trungpa, Rinpoche, (Boston:

Shambhala Pub, 1970), p. 25.

48 l am indebted to Nobum i lyanaga for this information and for the following references:

R. A. Stem, Annuaire du College de France, Resume des cours de 1971- 1972, p. 504-505 et

107

sq., p. 508 ; ibid., Resume des cours de 1972- 1973, p. 466, etc. Gustave-Charies Toussain,

tran.,Le Grang Guru Padmasambhava: Histoire de ses existencss, (Paris: Michel Allard Éditions

Orientales, 1979) pp. 24-42. Ronald M. Davidson, ‘Reflections on the Maheévara Subjugation

Myth— Indie Materials, Sa-skya-pa Apologetics, and the Birth of Heruka" in The Journal of the

International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 14, Number 2, 1991, p. 197-235. N.

lyanaga, ‘ Récits de la soumission de Mahesvara par Trailokyavi jaya*, in Michel Strickmann,

éd., Tantric and Taolst Studies in honour of R. A. Stein, III, (Bruzelles: Institut Belge des Hautes

Études Chinoises, 1985), p. 633-745. See also ‘ Hindu-'sation, Buddha-isation, then Lama-

isation or : What Happened at La-phyi? m T. Skorupski (ed.), Indo-Tlbetan Studies (Tring:

1990).

49 Maitreya/ Aryasangha, Ratnagotravibhaga MahSyanottaratantrasastra: The sublime

science o f the great vehicle : being a manual of Buddhist monism , trans. by E. ObermiHer.

(Shanghai: Reprint ed., 1940).

50 Le Grand Guru Padmasambhava: histoire de ses existences (Padma Than Ying) [sic.],

translated from the Tibetan by Gustave-Charies Toussaint, (Paris: Éditions Orientales, 1979),

pp. 24-36. A previous edition of this translation was entitled Le Dicton de Padma.

51 Tibetan native religion has a typically dualistic view of these samayaor vow violators

as well, it is well represented in ‘The History of the Goloks* in Chapter v of this dissertation.

Even minor vow violators are consiaered monstrous to a degree. Their very touch is a ritual

taboo, bringing about states of miasma in even virtuous people— states of ritual uncleanliness

with serious repercussions for the sagas of heroes and heroines who come m the slightest

physical contact with such beings of "perverted aspirations."

52 Per Kvaerne, ‘Dualism m Tibetan Cosmogonic Myths and the Question of Iranian

Influence," in Silver on Lapis, ed. by Christopher I. Beckwith (Bloomington: The Tibet Society,

1987), pp. 163-174.

53 Buddhist Hermeneutics, edited by Donald S. Lopez, Jr. (Honolulu : University of Hawai i

Press, c l 988).

54 Mipham Gyatso, bde bshegs snyingpo'i stong thun seng ge'i nga r o , Volume Pa or IV of

the collected edition, sde ge dgon chen spar ma 'Jam mgonmi pham rgya mtsho (sDe-dge dgon-

chen Prints of the Writings of 'Jam-mgon 'ji tli-pham-rgya-mtsho).

55 Mipham Gyatso, gzhan stong seng ge nga ro., (Volume Pa of the collection edition).

56 Letter of the Black Ashe, by Chôgyam Trungpa, Rinpoche, privately published and

distributed.

57 Dorothy Sayers, introduction to The Divine Comedy 2: Purgatory, (New York: Penguin

Books, 1980), p. 31. Dorothy Sayers, The tllnd of the maker, (Westport: Greenwood Press,

1970) Charles Williams, The Figure of Beatrice, (New York: Noonday Press, 1961 ).

My understanding of this point of Catholic doctrine is almost entirely a result of

readings in the works of the “Inklings': C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and their student

Dorothy Sayers. My understanding is tied up with a particular idealogical world heavily

108

involved in the controversies of the period when the Inklings were writing. I understand that

the philosophy of C.S. Lewis, which has sometimes been characterized as "Aristocratic

Radicalism," is not in every point identifical with ecclesiastical doctrine.

Further, the reading this group gives of Dante is meant to serve their religious

convinctions in the modern context. These considerations, which make the approach of Sayers

and Co. of interest to me at the same time distance them from the mainstream of academic

studies in Dante— studies which are net conducted with such an explicit apologist agenda

58 Sayers, The Divine Comedy I, p. 89.

59 Dante's inventlo in limiting the consciousness of the damned reminds me of a Buddhist

debate about the universality of buddha nature. There are schools of Buddhist thought which

disagree with the MahSyana position on the universality of tathSgatagarbha. In those systems

there are human beings who are fundamentally corrupt and lack the possibility of ever gaining

enlightenment. Their turning away from the Buddha is choiceless and they are said to be not

members of the family of the Buddha, but members of the "cut o f f family.

The assertion of the tathSgathagabha school is that buddha nature is inseparable from

consciousness and therefore there can be no such thing as a "cut-off family." Thus, there could

be no permanent hell, for the good of the intellect would always be present as a seed—

eventually to manifest as a sense of openness and perspective— even in hell beings. This point

is made in the last book of the epic when Gesar harrows hell to free his mother from damnation.

60 This debate is discussed in detail in Étienne Gilson, Dante et la Philosophic, (Paris: J.

Vrin, 1986). The chapter which particularly discusses Dante's philosophical underpinnings for

the Comedy is Chapter IV, pp. 225-279. His work in turn aims to answer a Thomist

presentation of Dante by P. tiandonnet, Dante le Théologien. Introduction a /'intelligence le la

vie, des oeuvres det de Tart de Dante Alighieri, (Paris: Desciée De Brouwer, 1935). He feels

that Mandonnet's interpretation relies too much on a single philosophical system.

6 1 Maud Bodkin, Archetypal patterns in poetry: psychological studies of imagination

(London : Oxford University Press, Geoffrey Cumberlege, 1948).

62 I have already listed several works by Mipham which address this philosophy in the

context of the 19th century Tibetan Renaissance. To this list must be added Mipham's

commentary on the Uttaratantra and one more all important text, Jamgon Kongtrul the Great's

commentary on the same text. If these works were translated, then the philosophical

background of the Mipham Gesar could be documented in detail and presented to the West in

detail. This work is already underway. I have been working for the last decade with members

of the Nalanda Translation Committee and three Tibetan pandits. Khenpo Tsultrim Gyatso and

Khenpo Trangu, Rinpoche, and Khenpo Palden Sherap on the foundation texts of this particular

Buddha nature school of thought in its Tibetan incarnation. Several f irs t draft translations have

been completed along with their commentaries and detailed studies have been completed of more

than half of these works. We anticipate presenting these translations to the public in the next

decade with the aim of completely exposing the Eclectic School's tenet system at least with

109

respect to the philosophy of tathâgatagarbha.

63 Needleman. Jacob, The new religions^ New York : E.P. Dutton, 1977).

64 Lancelot du Lac, edited, translated, and annotated by Francois Mosès, (Paris: Libraire

6énérale Franciase, 199 ! ).

65 thos pa dga ba, as Alexander Macdonald points out, most literally this would mean

"when heard provokes joy'? I have translated it Joyful to Hear on the general principle that

we should try to translate short names by short names in English, since these names must

appear in verse at some point.

66 See Le Grand Guru Padmasambhava: histoire de ses existences (Padma Than Ying)

[sic.], translated from the Tibetan by Gustave-Charles Toussaint, (Paris: Editions Orientales,

1979). A previous edition of this translation was entitled Le Dicton de Padma. This hagiography

which gives the previous lives of Padmasambhava is a vast source of plot motifs and

characters for the GesarEpic. There have been several other translations and attempts at

translations of biographies of this saint. But all of them since Toussaint's have had serious

problems. Indeed, Le Dicton itself is full of flaws and mistranslations— excusable considering

the state of knowledge when that translation was undertaken. S till. French scholars are

attatched to this version because of the beauty of the language and because many of them had

their interest in Tibetan Buddhism firs t excited by this work. Erick Pema Kunzang (Erik

Schmidt) has produced a well-informed and readable translation based on a greater knowledge

of previus and associated texts. It is recommended as a good entrance to the difficult

biographies of Padmasambhava, which are written in the strange symbolic language of the best

medieval Tibetan hagiographies. Yeshe Tsogyat, The Lotus-Born: The Life Story of

Padmasambhava, trans. by Erik Pema Kunsang (Eric Schmidt), (Boston: Shambhala Publications.

1993).

67 in the MahSyâna sutras a locus classlcus for the image of skillful means as methods of

teaching which use indirection is The Lotus Sutra. See Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the

Fine Dharma, trans. by Leon Hurvitz, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976) and

Michael Pye, Skillful Means: A concept in Mahayana Buddhism (Duckworth Press, 1976).

68 This is not to say that magic is not a part of Mahâyâna upâya as well, in justice to

Mahayana it must be said that Chinese novels such as Hsi Yu Chi also make Kuan Yin a

performer of sorcerous feats as well as the usual miracles. She uses magical implements—

wands, potions, etc. and the aid of magical creatures.

69 Mireille Heiffer, Les Chants dans l'épopée tibétaine de ge-sar d’après le livre de la

course de cheval, (Paris: Librairie Droz, 1977).

70 René de Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Oracles and Demons of Tibet, (Graz: Akademische

Druck-u. Verlagsanstalt), p. 171.

7 1 Garma C. C. Chang, The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa, (Bouider: Shambhala

Pub.).

72 i am uncertain of this translation.

1 10

73 it should be noted that this contemporary reading of classical epic is at variance with

the weight of Western literary tradition. 17th and 18th century moral readings of Homer

followed Aristotle’s precept that epic poetry represented the higher man: "good men and noble

actions" (The Poetics, I V:8). in the same period the over-tdealization of homenc heroes was a

complaint of the moderns in the long-standing Querelle entre des anciens et des modernes (see

Boileau, Art poétique). Ir. the 19th century it became a point of attack by the romantics

classicist idealization (see, for example, Victor Hugo’s manifesto of romantic theater in his

introduction to Cromwell: Cromwell, (Paris: Alphone Lemerre, pp. i - lx v ii).

So Bowra’s notion that Homer represented heroes more realistically, complete with

their weaknesses and human failings, is a departure from a critical tradition which saw in

serious classical literature larger than life representations of the ideal.

74 This position is expressed by Bowra, but most notably by Seth L Schein in The Mortal

Hero: An introduction to Homer's Iliad, (Berkeley: University of California Press). For

example: The overwhelming fact of life for the heroes of the Iliad Is their mortality, which

stands in contrast to the immortality of the gods. We see the central hero of the poem,

Achilles, move toward disillsionment and death to reach a new clarity about human existence

in the wider context of the eventual destruction of Troy and in an environment consisting

almost entirely of war and death."

75 c.M. Bowra, Heroic poetry (London: Macmillan, 1952).

76 Thomas Greene, The Descent From Heaven, A Studyin Epic Continuity, (New Haven:

Yale University Press, 1963), pp. 12-13.

77 s.K. Chatterji, in his 1941 introduction to The Epic of Gesar, translated by Francke,

reprinted in Thimbu, Bhutan, 1981: "[Gesar] has become the National Hero of the Tibetans: in

him have become incarnate as it were the Tibean conception of the Ideal Man, Ideal Warrior and

Ideal King. He is a National Hero of the type of R5ma and Arjuna of India, Rustam of Persia,

Gilgamesh of the Assyrio-Babvionians, David of the Jews, Herakies and Akhiileus of ancient

Greece..." (page xviii).

78 Stein patiently traces the various references to the Hor and finds this name used for

several localities: the Uighurs, certain tribes in the region of Kan-chou, and a group living in

the Ma-chu mountain range in Eastern Tibet. Stein, I959, pp. 188-190.

Shakapa, the modern Tibetan historian, on the other hand, takes this chapter to be the

one which has some historical foundation, demonstrating from accounts of the progress of

Phags pa across Tibet that there indeed was a king named Gesar who fought a country named

Hor.

79 There is some controversy about the authenticity of Rock’s studies of the Naxi

language. Rock claimed that he had discovered a rich collection of Naxi ritual texts. Alexander

Macdonald, however, believes that Rock paid his informants to produce these texts. There is a

chapter on Rock’s work in See Chatwin, Bruce, What am I doing here ? (London: Jonathan

Cape, 1989).

80 Sarat Chandra Das, A Tibetan-English Dictionary, ( Calcutta: Gaurav, 1902) p.976.

81 See, for example, Victor H. hair, Tun-huang Popular Narratives, (Cambridge:

University Press, 1983), the plen-wen or picture/performance tale *on Mahamaudgaysyana

Rescuing His Mother from the Underworld...,* pp. 8 7 - 122.

It is also, of course, reminiscent of the vast number of Chinese adaptations of the v is it

to hell theme. See, for example, Hsi You Chi, chapter 10-12: The Journey to the West, trans.

and edited by Anthony C. Yu, (Chicago: University Press, 1977), pp. 214-281.

82 The glossary in Stein 1956 does not, unfortunately, represent the most advanced level

to which that scholar's knowledge of the Gesar epic language progressed. At the time that he

undertook his pioneering partial translation and summary of the first three chapters of the

Mfpham Gesar he could not speak the Khams dialect and he communicated with his native

informant in Chinese. That is the reason that the glossary contains so many Mandarin

expressions.

Since then his students, working with other Tibetan informants and in particular the

scholar Yonten Gyatso and the anthropologist Samten Karmay, have advanced his original work

considerably. Their glossary exists at the Centre d'Etudes Tibetaine as a very large collection

of file cards which combine ethnographic and linguistic data I have kept my computerised

lexical database of terms drawn from interviews with informants in the course of the

translation of the Mipham version. Ultimately this data should be combined and made available

atone place on Internet.

There are additional lexical databases being developed for the Amdo province and

portions of Khams by Charlene Markley of the University of Michigan and Dr. Goldstein, already

famous for his dictionary of modern Tibetan. Ms. Markley w ill be going to Amdo for a year and

a half of linguistically oriented fieldwork in September of 1994. AH of this data w ill materially

advance the projects of translating Tibetan oral literature a few of are undertaking in the 90s.

83 a.W. Macdonald, Matériaux Pour ¡.'Etude de la Littérature Populaire Tibétaine Vols. I

and II, (Nanterre: Socíété d'ethnologie, 1990).

84 Stein's previously referred to translation is incomplete, if he could have correctly

understood the passages he left out, I would say that he were the first Western scholar to read

and comprehend a full, long Gesar text. But as conversations with him confirm, he was

mystified by much of the language and summarized many challenging sections.

85 Samten Karmay, The treasury of good sayings (Legs bsadmdzod) by BKra-sis-rgyal-

mtshan (London : Oxford University Press. 1972); Secret visions of the fifth Dalai Lama: the

Gold Manuscript in the Foirmer Collection, by Nag-dban-blo-bzan-rgya-mtsho, Dalai Lama v,

(London: Serindia, 1983); The Great Perfection (rDzogs chen): a philosophical and meditative

teaching of Tibetan Buddhism ( Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1988).

86 Alf Hiltebeitel, The Ritual of Battle, Krishna in the Mahabharata, (New York: State

University of New York Press, 1990).

87 m e firs t ana still most extensive bibliographic study of the Gesar texts is Stein, 1959.

1 12

Alexander Macdonald and Somten Karmay of the CNRS in Paris, have been updating that list in

recent years, but are far from the moment of publication. They report more than a hundred

volumes of chapters from the Gesar, some of recent composition, some collected in the last

two decades as recordings, some republications of old manuscripts.

88 Of course, the Indonesian shadow plays, the Wayang, do constitute regular additions

and extensions to the RSmSyana and MahSbhSrata. And the fabulous world of Indonesian and

Indian comic books featuring heroes from these epics also continuously extend the narrative.

But these extensions do not enter the central body of stories and do not enter into the canon.

They are more in the nature of extemporaneous variations.

Many RSmSyaoas, a collection of essays edited by Paula Rlchman (opus c i t . ) presents a

multicultural view of the modern elaborations of the epic of R3ma The point is that the modem

versions in Tamil and other India languages vary from the classical telling of the epic. In fact,

they often strongly disagree with the events in the canonical Sanskrit version by vaimiki. On

page A Richman quotes Romila Thapar who summarizes this view of the nature of RSmSyana

spinoffs: 'The appropriation of the story by a multiplicity of groups meant a multiplicity of

versions through which the social aspirations and ideological concerns of each group were

articulated. The story in these versions included significant variations which changed the

conceptualization of character, event and meaning."

89 Lha gLing Gab tse dGu skor, (Szechuan People's Publishing House, 1980)

90 There are probably two reasons why the Gesar liturgies are spreading in the West. The

first is simply that Tibetan lamas from Eastern Tibet have been very successful in finding

Western students. They bring with them an unembarrassed interest in the epic as part of their

sense of regional identity. The other reason for the success of the Gesar Chos in America may

simply be in the romantic character of Westerners, in 1992 Peter Liebersen and Douglas

Pennick’s opera Gesar had a very successful premier in Munich. Since then it has had equally

successful and well-received performances at Tanglewood in the United States, and in several

smaller companies in Holland. The proud figure of a martial Buddha may simply appeal to the

Western sensibility.

9 1 We must be careful, however, to distinguish it from the so-called 'Tibetan art novel,"

a genre developed in imitation of Indian models. See ' The Tale of the Incomparable Prince": a

Study and Translation of the Tibetan Novel "gzhon nu zla medkyi gtam rgyud" by mDo mKhar

Zhabs drung Tshe r.ng dBang rgyal (1697-1763). a doctoral dissertation by Beth Solomon. (Ann

Arbor: University Microfilms International. 1987).

92 Richmond Lattimore, The Iliad of Homer, (Chicago: University Press, 19 5 1).

93 f.A. Wolf, Prolegomena to Homer, 1795, trans. with intro, and notes by Anthony

Grafton, G.W. Most, and James Zetzel, (Princeton: U. Press, 1985).

94 Horace, Horace on the Art of Poetry: Latin Text, English Prose Translation,

Introduction and Notes, together with Ben Johnson's English Verse Rendering..., trans. and

edited by Edward Henry Blakeney, (Freeport, New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1970 (first

1 13

published 1928)), p.27-28.

95 This is like Aristotle, Poetics, vii i l , 1451a 29-35. Loeb edition, pp.30-33. lam

indebted to Andrew Ford for pointing out that this is probably the previous text for the Horace

quoted above. The passage is summaried with its last sentence: "To give a simple definition :

the magnitude which admits of a change from bad fortune to good or from good fortune to bad.

in a sequence of events which follow one another either inevitably or according to probability,

that is the proper limit."

96 Andrew Ford points out that Ovid's Metamorphoses seems an exception to this rule,

since it begins with creation and extends to the present. But this is an exception in the sense

that it is meant as "a deliberate affront to August aesthetics."

97 Margaret and James Stutley, Harper's Dictionary of Hinduism, (New York: Harper &

Row, 1977), pp. 169-170. This opinion is attributed to E.w. Hopkins in Encyclopedia of Religion

and Ethics, p. 325 and his Epic Mythology (Varanasi: reprint), p i.

98 Homère, Iliade, Tome I, text établi et traduit par Paul Mazon, (Paris: Société d’édition

"Les Belles Lettres", 1987).

99 James Redfield, Nature and Culture m the Iliad: The Tragedy of Hector, (Chicago:

University Press, 1975).

Chapter II

Is There a "Complete" G e s a r ?

The corpus of oral and w r i t t e n c h a p te r s in the Gesar Epic has

g row n through the r e c e n t a c t i v i t y of co l l ec t ion to more than a

hundred volumes. It i s d i f f i c u l t to say to w h a t e x t e n t these a re

d i f f e r e n t v e r s io n s of the sa m e chapters . For exam ple , there a re to

my knowledge four m a n u s c r i p t ve r s io n s of the The Divine Assem bly

Uha g i in g ). But none of them is in any sense the sam e text . In

a dd i t ion the re a re f o u r v e r s io n s of th is c h a p t e r which ex i s t only as

r e c o r d i n g s of the p e r f o r m a n c e s of bards in The People 's Republ ic of

China. But no individual has l i s t ened to these t a p e s , compar ing t h e i r

t e x t s , much l e s s t r a n s c r i b i n g them. We may, t h e r e f o r e , have e ig h t

d i f f e r e n t works w i t h one t i t l e — eight c h a p t e r s in the epic, each

dea l ing w i t h the s a m e period in the l i fe of G esa r (hi s previous

i n c a rn a t io n a s a god), each r e f l e c t i n g in i t s t i t l e genera l ly the s a m e

s u b j e c t m a t t e r Uha g i ing ), but each te l l ing, a s a m a t t e r of f a c t

d i f f e r e n t s t o r i e s in d i f f e r e n t words. 100 To use the language of

French na r ra to logy , w e might say t h a t unt il we have compared the

v a r io u s v e r s io n s of the tex t , we cannot tell w h e t h e r each v e r s io n of

The D iv ine Assem bly is the sa m e h is to i re or not . And we a l r e ady

know from a c u r s o r y e xam ina t ion of the t e x t s t h a t each ve rs ion is a

d i f f e r e n t réc i t . 100

The Divine Assembly, is in theory the app ro x im a te

beginning of the ep ic cycle, i t m us t be a r e l a t i v e l y unpopular

115

sa g a fo r in the v a s t Cesar corpus t h e r e a r e few ve rs ions . The

m idd le c h a p t e r s e x i s t in many more e d i t i o n s , w i t h the DO Ling

(bdud g l ing ), The Demon and Ling, being f a r the m o s t p len t i fu l

v e r s io n of the sagas in the corpus. For t h i s reason, the Tibetan

s c h o l a r Yonten Gyatso, a s s i s t e d by a group of s c h o l a r s in Pa r i s

a t the Centre d'Études T ib é t a in e s of the École F ra n ça i s e

d 'Extréme Orient , is p r e s e n t l y doing an a n a ly t i c a l s tudy of the

p lo t , l ingu i s t i c com pos i t ion , dating, p rovenance, e tc . of all

w r i t t e n v e r s io n s of The Demon and Ling. The r e s u l t s of th i s

s tudy wil l provide us w i t h a model fo r t h e e s s e n t i a l

b ib l iograph ic work w h ic h m us t be done on the o th e r t i t l e s in the

corpus. Until t h i s kind of work is c o m p le te d , our a t t e m p t s to

speak c om pe ten t ly of the Cesar Epic a t l a rge wil l a lw a y s r i sk

large sc a l e error . S p e c i a l i s t s live in u n c e r t a i n t y unt i l t h i s

e s s e n t i a l b ib l iographic work, the ca ta logu ing and bib l iograph ical

a n a l y s i s of all the e x t a n t ve rs ions of c h a p t e r s of the epic , is

comple ted . We cannot know, for example, if the re is an e s s e n t i a l

Cesar to which o the r c h a p t e r s w e re l a t e r added. We cannot

r e a l ly know if in any s e n s e there is a c o m p le te Gesar.

There are however , severa l w e ak ly s u b s t a n t i a t e d , but

i n t e r e s t i n g th eo r i e s t h a t s e t out a l i s t o f core c h a p t e r s ,

c h a p t e r s numbering s o m e w h e re b e tw ee n nine and tw e lv e . And

t h e s e l i s t s pretend to d e s c r i b e an e s s e n t i a l and c o m p le te epic

cycle. The in troduc t ion to th i s d i s s e r t a t i o n su m m a r i z e d the

w ork of Geoffrey S a m u e l s and Wang Yiyuan to e s t a b l i s h one such

l i s t of t w e lv e c o n sec u t iv e t i t l e s . S a m u e l s ' s view does not

r e f l e c t a pe rvas ive knowledge of the c o rpus , but r a t h e r , an

unde rs t and ing of the approach to the s t o r y p o s s e s s e d by some

Eas te rn T ib e tan bards and nat ive in fo rm an ts .

S a m te n Karmay of the Centre Nat ional de la Recherche

S c i e n t i f iq u e has produced ano the r p i c t u r e of the the hypo the t ica l

core C e s a r . His approach is very i n t e r e s t in g , because i t is

based m ain ly on evidence found ou ts ide of the e p i c — Central

Asian h i s t o r i c a l t e x t s and non-epic T ibe tan l i t e r a tu r e . He f inds

w h a t he b e l i e v e s is a th e m a t i c c o re — a s e r i e s of plo t m o t iv e s

which may have been pa r t of the Gesar legend be fo re i t became

an epic and which even proceed the not ion of Gesar as a hero.

In t h i s c h a p t e r I would like to d i s c u s s his so lu t ion to the

d i f f i c u l ty of cons ider ing the en t i r e Gesar corpus and then I

would l ike to propose an a l t e rn a t iv e v iew based on the approach

W es te rn A r i s t o t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m has s o m e t i m e s employed to deal

w i t h the Homeric corpus.

Karmay' s Theory of the Enemies of the Four Direc t ions

S a m te n Karmay's t a s k is to find an e s s e n t i a l Gesar s t o r y —

a s e r i e s of p lo t e l e m e n t s , of act ions, w h o s e d e sc r ip t i o n would

make up an e a r ly and comple te vers ion of the s tory. In o rd e r to

do th is , he beg ins by using the work of a con tem pora ry T ibe tan

scholar , gCod pa Don 'grub, to order and organ ize ail the poss ib le

h is to i re s wh ich could be reci ted . ,0> The work of gCod pa is

e s s e n t i a l l y a l i s t of all the t i t l e s in the corpus l i s t ed in

"chronological order" according to a hypo the t i ca l l ife s t o r y of

Gesar. Each y e a r of hi s l i fe we can l i s t the ac t ions he w a s

supposed to have performed, which c o u n t r i e s he conquered, which

c o n s o r t s he won through c o n te s t or po l icy , which w a r s he fough t ,

e tc . T i t l e s of ep ic rec i ts which p r e s u m a b l y recoun t t h e a c t i o n s

in each of th o se yea r s are thus l i s t e d in an o rder and Karmay

rem arks : 102

The 'chronological order ' a c c o rd in g to which the

s u c c e s s i v e campaigns a re p r e s e n t e d s h o w s th a t the Gear epic

is no t r ec o u n ted ju s t like any o t h e r s t o r y told in a d i s o r d e r l y

manner . The whole sequence of t h e epic is p r im a r i ly r e l a t e d to

the four m a j o r episodes, known a s the "four a d v e r s a i r e s of the

four q u a r t e r s " (pbyogs-bzhi d g r a - b z h i ). These four then lead

on to the m i l i t a r y exped i t ions a g a i n s t the e igh teen c o u n t r i e s

or t r i b e s (rdzongs-chen bco-brgyad), i.e. b e tw een t h e ages of

40 and 69. These are cons idered a s m inor ac t ions in

c o m p a r i s o n w i th the four m a j o r ep i sdoes . The m a j o r i t y of the

e ig h te en t r i b e s are s i t u a t e d in T i b e t w h e r e a s the four m a j o r

c am pa igns a re against w h a t a r e t r e a t e d as foreign c o u n t r i e s .

In o t h e r words , the Epic of Gesa r is r e a l ly the s to ry of a

T ibe tan he ro ' s w a r s against four Demon Kings. It is p receded by

s t o r i e s of his b i r th , childhood, and a c c e s s i o n to the throne of the

Kingdom of Ling. It is fol lowed by s t o r i e s of adven tu res

p e r fo rm e d a f t e r the conquests of the Four Enemies, and i t i s

o rn am e n te d by accounts of numerous o t h e r n o n -e s s e n t i a l s agas ,

including the s t o r i e s of b a t t l e s h i s l i e u t e n a n t w a r r io r s fought .

The d a ta Karmay uses to e s t a b l i s h t h i s p a t t e rn com e from

1 17

S t e i n ' s monograph on Gesar (S te in , 56: pp 2 5 4 - 2 6 1 ) and an

a r t i c l e by Ariane Macdonald . l03 Karmay adds hi s own

d i s c o v e r i e s in T ibe tan h i s t o r i c a l l i t e r a t u r e and the t h ree

t r e a t m e n t s t o g e t h e r — S te in ' s , Ariane Macdonald's and Karmay's

prove exac t ly t h i s — t h a t the idea of the Four Kings w a s a t l a rge

th roughou t Central As ian c u l t u r e and has been a s s o c i a t e d w i th

the f igure of Gesar by As ian c h ro n ic le r s and h i s t o r i a n s as wel l

as p o e t s w r i t i n g o t h e r gen re s of l i t e r a tu re .

Karmay then a n a l y z e s the p re senc e and o rgan iz ing inf luence

of t h i s t h e m a t i c in a num ber of ve rs ions of the epic randomly

s e l e c t e d from the v a s t corpus. Although th is kind of evidence

canno t give a final proof , it s u g g e s t s s t rongly t h a t the theme of

t h e e n e m ie s of the four d i r e c t i o n s w a s p re s e n t in Centra l Asian

c u l t u r e be fo re the ep ic w a s w r i t t e n and t h a t i t i s ge ne ra t ive of

t h e p lo t of the c e n t r a l c h a o t e r s of the epic.

And so, Karmay's o rd e r of genera t ion of the ep ic would be

legend f i r s t , then m yth , cu l t , and epic. The plot e l e m e n t s in the

ep ic would t r a c e back to t h e s e p r imary , s u p r a - n a t i o n a l , a lm o s t

u n i v e r s a l i s t i c legends. This c o n t r a s t s w i th the approach of the

Dumézi l school of ep ic a n a ly s i s , which begins w i t h re l ig ious

u n i v e r s a l s — m yths abou t the gods and a wor ld of c u l t i c

p r a c t i c e s . C h a ra c te r s and plot e l e m e n t s of the epic would der ive

from these. Hi 1 t e b e i t e l has comm ented on th i s p e r s p e c t iv e of his

t e a c h e r s , saying th i s , fo r example, of the O em éz i l i an a na lys i s of

the Mahabhárata: "...the leading heroes of the epic . . ." transpose"

into human, or hero ic t e r m s a myth ic , apparen t ly Indo-European,

th e o lo g e m ." '04

I 18

119

Like Samuels , Karmay l i s t s the c h a p t e r s which would be

m in im a l ly p r e s e n t to c o n s t i t u t e a "complete" epic. But the

so u r c e of his v iew is not l i t e r a r y data , but r a t h e r textua l

ev idence of s y s t e m s of be l i e f s and concep t ions common

th roughout Central Asian c iv i l i z a t i o n which r e f e r to the four

kings of the four o r i en t s .

Sam uels and Karmay are a l ike in t h e i r p a r t i a l r e l i ance on

r e c e p t i o n da ta , the be l i e f s y s t e m s of T ibe tan bards . Any given

sgrung mkhan, s t o r y - t e l l e r , wi l l adm i t to b e l i e f t h a t the

c h a p t e r s of the epic he or she s ings a re p a r t of a g r e a t e r whole

which is com p le te w i t h a f i r s t chap te r , u sua l ly the Divine

Assem bly ( lha g l i n g ) and a f inal chap te r , p e rh a p s Gesar in Hell

(dm ya l g l i n g ). This use of anthropologica l d a ta is

unprob lem at ic , but it l eaves one ques t ion s t i l l unasked. From the

point of view of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , is the re a com ple te Gesar ?

Th is i s a d i f f e r e n t quest ion , fo r i t r e l i e s not on ethnograph ic

s tu d i e s , but on an exam ina t ion of the text. Even Ste in ' s

s t r u c t u r a l i s t s t u d i e s do no t do th is , a l though they appear to. His

l i s t s in t abu la r form giving the language and condi t ions of

p ub l ica t ion of every e x ta n t ed i t ion of Gesar is no t t ruly a

c r i t i c a l study, fo r i t examines in m o s t c a s e s the t i t l e s and the

colophons of each t e x t . 105

This is not to say tha t S te in read only the beginning and the

end of each book. His r e p o r t s on var ious e d i t i o n s show t h a t he

examined the body of the t e x t s as well . But he could not have

rea d every volume and t h a t is w h a t is n e c e s s a r y if one is to give

a t r e a t m e n t accord ing to the p r inc ip les of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i sm .

120

His qu i te c o n s id e ra b le w ork is enough to begin to a n s w e r

the ques t ions of soc ia l s c i e n t i s t s , who are concerned w i t h t h e

p lace of the Gesar co rpus in a l a rge r social and h i s t o r i c a l

con tex t . But it does not p rovide us w i th a b a s i s for cons ide r ing

p o r t io n s of the Gesar as e x a m p le s of the epic genre, f o r t h e s e

would be q u e s t io n s of l i t e r a r y design, " 'h ich are more than j u s t a

m a t t e r of mere a r r a n g e m e n t of plot mot ives .

For example, C.M. Bowra in Trad it ion and Design in the I l ia d

106 a s k s the ques t ion “is the I l ia d in the e d i t i o n s we p r e s e n t l y

p o s s e s s a w e l l - c r a f t e d work by a s ingle individual?" His

conclus ion is t h a t "Out of the t r ad i t iona l m a te r i a l a whole w a s

made, and i t can only have been the work of a s ingle c r e a t i n g

poet....In A r i s to t e l i a n language the I l ia d has a beginning, a

middle , and an end, and i t a c h iev e s i t s emotional e f f e c t a s we l l

a s any g re a t poem ever w r i t t e n . It p r e s e n t s us w i th a w o r ld full

of e v e n t s and c h a r a c t e r s , but t h i s medley is so shaped t h a t i t all

leads to a g rea t emot ional c l im ax in the r e s u l t s of the w r a t h of

Achil les." [Bowra, 1930, p.9]

This is an im por tan t conc lus ion because the se q u e s t io n s of

design and e s t h e t i c w h o l e n e s s have con tro l led the s t r u c t u r e of a

whole t r a d i t io n of ep ics w r i t t e n as im i t a t i o n s of the I l i a d . If

the I l ia d is a t r ad i t io n a l p a tc h w o rk of d iverse and loose ly

o rgan ized e l e m e n t s , i t i s no t comparab le or c om m e nsu rab le w i th

the e n t i r e h i s to ry of n a r r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e which a t t e m p t e d to

fo l low a f t e r it.

Of course, Bowra, when he posed this problem of t r a d i t i o n

v e r s u s individual genius in the design of the I l ia d w a s deal ing

w i th a much s im p le r co rpus than Tibe tan scho la rs . Could I

a c tu a l ly w r i t e a book e n t i t l e d Trad it ion and Design in the Lha

Ling ? No, the corpus is too large to ask t h i s ques t ion in th i s

s im p le manner. One could ask "What do you mean by the Lha Ling

? Do you mean Mipham's ed i t ion? Do you mean Bard Dragpa's

e d i t i o n ? Do you mean one of the oral v e r s io n s recorded in

P e k i n g They are not d i f f e r e n t ve rs ions of the sa m e text . And

w h a t . the wor ld of recount ings which have no t been

p r e s e n t e d in a s u s t a i n e d narrat ive : the individual songs and epic

lays on th is s u b j e c t ? the accoun ts of the divine counci l which

occu r in the chant ing of l i t u r g i e s ? the p i c tu re tab leaux and the

s t o r y - t e l l e r s who use them as p rops? The t r a d i t i o n s of

r e c e p t io n of the Lha L ing have not found among the many

v e r s i o n s a Homer w h ich we could s e l e c t out and ask w h a t is the

role in his work of t r a d i t i o n and personal c r e a t iv i ty . And the

va r ious edi t ions e x t a n t do not combine to c r e a t e such a work.

The Gesar Epic s t i l l f lour ishes , is s t i l l under product ion.

We have a plethora of t ex tua l da ta on it and it wi l l not a llow us

to come to the sam e s im p le conclusions which have been used on

W es te rn and South As ian epics.

Nor could I ask, a s L a t t im ore does of the Tro jan War,

w h e t h e r there w as e v e r a comple te Epic of Gesa r? His a n s w e r

w a s simple: Yes, t h e r e w a s a com ple te Epic Cycle, but i t w a s

w r i t t e n a f t e r the f a c t to fill in the gaps l e f t by Homer. It is, in

the end, a lm os t a t r i v i a l question, for we p o s s e s s p r a c t i c a l l y

nothing but Homer and r e l a t iv e ly few ed i t ions of him. But fo r the

Gesar the opposi te is t rue. We have many c h a p t e r s and no

122

c r e a t i v e or l i t e r a r y center . Karmay’s c en t r a l c h a p t e r s w i l l not

do. They d e s c r i b e the legends t h a t produce the epic, but no s ingle

l i t e r a r y w o r k — no real t ex t . Ac tua l ly they a re not c h a p t e r s a t

a l l , but the p lo t m a te r i a l which would be used in a c hap te r .

An A r i s t o t e l i a n and C o m p a ra t i s t Approach

The q u e s t io n ! ask he re is not, t h e re fo re , w h e t h e r people

rega rd a c e r t a i n c o l lec t ion of c h a p t e r s as a comple te ep ic , but

w h e t h e r the p r e s c r i p t i o n s of A r i s t o t e l i a n l i t e r a ry c r i t i c i s m

could f ind in the en t i r e co rpus any given col l ect ion of Gesar

c h a p t e r s t h a t would form a l i t e r a r i l y comple te work. T h is is the

ques t ion Sow ra asks for one c h a p te r of the Greek epic and th i s is

the q u e s t io n La t t im ore a s k s fo r the e n t i r e Cycle of the T ro jan

War. Is t h e r e some de f inab le s u b s e t of Gesar e d i t io n s which

could be seen as e s t h e t i c a l l y c o m p l e t e ?

Bowra beg ins from A r i s t o t l e , who def ines both t r a g e d y and

the epic in the sam e way, as "a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of an a c t i o n t h a t

is he ro ic and com ple te and of a c e r t a i n magnitude..." 107 In the

s e c t i o n w h ich fo l low s he de f ines " rep re sen ta t ion" (pi^aLs) ,

"act ion" (n-pa&s), and "complete" (TeXeias ) c a re fu l ly enough to

provide the b a s i s for a t r a d i t i o n of p lo t ana lys i s which con t inues

in the Wes t into the t w e n t i e t h cen tury . Out of the A r i s t o t e l i a n

approach to c o m p le te n e s s have developed v iew s of the i n t e g r i ty

of a n a r r a t i v e which, f i r s t having been used to t r e a t Homer, a re

then appl ied p r e s c r ip t iv e ly to l a t e r e p ic s and w i th very l im i ted

s u c c e s s to the novel.

123

A r i s t o t l e f o c u s e s on the plot orTrpafrs, the act ion of t h e epic,

f o r he def ines t h e s e n a r r a t i v e poems as i m i t a t i o n s or

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of ac t ions . In t h i s he is a l r eady at odds w i t h the

anthropolog ica l approach of Karmay, fo r he ca re fu l ly d e f in e s w h a t he

m e a n s by an ac t ion , d i s t ingu ish ing a c t io n f rom charac te r . Thus, the

d e ta i l e d biography of an individual does no t a u tom a t i c a l ly c o n s t i t u t e

a com p le te act ion, even if it is an e x h a u s t i v e d isc r ip t ion of a

pe rson ' s life. L is t ing the e l e m e n t s w h ich makeup a t r agedy h e sa y s

t h a t “The m os t i m p o r t a n t of th e s e is the a r r a nge m e n t of the

in c id e n t s (npayfidTcou avara tn^ for t r agedy is not a r e p r e s e n t io n of

men but of a p iece of ac t ion (wpdfeco?) of l i f e , of happiness and

unhappiness , which come under the head of act ion, and the end a imed

a t is the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n not of q u a l i t i e s of c h a r a c t e r but of so m e

a c t ion ; and whi le c h a r a c t e r m akes men w h a t they are, i t is t h e i r

a c t i o n s and e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t make them happy or the opposi te ."

[Poetics, vi, 12]

A l i t t l e l a t e r he r e m a r k s t h a t “A p lo t (p.O0o?) does not have

un i ty , as some people think, s imply b e c a u s e it dea ls w i th a

s in g l e hero. Many and indeed innumerab le t h in g s happen to an

individual, some of which do not go to make up any uni ty, and

s i m i l a r ly an individual is concerned in many a c t ions which do no t

combine into a s in g le p iece of act ion." [viii , i] His example o f

t h i s pr incip le is the Odyssey, which s e l e c t s i t s ac t ions in o r d e r

to n a r r a t e the r e t u r n of Ulysses , not the l i f e of Ulysses.

We can a l ready see t h a t Bowra and A r i s t o t l e are dea l ing

w i t h a concept of un i ty d i f f e r e n t f rom t h a t of the French G e sa r

s p e c i a l i s t s . A r i s t o t l e is i n t e r e s t e d in p lo t cons t ruc t ion , in the

124

c o n s t r u c t i o n of the p-OOos from a r r a n g e m e n t s of in c id e n t s w h ic h

he c a l l s “act ions."

And A r i s t o t l e o b se rv e s w h a t is l e f t out of the r e c i t a s w e l l

a s the s to r y a c tu a l ly told. He does t h i s when he o b se rv e s as

above t h a t t e l l ing every th ing which happens to a s ing le c h a r a c t e r

does not give the p lo t a sense of uni ty . But a l i t t l e f u r t h e r on th e

s a m e point is made m ore p rec i se when he d i s c u s s e s the

magnitude of the r e c i t a l :

Moreover, in everything t h a t is b e au t i fu l , w h e t h e r i t be a

l iving c r e a tu r e or any organ ism composed of p a r t s , t h e s e p a r t s

m u s t not only be order ly a r ranged but m u s t a l s o have a c e r t a i n

magni tude of t h e i r own; for beau ty c o n s i s t s in m agn i tude and

ordered a r rangem en t . [Poe t ic s vii , 8 -9 ]

One more c r i t i c a l pr incip le m u s t be m en t ioned before we

w i l l have the too ls to c om pa ra t ive ly deal w i t h the uni ty and

c o m p l e t e n e s s of the Gesar Corpus. In A r i s t o t l e ' s v iew of the

a r r a n g e m e n t of in c id e n ts , there m u s t be a c e r t a i n compel l ing

connec t ion b e tw e e n e v e n t s — s t ro n g r e l a t i o n s of consequence or

i n e v i t a b i l i t y and n e c e s s i t y to un i te the s t o r i e s into a s ingle

organ ic whole:

We have la id it down t h a t t r agedy is a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of

an act ion t h a t is whole and co m p le te (TeXe'ias ical oXt|s)....A whole

is wha t has a beginning and a middle and an end (oXovSe ea-m/Tb

exov apxfiv Kai jj.eaov <ai TeXeimqy). A beginning is t h a t w h ich is

125

not a ne ce ssa ry c onsequen t of anything e l s e but a f t e r wh ich

someth ing e l s e e x i s t s or happens a s a na tu ra l r e su l t . An end,

on the con t ra ry , i s t h a t which is inev i tab ly or, as a ru le , the

na tu ra l r e s u l t of som e th ing e l s e but from which noth ing e l s e

fo l low s ; a m idd le fo l low s s o m e th in g e l s e and so m e th in g

fo l lo w s from it. Well c o n s t r u c t e d p lo t s m u s t not t h e r e f o r e

begin and end a t random, but m u s t embody the fo rm u la i e we

have s ta ted , [vii, 2 - 8 ]

Looking now a t t h e sense of coherence Karmay and company

have brought to the Gesa r corpus, w e can see t h a t i t is no t of the

l i t e r a r y s o r t A r i s t o t l e a t t r i b u t e s to w e l l - c o n s t r u c t e d p lo ts .

Karmay has shown t h a t epic a c c o u n ts of Gesar a lw a y s inc lude

w a r s a g a in s t four e n e m i e s who surround the Kingdom of Ling.

But he has not shown t h a t t h i s is the organizing p r inc ip le behind

the p lo t of the epic, if p lo t is a s e r i e s of a c t ions connec ted by

r e l a t i o n s of causa l n e c e s s i t y . He has not shown t h a t the v a r io u s

a c t i o n s lead from one to ano the r in a fash ion w h ic h c o m p e l s a

denouem en t and g ives us an end. He has not show n in f a c t t h a t

t h e r e is an end in the A r i s t o t e l i a n sense . He has shown an

a r r a n g e m e n t of p lo t m o t iv e s , but no t an arch of c au sa l ly

connec te d ac t ions moving from beginning to end.

But the word "end" in all i t s s e n s e s is fundam enta l to our

unders tand ing of A r i s t o t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m . For example, the word for

"complete" in th i s m o m e n t of A r i s t o t l e ' s c r i t i c i s m is not oXqs,

w h ich means "whole" o r "ent ire," but r a t h e r reXeias, which m e a n s to

be comple ted , t h a t is, to include all n e c e s sa ry p a r t s , to have an end,

126

t h a t is, to lack no n e c e s s a r y part . The ac t ion m us t be both a w ho le

and be completed. And t h i s sense of end is the end of the ac t ion not

j u s t in the sense of being the l as t occurence in the rec i t , but in the

g r e a t e r s e n se of being the purpose, the a ch ievem en t t o w a rd s w h ich

the m ovem e n ts of the p lo t have tended. Thus, the riXos, the end of

the plot , is in a large s e n se the f ac to r which c r e a t e s coherence out

of e v e n t s o t h e r w i s e i l l - o r d e r e d or w i th no p a r t i c u l a r meaning to

t h e i r order.

We should take in to account the use of the te rm in the Physics

when t rying to unders tand the A r i s to te l i an concept of tc'Xos. In t h e

Physics four so -c a l l ed "causes" (oItuzi) are given. They are c a u s e s

for change or movement , both being c o r r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n s of the t e rm

kinesis. The explanat ion is given in many places , pr incipal ly in Book

II, Chapte r 3 of the Physics. There he says: "...men do not think they

know a thing unt il they have grasped the 'why" ( to Sid tC) of it

(which is to g rasp i t s p r im a ry cause)." 108

Now the c auses which he gives next are four: 1) the s o - c a l l e d

"m ate r ia l" cause. This is usua l ly cal led the uXt) , the m a te r i a l , bu t

he re i t is ca l led " that f rom which someth ing comes to be" ( t o o i l

yiveTod t l evwapxovTos), 2) the formal (et8o?), which is s o r t of the

de f in i t ion or e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the thing, 3) the s o - c a l l e d

‘e f f i c i e n t cause," which the Greek ca l l s " tha t which i n i t i a t e s the

p r o c e s s of change and r e s t , " (f) ¿pxfi Tfjs iieTapoAfjs f| TrptoTq f) Tfj9

T|p€n.f|a€Ci)9), and 4) the "f inal cause" (dreAos*)— "tha t for the sake of

which" ( toou evexa) the p r o c e s s is in i t ia ted.

The f inal cause is the m os t remarkab le , because i t s e e m s

a lm o s t to involve some s e n se of purpose. La te r in the Physics

127

A r i s t o t l e wi l l give e x am p le s of the four c ause s fo r m an -m ade th ings

such a s too ls and the f ina l cause wi l l be the in tended funct ion or

purpose of the tool. And so, the ri'Xog of a thing w h ich e x i s t s or

o c c u r s or comes to r e s t is " tha t fo r the sake of w h ic h it e x i s t s , etc."

As the Physics proceeds, i t t u rn s out tha t t h i s s e n s e of purpose or

goal or end is an e s s e n t i a l p a r t of all being and change in the

phys ical universe. P l a n e t a ry motion i t s e l f is a m a t t e r of f inal

c a u se s , as well as p roper a r r a nge m e n t , and m a g n i tu d e s occur ing

accord ing to s t r i c t p ropor t ions .

Such a un iverse is governed by p r inc ip les in u t t e r harmony

w i t h those A r i s to t le g ives p r e s c r i p t i v e l y as the order ing p r inc ip les

of a w e l l - w r o u g h t n a r ra t ive .

It is e spec ia l ly a p p ro p r i a te then, th a t the Homeric e p ic s and

t h e i r i m i t a t o r s begin w i t h the scene in which a d ivine a s se m b ly is

convoked in order to e x p re s s a plan or prov ident ia l end t o w a rd s

which the events of the epic wil l tend. For it is hard to f o rm u la te

c a u s e s for a c t ions u n le s s ends and goals are spec i f ied .

The f i r s t example of t h i s is, of course, the a s se m b ly in which

Zeus e x p re s s e s his w i l l a s to the f a t e of Achi l leus in c h a p te r I of

the I l i a d . The t i s , the s e a - g o d d e s s mothe r of Ach i l l eus r e q u e s t s

t h a t Zeus give v i c to ry to the T ro ja n s and d e f e a t to the Achaians

unt i l they have r e s t o r e d to Achi l l eus the booty and honour taken

from him by Agamemnon. Zeus ag ree s , nodding h is head:

'See then 1 wi l l bend my head t h a t you may be l ieve me.

For th i s among the im m or ta l gods is the m i g h t i e s t w i t n e s s

I can give, and noth ing I do sha l l be vain nor revocab le

128

nor a thing un fu l f i l l ed when I bend my head in a s s e n t to i t . ’

He spoke, the son of Kronos, and nodded his head w i t h the dark

brows ,

and the im m or ta l ly anoin ted h a i r of the g rea t god

s w e p t f rom his divine head, and all Olympos w a s shaken. [ I l ia d

, I, 5 2 3 - 5 3 0 ; L a t t im ore , 73]

The point of t h i s p a ssage is s imply tha t Zeus h a s acceded to

a plan, to a course of even ts . And the a r rangem en t of irp&tis in

the r e c i t of the I l ia d w i l l now accord wi th his in ten t ion , plot

s t r u c t u r e matching the in ten t ion of the c h a r a c t e r who r e p re s e n t s

divine providence.

The linking of the se two c au sa l e le m en t s is i m i t a t e d in the

ep ic s w h ic h fol low a f t e r the I l i a d , but it is not j u s t in the

6 raeco -Rom an t r a d i t i o n t h a t t h i s s o r t of plot s t r u c t u r e occurs.

Job, w h ich is p ra i sed a s a c h a p t e r of the Bible sh ow ing good plot

s t r u c t u r e , has the sa m e s o r t of Divine Assembly and the same

d r a m a t i z a t i o n of divine i n t e n t io n a l I t y — a d e c i s io n u t t e r e d in

counci l and then c a r r i e d out in the s e r i e s of s e e m in g ly accidental

even t s on the human plane.

And, as we wil l obse rve in more detail l a t e r in th i s

chap te r , the same p a t t e r n holds fo r the Mipham Gesar.

We have obse rved so far t h a t the sense of an end, of a rsXos,

in A r i s t o t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m is r a t h e r like the s e n s e of reXos in his

Physics. We have said, in o the r words , tha t in t h i s sy s t e m of

thought the sense of com p le t ion a t the end of a n a r r a t i v e is an

end in a t l e a s t tw o senses : as the ach ievement of the t e rm ina t ion

129

of an a c t io n and as the a ch ievem en t of a purpose or aim. This

s e n se of reXos as a l m o s t purpose or goal is a p a r t of A r i s t o t l e ' s

fo u r - fo ld de sc r ip t ion of c a u sa l i t y , bu t i t i s a lso t h e r e in the

s e n se of the purpose of a designing de i ty p r in c ip l e — for

example, the ends or goa ls of Zeus.

This s e n s e of an end is t ied up w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r v iew of

beginnings. A r i s t o t l e s a id t h a t the beginning may be w i t h o u t a

spec ia l c ause , but the m idd le ana end m u s t fo l low n e c e s s a r i ly

f rom i t, be compe lled by it. The beginning of the I l ia d is

c a r e fu l ly given by Homer so t h a t it wi l l compel the succeed ing

even t s , u n i te them into a uni ty , and also pa ra l le l the wil l of Zeus.

It i s l i t e r a l in the f i r s t ve rses :

Sing, goddess , the anger of Peleus ' son of Achi leus

and i t s devas ta t ion , w h ich put pains thousandfo ld upon the

Achaians,

hurled in t h e i r m u l t i t u d e s to the house of Hades s t ro n g souls

of he roes , but gave t h e i r bodies to be the d e l i c a t e feas t ing]

of dogs, of all bi rds, and the will of Zeus w a s

accompl ished . . . [Lat t imore, 59]

The Greek in d ic a te s c l e a r ly t h a t in the beginning is the

ending, fo r w h a t L a t t im o r e t r a n s l a t e s as "the wil l of Zeus" is not

wil l a t a ll , bu t the "ends of the plans of Zeus. " (AiosS’ eTeXeie-ro

PouXfj) the t e rm reXeico coming again w i t h the sa m e m u l t ip l e

meanings. What the a im s of Zeus w e re in t h i s c a s e a re a m a t t e r

of con t ro v e r sy , for o t h e r v e r s io n s of the epic legend e x i s t in

which the aim of prov idence in c re a t ing the T ro jan w a r is pa r t of

! 30

a cosm ic depopulat ion plan by Zeus, as no ted above in the Cypria

109

Bowra devo te s the f i r s t ch ap te r of hi s book on the s t r u c t u r e

of the I l ia d to an e xam ina t ion of these f i r s t l i n e s in o rd e r to

d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t the r e s t of the r e c i t c o r r e sp o n d s to t h i s

ou t l ine of the plot given by Homer in his invoca t ion to t h e Muses.

Bowra 's point is a typ ica l ly A r i s to t e l i a n one. He m e a n s to show

t h a t we have a coheren t plo t w i t h a beginning, middle , and end

and the proper and n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n them.

A c lose exam ina t ion of Bowra 's a rgum en t s h o w s t h a t it has

gone f u r t h e r than the or ig ina l A r i s to t e l i a n p r e s c r ip t io n . Bowra

exam ines the f i r s t l ines of the epic in order to show t h a t Homer

intended t h a t the plot have a c e r t a in s t r u c t u r e [p. 10] His point

is au thor ia l in ten t ion , not the inev i t ab l i l i t y of r e l a t i o n s be tween

occurences. He a rgues t h a t Homer had a plan in mind and

announced the e s s e n t i a l po in ts of his plan in the f i r s t seven

l ines. It is an app rop r i a te argument , because he is opposing the

s y n t h e s i s t vi ew t h a t t h e re is an acc iden tal and fo rm u la ic , bardic

p r inciple of genera t ion w h ic h gives the I l ia d a haphazard shape.

He is, in shor t , speaking for the Unitar ians who be l i eve in a

s ingle au thorsh ip for the Homeric works. And so he concludes

a f t e r a s t r i n g of a rg u m e n ts designed to a n s w e r s y n t h e s i s t

ob jec t ions : "So in the se f i r s t f ive l ines we ge t a j u s t account of

w ha t is going to happen." [p. 15]

The ques t ion of the p r e s en c e of a s ing le a u th o r a s opposed

to t r a d i t io n as a u tho r d om ina te s his conce rns and he does not

r ea l ly argue the causa l i n t e g r i t y of the plot. When Bowra does

look to the s t r u c t u r e , it i s not in the causa l sense of A r i s to t l e .

He is r a t h e r a lm o s t s t r u c t u r a l i s t or New C r i t i ca l in his approach.

He po in ts to the s y m e t r i e s in the events in the epic:

Such then is the theme, the w r a t h of Achi l l es and i t s

consequences . But such a theme is not in i t s e l f enough to make

a work of a r t . It m us t be put into shape and organized into a

whole. And t h i s Homer has done. The poem is bu i l t on a plan a t

once s im ple and m a je s t i c . The crescendo of the opening is

p a ra l le led by t h e diminuendo of the clos ing books. In A we

hear of the o u t b u r s t of Achi lles ' anger and the p raye r of The t i s

to Zeus t h a t her son may win glory through the d e f e a t of the

Achaeans. In Q we hear how The t i s a t the r e q u e s t of Zeus

pe rsuades her son to forgo his anger and to give back the body

of Hector f o r bur ial . The poem begins w i th an uncon tro l led

scene of w r a t h and it ends w i th the appeas ing of w r a t h in

r econc i l i a t ion . In the second book, B , one by one the Achaean

h e roes a re show n us as they hold counci l of war: we see them

in t h e i r m a r t i a l temper , each w i th h i s own indiv idua l i ty and

id io syncra s ie s . In the penu l t ima te book, 'k, we s e e them c lea r

of w a r during a t ruce , when the i r m ore peaceful

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are revea led in the s p o r t s held a t Pa t roc lus '

funerai . In the th ird book.... [pp. 15-16]

Bowra c o n t i n u e s w i th th is analysis , observing s y m m e t r i e s

and r e sonances and formal s t r u c t u r e s in plot . But he is not

a t t end in g to the c au sa l dynamics, the argument, of the I l i a d .

132

He s e e m s to be a pp re c ia t in g Homer's f u l f i l m e n t of

A r i s t o t l e ' s r equ i rem en t of p ropor t ion and p ro p e r magni tude

quoted above. But Bowra 's ha rmony w i th A r i s t o t l e ' s

p r e s c r i p t i o n s is only apparent . As we read on in the Poetics we

f ind no a pp re c ia t io n of formal s y m m e t r i e s and e l e m e n t s of

propor t ion . Magnitude s imply m e a n s t h a t a s t o r y should not be so

la rge as to be uncognizable o r so quick a s to be unnot iceble .

When he does d i s c u s s propor t ion, it is w i th r e l a t i o n s h i p to the

leng th of the propor t ion of a t ragedy. The a r r a n g e m e n t of the

p a r t s and t h e i r r e l a t ions to each o t h e r have no th ing to do w i th

s t r u c t u r a l i s t r e p e t i t i o n s and e s t h e t i c echoings. Rather, they

r e f e r to dynamic r e l a t i o n s of causa l dependance:

As then in the o t h e r a r t s of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a s ingle

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n means a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a s ing le ob jec t , so

too the plo t being a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a p iece of act ion (irpafews

lxip,T|0is) , and the whole of it; and the com ponen t inc iden ts m u s t

be so arranged th a t if one of them be t r a n s p o s e d or removed,

the uni ty of the whole is d i s lo c a t e d and des t royed . For if the

p r e s e n c e or absence of a thing makes no v i s i b l e d i f f e rence ,

then i t is not an in tegra l p a r t of the whole. [Poetics , vi ii .4]

The s e n s e of in tegral (popiov ) is key to our unders tand ing of

the d i f f e r e n c e in approach to p lo t which has occu red as the

c r i t i c a l t r a d i t i o n developed a c r o s s the c e n t u r i e s and emerged in

the modern reading of Bowra. In the t r a n s l a t i o n I am using, Fyfe

t r a n s l a t e s a Greek word which s im ply means "single" as

133

"in tegral" f rom a knowledge of the r e s t of the text . His

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is suppor ted by the c au sa l r e l a t i o n s which m u s t

hold b e tw e e n the par t s .

Now, the Greek t r ag e d ie s o f ten a p p e a r to p o s s e s s t h i s

dynamic i n t e g r a l i t y , t h i s causal i n t e g r a l i t y in a high degree.

Given the c h a r a c t e r of the p r o t a g o n i s t and the opening p r e m i s e s

of Oedipus the King, for example, one could argue t h a t the end i s

indeed, f a t e a s ide , causa l ly p r e d e t e rm i n e d and near ly inev i tab le .

More i m p o r t a n t ly , each event, as any a c t o r can t e s t i f y , is wel l

m o t iv a te d by the previous one. But 1 would observe t h a t the o t h e r

s e n se of c o m p l e t e n e s s and ending as t h e t4Xos* of a god is equal ly

powerfu l in the Oedipus and in f a c t in a g r e a t number of

t r age d ie s . T h e s e tw o a l t e rn a t iv e v i e w s seem to c oopera te in

t h e s e m ode l s fo r p e r f e c t plot c r a f t s m a n s h i p — the m oment to

m om en t c a u s a l f r am ew ork and the t e l e c l o g i c a l f ramework.

Oedipus is d e s t r o y e d on the one hand by the logic of the work ing

out of the naked f a c t s of his s i t u a t io n , h i s c r i t i c a l in te l l igence ,

and his " t r ag ic f law." On the o the r hand a t the same t im e his

d e s t r u c t i o n is p red e s t in ed by the gods.

The d i s t i n c t i o n be tw een these tw o types of c a u sa l i t y t e n d s

to be more i m p o r t a n t to modern c r i t i c s than to the anc ien ts .

How of ten have modern c r i t i c s com pla ined t h a t a plo t is

weakened by the in te rven t ion of a god in the outcome! All too

o f t en we c o n s i d e r the in teg r i ty of the e f f i c i e n t and m a te r i a l

c a u s e s to be a s ign of good plot c o n s t r u c t i o n and the s e n se of

p rov iden t ia l end to be a w eakness , p e rh a p s even a s ign of

s u p e r s t i t i o n . This a t t i t u d e is in p a r t a consequence of c a r t e s i a n

134

dual i sm. We w ish to s e p a r a t e in ten t ion from physical and s e r i a l

psycho logical causa l i ty .

But t h i s w as not n e c e s s a r i ly the c a s e in the re l ig ions w hich

re igned over world v iew a t the t im e of the com pos i t ion of our

g r e a t e s t e p i c s — the a t t e m p t to d i sen tang le the tw o c once p ts of

"ending" and r e s u l t has been the work of c e n t u r i e s and one of the

a c h i e v e m e n t s of the the period ca l l ed the Enlightenment .

Prev iously , d e s c r ip t i o n s of the causa l funct ion ing of the

phenomenal world w e r e in teg ra l ly l inked to divine plan and the

not ion of providence. The e f f o r t to link them is m a n i f e s t in the

care Dante t akes to un i te P to lem eian phys ics w i t h the map of

heaven— making the c ry s t a l s p h e r e s t h a t hold the p lane t s p a r t

of the inev i tab le and p e r f e c t moral order ing of the un iverse

accord ing to God's plan.

Then in the Engl ightenment w e s e e the r e v e r s e e f f o r t — the

e f f o r t to c lea r ly s e p a r a t e these e lem en t s .

For example, if one were to examine the a r t i c l e s on

c a u s a t io n in Diderot and D'Alembert ' s Encyc loped ia , one would

find a s t r a in e d and extended e f f o r t to d i s t i n g u i s h the na tu re of

providence and f a ta l i t é from phys ical causa t ion . Now f a t a l i t é

r e f e r s to inev i tab le r e s u l t s — r e s u l t s which a re p rede s t ined and

compel led beyond poss ib le opposi t ion from human wil l . The

Encyclopedia a t t e m p t s to r e p r e s e n t the t r a d i t i o n of Cathol ic

thinking whi le placing i t w i th in the g r e a t e r c o n te x t of a

c on te m pora ry opposing " ra t iona l i sm" and a rad ica l i n t e r e s t in

technology. The philosophes had to p r e s e n t t h e i r Enl igh tenment

r a d i c a l i sm while avoiding the e n t i r e censure of the Church and

135

the ancien regime. And so, the a r t i c l e s on c a u s a t io n in t h i s

encyc lopedia c a re fu l ly link the de f in i t ion of f a ta l i t é to the

concep t of providence. Then we are faced w i t h tw o compe t ing

v i e w s of o ve r -a rch ing , inev i tab le causa l f o r c e s — on one hand

the fo rce of providence o r God's wil l w orked out on the m a t e r i a l

p lane and on the o th e r hand the force of the unopposable

s c i e n t i f i c law which prov ides a cause foi every e f f e c t , a

m a t e r i a l de te rm in i sm .

The d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t holds b e tw ee n d e te rm in i sm and

prov idence a lso ho lds b e tw ee n f a ta l i t é and de te rm in i sm . So l e t

us look a t the de f in i t io n of f a t a l i t é :

...c’e s t la cause cachée des é v é n e m e n t s imprévus, r e l a t i f s

au bien ou au mal des ê t r e s sens ib le s . L 'événement f a t a l e e s t

imprévu; a ins i on n ' a t t r i b u e point à la f a t a l i t é les p hé nom è nes

r é g u l i e r s de la na ture , lors même que l e s c ause s en so n t

cachées , la m o r t qui s u i t une m alad ie chronique & inconnue.

L 'événement f a t a l t i e n t à des c a u s e s cachées, ou e s t

cons idéré dans se s r a p p o r t s avec c e l l e s d 'en tre s e s c a u s e s qui

nous son t inconnues. Si dans la d i s p o s i t i o n d'une b a t a i l l e j e

vo is un homme placé v i s - à - v i s de la bouche d'un canon p rê t à

t i r e r , sa s i t u a t i o n é t a n t donnée, & l 'a c t ion du canon é t a n t

prévue, je ne r eg a rd e ra i plus sa m or t comm e fa ta le pa r r a p p o r t

à c e s deux c a u s e s que j e connois ; m a i s j e r e t rouve ra i la

f a t a l i t é dans c e t t e m u l t i tu d e de c a u s e s é loignes, c a c h é e s &

compl iquées, qui ont f a i t qu 'entre une in f in i t é d ' a u t r e s p a r t i e s

de l 'espace qu'il pouvoi t occuper é ga l e m e n t , il occupât

136

préc i sém en t ce l l e qui e s t dans la d i r e c i t o n du canon.110

This de f in i t ion t e c h n i c a l l y exc ludes o rd inar i ly obse rvab le

c ha ins of causa l i ty f rom the no t ion of fa ta l i té . The observable

c a u s e s are all analyzed by s c i e n t i f i c c a u s a l i t y and they are

m a t e r i a l l y expl icable. When the canon ball s t r i k e s the body of

the man fool ishly s t a nd ing in f ron t of it, the cause of his dea th

is known and w as even f o r e s e e n by us. But w h a t brought him to

r id icu lously s tand in t h a t dangerous s p o t — t h a t is the o rd e r of

providence and divine wi l l . Of course , to the modern mind it

would be odd to make an a r t i f i c i a l p a r t i t i o n be tw ee n one s e t of

e v e n t s which obse rvab ly lead to a c e r t a i n e f f e c t and o t h e r even t s

d i f f e r ing only in t h a t they a re unobserved . But t h i s is e xac t ly

Didero t ' s def ini t ion of des t in and f a t a l i t é — la cause caché.

This d i s t inc t ion is e l e m e n t a r y to the thinking of modern

r e a d e r s , but is not implied in the Poetics . There A r i s t o t l e u se s

neu t ra l t erms for i n e v i t a b i l i t y and r e s u l t and the dynamic which

can hold be tween tw o a c t i o n s in a plot. For example, we know

t h a t he would cons ide r a s t o r y p laus ib le even if i t s e ven t s w e re

opposed to common e x p e c t a t i o n s in everyday life. Events may be

p laus ib le simply because they t e l l s t o r i e s people take to be

h is to ry . [Poetics , ix. 6 -9 ] Thus, for A r i s t o t l e divine providence

would not be a bad causa l exp lana t ion for the r e l a t io n s h ip

b e tw e e n a beginning and th e middle and the end of an act ion.

In fact, i t is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of many of the w orks whose

causa l s t ru c tu re he approves . He approves of numerous w orks in

which providence is the p r in c ip le which o r d e r s the su c ce s s io n of

137

e v e n t s , provided i t did not c o n t r a d i c t the l aw s of probabi l i ty or

n e c e s s i t y . An example of such a w ork is Oedipus the King. The

e n t i r e a c t io n of the play is d i c t a t e d by providence and p red ic ted

in de ta i l by T i r e s i a s . One can s e e the m a t e r i a l c a u s a l i t y which

l e a d s to Oedipus' downfal l in t h e form of his i n q u is i t i v e n es s and

a r rogance . But the divine n e c e s s i t y of e v en t s is equal ly great .

And I w o n d e r which causal exp lana t ion would s a t i s f y the Greek

a u d ie n c e s of the per iod m ore? If one would ask them why the

d e s t r u c t i o n of Oedipus in the play w a s inev i tab le , would they

dw e l l upon the c a u se s p re sen t in hi s p e r s o n a l i t y or on the

d e c r e e s o f the gods?

Until the modern per iod t h i s w a s t rue for m o s t Western

e p i c s . 111 The Divine Council is a commonplace of t h i s kind of

n a r r a t i v e . In those counci ls Zeus or his equ iva len t fashions the

p lo t of the work as his i n te n t io n — as his plan fo r the end.

Causa l i ty in Buddhist N a r r a t i v e s

The s a m e pr incip le holds in the c ase in Buddhist n a r r a t iv e s

a s wel l . They are a lw ay s the s t o r i e s of the work ing out of

d e s t i n i e s produced by prev ious a c t s of i n t e n t io n — what we

have been ca l l ing "asp i ra t ion p r a y e r s . ” Indeed, the Chinese

t r a n s l a t i o n fo r avadana or Buddhis t t a l e s is y in yuan, or

" c a u s a l i t y s to r ies ." For they are , l ike the ja ta k a t a l e s ,

f u n d a m e n ta l ly the s t o r i e s of how v o w s made in one l ife t ime and

evi l or good deeds comm ited in one l i f e t im e lead to speci f i c

r e s u l t s in a f u t u r e life. In the sa m e way, the s t r u c tu r i n g

138

e l e m e n t in the p lo t of a Buddhist ep ic is the in ten t ions , the

a s p i r a t i o n s u t t e r e d a t the beginning of the na r ra t ive .

T here is no Zeus to nod hi s head and c o n s e n t to a plot ,

b e ca u se the re is no cen t ra l de i ty in an a t h e i s t i c rel igion. But

t h e r e are b o d h i s a t t v a s and buddhas. The i r a s p i r a t i o n s and vows,

a r r i v e d a t in Council in Heaven, fash ion the p lo t by s t a t i n g the

TeXri, t he ends they have in mind. A f t e r th a t , t h e e f f i c i e n t fo rce

of e v e n t s is the p o w e r of those v o w s — they a re the engine

which moves the p lo t forward. Even the evil demons who oppose

the hero are , a s w e have noted fo r the Gesar Epic, fundam en ta l ly

p r o d u c t s of evil v o w s and p e rve r t ed a s p i r a t i o n prayers .

The end is def ined by the beginning. When the vows of the

buddhas have been fu l f i l led and the evil ka rm ic r e s u l t s of the

c o r r u p t io n s of t h e i r vows by the demons have been punished, then

we know the s t o r y is over. The Lha Ling as an in troduc t ion to

the Gesar epic p rov ides exac t ly t h i s e l e m e n t — the m echan ism

of i n te n t io n s , of plans, of tieXti which w i l l give us the shaping of

the plot.

What te rm in the Buddhist t e x t t r a n s l a t e s rdkos and w h a t

e x p r e s s io n p e r f o r m s the funct ion of Aids8’ ¿TeXeieTo pouXii ? The

word is artha, a long w i th dharma, probably the m os t m u l t i -

v a le n t t e r m s in Sansk r i t . Artha a s a Vedic t e rm has as i t s roo t

meaning ' 'weal th" or "possessions." From t h i s i t comes to mean

"benefi t" and from thence to the concep t of "goal" or "aim” or

“inten t ion." S t i l l , the re are many o th e r t e r m s t h a t b e t t e r

t r a n s l a t e the t e rm "intention," because of the m u l t i p l i c i t y of

w ords of mind and m enta l a c t i v i t i e s in S a n sk r i t . For example,

139

the word f o r mind, c i t ta i s a lso t r a n s l a t e d at t i m e s a s intent ion .

Finally, artha has come to have a m e ta p h y s i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e and

m eans " the rea l th ing ,” " r e a l i t y ” (as opposd to appearance) , and it

m eans " the meaning" as in " the mean ing of a word." The T ibe tan

t r a n s l a t i o n fo r artha is don (don) and i t has exac t ly the sam e

range of meanings.

The t e r m occu rs in the opening v e r s e s of homage to Gesar:

Within Dharmata , your u n o b s t r u c t e d compass ion gave r i s e to

The im p a r t i a l awakened mind (b o d h ic i t ta ) which b e n e f i t s

beings.

Never abandoning tha t , you took th e v a j r a - l i k e oa th

sTo p e r fo rm the Four- fo ld sp o n ta n e o u s Act iv i ty , the Hundred

P o i n t s . 112

The e x p re s s io n "which b e n e f i t s beings" is ‘g ro b a ' i don, the

don ( a r tha ) or benef i t of b e in g s .113

The a u t h o r s of th i s Gesar a re ve ry conscious of the range of

m eans of don and play w i th it c o n s t a n t ly . For example , when

A v a lo k i t e sv a r a a r r ive s in the land of demons in o rder to see

Padm asam bhava and inci te him to p r o t e c t i v e act ion , he m u s t ta lk

h i s way p a s t a demon m in is te r . The m i n i s t e r a sks him w h a t his

purpose ( don ) is in coming to t h i s dangerous place:

LU A LA LU; the song is sung; in c a s e you do not unde rs tand ,

THA LA, t h i s is the melody of the song.

Surrounding t h i s land of Camara, the country of the demons,

a re

140

The place of the impure Raksasas and devil s p i r i t s

And the Field of the pure Vidyadharas and Qakinis.

This morning, young child, you landed here.

From w ha t p lace and from w h a t d i rec t ion do you c o m e ?

Then, be fo re the b o dh i sa t tva can a n s w e r the demon launches

into a d i scourse on "grea t a ims" or don chen po:

What a im s ( don ) can you have which a re such g rea t m a t t e r s

(don)?

If you do not have in mind g r e a t m a t t e r s (don ),

Then it is m ea n in g le s s to pursue ends (don ) of no g r e a t

impor tance .

If you are not se ized by the dons (demons) of g rea t su f fe r ing .

What is the point in drowning yourse l f in the r ive r?

If you have not become involved in a g r e a t quarre l ,

There is no g r e a t cause (don ) for you to bring to c o u r t . 114

There is an i n t e r e s t i n g pun on the word don, because a gdon

( spe l led d i f f e r e n t ly , but pronounced the sam e) is a kind of demon

who s o m e t i m e s p o s s e s s e s people and d r iv e s them to t h e i r dea th s

by, for example, running them off the edge of a c l i f f . The don

(gdon ) s p i r i t s a re symbols for sudden, hidden compuls ions t h a t

a r i s e to the s u r f a c e and unexpec tedly dom ina te a pe rson 's

b e h av io r .115

The song is full of i ronies . The r e a s o n (don ) A va lok i t e sva ra

s e e k s an in te rv iew w i th Padmasambhava is the reason fo r the

e n t i r e unfolding of the p l o t — that the evil demon kings m us t be

d e fe a te d by the c re a t io n of t h e hero Gesar. But the demon s e e s

only a small chi ld and asks w h a t personal psychological r e a so n

the child could have fo r r i sk in g his l i fe in such a t e r r i b l e place.

Only a man p o s s e s s e d by dem ons ( don ) would c o m m i t su i c id e and

only a person w i th a very s e r i o u s quarre l or c a se (don ) would

t ake i t to court . J u s t so only a g rea t aim (don ) would br ing a

sm a l l boy to a t e r r i b l e place.

The c o n v e r sa t io n s c o n t in u e as Padmasambhava , the

m in i s t e r , and A va lok i te sva ra d i s c u s s the impor tance of h i s a ims.

The length of t h i s s e c t io n would be odd if it w e r e not fo r the

general con tex t of Buddhist phi losophy in which vows, a im s ,

in ten t ions , and plans are the c o n s t ru c t i v e p r inc ip le s around

which all ac t ion and f ru i t ion r o t a t e — the c o n s t r u c t i v e p r inc ip le

of the moral universe .

And so, page a f t e r page the s u b j e c t is don or purpose. For

example, the re is g r e a t pu rpose in his words. His w ords a r e as

im p o r t a n t as the movement of the heavenly b o d ie s— which have

a s t h e i r purpose the c yc les of weather :

If the Earth in e a r ly Spring is not f i r s t fed w i th w a t e r ,

then the Southe rn Turquoise Dragon and the venomous Se rpen t

wil l be s i l en t . In the sky Mount Meru is c i r c l e d by the Sun and

the Moon. If they do not b e n e f i t the plains of the Four

Continen ts , then Meru is of no benef i t or harm. Then the Sun

and the Moon a re j u s t a d i s t r a c t i o n for the spinning heads of

b r a in l e s s d u p e s .116 Then the re would be no g ra t i t u d e fo r the

good done by the Sun and Moon. It is impossib le t h a t th ings

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should be t h a t way.

And s i m i l a r l y t h e r e is reason (don ) in w h a t he is doing:

My impor t ( don ) i s not sm a l l , i t is of g re3 t im por tance .

Of g rea t im p o r t (don ) i s the w e l f a r e of all beings.

If i t w e re m e a n i n g le s s (don m e d p a ), why would 1 explain to

you why I have c o m e ?

A v a lok i t e sva ra expounds on the n a tu r e of m e a n i n g le s s (don

med pa, don l e s s ) behavior . There are people who t r a v e l

unne ce ssa r i ly , and people who become de p re s s ed and kill

t h e m s e lv e s p o i n t l e s s l y and the w ea l thy who c o l l e c t w e a l t h

u n n e c e s sa r i ly and the powerfu l who are p o i n t l e s s l y involved

w i t h the i r own po l i t i c a l machinat ions:

Those who p o i n t l e s s l y t r a v e l around in d i s t a n t lands

Purchase fo r t h e m s e l v e s t h i r s t and famine.

Those who w i t h o u t su f f e r in g throw t h e m s e l v e s in to deep

gorges ,

Let th e i r l i fe fo rce be c a r r i e d away by demons.

The w e a l th y who b ea r the burden of m a t e r i a l goods,

Will be c a r r i e d away by p ro f i t and loss.

The powerfu l w i t h t h e i r many evil r e p o r t s

Will c a s t t h e m s e l v e s down in se l f -h u m i l i a t io n .

All of t h e s e a r g u m e n t s focus on A v a lo k i t e s v a r a ' s need for

143

an audience w i th P a dm asam bhava — the im por tance of t h a t

counci l. The d i s c u s s io n s of the m ean ingfu lness , the

pu rp o se fu ln e ss of the r e q u e s t s con t inues on and on, lapsing into

the f a m i l i a r language of Mahayana Buddhist s e r m o n s — s e rm o n s

w he re the m o t iva t ion or cause (Sk t : h e tu ) of the pa th are the

f i r s t s u b j e c t of d i s c u s s io n and the e s s e n t i a l po in t in the

t ra in ing.

Measuring the Com ple teness of the Mipham Gesar

We have d i s c u s s e d the expos i t ions of divine in ten t ion and

r£\os which i n i t i a t e Buddhis t n a r r a t iv e s , looking in sp e c i f i c a t

t he in i t i a t ing p u r p o s e - c o n s c i o u s n e s s e s of the Gesar. Based on

t h i s concept ion of beginnings, using a care fu l read ing of the

A r i s t o t e l i a n de f in i t ion of com p le te nes s , we can now have a t e s t

of the l i t e r a ry c o m p l e t e n e s s of the s to ry , even i f we do nor. know

every de tai l . A c o m p le te Gesar epic would be one in which the

f i r s t c h a p te r gave the in ten t iona l a c t s w e have m ent ioned and in

which the subsequen t c h a p t e r s lead to a f u l f i l l m e n t of those

in ten t ions . And if the l a s t chap te r s e e s the exhaus t ion of all

in ten t ions , then the n a r r a t i v e is properly over. The i n te g ra l i t y of

beginning, middle, and end has been achieved.

The Lha Ling is w r i t t e n to provide th i s s e n s e of c l e a r aim

and r&os ' fo r the r e s t of the Mipham Gesar. The remain ing

c h a p t e r s of the epic w i l l fal l into place organized around the

m o t ive impulsion developed in th i s f i r s t chapter . For example,

In the Horse Race Chapter (rTa rGyug ), the c e l e s t i a l m o the r of

1 4 4

Gesar a t t e m p t s to a ro u s e him from his p a s t o r a l ex is tence . He

has been in hiding during his youth, d i sgu ised a s an ugly

hunchback. He m u s t f ina l ly le t fal l his d i s g u i s e and become the

shining pr ince who w i l l lead Ling to d e fe a t the demons:

Now Joru , son of a god,

L is ten to your m a t e rn a l aunt, listen!

In the checkered f i e l d s of the p ro tec ted va l l e y

The l i t t l e blue f l o w e r s have suddenly appeared.

If they are not o rn am e n te d w i th the e x c e l l e n t f r u i t s

In t im e of d rought how wil l the b lack-headed T ibe tans l iv e ?

These blue f l o w e r s may be good feed fo r c a t t l e ,

But pi ling up m a s s e s of them won' t feed the people.

in the blue t e n t of the f i rm a m e n t

Are m a s s e s of tw in k l in g s t a r s .

If they are never o rnam en ted by the full moon.

Who can lead you a t night on the dark p a t h s ?

The c o n s t e l l a t i o n s seem like a guide in the da rkness ,

But no m a t t e r how numerous , they are u s e l e s s w i th o u t t h e

moon.

In the m an y -c o lo re d land of Ling

Jo ru may have num erous magica l t r a n s fo rm a t i o n s .

But if he doesn ' t s e i z e the throne of White Ling,

When wi l l he e v e r e f f e c t the benef i t (don) of b e i n g s ? 117

145

The song is s t i l l s ing ing of m o t iv a t io n and s t i l l using the

s a m e s o r t s of e x tended m e ta p h o rs about the sky and heavenly

o b je c t s . But now i t is approaching a more f a m i l i a r ep ic context .

Manene, the divine m o th e r , is encouraging Gesar to e n t e r into

c on te n t ion w i th h i s Uncle Trotung. In l a t e r c h a p t e r s songs wi l l

be sung to encourage G esa r 's en t rance into b a t t l e and to a rouse

his w a r r i o r sp i r i t . And a s the word "purpose" t r a v e l s down the

t em pora l line of the se q u en c e of a c t i o n s which m ake up the

m ythos of th i s epic, i t w i l l keep the or iginal i m p e tu s impar ted

to i t by the highly r e l i g i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of purpose given in

the f i r s t chap ter . Manene, a goddess, c o m m u n i c a t e s to Gesa r the

divine plan, as be fo re t h e m es se n g e r w a s A va lok i t e sva ra . The

c e l e s t i a l machinery cont inu ing i t s su p e rv i s o ry ro le , cont inu ing

to com m u n ica te the d e c i s i o n s made in divine counc i l , cont inu ing

to s t r u c t u r e the p lo t so t h a t the " in te n t ionns of Zeus may be

accomplished."

Manene becom es , in fac t , like Athena for the Achaean he roes

and Aphrodi te for A e n ea s of Thet i s fo r Achi l les . The T ibe tans

have developed an i n t e r e s t i n g and e x t r e m e l y profound phi losophy

about why m o th e r s and fem a le c o n s o r t s should be the divine

m e s s e n g e r s in t h e s e s i t u a t io n s . There is a large, r i ch poe t i c and

ph i losophica l l i t e r a t u r e on the sub je c t . We do not have t im e here

to exam ine th i s point , bu t it should be a d d re s s e d in a fu tu re

study: the Central Asian Buddhist v iew of the n a tu r e of the

Feminine as a m e s s e n g e r principle.

In any case, we now have a way of eva lua t ing the

c o m p l e t e n e s s of the Mipham vers ion from a l i t e r a r y point of

146

view. If the l a t e r c h a p t e r s on Gesar’s w a r w i t h the Demon Kings

of the Four D i rec t ions a re t ru ly pa r t of t h i s ed i t ion , then one can

say in a p re l im ina ry s o r t of way tha t the Mipham c o rp u s is indeed

c om p le te and whole. T h is is a quest ion t h a t w i l l be ful ly

a n s w e r e d in coming y e a r s as we ca re fu l ly r ead t h e s e l a t e r

volumes.

The sam e t e s t c an be used on the individual books or

vo lumes in t h i s s e r i e s . At th i s point I can only speak c on f ide n t ly

fo r the f i r s t volume. But the re is no ques t ion t h a t i t p o s s e s s e s

the causa l u n i t i e s and A r i s to t e l i a n s e n se of beginning and ending

de sc r ib e d above.

Now, as we have d i s c u s s e d before , the Mipham Gesar has

been com prehens ive ly a s s i m i l a t e d to f a i r ly s o p h i s t i c a t e d

Buddhist doctr ine. T h e r e a re o ther v e r s io n s w h ich e x i s t as

c o l l e c t i o n s of Gesar s t o r i e s and which a re no t as r e l i g io u s in

t h e i r tone or in ten t , n o t as a s s im i la ted . Let us look a t one of

t h e s e to see if they could a nsw e r the sa m e t e s t of unity.

A.H. Francke, a C h r i s t i a n m is s ionary , c o l l e c t e d in 1900 a

ve rs ion of the epic m uch s h o r t e r than the one by Mipham and

w r i t t e n in r e l a t i v e ly s im p le , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d ve rse . It does not

s eem to conta in p a s s a g e s in the s ty le of kavya, of S a n s k r i t

Court Poe try, and i t i s w r i t t e n in the Ladakhi d i a l e c t of Tibe tan.

Francke be l ieved t h a t i t w a s a "Bonpo Gesar ," an e a r l i e r ve rs ion

of the epic e x p re s s in g the pr incip les of the T ib e t an

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r e l i g io n known as Bon. It show ed , accord ing to

him, the kernel of the ep ic before i t s v e n ee r of Buddhis t s t o r i e s

w a s added. S te in '59 t r e a t s the Francke v e r s i o n s on pp. 5 6 - 5 9

147

and 183 pa r t i c u l a r ly . But f rom pages 164 to 169 he d e m o l i sh e s

t h e p o ss ib i l i ty of i t s being purely non-Buddhis t and pure ly in the

Ladakhi d ia lec t . He p o in t s ou t r e f e r e n c e s w h ic h m u s t be to

Nyingma Buddhist l a m a s and he m en t ions num erous fo rm u la e

which he t a k e s to be su re s ig n s of the in f luence of c l a s s i c a l

T ib e t a n — p a r t i c u l a r l y c e r t a i n verbal c o m p l e m e n t s and the

c l a s s i c a l redoubled s e n t e n c e f i n a l— "o." And so, the

p r im o r d ia ln e s s of the Ladakhi t e x t and i t s o r a l i t y are ou t of the

ques t ion.

N e ver the le ss , t h e r e a re s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s which s e p a r a t e

i t f rom the Buddhist ve rs ions: the beginning has no a s p i r a t i o n

p raye rs . There is no Buddhis t r e l ig ious f r a m e n a r r a t i v e , no

Mahayana re l i g io u s agenda. For the s t r u c t u r i n g of the r e s t of the

p lo t th i s is an e s s e n t i a l d i f f e rence . In f a c t , no agenda is

e x p re s s e d in the beginning a t all. 118

The f i r s t c h a p t e r a c tu a l ly se e m s to be a Sr idgL ing , a

Creation o f L ing na r ra t ive . I t s t i t l e is gLing g i dpa bo bco brgyad

k y i skye rabs sgrungs yin, w h ich l i t e r a l l y m e a n s "This is the

chron ic le of the b i r t h of the e igh teen w a r r i o r s of Ling." It is the

s t o r y of the p r im o rd ia l o r ig in s of the coun t ry of Ling. A magical

ch i ld is born to a f a rm ing fami ly. This boy k i l l s a n ine -headed

ogre whose body is broken up into p i e c e s to form the land of Ling.

O the r magical e v e n t s occur . The son m a g ic a l ly i m p re g n a te s

e igh teen maidens , producing the e igh teen w a r r i o r s . There are

t r e a s u r e s which a re the pa tr im ony of Ling, including the f i r s t

exam ples of s e v e r a l kind of c a t t l e , the f i r s t goat , the f i r s t

sheep, the ass , a s p e c ia l pot, an axe, the f i r s t horse , etc. One

148

among the w a r r io r s is the man of g r e a t e s t v i r t u e and p r o w e s s —

Agu dPal le .

The next c h ap te r is the b ir th of Gesar. In t h i s s t o ry dPa l le

o b s e r v e s a whi te bird and a black bird f ight ing. L a te r he

o b s e r v e s a black and w h i t e yak f igh t ing and k i l l s the black one.

The w h i t e yak becom es the Lord Indra ( dbang po rgya bzhin ) and

p r o m i s e s him a boon on beha l f of the w h i t e gods of heaven, ove r

whom he is king. In p a r t i c u l a r , he wi l l send one of h i s sons to be

the king of Ling. The s t o r y con t inues w i th j o u rn ey s to the land of

the nagas and to the r e a l m of the gods and c o n t e s t s b e tw ee n th e

sons of Indra— c o n t e s t s in which a c e r t a i n individual named

Full of Benefi t ( don 1dan ) is a lw ays v ic to r ious . Eventual ly Full

of Benef i t dies and is r eborn as Gesar.

The l a t e r c h a p t e r s cont inue w i t h plot m o t i f s which a re

im p o r t a n t in the longer v e r s io n s of the epic. We s e e the

s n e a k i n e s s and c o y o t e - l i k e t r i c k s t e r i s m of Gesa r a s a youth. We

se e him in la te r c h a p t e r s conquer the Northern Kingdom of Lutsen

and the Kingdom of the Hor. We se e him journey to China to gain

a Chinese bride.

The cen t ra l m o t i v e s of the Gesa r legend are the re , but t h e r e

is no overarching plot . Nor does any s ingle c h a p t e r seem to

p o s s e s s any l i t e r a ry s t r u c t u r e to speak of . On the o ther hand,

the s t r u c t u r e of the f i r s t c h a p te r s is r a t h e r s i m i l a r to t h a t of

the "History of the Goloks," which wi l l be t r a n s l a t e d in C hap te r V

of t h i s d i s se r t a t ion . T h is is s ign i f ican t . We know the s t r u c t u r i n g

p r inc ip le behind t h a t H i s t o r y — it is to ch ron ic le of the

g e n e ra t i o n s of Goloks from th e i r divine c r e a t i o n to the point

149

w h e re a Golok gives b i r th to the grea t Nyingma m a s t e r J ig m e

Lingpa. This is not an epic, i t is a t r iba l chronicle . It ha s a

genea log ica l intent ion which precedes the d r a m a t i c im p e ra t iv e s

to t e l l in g a good s tory. Thus, i t p o s s e s s e s no fiueos' o r w e l l -

o rganized plot, no in ten t iona l agenda. There is no q u e s t made

e x p l i c i t a t the beginning and no need solved or r e s o lv e d a t the

end. Ins tead, the re is a l i s t i n g of the e v e n t s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h the

h i s t o r y of the land of Ling f rom the t im e of i t s f o r e f a t h e r

through su c ce s s iv e g e n e r a t i o n s until Gesar.

Or we could say, as e a s i ly , t h a t i t i s s imply a c o l l e c t i o n of

"epic lays," as Bowra w ould cal l them, which w e re p laced in th is

o rd e r hypo the t ica l ly by e i t h e r the bard or Francke, the editor.

Whether they are a ch ro n ic le or an a l l - b u t - a r b i t r a r y order ing of

d i s t i n c t pe rfo rm ances , if t h e r e is no s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t which

m akes one fol low from the o ther , then they do not fo rm a s ingle

w ork in any l i t e ra ry sense. If the only thing which u n i t e s them

is the c h a r a c t e r of Gesa r or the s u b je c t of Ling, then, f rom the

po in t of view of A r i s t o t e l i a n l i t e r a ry c r i t i c i s m , l i t t l e indeed

u n i t e s them at all.

The Genealogy of a ve rse com ple te ep ic

The l i t e r a ry na tu re of the Ladakhi ve rs ion c a s t s l igh t on a

ques t ion asked by W este rn sc h o la r s as they examine the poss ible

s c e n a r i o s for the deve lopm en t of the I l i a d . Bowra in h i s c hap te r

on " the or igins of the epic" sp e c u la te s t h a t the I l ia d descended

from epic lays, songs w h ich t r e a t e d s ingle top ic s , s in g le s t o r i e s

!50

in t h e legend of Troy. [Bowra, opus cit. pp. 27 -3 7 ] . T h es e a re the

s t o r i e s , f o r example, w h i c h w e re sung by Demodocus and

Phemius , p ro fes s io na l b a r d s r ep r e se n te d in the I l ia d and the

Odyssey. Bowra quo tes Pene lope , who r e m a r k s t h a t t h e ba rds

s ing songs of "the deeds of men and gods":

The songs of men are m o s t ly f rom the T r o j a n Cycle.

Demodocus s ings of t h e Wood Horse (0 4 9 9 - 5 0 1) and the

Quarrel of Odysseus and Achi l les (0 7 3 - 7 8 ) , w h i l e Phemius

s in g s of the Return of the Achaeans (a 3 2 5 - 7 ) . The bard 's

b u s i n e s s is to te l l of the l a t e s t new s , and the n e w e s t song (as

T e lem achus t e l l s h i s m o the r ) is the b e s t and m o s t honoured (a

3 5 1 - 2 ) . The s t o r i e s a re regarded as s t r i c t l y h i s t o r i c a l , and

Odysseus c o m p l i m e n t s Demodocus on te l l ing h i s t a l e XXt̂v Kcrra

Koa^ov (0 489) — a s i t should be told. These songs are s e p a r a t e

e n t i t i e s and sung s e p a r a t e l y . Demodocus and Ph e m iu s s ing

w h a t they are a sked to sing, and they can s t a r t a t any point.

But t h e i r songs n e a r l y all concern Troy and deal w i t h a

c o h e re n t s e t of s t o r i e s . That some s o r t of c o n t in u i ty e x i s t e d

is shown by the p o e t ' s w ords when Demodocus, a f t e r being

p r e s s e d by Odysseus , s in g s of the Wood Horse "He, s t i r r e d by

the god, began, and m ade his song, s t a r t i n g a t t h a t point how

they on the i r w e l l - b e n c h e d ships, etc. ' . . .(0 4 9 9 - 5 0 0 ) This

s e e m s to mean t h a t t h e r e w a s a s e t o rder for the s to ry and

t h a t the bard took i t up at a de f in i t e point. [Bowra, p.28]

Bowra would have th e Homeric ep ic s evolve out of th e s e

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lays a s the a r t of n a r r a t i v e i t s e l f evolves. Obviously, Homer

adds an a r t i f i c e and p o w e r of o rn a m e n ta t io n s u p e r i o r to the f ew

exam ple s we have of such s h o r t works. He im proves im m ense ly

on the t r a d i t i o n a s he s m o o t h l y ed i t s , in e f f e c t , t h e s e s h o r t

p e r f o r m a n c e s into a s i n g l e long, e la bo ra te , and w e l l - s t r u c t u r e d

work.

Now, Tibetan e p ic s a r e made up of ba l l a d s connec ted by

p ro se passages . This i s i n t e r e s t i n g , because Bowra d i s t i n g u i s h e s

the he ro ic lay from the h e r o i c song. This form, the he ro ic song,

a c t u a l l y combines song and dance, and is w e l l a t t e s t e d in a n c i e n t

Greek poetry. E. B e t h e 119 a rg u e s t h a t t h e s e songs w e r e un i ted

into connec ted n a r r a t i v e s and became lays w h ich then became

epics . He gives complex and i n te r e s t in g a r g u m e n t s about the

song f o r m — the a b r u p t n e s s of i t s na r ra t ion , i t s s t r o p h i c qua l i ty

o r ig ina t ing from the m a n n e r in which song ly r i c s w e r e pe r fo rm e d

by chorus and leader . And he f inds m o m e n t s in the I l ia d which

d i s t i n c t l y b e t r a y t h i s ly r i c s ty le . 120

But Bowra is not convinced , because in the end, m o s t

e x am p les of Greek ly r ic a r e not t ru ly conce rned w i t h n a r r a t i o n a t

a ll , but s im p ly m en t io n s t o r i e s people a l r eady know. [Bowra,

p.34] Bethe, on the o t h e r hand, thinks t h a t the S e rb ian hero ic

l y r ic s which a re s t i l l sung on the c o a s t s of Yugoslavia , in

Herzegovina and g r e a t e r S e rb i a are indeed e x am p les of ep ics in

song s ty le . We can s e e f rom the s t r ing ing t o g e t h e r of Serb ian

lyr ic oral poe t ry how ep ic n a r r a t i v e s could have developed out of

songs.

But Bowra adduces e x a m p le s f rom o t h e r c u l t u r e s whe re the

152

s a m e s o r t of so n g s e x i s t but did not give b i r th to epics. In t h e s e

c u l t u r e s we can indeed t r a c e the deve lopm en t of the longer

n a r r a t i v e s f rom s h o r t e r forms, but not f rom songs. The e x a m p le s

he g i v e s — Turkish, German, and Anglo-Saxon na r r a t ive v e r s e —

do no t der ive f rom the s t ro p h ic songs of t h e s e c u l tu r e s , bu t f rom

l in e a r poe t ic f o r m s which have no s t a n z a i c organizat ion. He s e e s

the lyr ic and n a r r a t i v e fo rm s s p l i t t i n g and cont inuing to deve lop

s epa ra te ly .

The a rg u m e n t b e tw e e n Bethe and Bowra provides us w i t h

use fu l q u e s t io n s w e can ask in examining the Gesar corpus. Are

the Gesar songs comparab le to e i t h e r the lyr ic song Bethe

b e l i e v es are a s o u rc e of epic n a r r a t i v e or a re they like t h e non-

s t roph ic , more l in e a r n a r r a t iv e v e r s e of the heroic lays Bowra

th in k s preceded Homer?

Are, for example , the sho r t and r e l a t i v e ly unconnected

c h a p t e r s of the Ladakhi Gesar l ike the epic lays which w e r e

dynamical ly c onnec te d to make a Homeric recoun t ing? In t h a t

case , you could even say th a t the “His to ry of the Golok" and the

Mipham Gesar are both examples of a l a t e r and more l i t e r a r y

deve lopment of the fo r m — e i t h e r a lengthening of songs into

n a r r a t i v e or a connec t ing of lays by a s ing le c o n sc io u s n e s s into a

s ing le work. Unders tanding the s t a g e s in t h i s development

would c o n t r ib u t e g r e a t ly to our comprehens ion of the n a tu r e of

the i n t e g r a l i t i e s be fo re us in the Gesar corpus.

The i n t e r e s t i n g thing is t h a t both s c e n a r i o s d i sc u sse d by

Bowra and Be the a r e imposs ib le for the Gesar corpus —

imposs ib le and ou t of the question. None of the epics Bowra

153

d i s c u s s e s are com m ensurab le w i th Gesar for none of the

v e r s io n s of the Gesar w e have d i sc u sse d and f ew if any in the

e n t i r e corpus are a s m o o th and cont inuous line of verse . All a re

p r o s i m e t r i c — a l t e r n a t i n g song and p rose na r ra t ion .

The songs, as H e l f f e r po in ts out , a r e a t t a c h e d to m elod ies

which a re the m us ica l insignia of the pe rsona who sing the songs.

In o th e r words, the v e r s e is a lw ays u t t e r e d by a c h a r a c t e r in the

epic, for the ve rse is a lm o s t a lw ays a song and the songs a re

speech ac t s , pa r t of t h e Trpdfrs-of the epic. They a re not

d e sc r ip t io n s of b a t t l e scenes , they a re not r ecoun t ings of a c t i o n ,

they a re hardly conce rned w i th na r r a t io n a t a l l — they are, a s a

m a t t e r of fac t , a dv iso ry l y r i c s — w ords u t t e r e d by one

c h a r a c t e r in order to convince some o t h e r c h a r a c t e r to take a

c e r t a i n action.

The na r ra t ion of a c t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s t a k e s place a lm o s t

e n t i r e ly in the p rose i n t e r s t i c e s . Looking a t the songs

t h e m s e l v e s now, we m u s t ask if any of them could ever have

s tood on i t s own as a n a r r a t i v e ly r ic? The a n sw e r , as you w i l l

s ee in the p a s sa g e s w e have t r a n s l a t e d , is s im p ly "No." In o rd e r

to s ing one of t h e s e songs , one m us t p re te nd to be one of the

c h a r a c t e r s in the epic. The om nisc ien t n a r r a t o r speaks a lm o s t

nothing but p r o s e .121

Bowra would l ike to know w ha t p r imord ia l event was the

occasion for the a to m i c or igins of Homeric epic. Bethe s u g g e s t s

t h a t lyr ic songs p e r fo rm e d by a chorus and accompanied by m u s ic

and dancing grew in to t h e s e long, l inear v e r s e accounts . If t h a t

w e r e t rue, then the o r ig in s of epic would be in r i tua l

154

p e r fo rm a n ce s , for t h e s e are the c l a s s i c a l o c ca s io n s fo r such

songs. Bowra seeks o t h e r occasions w h e r e such p e r fo rm a n c e s

occured and l i s t s , b e s id e s r i tu a l s of o f f e r in g and thanksgiving ,

the r i t u a l s t h a t accompany games, and the t h re n o d ie s t h a t

accompany funerals . Speaking of such n o n - r i tu a l ly r ic

p e r fo rm a n ce s , he d i s t i n g u i s h e s them f rom the epic lays:

The songs a re d i f f e r e n t f rom the lays of KXiaav8p<3u sung

by Achi l les or p ro fe s s iona l bards . They are sung not by one

man but by many. Or if not by many, a t l e a s t many accompany

them or take some p a r t in them. And they are combined w i t h

some so r t o f action, (my i ta l ic s) . They are e x a m p le s of the

lioXmi, the song accompanied by dance, and a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

de f in i t e occas ions , ha rves t , r e jo ic ing , and death. They are

qu i te d i f f e r e n t f rom the lays of Demodocus, which are

accompanied by no act ion, are sung only by the bard h im se l f ,

have no connext ion w i t h any spec ia l occasion, and are in tended

only to beguile the l e i su re of p r in ce s and nobles a t the f e a t s

held in th e i r h a l l s . 122

So much for Greek lyr ic songs. The i r f u r t h e r deve lopment

leads in many d i r e c t io n s , among them into the ly r ic

p e r fo r m a n c e s which o c c u r in t raged ies . But Bowra does not see

how they could have lead to the smooth , end less s e q u en c e s of

h e x a m e t e r s which is epic verse.

If Bowra were to a sk the sam e q ue s t ion of the ep ic ba l l ads

in the Gesar, how would we a n sw e r h im ? Because of the de ic t i c

155

e l e m e n t in them, the f a c t t h a t they a re a lw a y s sung by a

p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r on beha l f of hi s or he r own i n t e r e s t s , they

canno t de r ive from r i t u a l ce remonies , even though they bo r row

so m e language from r i t u a l t e x t s in the Mipham vers ion .

F u r the rm ore , the d r a m a t i c persona who s ing them are usua l ly

making arguments . If t h e r e were such a thing a s v e r s i f i e d legal

p r o s e c u t i o n s and d e f e n s e s , t h a t would be a poss ib le o r ig in of

th e s e songs. They a re songs of a rgum en t and counsel ing.

As a m a t t e r of f a c t , T ibe tans do speak of sp o n ta n eo u s v e r s e

c o n v e r sa t io n s , but i t i s in a very d i f f e r e n t contex t . They occur ,

s a y s t r a d i t io n a l s e n t i m e n t , when w a r r i o r s are about to b a t t l e

each o ther . One w a r r i o r s t a n d s be fore t h e o th e r and s in g s i n s u l t s

and c ha l l enge s and b r a g s in verse . The o t h e r a n s w e r s in l ike tone;

they become brave and angry, and f inal ly , when su i t a b ly enraged,

f ight .

The songs of Mi larepa are supposed to be sp on ta neous v e r s e

se rm ons . These could be ano the r sou rc e of the kind of ep ic songs

we are consider ing. But th e r e is no p a r t i c u l a r ev idence in t h a t

d i r e c t i o n a t th i s point.

A f inal p o s s ib i l i t y would be s im p ly an ear ly form of d ram a

in which one sp e a k e r r e p r e s e n t s d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r s by speak ing

each one 's pa r t in turn. But th is s c en a r io is t au to logous , fo r t h a t

is e x a c t ly w ha t o c c u r s in the singing of the Gesar Epic. In t h i s

s e n s e you could a c t u a l l y cons ider the Gesar not to be an epic a s

we know it, but more of a so r t of s t o r y - t e l l i n g th e a t e r . The bard

d e s c r i b e s the act ion , s ing ing the sp e e c h e s of each pe rsona.

156

Thomas Greene and V a r te i t i e s of Metaphor in the Epic

The f a c t t h a t t h e s e songs are not comparab le w i th W es te rn

l y r ic s and l inea r epic v e r s e explains the p e cu l i a r i ty of the

ex tended m e ta p h o r in the Gesar. It is a c tu a l ly no t a m e t a p h o r a t

all , but an a rg u m e n t by analogy. The Tibe tan c h a r a c t e r who s ings

a song in the Gesar is u sua l ly a t t e m p t in g to convince h i s

l i s t e n e r to do someth ing . If he w i s h e s to give a warn ing , he s a y s

"Do not do X, fo r t h a t would be like doing Y and Y is s h e e r

madness ." This is the c a s e in the demon m i n i s t e r ' s w a r n in g s to

A va lok i t e sva ra to leave the t e r r i b l e p r e c in c t s of the pa la ce of

Padmasambhava . In e f f e c t he says, "Leave now! To s t a y would be

l ike a man c o m m i t ing su ic ide for no reason... to s t a y would be

like a pe rson taking hi s ca se to court when i t is of no

impor tance , to s t a y would be like..."

S o m e t im e s the a rgum en t by analogy is pos i t ive , a s when

A va lok i t e sva ra a n s w e r s the demon, saying: "I s e rv e a g r e a t

purpose in being h e r e — like the Sun and Moon, whicn br ing l ight

to the wor ld by c i r c l ing in the sky." At the beginning of The

Horse Race we see Manene singing to Gesar. She m u s t convince

him to a ssum e the a s p e c t of a warr ior . Her ex tended m e t a p h o r s

a re not d e s c r i p t i o n s of things. They a re a rgum e n ts by analogy:

"If you do not m a n i f e s t as Gesar , the re is no po in t in your having

magical p o w e r s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n like a f i e ld which is full

of animal fodder and g row s no f r u i t s — it feeds no p e o p le ------

like the s t a r s in the sky, which are p re t ty , but u s e l e s s fo r

f inding your way home if t he re is no moon."

157

This is te rr ib ly d i f f e r e n t f rom the Homeric ex tended

s im i le s . They engage the r h e t o r i c of d e sc r ip t ion by observing

r e l a t i o n s of physical s i m i l i t u d e in de sc r ip t i v e c on tex ts . For

example, the re is the f am ous wound to Menelaus in Book Four of

the Iliad. It is i n t e r e s t in g to no te how d i f f e r e n t i t i s f rom the

T ibe tan extended f igure, w h i l e keeping one point in common: The

occas ion is during a t r u c e b e t w e e n the T ro jans and the Achaeans.

An a r c h e r v io la tes the t r u c e by a t t e m t i n g to shoot Menelaus from

a f a r w i t h an arrow. The a r row s t r i k e s :

[1. 134]The b i t t e r a r ro w w a s dr iven a ga in s t the joining of the

w a r belt

and p a s s e d clean through the w a r b e l t e l a b o ra t e ly woven;

into th e e laborate ly w rough t c o r s e l e t the s h a f t w a s dr iven

and the guard which he w o re to p r o t e c t his sk in and keep the

sp e a r s off,

which guarded him bes t , y e t the a r row plunged even through

t h i s aiso

and w i t h the very t ip of i t s po in t i t grazed the m an’s skin

and s t r a ig h t w a y from the c u t th e r e gushed a c loud of dark

biood.CLattimore, pp. 1 1 6 -1 1 7 ]

And now the s imile :

As when some Maionian w om an or Karian w i th purple

co lours ivory, to make it a cheek piece for horses ;

it l i e s away in an inner room, and many a r id e r

158

longs to have it, bu t i t is laid up to be a k ing’s t r ea su re ,

tw o things, to be the beauty of the horse, t he pr ide of the

horseman:

so, Menelaos, your shapely th ighs were s t a in e d w i th the

colour

of blood, and your legs a lso and the ankles be nea th them.

This is o f ten c i t e d as a good example of Homer's a r t because

of the beau t i fu l e f f e c t of the s imi le . The o b j e c t of the ex tended

s im i le is to de sc r ibe the colour of the blood on the thigh of the

in jured king. It s e r v e s no o ther purpose than t h a t in the

na r ra t ive . It does not p a r t i c i p a t e in the act ion. If it w ere

exc ised from the t ex t , the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of e v e n t s would n o t

have su b s t a n t i a l l y changed. In fac t , th is is an im por tan t po in t

for Bowra. He holds t h a t the examples of i s o l a t e d heroic lays

lacked these ex tended o rnam en ta t ions and t h a t such e l a b o r a t e

o rn a m e n ta t io n s w e re the con tr ibu t ion of the p o e t s such as Homer

in the l a t e r development .

The s e m a n t i c s of the e f f e c t is i n t e r e s t in g , because it is not

r ea l ly the s i m i l a r i t y which makes it a good f igure , but the

d i f fe rence . The blood on Menelaus’ thigh is not rea l ly like Tyr ian

dye on ivory e q u e s t r i a n cheek pieces . The m e ta p h o r r em oves us

f rom the im m ed ia te act ion of the t ex t and sends us to a d o m e s t i c

world beyond war.

Greene in his r e c e n t work on the s e m a n t i c s of m e ta p h o rs in

the epic t r ad i t ion obse rves t h i s s i m i l a r i t y - i n - d i f f e r e n c e

re l a tonsh ip and co n s id e r s it e s s e n t i a l to the s t r u c t u r e of t h i s

159

type of f igure of s p e e c h . 123 Many o t h e r s have made the s a m e

o bse rva t ion , but Greene 's po in t is m ore expansive, be ca use he

a s k s the ques t ion w h e t h e r o the r s o r t s of epic m igh t not have

o t h e r s o r t s of s e m a n t i c s a t play in t h e i r f i g u re s of speech . He

p roposes , for example , t h a t the re may have been a sh a m an ic epic

such a s Bowra p ropsoed in Heroic Poetry. 124 Greene w o n d e r s

w h e t h e r the s e m a n t i c s for f igu res in these hypo the t ica l w o rk s

m ig h t be q u i te d i f f e r e n t , because they occur in a r e a l i t y whose

physical r e l a t i o n s a re governed d i f fe ren t ly . If one be l i e ves in

s y m p a t h e t i c magic , then r e l a t i o n s of s i m i l a r i t y become profound

and im p o r t a n t and e f fe c t iv e r e l a t i o n s . Greene s p e c u l a t e s t h a t

the m e ta p h o r s which occur in l i t u rg ica l t e x t s may func t ion t h i s

way. He is d i s u c s s in g w h a t a n th ro p o lo g i s t s used to cal l

" sy m p a th e t i c magic." There, one i s not observing in the s i m i l e a

d i f f e r e n c e - i n - s i m i l a r i t y , but an underlying, s e c r e t s i m i l a r i t y in

d i f fe re nce . The tw o d i f f e r e n t t h in g s which are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

each o t h e r are un i ted by a r econd i te , magical re sonanc e so t h a t

a c t ing on one e f f e c t s ac t ion on the other .

This approach to meaning is unques t ionab ly the c a s e in the

s e m a n t i c s of t a n t r i c Buddhist r i t u a l s . And th e s e r i t u a l s do,

indeed, surround the Mipham G esar , governing m ean ings in much

of i t s poetry. In T ib e t a n T an t ra t h i s sy s te m of m e ta p h y s i ca l

r e s o n a n c e s which govern r i tua l a re ca l l ed "the mandala

princip le , " for the s y m m e t r i e s and r e s o n an c e s involved in the

magical r e l a t i o n s h i p s are focused on the r epea t ing p a t t e r n s of

c o r re spo nda nce s r e p r e s e n t e d in the mandalas of t a n t r i c r i tua l .

Greene, how ever , is not an o r i e n t a l i s t . For him the m o s t

160

obvious locus of t h i s kind of thinking is the H erm e t ic t r a d i t i o n

in the W es t and he evokes the work of F ranc is Yates on the

de ve lopm en t of v i sua l f igu re s , the g ro tesque , and n e o -p l a to n i c

m e t a p h y s i c a l s y m e t r i e s ou t of the Greek a r t of memory. 125 Yates

t r a c e s t h i s t r a d i t i o n through the a lchem ica l and c a b a l i s t i c

t r a n s f o r m a t o n s of it in the R ena issance w i th f i g u re s such as

Ficino and Pico di Mirandola. She t r a c e s fo rward in t im e the

deve lopm en t of the Hermet ic t r a d i t i o n as f a r as the R os ic ruc ian

movement . Her work id e n t i f i e s t h i s l ine of deve lopment and

Greene a ppea ls to i t as an example of W este rn m e ta p h o r i c a l

s y s t e m s based on a n e o -p l a to n i c and magica l view of inheren t

r e l a t i o n s .

When t h i s a l t e r n a t e s e m a n t i c s of m e taphor occu rs in the

Mipham Gesar is a c om p l ica ted ques t ion , because the t e x t is so

he te rogenous . In my c om m en ta ry on the f i r s t c h a p t e r of the Lha

gLing I w i l l note p a s s a g e s which evoke a t a n t r i c s e m a n t i c s and

o t h e r s w h ich a re based on more convent ional approaches to

s im i le . For example, the pe rsona in the f i r s t c h a p te r a re all

d e i t i e s who belong to a spec ia l s y s t e m of r e s o n an c e s in the

spe c ia l Mandala of the Pr imord ia l Buddhas. The W e s te rn p o r t ion

of t h i s mandala r e p r e s e n t s the s o - c a l l e d "Family of the Lotus."

The Lotus r e p r e s e n t s c om pass ion and the c o m p a ss io n a te

i n t e rv en t io n of en l igh tened beings. It a lso r e p r e s e n t s all o t h e r

kinds of human w a rm t h , such as love, a f fec t ion , lus t , and the

d e s i r e to a t t r a c t .

Since all the m a j o r d e i t i e s in t h i s chap ter of the Gesar a re

of the Lotus Family, the re is a ne tw ork of in te rconnec t ing

161

m e ta p h o r s which play on the idea of the lotus and the q u a l i t i e s

a s s o c i a t e d w i th it. We w i l l s e e t h a t t h e s e f igures of s p e e c h a r e

d raw n from tan t r i c r i t u a l s . They should the re fo re r e p r e s e n t t h e

kind of "magical" s e m a n t i c s Greene m en t ions in c onnec t ion w i t h

m e ta p h o r and s im i le in the H e rm e t i c t rad i t ion .

But the same p a s s a g e s t h a t d raw on t a n t r i c r i t u a l s a s

p rev ious t e x t s are a l so r e l a t e d to a whol ly d i f f e r e n t s o r t of

p oe t i c connected w i t h the Indian t r a d i t i o n of kavya, S a n s k r i t

Court Poetry. In kavya t h e c o n c e p t of alamkara, or "the a r t of

o rnamenta t ion ," is t h e ru l ing e s t h e t i c b a s i s for f i g u re s of

s p e e c h 126— an approach n o t so d i f f e r e n t from t h a t e x e m p l i f i e d

in the f igure of the wounded Menelaus. When the Gesar p o e t is

w r i t i n g in the s ty le of c l a s s i c a l s e c u l a r S ansk r i t poe t i c s ,

w h a t e v e r the ph i losophical v i e w s of the poet m ig h t be, he o r she

is im i t a t i n g poetry f rom a s y s t e m which is very s i m i l a r to

Homeric poetics.

In di scussing the f igu ra l s e m a n t i c s of magic and m e tonym y ,

we are deal ing w i th the lyr ic poems and poetic p ro se in the

Mipham Gesar. But, the epic b a l l a d s t h e r e do not u se e i t h e r of

t h e s e s o r t s of s i m i l e s ve ry much. The dominant r e l a t i o n of

s i m i l i t u d e used in the b a l l a d s s e e m s to be logical analogy. It is

no t the rel igious a l legory of r i t u a l or s c r ip tu re , i t is not t h e

e s t h e t i c , desc r ip t ive s i m i l e s of Homer, i t is not t a n t r i c m a g ic a l

ve rse . It is the kind of f igu re used in a debate.

The po in ts of s i m i l i t u d e a re in the logical s t r u c t u r e of the

t w o s i tua t ions : "The Sun and Moon a re useful to the wor ld and

Gesa r would be use fu l to Ling." or "Demons drive men to s u i c i d e

162

and g r e a t causes dr ive men to brave act ions." It i s the fo u r ­

legged re l a t ionsh ip of analogy: "a is to b, a s c i s to d." But t h e r e

is a s t r a n g e a rg u m e n ta t iv e t w i s t :

-"a has X r e l a t i o n to b."

-"If i t did not, no thing would be meaningful ."

-"In the s a m e way, if y does not have X r e l a t i o n s h ip to z,

nothing wil l be meaningful ."

- "There fo re why don' t you make y be X to z!"

This a rgument fo rm occup ies in the ep ic ba l l ad ry the s a m e

p lace as an ex tended s i m i l e in Homeric epic ve r se . The r e a d e r

who is not ready f o r t h i s f igure , wi l l have t r o u b le a s s i m i l a t i n g

th e t ex t , for the song ' s ana log ica l s i m i l e s a re log ica l ly q u i te

complex.

I have of ten obse rved t h a t learned T ibe tan r e a d e r s e n joy

Mipham's Gesar and f ind de l igh t in his ex tended f igures . But they

a l s o f ind them chal lenging. They are like p u z z l e s and the r a t io

of them is of ten no t i m m e d ia t e ly evident . In t h i s we find, I

w ould say, the rea l s i m i l a r i t y be tw ee n Homeric and T ibe tan ep ic

m e ta pho rs . The Homeric m e ta p h o r s are founded on the i rony of

the s i m i l a r i t y b e tw e e n tw o th ings so fundam e n ta l ly d i f f e r e n t .

The r e a d e r m us t th ink t w i c e , m u s t r e c o n s id e r the f igure, fo r i t s

a p t n e s s is elusive. The T ibe tan f igures , which a re a rg u m e n t s by

analogy in the form of tw o and th ree line p rove rb ia l exp re s io n s ,

a re the same way. They seem to pass benea th the eye e a s i l y and

g racefu l ly . But then the mind s t o p s to w onde r if the tw o

163

s i t u a t i o n s posed are r e a l l y c om m e nsu rab le or not. The a p t n e s s is

d i scovered , but only a f t e r c ons ide ra t ion . The second look is the

irony and the m om en t of p o e t i c magic and the common point

which u n i t e d s all t h e s e s o r t s of f ig u re s of speech.

This i rony w h ich encourages doubling back is q u i t e t r i cky in

an oral pe r fo rm ance . Even when w r i t t e n down, i t i s s t i l l a

p rovoca t ion to the r eade r .

Inspi red by Greene 's ana ly s i s of f i g u re s of speech in epic we

have t r i ed to f ind a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e of extended s i m i l e in the

Gesar. The s e a r c h produced com pl ica ted r e s u l t s . There a re a t

l e a s t t h re e who l ly d i s t i n c t kinds of s i m i l e in the Mipham version.

It s u g g e s t s to me, as I have sa id above, t h a t Mipham's v e r s io n of

the epic is a mixed f o r m — much l e s s homogenous than Homer

and his s u c c e s s o r s a p p e a r to be.

Has t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of epic m e ta p h o r c l a r i f i e d our or iginal

ques t ion of the c o m p l e n e s s of the Gesar ? Perhaps. Bowra 's

d i scuss ion of his and B e th e ’s s c e n a r io s fo r the evo lu t ion of epic

a imed to show how l a rg e r and l a rge r u n i t i e s developed from

p iec es of v e r s e t h a t b e c a m e sequenced as t im e w e n t on into

longer r e c i t a t i o n s . It i s a gene t ic a rgum en t for the organ ic uni ty

of a Homeric epic. Epic lays w e re s e w n to g e th e r to make a

longer work.

The s a m e canno t be t rue of the G e sa r , for it i s no t smooth ,

even, and connec ted l ike W es te rn epics. It is p r o s i m e t r i c ,

a l t e rn a t in g p rose w i th both c l a s s i c a l v e r s e , r i tua l v e r s e , and

balladry. The d iverse s e m a n t i c s of i t s m e ta p h o rs r e f l e c t s the

sam e p a tchw ork qua l i ty . Perhaps the s i m p l e s t thing is to say

164

t h a t f rom the po in t of view of ve rse s t r u c t u r e and m e ta p h o r , the

Gesar i s no t an epic a t ail , but something fo rm a l ly d i f f e r e n t

which p e r f o r m s the same soc ia l funct ions as epic.

From the point of view of plot , some of the Gesar e d i t i o n s

a re in teg ra l w o r k s — o th e r s lack th a t causa l and s e q u e n t i a l

s t r u c t u r e of act ion. In fac t , I would go even f u r t h e r and say tha t

the v e r s i o n s of the epic which a re comple te in the A r i s t o t e l i a n

s e n s e w i l l all have in t roduc t ions like the Divine Council of Zeus-

— the fo rm a l c o m m i tm e n t of divine machinery to the r ea l i z in g

of a c e r t a i n plot. Co l lec t ions of n a r r a t iv e s w h ich lack the

d e c l a r a t i o n of an in i t i a l i n te n t ion wil l p robably be more loosely

organized.

This leads to the l a s t m a j o r top ic in our in t r o d u c t io n to a

l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s of the Mipham Gesar. I have argued t h a t t h e

announcem en t of a plan, in ten t ion , purpose, on-eXci by a divine

f igure p rov ides the motive fo rce behind the m ovem en t of the r e s t of

the p lo t in t h i s kind of epic. This is the p r inc ip le func t ion of the

divine m ach ine ry in the opening of the epic. Now le t us look in de ta i l

a t t h i s m ach ine ry as it appea rs in the Mipham vers ion. The next

c h a p t e r w i l l examine the cosmology of the Gesar as l i t e r a r y

machinery . In the course of t h i s l i t e r a ry t r e a t m e n t of r e l i g io u s

e l e m e n t s in the epic , we w i l l look to the ac tua l r i t u a l s w r i t t e n by

Mipham fo r documenta t ion of our p a r t i c u l a r unde rs t and ing of the

gods and t h e i r funct ions . Then, having s tu d ied the cosm ology and

examined the r i t u a l s , we w i l l read the actua l w ords of the epic in

C hap te r IV.

IOO The distinction of histoirs versus recit is also made in English discourse, see Seymour

165

Chapman, Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film, (Ithaca: Cornel

University Press, 1978). It is related to a distinction developed by the Russian formalists,

particularly Vladimir Propp.

101 "Gling ge sar rgyal po’l skyes rabs lo rgyus rags tsam brjod pa" by gCod pa Don 'grub

In gLing ge sar rgyal po‘1 shut rten gyi gnag rgyun ngo m tshar me tog phreng mdzes " (Zi I ing,

1989), pp. 1-17.

102 Samten 6. Karmay, "The Four Adversaires of Gesar: a Theoretical 8asis of the Tibetan

Epic (w ith reference to a "chronological order" of the various episodes In the Gesar Epic," a

paper presented at the 2nd International Symposium of=n the Epic of King Gesar, organized by

the Tibetan Academy of Social Sciences in Lhasa 7-13 August 1991.

103 Ariane Macdonald, "Note sur le diffusion de la'théorie des Quatre Fils du Ciel' au

Tibet," Journal Asiatique, CCL (1962), pp. 531-548.

104 Hiltebeitel, opus cit, p. 27.

105 Stein, 56, pp.43-95 .

106 c.M. Bowra, Tradition and Design in the Iliad, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930).

107 Aristotle, Poetics, vi. 2 -4 , Greek quotations and Engl ish translations are from the

Loeb Edition. Aristotle XXII, The Poetics, ed. and trans. by w. Hamilton Fyfe, (Cambridge:

Harvard U. Press, 19 1982).

108 Ed. Richard McKeon, The Basic Works of Aristotle, (New York: Random House, 1941 ).

All translations of the Physics are from this edition, pp. 218-397. The translators are R. P

Hardie and R.K. Gaye.

109 Homère, Iliade, Tome I, text établi et traduit par Paul Mazon, (Paris: Société d'édition

'Les Belles Lettres", 1987), pp. 2 -3 .

110 D'Alembert and Diderot, eds., Compact Edition : L'Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire

raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, photographically reduced reprint of 1772

edition (Paris: Pergamon Press, no date), Tome vi, p. 422.

111 It is still true in conversational narrations. Charlotte Linde, in her studies of verbal

autobiographies has found fatalité to be an integral part of an ordinary person's recitation of

their own life story. For example, when she asked a subject to describe how he or she chose

their profession, one of the typical responses is "It was a result of a series of accidents.... And

yet in a sense it was fated." This study of the construction of causality in biographical

narrations is a fascinating example of conversation analysis and linguistics applied to an ancient

literary question of plausible plot construction. Particularly relevant is the chapter entitled,

"Coherence Principles: Causality and Continuity." Charlotte Linde, Life Stories: The Creation of

Coherence, (Oxford: University Press, 1993), pp. 127-162.

• 12 Lha gL ing, opus cit. Al l T ibetan quotes from the Lha gLing are from the Gantok edition.

Gantok: p. i — chos nyid nang las ma 'gag snying r je y is / ris med 'gro ba'i don du byang chub

sem s// gtong mm rdo rje I ta bu'i dam tshig g i/ rang mdangs pring las mam bzhi'i rise brgya

bas...

113 Anarew Ford suggests the contrast between the pouXxj of Zeus and the don of the

buddhas. It affords a very interesting comparison. My own feeling is that when the ends of

Zeus are discussed, we are engaged in explaining the apparently arbitrary destruction of human

life and happiness which seems to be the rule in the phenomenal world. When we explain the

166

ends of the buddhas, we are presenting an intention which is consciously opposed to the natural

order of things. The ordinary world of material causality is seen to be without TeXos and

therefore full of arbitrary pain and endless suffering. Only enlightened beings possess the

freedom to have clear intentions and to impose them upon the chaos of a world without a highest

good deity.

114 Gant ok: p.5 - don chen po'i gtad sgo ci 'dra yod/ don chen zhe la ma bmag na/ gal chen

mtha' bsnyegs don m ed // sdug chen gdon gyls ma zln na / gtsang chen chu la Iceb don med.

115 oral commentary of the venerable Chogyam Trungpa, Rinpche, a Kagyu lama.

116 mgo ‘khor- ‘ spinning head* is an expression which refers to people being fooled and

distracted by a con artist.

117 Helffer, opus cit., 10-11. I have translated the Tibetan according to Heifer's

transcription and following her French translation.

118 Alexander Macdonald makes an interesting remark about this point. Although the

Ladakhi edition does not contain aspiration prayers at its beginning, a bard would perform such

prayers before beginning to recite the story. Should this be considered part of the text?

119 E. Bethe, Homer, i, pp. 57-68.

120 opus cit. i, p. 24.

121 it is difficult to be sure about this point. We must examine more epics before we can

decide finally. Also, there is the question about whether parallel prose lines, such as often

occur in Classical Chinese narrative texts and in Tibetan Classical Prose, should be considered

poetry. If they are verse, then they are not, in any case, related to song, dance, or chanted

lays. They are related to the form of discourse from which they arose expository prose.

122 C.M. Bowra, Tradition and Design m the Iliad, (Oxgford: Clarendon Press, 1930), pp

38-39 .

123 Thomas Greene, Poesie et magie, (Pans: Julliard, 1991). Greene's analyses of epic

figures of speech is found throughout his work. But his recent conclusions on the special nature

of magical similes which evoke a neo-piatonic sense of universal resonances and a hermetic

sense of natural homologies is particulary found here.

124 C.M. Bowra, Heroic poetry (London: Macmillan, 1952).

125 Frances Amelia Yates, The Art of Memory, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,

1966.), Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic tradition (London: Routledge & K. Paul, 1964), and

The Rosicrucian enlightenment, (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972). These three works

provide a survey of Frances Yate's work on the history of the Hermetic tradition in the arts.

126 For a brief history of the development of Tibetan poetry in art narratives, see Beth

Solomon, opus cit. .pp. l -38.

167

Chapter liI

The C e le s t i a l Machinery of The Ep ic o f Gesar of Ling

The Mipham Gesar, d e s p i t e i t s Buddhist r e l i g i o u s com m i tm e n t ,

is e s s e n t i a l l y a l i t e r a r y work and not s c r i p t u r e . It is, however ,

accompanied by a w id e sp rea d , var ied, and f e r v e n t sa c re d t r a d i t io n

which w orsh ip s G esa r as a hero and a god. Looking a t the

r e l a t io n s h ip b e tw e e n the n a r r a t iv e l i t e r a t u r e of the Gesar Epic and

the regu la r o b s e r v a n c e s of the cu l t of Gesar c an t each us a g r e a t

deal , both about the n a tu r e of epic and the c u l t s of heroes. In t h i s

c h a p t e r I would l ike to examine the r e l ig ious b e l i e f s and d e i t i e s

involved in th e s e c u l t s of Gesar using the s c r i p t u r e s and r i t u a l s of

t h i s t r a d i t io n as documenta t ion .

This wil l be a s tudy , the re fo re , of the G e s a r cosmology. But

using the te rm ino logy of A r i s to t e l i a n c r i t i c i s m w e could also cal l i t

a s tudy of the machinery of the epic. The d i f f e r e n c e be tween t h e s e

tw o t e rm s , "cosmology" and "machinery" p o i n t s to an impor tan t

d i s t i n c t i o n in s c h o la r ly methodology. When w e look a t the divine

machinery of the G e sa r , we are examining th e gods and re l ig ious

e l e m e n t s as they p a r t i c i p a t e in the func t ion ing of the plot and in the

spec ia l na ture of v a r io u s supe rna tu ra l pe rsona . Deus ex machina is

a t e rm from l i t e r a ry c r i t i c i s m .

But "cosmology" is a te rm used more o f t e n by scholar s in

Rel igious Stud ies . It may be t h a t our e a r l i e s t sou rc e of knowledge

about the Greek gods a s a pantheon comes f rom Homeric epics and

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hymns. But in the Eas t , a s we have a l ready po in ted out , the re is a

v a s t p rev ious l i t e r a t u r e of cosmological t e x t s such as the Hindu

Puranas and the Buddhist Tantras . The Puranas a re ve ry like Hesiod,

bu t t h e r e a re many m ore of them and they a re qu i te m u l t i f a r ious .

Every Asian t r ad i t ion s h o w s a disorganized m u l t i f a r i o u s n e s s of

pan theons and s t u d i e s of Asian mythology a re v a s t l y more

c o m p l i c a t e d than t h e i r W es te rn equ iva len ts , be ca use the re is not a

canon ica l c e n te r qu i te equ iva len t to w h a t w e feel w e have in the

W es t in Homer and Hesiod.

And so, both the machinery and the cosmology of Gesar are

e x t r e m e l y c om pl ica ted s u b je c t s . On the level of theo ry s t u d i e s of

cosmology and pan theons have become e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t in Central

As ia be ca use of a r e c e n t revolut ion in p e r s p e c t iv e c r e a t e d by the

cha l lenge of s o - c a l l e d "pos t -co lon ia l i s t " d i s c o u r s e and the v iew

o f t e n t e rm e d "Cultural Studies ." There is the though t t h a t our

an th ropolog ica l and r e l i g i o u s t e rm s of a n a ly s i s a re Eurocen tr ic and

r e f l e c t an in te l l e c tua l hang-over from the pe r iod when European

p o w e r s invaded the Or ien t , conquered large reg ions of it physical ly

and comerc ia l ly , and began to reorganize the language Asians used to

e v a l u a t e t h e i r own c iv i l i z a tons . 127 For example, a l though we would

l ike to use these t e r m s in the p re sen ta t ion of the Centra l Asian

e l e m e n t s of the Gesar c u l t , "shamanism" and " a n im is m ” are

c ons ide red by many s c h o l a r s to be 1 ing is t i c a g en t s of a

condescending an th ropolog ica l view, a v iew which s e e s the s o -

c a l l e d m inor i ty c u l t u r e s of Central Asia as p r i m i t i v e and

"underdeveloped." ]23 | <jo not believe t h a t t h i s wi l l be a real

problem in th i s c h a p te r on the rel igion of Gesar, be ca use the source

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t e x t s wil l be a lm o s t e n t i r e l y nat ive Tibetan , Chinese, and Indian

documents . And the v iew re p re se n te d in t h i s s e c t i o n a im s to be in

keeping w i th t h a t of T ibe tan scho la rs t h e m s e lv e s . We have a lready

taken some t roub le to e s t a b l i s h a t h eo re t i c a l d i s t a n c e from

an thropologica l schoo l s of thought such a s t h a t of Dumézi l, Eliade,

Biardeau, e tc . S te in , Francke, and the o th e r European G e s a r i s t s w i l l

be d i sc usse d in som e de ta i l . But there the aim w i l l be to e va lua te

the p e r s p e c t iv e and f r a m e s of r e fe rence they impose on the

indigenous m a t e r i a l s w e are consider ing.

S t i l l , we wi l l indeed use t e rm s such as sh a m a n i s m and

an im ism and when t h e s e t e r m s occur, no cu l tu ra l condescens ion is

m e a n t or implied. By "shamanism" we wil l mean r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s

and c u l tu re s of r e l i g io u s p r a c t i c e formally r e m i n i s c e n t of those of

t he Siber ian S h a m a n s — w i t h the i r e m phas i s on c e r t a i n to te m ic

b e a s t s , p r i e s t l y s t a t e s of t r an c e , and s p i r i t t r a v e l to s p i r i t r ea lm s .

"Animism" wi l l s im p ly be used to r e f e r to a genus of r e l ig ious

b e l i e f s which s e e s i n a n im a te o b j e c t s such as t r e e s and m oun ta ins as

inves ted w i th co n sc io u s s p i r i t s .

Most of the T ib e tan s c h o la r s I i n t e rv i e w e d be l ieved the re w a s

indeed a near ly d i s t i n c t r e l ig ion a s so c i a t e d w i t h Gesa r of Ling. But

m o s t of them a lso rega rde d it as a so r t of s u b - c u l t of Buddhism or

Bon, j u s t the way, one may say, there w e re many local cu l t s in

a n c i e n t Greek r e l i g i o n — c u l t s worshipping d e i t i e s who were s ing le

m e m b e rs of the Homeric pantheon, but had t h e i r own p r i e s t s and

s y s t e m of s e r v i c e s a t a given s i te.

Francke in the w o r k s already c i t ed on the Ladakhi Gesar

exp re ssed his b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e is a Gesar Chos, a Gesa r Dharma, a

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re l ig ion of Gesar. S te in doub ts th is , but in h i s usua l b road- rang ing

fashion, p r e s e n t s an encyc lopedic survey of the r e lg io u s e l e m e n t s

a s s o c i a t e d w i th v a r io u s v e r s io n s of the epic and w i t h p e r fo rm a n c e s

of the epic. P a r t i c u l a ry i n t e r e s t i n g is P a r t III of S te in , '59 whe re he

d e s c r i b e s such th ings as the r e l ig ious c h a r a c t e r of the bard, the

seasona l f e s t i v a l s a t w h ich Gesar p e r fo rm a n c e s a r e given and

c o u n t l e s s o ther p o in t s of d a t a which could c o n t r i b u t e to an ove rv iew

of the r e l ig ious d im ens ion of the epic. Pages 3 1 7 - 5 5 3 conta in t h e s e

o b se rv a t io n s s c a t t e r e d a m o n g s t o the r r e l e v a n t da ta .

The aim of th i s c h a p t e r is m odes t com pared w i th Stein.

Here we wi l l look a t one c o l l e c t io n of r e l ig io u s d a t a which S te in

no ted in the bib l iographic por t ion of his m onograph— the Gesar

r i t u a l s a c tua l ly w r i t t e n by Mipham. S te in l i s t s t h e s e r i t u a l s and

d e s c r i b e s t h e i r colophons and the na tu re of the a u th o r s h ip to the

e x t e n t i t can be known from d i r e c t r e p o r t s w i t h i n t h e s e t e x t s . 129 He

a lso has obviously read many of the l i t u rg i e s c a r e f u l l y and w i th

some guidance from a na t ive in formant , for the g lo s s a ry he provides

w i t h S te in , 56 inc ludes may c i t a t i o n s of t e r m s a s they occur in

Mipham's l i tu rg ies .

There are so m e i n t e r e s t i n g l i t e r a ry s t u d i e s in o th e r cu l tu ra l

a r e a s which connec t a r i tua l corpus w i th an epic t e x t and c lose ly

examine the r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw e e n the two t e x t u a l bodies . A superb

example would be Mary Ann Radz inowicz 's M il to n 's Epics and the

Book o f Psalms.130 This monograph looks a t t h r e e o rd e r s of

l i t e r a tu r e : epic, s c r i p t u r a l , and doctr inal . The ep ic level is Paradise

Lost and Paradise Regained , two epic poems by Milton which

consc ious ly use the plo t s t r u c t u r e of Luke and Job and the poe t ic

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s t r u c t u r e and t h e m a t i c s of the Psalms. The s c r i p t u r a l order is j u s t

the v e r s i o n s of those books of the Chr i s t i an Bible which Milton

s tud ied . The doc t r ina l o rd e r is given qu i te s im p ly by Milton's

theo log ica l works and h i s agon is t i c pam phle ts , in p a r t i c u l a r hi s

C hr is t ian Doctrine.

It h a s been a t h e s i s of a n th ropo log i s t s in f luenced by the

Romant ic movement t h a t r i tua l or ig inal ly g e n e r a t e d the kind of

poe t ry which lead e v e n tu a l ly to the e p ic .131 Here w e se e a w r i t e r

c onsc ious ly and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y adapt ing the l anguage of r i tua l to

epic e xp re ss ion and d i s c u s s i n g the p rocess as he c a r r i e s it along

through su c c e s s iv e e x p e r im e n t s .

Radz inowicz 's d i s c u s s i o n does not s u f f e r f r o m c ro s s - c u l t u r a l

p rob lem s of t e rm in o lo g y because , in the s t y l e of l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s ,

she s im p ly uses the language of the people she is s tudy ing— in t h i s

case , the language of C h r i s t i an theology and c l a s s i c a l rhetor ic .

Thus, t h e r e is an a d m i r a b l e com pa c tne ss about h e r com pa ra t ive

work. She does not have to survey a v a s t and d i v e r s e l i t e r a t u r e in

o rde r to find an e v id e n t i a l base for her conc lus ions . We know

e x a c t ly w h a t Milton he ld or fo l lowed in all t h r e e r e a l m s of

d i scourse .

This s tudy hopes to e m ula te her c o m p a c tn e s s . Instead of

compar ing a v a s t range of Gesar t e x t s w i t h a v a s t and as yet

u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f i e ld o f Gesar l i t u rg ies and r e l i g i o u s be l ie fs , we

wil l look s imply a t t he Gesar m a t e r i a l s produced by Mipham Gyatso

and h i s d isc ip les . The ep ic his d isc ip le ed i t ed w i l l provide the

mach inery . The r i t u a l s he h im se l f w ro te wil l be r e p r e s e n t the

pantheon of the r e l i g i o u s involved w i th Gesar. And the world of

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r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s f rom which we wil l d raw our cosm o logy wil l be

th o se a t t e s t e d to by th e Nyingma schoo l s of t a n t r i c p r a c t i c e wi th

which Mipham w a s a s s o c i a t e d in the wel l de f ined c o rp u s of T a n t r a s

and c o m m e n ta r i e s of t h a t t r a d t i t i o n .

The m odes ty of t h i s e f f o r t should not be overlooked. But

pe rha ps t h i s kind of l i m i t e d s tudy is n e c e s s a r y a t t h i s point when

we have not y e t c h a r t e d the v a s t oceans of G esa r d i sc ou r se , it is

l ike the old rudders u sed by Portuguese s a i l o r s when they journeyed

to Asia. The rudder w a s a log th a t de sc r ib e d the co lo r and depth of

the w a t e r and the d i s p o s i t i o n s of the s t a r s a long the w a y from

Por tuga l to, for example , Japan. From i t you could not ge t a p ic tu re

of the oceans they w e r e c rossing . But you could a t l e a s t find your

way to Japan and hope for a s a f e journey home.

The Gesar L i tu rg ies of Mipham

As we have no ted befo re , Mipham Rinpoche w a s no t the actual

e d i t o r of w ha t 1 have been cal l ing "the Mipham Gesar." In point of

f a c t , he w a s the guru of Thubten Gyurme ('Thub b s t a n ‘Gyur m e d ) , a

T ib e tan yogin who under h i s d i rec t ion produced the e d i t i o n we are

t r a n s l a t i n g . N e v e r th e le s s , the pni losophica l , r e l i g io u s , and

cosm olog ica l view, a s we w i l l d e m o n s t r a t e w i t h s p e c i f i c examples

in t h i s chap te r , is e n t i r e l y Mipham’s.

Mipham w as an i n t e r e s t i n g thinker . He is f am o u s fo r his

s c h o la r ly c o m m e n t a r i e s on the Indian Buddhist ph i losoph ica l

t r a d i t i o n and it w a s t h i s t r a d i t i o n which s e e m e d to provide his

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pr incipal s u b j e c t of s tudy. As a s c h o la r his main t a sk in l i fe w a s to

produce f re sh c o m m e n t a r i e s on the famous Indian sas tras used by

T ib e tan pandi ts . In t h e s e c o m m e n ta r i e s he developed a f r e sh

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Mahayana m e ta p h y s i c s and e p i s t e m o lo g y an

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t would s e rv e the Tibetan E c lec t ic ( r is .m e d )

m ovem ent as i t c r e a t e d a s o r t of t a n t r i c m e d i t a t o r ’s r e n a i s s a n c e in

the 19 th century. 132

It is odd to th ink t h a t one of T ibe t ' s g r e a t e s t ana ly t i ca l

m e ta p h y s i c i a n s devoted so much t im e and e f f o r t to the product ion of

a non-ph i losophica l l i t e r a r y t e x t about a w a r l i k e hero, h ipham w a s

a s t e r n p r a c t i t i o n e r , a d i a l e c t i c i a n , and a b r i l l i an t , highly ana ly t ica l

phi losopher . Why then should he indulge in a w ork of e n t e r t a i n m e n t —

- a work w r i t t e n in a co l loquial d i a l e c t of E as te rn T ibe t and

s p e c i f i c a l ly designed, a s tw o Nyingma e x p e r t s on Mipham have

s a i d , 133 for the p lea s in g d i s t r a c t i o n of the ord inary m an?

Pa r t of the a n s w e r can be found in the t e x t s of the lha bsang

(pronounced lha. sang ), smoke o f fe r ings Mipham w ro te . A lha sang

is a T ibe tan r i tua l in w h ic h jun ipe r leaves a re burned to produce a

column of smoke as an o f fe r ing to c e r t a in k inds of local d e i t i e s .

Although iha sang involve burning s u b s ta n c e s a s a divine s a c r i f i c e ,

they have l i t t l e to do w i t h the Indie t r ad i t ion of f i re worsh ip , the

agni hotra, agni cayana, or any f i re ceremony o r ig ina t ing in the Sub­

cont inent . Sang are p a r t of T ibe tan folk r e l i g i o n 134. Like na t ive

American c e rem onie s , the smoke is used main ly fo r p u r i f i c a t i o n

pu rposes and as a c e l e s t i a l highway down which d e i t i e s t rave l in

o rder to con tac t t h e i r w o r s h ip e r s . When the cord of smoke is

e s t a b l i s h e d b e tw e e n heaven and ear th , divine pow er t r a v e l s down it

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and e n t e r s into o b j e c t s which have been brought to t h e ceremony to

be b lessed . W arr io rs b l e s s t h e i r weapons ; a r t i s a n s t h e t o o l s they

use in t h e i r t rades . More a b s t r a c t e n t i t i e s may be b l e s s e d by th i s

ce remony, such as a kingdom, a p rovincial governm ent , or, to use a

t e r m we w i l l explain in a few pages, the auspcic ious coincidence of

an individual.

An e xam ina t ion of the lha sang r i t u a l s c o m p o s ed by Mipham

s h o w s t h a t h is i n t e r e s t in the Gesar Epic w a s not m e r e ly l i t e r a ry ,

bu t a lso cu l t ic . For t h e smoke o f fe r ing c e r e m o n ie s p r e s e n t the

c h a r a c t e r s f rom the ep ic not j u s t as he roes and l i t e r a r y personae ,

bu t a lso as the d e i t i e s and divine p r in c ip l e s of a s o r t of Gesa r

re l ig ion . So fa r as t h e s e c e re m o n ie s a re concerned , t h e r e is no

d i s t i n c t Gesar chos, no d i s c r e t e G esa r Dharma as such. The rel igion

of the Mipham Gesar i s f u ndam e n ta l ly none o t h e r than T ibe tan

T a n t r i c Buddhism of the Nyingma l ineage (rny ing ma ) Examining

Mipham's lha sangs, how ever , we can see t h a t he had in mind, if not a

s e p a r a t e rel igion, then a t l e a s t a c o h e r e n t cosmology. This

cosmology is complex, qu i te sp e c i f i c and it is evoked in the Mipham

epic.

Most i n t e r e s t in g ly , it combines in a consc ious and s y s t e m a t i c

way d e i t i e s from s e v e r a l d i s t i n c t na t iona l re l ig ions : Chinese,

T ibe tan , and Indian. Reading the ep ic l i t e r a t u r e , one has a s e n s e of

ha p h az a rd n e s s , as if the d e i t i e s of the epic w e re d r a w n from

Buddhism and local p r a c t i c e s w i t h no p a r t i c u l a r s y s t e m in mind.135

It is only when the m ach ine ry be co m es l i turgy t h a t w e can be sure of

i t s underlying s t r u c t u r e and in ten t iona l i ty .

In t h i s regard the Gesar Epic i s comparab le to the Chinese

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novel, The Journey to the West (H s i-yu C h i ). This im m ense popu lar

n a r r a t i v e appears to be an u n s y s t e m a t i c , humorous c om bina t ion of

every p o s s ib l e Chinese de i ty . There are, however , t r a d i t i o n a l

c o m m e n ta r i e s which s u g g e s t t h a t the machinery of the novel

ac tu a l ly p r e s e n t s the a u th o r ' s v i s ion of a coheren t theo log ica l

s y s t e m — one in which t h r e e d i s t i n c t cosm olog ies a re combined:

Confucian, Buddhist , and Taois t . 136 The method of com bina t ion

w as ca l led during the Ming and Qing Dynas t ies "The Unif ica t ion of

the Three Schools (san chiao k u e i - i ).137 Whether t h i s w a s t ru ly the

au tho r ' s intension is ques t ionab le . It is beyond q u e s t io n , however , in

the c a se of the Mipham Gesar, for hi s corpus of G esa r c e re m o n ie s

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y exposes a w e l l - o r d e r e d pantheon w h o s e s t r u c t u r e is

based on a spec i f i c s e t o f ph i losophical p remises .

The Cosmology of the Gesar Lha Sangs

As I sa id above, one of the main o b je c t s of the p e r fo rm a n ce of

a lha sang is to produce a c e r t a in degree of good fo r tu n e or

auspic ious coincidence in the ka rm ic s t r e am of the p r a c t i t i o n e r .

Let us explain now t h i s t e r m auspic ious coincidence a s it occurs in

the re l ig ion of the Mipham Gesar, for i t i s key to unde rs tand ing the

e f f i c a c y of lha sang and num erous o the r re l ig ious p r a c t i c e s which

f igure in the epic. It is a l s o key to the notion of c a u s a l i t y which

c o n s t r u c t s the plot of t h e epic.

The word in T ib e t a n is tendrel ( r ten 'b r e l ). I t l i t e r a l l y means

"basis" ( r ten ) for c onnec t ion ( 'b r e l ). “ Tendrel is a t r a n s l a t i o n of

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the S a n s k r i t t e rm prat l tyasamutpada, 130 which is o f t en t r a n s l a t e d

"co -dependan t originat ion." In t h i s s c h o la s t i c c on te x t i t i s a

t e c h n ica l t e rm fo r the so r t of c a u s a l i t y t h a t o p e r a t e s b e c a u s e of

one 's prev ious k a rm a .139 Tendre l as karma is p r e c i s e ly d e sc r ibed in

a c l a s s i c a l l i s t of l inks in the cha in of c ausa t ion of the l i f e of a

con fused individual in cycl ic e x i s te nce . These l inks a re the tw e lv e

nidanas and they descr ibe an o rd inary person 's p ro g re s s through

c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e from the a r i s i n g of ignorance, through b i r t h and the

deve lopm en t of habi tual p a t t e r n s all the way to the l a s t nidana

w hic h is ca l l ed "old-age and death."

This abh idharmic usage of tendrel, however , has l i t t l e to do

w i t h the te rm as i t occurs in t h e Gesar Epic. There it i s usua l ly

s h o r t for tash i tendre l (bkra bsh is r ten 'b r e l ), which is t r a n s l a t e d

as "ausp ic ious coincidence." The term "coincidence" is a good

t r a n s l a t i o n fo r tendrel, because t echnica l ly it i s a type of causa t ion

w h ich does not involve n e c e s s a r y connect ions. One m om e n t of

occurence a r i s e s in dependance on and condi t ioned by the p rev ious

one and thus only occurs a f t e r the ceasing of the prev ious

m o m e n t . 140 There being no a c t u a l connec t ion or t ru ly e x i s t e n t

br idge b e tw e e n the two m o m e n t s , t h e i r causa l l inkage i s w e l l

de sc r ib e d as "coincidence." When the chain of c a u sa t io n leads to

d e s i r a b l e ends, such as w e a l th , hea l th , an abundance of t h e

p rov i s io ns n e c e s s a ry for p r a c t i c i n g rel igion, e tc . then i t is

cons ide red a benef i cen t l inkage and is cal led "ausp ic ious

coincidence." If the karmic chain , on the o the r hand, l eads to

undes i rab le ends such as pover ty , i l l -hea l th , r e b i r t h in l o w e r

r e a lm s , etc. then it is t a - m i - s h i tendrel (bkra m i bsh is r ten ‘b r e l )-

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- " Inausp ic ious coincidence."

A buddha, of course , is one who is f r ee f rom al l karma and so

no s o r t of tendre l occurs fo r him. But d i s c ip le s and ordinary

p e r s o n s on the path m u s t hope and work to have a u sp ic io u s te n d re l

a u sp ic io u s co inc idence or c a u sa l linkage.

One more point about the m e ta p h y s ic s of t h i s kind of causal

link. The problem of n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s in c a u s a l i t y and indeed in

t h e a s s i g n m e n t of q u a l i t i e s to s u b s ta n c e s a r i s e s th roughou t Weste rn

phi losophy. It is one of the many conundrums w h ic h su f f e r s f rom the

paradox of the ‘th ird man." The Buddhist approach avoids th i s

prob lem by s imply denying t h a t any one moment is ac tua l ly

connec ted to the next. This does not ac tual ly ge t r i d of the

cha l lenge to s y s t e m a t i c m e t a p h y s i c s and much of t h e phi losophical

e l a b o r a t io n of Maháyána Buddhism involves p ropos ing va r ious

r e p l a c e m e n t exp lana t ions to prov ide a way t h a t a p rev ious event

m ig h t inf luence a fu tu re ev en t w i th o u t being c o n n e c te d to it.

Whether the Buddhist phi losophical s t r a t e g i e s in th is regard

a re convicing or not, the approach of denying an a c t u a l link is

phenomenological ly b r i l l i an t . Mo m ed i t a to r ever a c tu a l ly beheld in

h i s or her c on te m p la t ive p r a c t i c e an e x i s t e n t link connec t ing a p a s t

m om en t w i t h a p r e s e n t or f u t u r e moment. This is because in

Buddhist m ed i t a t io n one only s e e s the p resen t . Only p resen t ly

e x i s t i n g o b j e c t s can be o b j e c t s of the basic B uddhis t p ra c t i c e known

a s samatha-vipasyana ( " t ranqu i l i ty - in s igh t" ) . Each moment occurs

as the p re sen t , occurs as a d i s t i n c t moment and w h e n the next

m om en t occurs , the old m o m e n t is now pas t and t h u s not d i rec t ly

observab le . And so, the lack of a connect ion and th e sense of

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c o n s t a n t co incidence is a p o w e r fu l e x p e r i e n t i a l f e a t u r e of Buddhist

m e d i t a t i o n . Understanding t h i s can c la r i fy t h e in tens ion of a g r e a t

deal of Buddhist poetry.

We have t r a c e d the m ean ing of tendrel t h u s f a r from the

t e c h n i c a l Buddhist c oncep t of causa l l inkage to the s p e c i f i c karmic

no t ion of ausp ic ious co inc idence . In Tibet , by e x te n s io n from th is ,

w e g e t a meaning fo r tend re l a s "good om ens .” If a pe rson is

p r a c t i c i n g m ed i t a t ion and c o n te m p la t iv e e x e r c i s e s co r r e c t ly , they

a re genera t ing p o s i t i v e k a rm a in g rea t amounts . This is ca l led "the

c o l l e c t i n g of m er i t " and t h e r e should be som e in d ic a t ions of it. This

is p a r t i c u l a r ly so in t a n t r i c m e d i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s . The t a n t r i c

p r a c t i t i o n e r c o n s t a n t ly hopes fo r spec ia l s i g n s to occur which would

be ind ica t ions t h a t the p r a c t i c e is going wel l . In the na r r a t iv e

l i t e r a t u r e these s ig n s a re u s u a l ly m i r a c l e s and v i s iona ry

ex per i ences . These e x p e r i e n c e s , these s igns a re tendre l as good

omens . For example, if a m e d i t a t o r d ream s of a g r e a t bodh isa t tva , a

lu m inous being, v i s i t i n g him in a dream and c o n fe r r in g in i t a t i o n s on

him, t h i s is a tendrel, a good omen for h is m e d i t a t i o n prac t ic e . It

p r o m i s e s posi t ive r e s u l t s . In the Book I, C h a p te r 2 of the Mipham

Gesar Chipon has a dream v i s i o n in which P adm asam bhava appea rs

to him and p r e d i c t s the b i r t h of Gesar in the land of Ling. This

d ream is cal led a good omen, a tendrel fo r t h e e n t i r e kingdom of

Ling. 3y f u r th e r e x tens ion , the word tendre l can mean not j u s t the

s ign or omen i t s e l f , but the cond i t ion of p o s i t i v e ka rm a of which the

d ream is a sign. Thus one can say, as King Chipon does, t h a t " there is

d e f i n i t e l y a t e n d re l ... for Ling." There is d e f i n i t e l y good for tune in

s t o r e fo r Ling.

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It is t e r r i b l y d i f f i c u l t to t r a n s l a t e t h i s usage of tendre l

a l though i t i s the one m o s t a t t e s t e d in the epic. It i s the condi t ion

of p o s s e s s i n g good fo r tune , of p o s s e s s in g the good ka rm a which wil l

soon r ipen into p o s i t i v e and f o r t u n a t e events .

This use of tendre l is an im p o r ta n t a s p e c t of the popular

r e l ig ion w h ich Mipham evokes in h i s l i t u rg i e s and p r e s e n t s in the

songs of the epic. Although i t is qu i te f a r f rom the or ig ina l s u t r i c

meaning of tendrel, t h e r e is s t i l l an exp lana t ion which l inks t h i s

no t ion of good fo r tu n e to t r ad i t io n a l Budhis t c a u sa l i t y . It is the

no t ion of the acc u m u la t io n of p o s i t i v e karma, which is known as

punya in S a n s k r i t and sonam (bsod nams) in Tibe tan . This word has

a lw a y s been t r a n s l a t e d by the t e rm "meri t" in English. Meri t is the

c o l l e c t i o n of po s i t i v e karma which leads e i t h e r to p o s i t i v e r e l a t i v e

c ond i t ions in cyc l ic e x i s t e n c e ( " re la t ive m e r i t " ) or u l t i m a t e

r e a l i z a t i o n and e s c a p e from cycl ic e x i s t e n c e ( " u l t i m a t e meri t" ) . The

l a t e r s o r t of m e r i t is ra re ly ment ioned in the epic, of course , f o r the

a t t a i n m e n t of e n l igh tenm e n t is not an im p o r t a n t p a r t of the plot

dynamic.

It should be noted tha t sonam in many t e x t s and c e r t a i n l y in

the Gesar i s a l m o s t a lw a y s synonymous w i t h the t e rm gewa ( dge

ba), wh ich m e a n s "virtue." A man may be v i r t u o u s in the e th i c a l

s e nse , but j u s t l ike the Lat in conno ta t ions , v i r t u e and gewa a lso

mean "power" and "efficacy." A person who engages in v i r tu o u s

a c t i v i t i e s (dge ba 'i las ) a cc u m u la te s m e r i t or v i r t u e as p o s i t iv e

karma. And w ha t v i r t u o u s a c t i v i t i e s are r ecom m ended m o s t o f t e n ?

— the p e r f o rm a n c e of ce rem on ies of o f fe r ing , r i tu a l o b se rv an c e s

of w o rs h ip and p r a i s e , and a c t s of g e n e ro s i t y (Skt: dana ).

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R a t i o n a l i s t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n s of the Buddhist pa th give l i t t l e

a t t e n t i o n to the impor tance of t h i s e le m en t and e m pha s ize in s t ead

the m e r i t wh ich is accumula ted through the deve lopm ent of wisdom

and d e ta ch m e n t . Zen Buddhism and the m os t s o p h i s t i c a t e d leve ls of

North As ian Buddhis t phi losophical t e a ch in g s obse rve t h i s emphas is .

This lo f ty phi losophica l p re jud ice is mis lead ing , however . For in the

T ib e tan t r a d i t i o n p rac t ic a l sp i r i tua l in s t ru c t io n s , a s given on

o c c a s i o n s of t e ach ings and e x h o r t a t i v e l e c tu re s , r e p e a t again and

again t h e im por tance of ga ther ing r e l a t i v e m e r i t through the

p e r fo rm a n c e of r i t u a l s and o f f e r in g s and through g i f t ing the

m o n a s t i c communi ty. Only in the a u s t e r e p r o t e s t a n t i s m of W este rn

a c a d e m ia is the pe rfo rm ance of r i t u a l cons idered a minor i s sue in

Buddhist phi losophy and rel igion.

In i t s p r a c t i c a l approach to r i t u a l and good fo r tune Buddhism

is r a t h e r l ike anc ien t Vedic re l igion. In the Gesar epic t h i s point of

v iew is t ak e n fo r granted, for it is a cen t r a l f a c t of T ibe tan cu l tu re ,

the econom ic foundat ion for the e x i s t e n c e of the v a s t m o n as t i c

communi ty . Everybody knows the v i r t u e of ce remonia l obse rvance

and everybody, f rom the m os t s o p h i s t i c a t e d ph i losophica l d e b a t e r to

the m o s t ignorant peasan t , ag ree s t h a t the more r i tu a l a c t s of

w o rk s h ip one pe r fo rm s , the more po s i t i v e tendrel one wi l l have.

Within the c o n te x t of Tibetan t a n t r a t h e re are spec ia l c e re m on ie s

which p a r t i c u l a r ly build up mer i t . The m os t f am o u s are the

ganacakra (Skt), the re l ig ious f e a s t s . These a re c e r e m o n ia l s of

r i tu a l s a c r i f i c e in which food is o f f e re d to the d e i t i e s of some

p a r t i c u l a r t a n t r i c mandala. Giving g i f t s to monks and re l ig ious

p r a c t i t i o n e r s is, of course, ano the r a c t t h a t i n c r e a s e s ausp ic ious

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co inc idence .

And then, in the epic the re a re s p e c i a l ce remonies which a re

no t a t all Buddhis t in their or igins , bu t a r e considered to be

e s p e c i a l l y e f f i c a c i o u s in producing p o s i t i v e karma. In the l i i pham

e p ic and in h i s l i tu rg ica l l i t e r a tu r e , t h e lha sang is the m o s t

i m p o r t a n t of t h e s e r i te s , but in the s e c o n d chap te r one can f in d a

long l i s t of o t h e r ce remonies which Padmasambhava o rde r s Chipon

to pe r fo rm in o rd e r to increase the p o w e r , v i r tue , and c h a r i s m a of

the Kingdom of Ling.

One m o s t fascina t ing point about t h e sense o f tendrel u s e d in

t he epic is t h a t i t re la ted in some way to t rad i t iona l T ibe tan n o t io n s

of a s t ro logy . When Chipon expla ins to t h e r ich men and w a r l o r d s of

Ling t h a t he h a s had an auspicious s ign, a tendre l in the form o f a

v i s io n a ry d ream , he explains to them t h a t the s i tua t ion is

a s t r o l o g i c a l l y r i g h t for the kingdom to suddenly increase i t s p o w e r ,

s o v e r e i g n t y and pres t ige. A "g lor ious g a t e ” idpa l gyi sgo ) has

upened fo r Ling. Through the g a te w a y m a y move power and good

fo r tune , a f low of posi t ive m e r i t for t h e e n t i r e country. The

g a t e w a y is a m om en t in t ime when, i f t h e people take a d v a n ta g e of

the oppo r tun i ty , they may in c rease t h e i r good fortune. It is n o t

s im p ly t h a t the dispos i t ion of c o n s t e l l a t i o n s and p iane ts is

p r o p e r . j41 When a Tibetan speaks of a s t r o l o g y he is o f ten r e f e r r i n g

to a s y s t e m based on the Roots and B ra n c h e s of Chinese a s t ro lo g y , a

c a l e n d r i c a l s y s t e m of tell ing t im e and a s y s t e m by which m o m e n t s

of f o r t u n a t e or unfortunate ac t ion may be predicted. The n i n e -

sq u a re d d iv ina t ion board, ment ioned in the t i t l e of the Mipham Lha

L ing is a m e thod of divination which u s e s the roots and b r a n c h e s in

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a T ib e t a n form, m a tc h in g them w i t h the f ive e l e m e n t s , among o t h e r

th ings , to p r e d i c t m o m e n t s of te n d re l

We w i l l d i s c u s s t h i s not ion of a "glor ious ga tew ay" in more

d e ta i l in the c o m m e n ta ry on the t r a n s l a t i o n of C ha p te r 1, for t h e r e

they m e n t io n a p rev ious m om en t of good fo r tune , a g lo r ious g a te w a y ,

which w a s m i s s e d through the po l i t i c a l m ac h in a t io n s of the T ibe tan

a r i s to c r a c y . When Padm asam bhava f i r s t came to T ibe t , he t am e d and

bound by oa th the n a t iv e demons of the country. It w a s a m om ent

a s t r o l o g i c a l l y c o r r e c t to tu rn all of T ibe t into a s in g l e Buddhist

Empire. However , b e c a u se of the oppos i t ion of a r i s t o c r a t i c p o w e r

f i g u re s in the T ibe tan court , blon or " m i n i s t e r s ” a s they are c a l l ed

in Engl ish t r a n s l a t i o n , the m ag ic ian Padma w a s not a l low e d to bind

each demon th re e t im e s . If he had been able to p e r fo r m the oa th

ce rem on y w i t h them th r i c e , they would have never been able to

r e v o l t on the s p i r i t u a l plane and the King of T ibe t , Lang Darma,

would n ever have been a s s a s i n a t e d . Unfor tunately , Padma f a i l ed to

seal p e rm a n e n t ly the o a th s of the demons and the g lo r ious g a t e w a y

w a s m i s s e d , c r e a t in g u l t i m a t e l y po l i t i c a l ruin. More of t h i s in

C hap te r IV of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

We should c a r e f u l l y no te a t t h i s point t h a t T ib e t a n l i t e r a t u r e ,

s inc e i t is based on both Chinese and Indian prev ious t e x t s , m e n t io n s

a t l e a s t tw o t o ta l ly d i f f e r e n t s y s t e m s of a lchemica l e lem en t s .

T ib e tan a s t r o lo g y and m ed ic ine usua l ly deal w i th the "f ive phases"

(w u hs ing ) of Chinese ast ro logy: wood, f ire, m e ta l , w a t e r , and ear th .

They a r e not the Indian s y s t e m of e l e m e n t s ca l led the four

mahabhutan i M2: e a r t h , w a t e r , f i re , and air. ( s o m e t i m e s f ive w i t h

the a dd i t ion of space) . I wil l argue fu r th e r on t h a t the p re s en c e of

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t h e Chinese e l e m e n t s a t c e r t a in p laces in the t e x t i n d ic a te s t h a t we

a re a t t h o se m o m e n t s in an iconographica l r ea lm d i s t i n c t f rom the

indie c o n te x t of Buddhist Tant ra .

When a g lor ious ga tew ay is opened, the indiv idua ls involved

m u s t move quickly to p ro f i t f rom the oppor tuni ty . They m u s t

p e r fo rm c e r e m o n i e s to inc rease t h e i r m e r i t and thus c r e a t e fu r th e r

p o s i t i v e tendrel. These c e r e m o n ie s w i l l have a m u l t i p l i e d e f f e c t

during t h e s e t i m e s of he igh tened a usp ic ious coinc idence. T ha t is to

say , t h e good ka rm a genera ted by the a c t s of worsh ip , c h a r i ty , and

m ag ic a l invoca t ion wil l be m u l t i p l i e d f i f t y - f o l d or a hundred- fo ld or

a thousand - fo ld .

The lha sang is the na t ive T ibe tan r i t e par excellence for the

i n c r e a s in g of tendre l, good f o r t u n e . ' 43 If t he re are o f f e r i n g s in a

lha sang, even in tne Buddhist l a m a i s t v e r s i o n s of t h e sang r i t e s ,

th ey a re o f f e r i n g s in a decidedly non-Buddhis t s ty le . For example,

in t h i s c h a p t e r I w i l l be de sc r ib ing one of seve ra l lha sangs a c tua l ly

w r i t t e n by Mipham to go along w i t h the Gesar epic. If the

c e r e m o n i e s w e r e Buddhist , then they would involve p r e s e n t i n g

m a n d a la s of r i ce and prec ious s u b s t a n c e s to the d e i t i e s . They would

l ike ly involve the seven o f f e r in g s of the d e s i r a b l e s e n s e o b j e c t s

( 'dodpa ' i yon btan ): perfumed w a t e r , f l o w e r s , incense, ba th ing

w a t e r , l igh ts , food, and musica l i n s t ru m e n t s . There m ig h t be

s p e c i f i c o f f e r i n g s to the p r o t e c t i v e d e i t i e s a s we l l , such as a bow!

of tea.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f e r in g s in lha sangs, however , a re cu t-up

p i e c e s of brocade , p re p a ra t i o n s of a v a r i e ty of bar ley p ro d u c t s ("the

t h r e e b a r l e y s ”), a va r i e ty of milk p roduc t s (“the t h r e e w h i t e s ”), and a

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v a r i e t y of su g e r p ro d u c t s ("the th ree s w e e t s " ) all r e m i n i s c e n t

of Bon c e r e m o n ie s and p r a c t i c e s of n a t i v e T ibe tan an im ism . Tea and

l iquor migh t be o f f e r e d a s wel l , but they a r e r e f e r r e d to d i f f e r e n t l y

and se rve a d i f f e r e n t purpose.

For example , in Chapte r II of the Lha Ling the re is a long

d e s c r i p t i o n and p r a i s e of a "drink o f fe r ing" ( skyem ). T h is is a

spe c ia l o f fe r ing in the s t y l e of the local non- lnd ic r i t u a l s and is no t

a t all like the t e a o f f e r ings to Buddhist p r o t e c t o r s or the var ious

kinds of w a t e r s ( argham , gandham, padyam ) t h a t are o f f e r e d to

Buddhas in t a n t r i c p rac t i c e s .

The w a t e r s o f f e r e d in Buddhist T a n t r a hearken back to the

c u l tu r a l p r a c t i c e s of the t rop ica l c i v i l i z a t i o n s of the Indian su b ­

con t inen t . All t h r e e w a t e r s are involved in bathing and phys ical

pu r i f ic a t ion . Argham i s a s a f f ron w a t e r one dr inks to pur i fy the

mouth. Gandham i s w a t e r perfumed w i t h f l o w e r e s s e n c e s and then

sp r ink led about the bodies of ba thers . Padhyam is l i t e r a l l y "foot

w a t e r " — w a t e r o f f e r e d to a w a y f a r e r to w a sh hi s f e e t be fo re

e n te r in g a home or t em ple p rec inc t s . I have seen th e s e a m e n i t i e s

r i t u a l l y o f fe red to v i s i t o r s a t Hindu a s h r a m s in the m idd le of a

j u n g le — a p lac e w h e r e daily bathing and e l a b o ra t e hygiene is no t

m e re ly for r i tu a l c l e a n l in e s s , but a m a t t e r of im m e d ia te survival .

But the l av i sh a pp l ica t ion of such l iqu ids to the body has l i t t l e

p r a c t i c a l i t y in The Land of Snow, as T ib e t is c a l l e d — a Himalayan

c u l tu r e where ba th ing is a ra re luxury and in many s e a s o n s

c ons ide red m ed ic a l ly ill advised. When th e y are o f fe red , it r em inds

the North Asian of the pa rada isa l t rop ic lands where Buddhism w a s

founded.

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The t h r e e w a t e r s are d e l i c a t e ly perfumed, c l e a r , l ight, and

e legan t . The “golden drink" of na t ive r i tu a l , on the o t h e r hand, is

d e sc r ib e d a s r i ch and bu t te ry and ful l of n o u r i s h m e n t— hear ty ,

g l i s t e n in g w i t h oil and perhaps rock - suge r . When the word "c lea r” is

a s c r ib e d to such an offer ing, i t m ea ns not t r a n s p a r e n t , but br ight

and sp a rk l in g w i t h but ter . Like T ib e t a n tea , which i s mixed w i th

b u t t e r and bo i led for s t r e n g th of f lavor , such a dr ink is su i t ed to the

Himalayan c l i m a t e and famous ly u n s u i t e d to l ife a t l o w e r a l t i t u d e s

and h igher ave rage t em p e ra tu re s .

And so, the re is a r ich cu l tu ra l con tex t which su r rounds even

the s m a l l e s t d e t a i l s of the r i tua l t ex t . To one s t e e p e d in the

l i t e r a t u r e and h i s to ry of the region th e s igns of o r ig in a re c lear .

And they a re an impor tan t s ignal in t h e poe t ic of the l i t u r g i e s . 144

The Indie o f f e r i n g s evoke the r ich, luxurious, sensuous , learned,

h y p e r - a e s t h e t i c , so -c a l l ed "aryan" Vphags pa ) c iv i l i z a t i o n of the

Buddha's homeland. It is a place w h e r e kings, p r in ce s , and th e i r

lovely c o n s o r t s have the le i su re to compose e legan t , m u l t i - l a y e r e d ,

a l l u s iv e kavya and enjoy the d e l i c io u s p l ea su re s of the f l e s h —

p l e a s u r e s the more a u s t e r e North loves to imagine and p r o j e c t s into

the l ives of t h e i r gods. It is a c u l tu ra l region w h e re love poe try

th r iv e s , w h e re food is p len t i fu l , w h e r e pa laces e n c lo se v a s t spaces

in open co u r ty a rd s , the w a l l s o rn a m e n te d with p r e c io u s gems and

e l a b o r a t e g r o t e s q u e r i e s such as bas r e l ie f s of c ro c o d i l e s holding

s t r i n g s of p e a r l s in the i r tee th , fabu lous sea m o n s t e r s shaped like

w aves , and lush f lower ing t rop ica l p lan ts . The m u s ic of the sub ­

c o n t in e n t ' s anc ien t cu l tu re is c o n s id e re d sub t le and s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,

played by the many in s t ru m e n t s m en t ioned in T ibe t r i tu a l s . But

186

since the d e s t r u c t i o n of Buddhism in India t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s are

unknown in T ibe t , except fo r t h e i r m ent ion in c h a n t s which evoke the

r i c h n e s s of t h e Buddha's world.

It is, in s h o r t , the c u l tu re desc r ibed in the t a n t r i c

v i s u a l i z a t i o n t e x t s brought from India to T ibe t b e t w e e n the 6 th and

11 th c e n t u r i e s . In those t e x t s the pa laces of Indian kings have

become m an d a la s ; t h e i r food, music , and o th e r phys ica l a m e n i t i e s

have become the o f fe r ings . Thei r sensuous , c r y p t i c c o u r t poe try has

become l i t u rg i c a l u t te rance . Even the t a n t r i c d e i t i e s , if they w ere

brought to T ibe t f rom India, w e a r the scan ty , co lo r fu l s i lken d r e s s

of anc ien t Indian k in g s— t h e i r m i d r i f f s bare , t h e i r upper g a rm e n t s

diaphanous, t h e i r c ro w n s elegant s e m i - a b s t r a c t c i r c l e t s of gold and

j e w e l s .

The n a t iv e T ibe tan o f fe r ings , on the o th e r hand, evoke the

hardy w a r r i o r and nomadic c u l t u r e s t h a t th r ived in the mounta ins

and p lanes of the Eas te rn port ion of the Silk Route. A tough people

r e c e n t ly (as f a r a s t h e i r own d i sc ou r se of s e l f - i d e n t i t y is

concerned) in t roduced to l i t e r a t e cu l tu re , s t i l l g iven to bandi t ry and

t e r r i b ly e f f e c t i v e in w a r f a r e — not the noble w a r f a r e of c h a r io t s

and w a r r i o r c a s t e s — but the w a r f a r e of t e r r i f y i n g mounted Central

Asian a r c h e r s , who can ride and f i r e a t the s a m e t im e . Eluding

c a p tu re on t h e i r h o r se s , independant , d e v as ta t in g , c rue l , a lw ays one

s t e p away from bandi t ry , f ie rce in t h e i r t r iba l l o y a l t i e s these

are the people w h o s e cu l tu re is evoked by the indigneous o f fe r ings

amd c h a n t s in the lha sangs. In one of these c h a n t s Gesar is ac tua l ly

ca l l ed " th a t b e s t of ra iders ."

These a re people for whom w e a l th is m e a s u r e d in f locks of

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sheep f o r wool and c a t t l e for milk and m e a t . The milk becoming a

g r e a t v a r i e t y of curds and b u t t e r s — w h ich , along w i th bar ley, a re

t h e i r d i e t a r y s t a p l e on the higher a l t i t u d e s .

W h e th e r t h e s e desc r ip t ions of the t w o c u l tu r e s are f a i r or

a c c u r a t e is not the quest ion. These a re the focal points for the

d i s c o u r s e of s e l f and a l t e r i ty in T ibe tan l i t e r a t u r e . "The Histo ry of

the Goloks" w i l l evoke images of t h i s Himalayan cu l tu re and

doc um e n t t h e above descr ipt ion. There w e wi l l see a s e l f ­

c o n s c io u s ly Centra l Asian s y s te m of im age ry t ied exp l ic i t ly to the

cosm ology involved in Mipham's Gesa r r i t u a l s .

Cont inu ing to explore the imagery of the Mipham Jha sangs l e t

us look a t the meaning of incense. Incense is a key pa r t of the Indie

B uddhis t r e l i g io u s service. It r e p r e s e n t s a f r a g r a n t g i f t to the g o d s -

— so m e of whom a re so ref ined t h a t they live on s m e l l s alone. But

in t h e s e T ib e tan lha sangs the o f f e r i n g s of e legan t Ind ian -s ty le

in ce n se t a k e second place to the much m o re im por tan t smoke

o f f e r i n g t h a t r i s e s from the burning of jun iper . This jun ipe r smoke

is the sang , l i t e r a l l y "the fumigat ion." Like Nat ive American sage

f u m i g a t i o n s i t is used to dr ive a w ay n o n - t r i b a l s p i r i t s . That is to

say, s p i r i t s who a re not a s so c i a t e d w i t h the clan or kinship group or

w i t h t h e individual preforming the c e re m o n y are driven away by the

j u n ip e r smoke.

It a l s o r e c a l l s the ancien t s t o r i e s of the founding of the

l ineage of T ibe tan kings. In T ibe tan m ythology the founding kings

w e r e no t t ru ly human beings, but a s p e c i e s of god. They descended

f rom heaven , lowered to ear th by co rds a t t a c h e d to the top of t h e i r

heads. They m ain ta ined a l i t e r a l c o nnec t ion to heaven through t h i s

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"mu cord" (mu thags ) which w e n t f rom the top of the i r h e ad s up

in to the sky. If the mu cord remained i n t a c t , then at the end of

t h e i r re igns they could ascend the cord and r e t u r n to t h e i r o r ig ina l

homes . 145

The ju n ip e r - s m o k e is s p e c i f i c a l l y hom olog ized to t h i s cord.

Down the cord of sm oke pa ss the s p i r i t s invoked by the ceremony .

And up i t t rave l o f fe r ings . When o b j e c t s a re p a s s e d through th e

smoke , it is the d e i t i e s in the smoke who pu r i fy the o b j e c t s by

dr iv ing out a l ien tendrel. All of th i s is d e s c r i b e d e x te n s iv e ly in

T u c c i ’s The Re lig ions o f Tibet, p a r t i c u l a r ly in the c h ap te r s on

T ib e t a n Popular Rel igion and Bon.148

The Iha sangs Tucci r e p o r t s a re m ain ly non-Buddhist . The ones

w e examine here , how ever are w r i t t e n by th e Buddhist p h i lo sophe r ,

Mipham ‘Jam.dpal dbyes.pa' i rdo.r je and focus on Gesar of Ling a s the

m a in de i ty invoked by the jun ipe r incense smoke . It is s p e c i f i c a l l y

G esa r who r e c e i v e s the s t range, na t ive o f f e r i n g s and c o n fe r s on the

c e l e b r a n t s world ly and supe r -mundane b l e s s i n g s as a r e s u l t .

A large p a r t of Volume Na of Mipham's bka' 'bum ( c o l l e c t e d

w o rk s ) in the Derge ed i t ion of his c o l l e c t e d w o rk s is d e v o te d to

such r i tua l s . 147 Mipham, as is apparen t in the colophons t o h i s G e sa r

r i t u a l s , had had numerous v is ionary e x p e r i e n c e s of Gesa r and

not only Gesar, but o t h e r s t r a n g e d e i t i e s w h o s e names and

d e s c r i p t i o n s r eca l l indigenous T ibe tan pa n the ons , pan theons w h o s e

f u l l e s t and m o s t s y s t e m a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e in s c r i p t u r e s and

m a n u a l s from the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d n a t iv e T ib e tan rel ig ion , Bon. 148

Let us look a t a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e Gesar iha sang w r i t t e n by

Mipham. I ts t i t l e is s t r ik in g ly non-Buddhist : The Warrior Song o f the

189

War Gods: the Jong Werma Lhasang.] 49 The w a r gods or dra lha ( dgra

b la ) , 150 l ike the werma , a re n a t iv e T ibe tan de i t i e s , p a r t of the r ich

pan theon of invis ible s p i r i t s who c a u s e harm or can be invoked for

p r o t e c t i o n in sang c e rem on ie s . T h es e p a r t i c u l a r na t ive m o n s t e r s

a re m a r t i a l s p i r i t s , r e p r e s e n t e d w e a r i n g armour. They are

p a r t i c u l a r l y involved w i t h s u c c e s s in b a t t l e and the physical

i n t e g r i t y of the w a r r i o r ' s body. The w a r gods, fo r example, j o in a

c o l l e c t i o n of s p i r i t s who a c t u a l l y perch on the body and a rm o u r of a

T ib e t a n w ar r io r . If they can be d r iven away, the f i g h t e r is

v u ln e ra b le to a t t ack . If they s t i c k , he is hard to defea t . T ibe tan

m a r t i a l n a r r a t i v e s are full of m en t ion of the w a r gods. For example ,

in Alexandra David-Neel ' s s u m m a r y of the Gesar epic. It is s a id t h a t

if a w a r r i o r has his w a r gods i n t a c t , even if someone t a k e s a im a t

him w i t h a bow and a r row or a gun, he is seen as small in his

enem y 's s igh ts . The a r ro w or b u l l e t wi l l miss. If he is w i t h o u t his

w a r gods, he is easy to h i t . 151

The chan t begins w i t h T ib e t a n m a r t i a l e x c l a m a t io n s "k i" and

"so" ( k i , bsvo ) sung to a tune as if they w e re mant ra : "Kye!/ Lha ki

ki ki and so so so" (K ye / Lha k i k i k i la bsvo bsvo bsvo). The c han t

a s k s Gesa r to t ake ac t ion when the kingdom is oppres sed by e n e m ie s

w i t h the f a m i l i a r express ion : ma g.yel ma g.yel, "don't be idle, don 't

be idle." W ar- l ike e j a c u l a t i o n s abound in the opening se c t io n of the

chant :

A ts i t s i your h o s t s of t ro o p s are awesome,

A l i l i they a re you thfu l w e a r i n g splendid a c c o u t r e m e n t s ,

A ya ya the g re a t men are very mighty,

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The powerfu l f a t h e r w a r r i o r s are on the right. . .”

As I unders tand i t, "Ki Ki So So" (Ki.ki bsvo.bsvo) i s a yell of

v i c to ry , a s in the s logan chanted when a T ibe tan c l im b e r r e a c h e s the

top of a peak: Ki k i bsvo bsvo 1ha.rgyai.lo, ”K1 Ki So So Divine

Victory!" In the "History of the Goloks" which wil l be t r a n s l a t e d in

C hap te r V of th i s monograph, t h i s is the v ic to ry yell the good w h i t e

lha g ive when they have d e fe a te d the "black devils" (b d u d ).

The re t inue of Gesa r in th i s c h an t is a lso typ ica l of t h e

pa r iva ra s or r e t i n u e s of na t ive de i t i e s : Gesar is su r rounded by pho

lha o r " f a t h e r de i t ies" in a rm our and men dzema isman mdzes ma ),

"lovely medic ine women." He is a lso sur rounded by the t h r e e l eve l s

of be ings according to n a t iv e rel igion: the bla, or c e l e s t i a l be ings ,

above, the world of men in the middle, and the realm of the s e r p e n t s ,

the l u ( k l u ) below. In the epic t h i s t r i a d — lha, mi, lu (gods,men,

and s e r p e n t s ) — is c o n s t a n t l y m en t ioned in songs. S o m e t i m e s i t is

no t lha, mi, and lu, but lha, nyen, and lu Uha, gnyan, and k lu ): the

gods, nyen (d e i t i e s of mounta in s id e s and highlands) , and lu

(dragons, s e r p e n t s , or nagas). In t h i s chant , the nyen s p i r i t s a re not

m en t ioned , but the t h re e l eve ls are s t i l l observed, w i t h men

rep lac ing nyen to ind ica te the level of ear th .

The lu or nagas, of course, may dwel l e i t h e r in the heavens

among c louds or in r iv e r s , lakes, and underground s t r e a m s .

P o e t i c a l l y they are usua l ly r e p r e s e n t e d in T ibe tan a c c o u n t s as

inhab i t ing an undersea kingdom. For example, in some v e r s i o n s of

the G esa r epic and in David-Neel ' s summary , Padmasambhava

jo u rn ey s to the undersea kingdom of the nagas in o rder to f ind a

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m o th e r fo r Gesar . A t r ip to the " lower kingdom of the Nagas" is found

in the Ladakhi ve rs ion of the Gesar Epic a s we l l as in t h e B ir th o f

Gesar (mKhrungs g l ing ) c h a p t e r . 152 There the same t h r e e - f o l d

d iv is ion w i l l be see as Agu dPal le , t he e a r t h l y a n c e s t o r of Gesar,

t r a v e l s b e tw e e n the th ree r e a l m s seek ing a king for Ling and

r ece iv ing m ag ica l g i f t s . (Francke, p.67)

At a po in t in the m idd le of the t e x t during the chan t ing , a f i r e

of j un ipe r is l i t and o f f e r i n g s a re made into the f i re caus ing w h i t e

sm oke to b i l low upwards. The r i tu a l c a l l s t h i s line of smoke " the

mu-cord" and a s k s the d e i t i e s to descend down it in the s t y l e of the

o r igina l T ibe tan kings who came down from heaven, connec ted s t i l l

to the r ea lm of the la ( bla ) by th i s cord.

At t h i s m om en t o t h e r divine f i g u re s a re invoked— not f i g u r e s

f rom na t ive T ibe tan re l ig ion so much as c h a r a c t e r s f rom the Gesar

Epic. There is a long p assage , for example, invoking the g r e a t

m i n i s t e r and s t a t e advisor f rom the epic, Denma, Cdan.ma

sbyang.khra).153 There is a l s o a lengthy invoca t ion of Gesa r ’s

mag ica l horse. Both of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a re invoked a t length and

p r a i s e d as if they w e re t a n t r i c d e i t i e s r e p r e s e n t in g divine

pr inc ip les . As the p rayer c on t inues , a connec t ion is c a r e fu l ly made

b e tw e e n t h e s e epic heros and the Buddhist canon. Gesa r has, for

example, a t h r e e - f o l d na tu re :

"Outwardly, he is the m igh ty genera l Norbu Dradul.

Inwardly, he is A va lok i te sva ra ,

His unchanging mind is Lord Padmasambhava.. ."

192

This Buddhist t r i n i t y of Gesar, Ava lok i te svara , and PadmSkara

i s an im p o r t a n t e lem ent in Mipham's ve rs ion of the epic: i t is

r e f e r r e d to in the opening pages of the Lha Ling . 154 The magical

h o r s e is the yidam, or Buddhist t u t e l a r y deity, HayagrTva. Denma

(Dan.ma ), on the o ther hand, a p p ea r s f rom the s t y l e of invocat ion to

be id e n t i f i e d w i t h Tibe tan s h a m a n i s t i c divine p r i n c i p l e s such as the

werma, gods of a r r o w - b a s e d w a r f a r e . For example, he is "the

guide of arrows ." He is " the renowned tu rquo ise dragon in the

sky, . . . the lha v ic to r ious in all d i rec t ions ." In p a r t i c u l a r , I would say

t h a t r e f e r e n c e s to tu rquo ise d ragons in the sky a re a l l u s io n s to

Chinese cosmological s y s t e m s . But speaking of him a s the god who

i s v i c t o r i o u s in all d i r e c t i o n s s t r i k e s more of a C en t ra l Asian and a

Sou th Asian note. T ibe tan gods, like the Buddhas t h e m s e l v e s , show

t h e i r p r o w e s s m os t typ ica l ly by d e fe a t in g o the r s in b a t t l e .

Thus, l ike all the d e i t i e s in t h i s chant ing p r a c t i c e , Denma

p e r f o r m s a t w o - fo ld act ion. On one hand he a c t s a s a t r a d i t io n a l

dha rm a pa la , p ro tec t ing the m e d i t a t i o n p rac t ice of Buddhis t

d i sc ip le s : "He che r i shes dea r ly the child who holds to samaya."

"Child" here (bu )is a typ ica l s e l f - s t y l i n g of m e d i t a t o r s , who should

be innocent and childlike, t h e i r minds open to the i n s t r u c t i o n of

t h e i r gurus and who should be "orphaned" and alone, re ly ing not on

f a m i l y or f r iends, but only on r e t r e a t and the c o n te m p la t iv e life.

On the o th e r hand, Denma s e r v e s the wordly p u rp o s e s of

a n c i e n t T ibe tan se m i -n o m a d ic w a r r i o r c iv i l iza t ion : "I o f f e r to

Denma who br ings long l i fe into our hom e, / I o f f e r to Denma who

p ro v id e s a good journey w h i l e traveling.. . . , who a c c o m p l i s h e s our

g oa ls in commerce.. . , who is a good r a i d e r in disputes. . . ." Denma is a

193

f i e r c e w a r r i o r and "his a r r o w p i e rc e s the hear t and lungs of the

v in d ic t iv e enemies." 155

As you can see, The W arr io r Song o f the War Gods is an odd

combina t ion of divine f i g u r e s f rom seve ra l d i f f e r e n t sources . There

a re d e i t i e s who o r ig in a te as c h a r a c t e r s in the Gesa r e p ic s and

legends. There are the g r e a t c l a s s i c a l tu t e l a ry d e i t i e s ,

b o d h i s a t t v a s , and gurus of Indo/Tibe tan Buddhism. T here are also

the co lo r fu l , exotic, d i v e r s e and p ic tu re sq u e local d e i t i e s of na t ive

T ib e tan cu l ture .

And the re is a s t r a n g e combina t ion of r i tua l agendas as wel l .

There a re r e q u e s t s fo r the usual g i f t s of Buddhist r e a l i z a t i o n and

au sp ic io u s coinc idence on t h e path, r e p l e t e w i th the a l t r u i s m and

a b s o l u t i s m of c l a s s i c a l Indian Buddhism. Then on the o th e r hand,

t h e r e a re f rank r e q u e s t s fo r the g r o s s e s t so r t of w o r l d l y success ,

r e f l e c t i n g in the s t y l e of the r e q u e s t s the Centra l A s ian w or ld -v iew

and c u l tu ra l milieu.

In Jha sang t e x t s t h e r e is a t r iba l e lem en t a s w e l l , although it

i s no t t h a t evident in The Long Werma Lha Sang. Denma is not only

the name of Gesar 's f a m o u s m in i s t e r ; i t a lso d e s i g n a t e s a region of

T ibe t in Khams, near Jy e k u n d o a region n o r t h w e s t of Ling and

o f t e n t r ibu to ry to i t . 156 S t e in in h is s tudy of the t r i b e s of Tibet

a t t e m p t s to r e l a te the coun t ry of the m i n i s t e r Denma (1 Dan ma) to

the epic and f inds t h a t he is eponymous to l o c a l i t i e s impl ica ted in

tw o of the g rea t t r i b e s of T ibe t , the Ga and the Dru (sGa or IGa and

'Bru). In fac t , the name jyekundo is t aken in the rGyud sde kun btus, a

c o l l e c t i o n of Nyingma t a n t r i c s c r i p tu r e s , to be s G a - s t o d sKye rgu, in

the province of upper sGa (S te in , Tribus, p. 46). In 1247 ‘Phags pa,

194

th e f i r s t t h e o c r a t i c king of Tibet , pa ssed through t h i s region on his

way to v i s i t the emperor Godan in China.

This h i s to r ic a l obse rv a t io n is taken very s e r io u s ly by the

T ibe tan h i s t o r i a n s of the l a s t century such as Shakapa, who be l ieve

the i t i n e r a ry of th i s t r ip i d e n t i f i e s the t im e and loca t ion of both

Gesa r and hi s m in i s t e r s . The t r i b e s Ga and Dru f igure im p o r t a n t ly in

the second chap te r of the Mipham Gesar. There on fo l io 31 of the

S t e in copy we see a g a th e r in g of the c lans and c l a s s e s of so c i e ty

who lead Ling. They are p r e s e n te d a b s t r a c t l y in the f i r s t chap ter .

T here a s e r i e s of songs p r e s e n t soc iety as o rdered into seve ra l

func t iona l groups or orders . There are gurus (b lama ), k ings ( dbang

po ), m i n i s t e r s (blon po ), m igh ty ones (btsan po ), r i chm en (phyug po

), and the people (sde ). S o m e t i m e s the re a re a l so the young b raves ,

t he w a r r i o r s full of a t h l e t i c p ro w e ss cal led, f ig u ra t iv e ly , " t ige r s in

t h e i r pr ime" ( stag gzhon nu ) and the order of m a t r o n s ca l led

"medic ine women" (mo dman ) or "lovely m ed ic ine women" (mdzes

dman ). These d i f f e r e n t g roups receive d e t a i l e d moral in junc t ions in

num erous songs of admonit ion.

in the second c h a p t e r th e s e groups a re r e p r e s e n t e d in Ling,

each lead by a c h a r a c t e r f rom the epic. For example, c e r t a i n

counc i l s and ce rem on ie s a re held in which we see the r ic h men and

the m ig h ty ones i ined up as two ranks of soc ie ty . They a re

r e s p e c t i v e l y m em be rs of the clan of Ga ( the r ich ) and Dru ( the w a r

lords , the mighty) and a re lead by Chokyong Bernak ( Chos skyong Ber

nag ) and Tonpa Gyal tsen of Kyaio (sTon pa rGyal m tshan ) ,

r e spec t ive ly . Their c u l t i c s ign i f icance we have noted in our

co m m e n ta ry on the t r a n s l a t i o n . 157

195

But w h a t s i g n i f i c a n c e do they have to those who chan t the

e p ic ? For w e now se e a s p e c i f i c r e l a t io n s h ip b e tw e e n the m i n i s t e r

Denma, a reg ion ca l l ed Den, and two ex tended clan groups which l ive

t h e r e , the Ga and the Dru. We fu r t h e r see t h a t t h e s e c lans have a

s p e c i f i c role in the ep ic through c h a r a c t e r s such a s Tonpa G ya l t sen

of Kyalo who r e p r e s e n t the c lans in a s s e m b l i e s . The a n s w e r is

s im p ly t h a t among the l i s t e n e r s to the r e c i t a l of the epic a re people

f rom the province of Den who hold t h e m s e l v e s s t i l l to be m e m b e r s of

the Ga and Dru t r ibes . The m i n i s t e r Den is a hero f rom the

c h ro n i c l e s of t h e i r t r i b e and region. There is even a ded ica t ion by

Mipham to the people of Kyalo at the end of a c o l l e c t i o n of lha sangs

headed by the Long Werma: The Long Werma Lha Sang w a s w r i t t e n in

1877. Three ye rs be fo re t h a t he w r o t e a s h o r t e r p r a c t i c e w hose

colophon s a y s " w r i t t e n by Mipham a t the moment of the expansion of

the good fo r tune of t h e m a s t e r of the house of Kyalo."[Stein, 59, p.

73] Obviously, the o c c a s i o n s on which he w r o t e t h e s e s u p p l i c a t io n s

and the im m e d ia te c o m m u n i ty r e l a t ions , pe rvaded t h e con tex t of the

chan ts .

The Rime lam as who presided over th e s e e d i t i o n s of p r a c t i c e s

and e p ic s w e re linked to each o the r by the sa m e s o r t of t r iba l

connec t ions . Most of t h e m , including Jam yang Kyentse Wangpo,

Jam gon Kongtrul Lodro Thaye, and Mipham thought of t h e m s e l v e s a s

m e m b e r s of the t r ib e of Mukpo Dong ( smug po ¡dong ), which is the

ru l ing t r i b e in the land of Ling. This p a r t i c u l a r ch an t m en t io n s Den

r a t h e r than o t h e r t r ib a l groups, but t h e re a re num erous lha sang

which m en t ion the gods and he ros of Dong w i t h the sam e

e m p h a s i s . 158

196

I would l ike to sp e c u la te w i t h r e s p e c t to t h i s t r i b a l and

genea log ica l e lement: Lha sangs t end to m en t ion g r e a t s t r i n g s of

d e i t i e s : they mention the f am ous and t r a n s c e n d a n t Buddhist d e i t i e s

of e n l i g h t e n m e n t and compass ion ; they m en t ion local d e i t i e s ; and

then they o f t e n mention the genii of s p e c i f i c f a m i l i e s . The idea

s e e m s to be to chant the e n t i r e t e x t , knowing t h a t the p a r t i c u l a r

f a m i ly gods to which one is r e l a t e d , the gods of the reg ion from

which one comes, and the p a r t i c u l a r Buddhist t u t e l a r y d e i t i e s to

whom one is c o m m i t t e d wi l l come up a t some po in t in the tex t .

Some lha sangs have, thus , s e c t i o n s which s im p ly l i s t p o ss ib le

t r ib a l d e i t i e s , saying, fo r example, "To the w a rgods of bGa.bdan, to

the w a rg o d s of Muk.po, etc.", l i s t i n g the f ive or seven c la n s of Tibe t

and v a r io u s genea logical ly d i s t i n g u i s h e d geographica l divi s ions. The

Long Werma Lha sang by Mipham h a s no such s e c t i o n , but it m u s t be

no ted t h a t the rul ing and genera l ove ra rch ing m e t a p h o r of the t e x t

is t h a t the v i r tu o u s p r a c t i t i o n e r is a m e m b e r of a w h i t e and pure

t r i b e which m u s t r e s i s t the a t t a c k s of b a rba r i an black “v in d ic t iv e

enemies ." In o th e r words, when one p e r f o r m s t h i s l i tu rgy , one is

a l l e g o r i z e d v ia one's t r iba l r e l a t i o n s to a c h a r a c t e r in the epic , a

s u b j e c t in the Kingdom of Ling a t the t im e of Gesar .

Fu r th e rm o re , the p r a c t i t i o n e r s of the lha sang m u s t iden t i fy

t h e m s e l v e s w i t h one of the c l a s s e s or o rd e r s of s o c i e t y m en t ioned

as wel l . The c l a s s e s a re not given only in the epic . If w e look

c lo s e l y a t the lha sang wi l l see e l e m e n t s from the s a m e l i s t s of

r anks occuring. The f i r s t v e r s e s p r e s e n t ranks of f i g u r e s a rranged

g e o m e t r i c a l l y around a king. Let us look a t one s t a n z a again:

197

A t s i t s i your h o s t s of t roops are a w esom e ,

A l i l i they a re youthful w e a r ing sp lend id a c c o u t r e m e n t s ,

A ya ya the g r e a t men a re very mighty,

The powerfu l f a t h e r w a r r i o r s are on the right..."

This r e f e r s to the "youthful t ige r s" ( the young b ra v e s ) and the

"mighty ones". T hese m a s c u l in e p r in c ip l e s a re on the r ight. Then on

the l e f t we have s i m i l a r l y t w o g e n e ra t io n s of f em a le f igu re s in

h i e r a rch ic a l o rder .

The b e au t i fu l m a ide ns , so lovely and perfumed. ..

The lovely m o t h e r w a r r i o r s are on the le f t .

And then v e r t i c a l l y we have the t h r e e l eve ls of gods:

Above, the w h i t e c louds of the lha domain...

In the middle , the s to n e houses of the human domain...

Below, the m i s t of the lu domain r ises . . .

Gesar is a sk ed to t ake h is p lace in the middle of t h i s manda la

of epic c h a r a c t e r s :

In the m i d s t of t h i s , 0 king, p lea se t ake your s e a t of joy,

In th i s w h i t e count ry, the lha val ley,

You are the lord of p len t i fu l land and w e a l t h —

King Gesa r of Ling . . .

These a r r a n g e m e n t s of d e i t i e s v e r t i c a l l y and o rde r s of s o c i e ty

ho r izon ta l ly around the King of Ling occu r o f t e n in Mipham’s w o rk s

and I have seen m ore e x t e n s i v e l i s t in g s w h ich include fu l l e r

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d e s c r i p t i o n s of the r a n k s of so c i e ty in o th e r t e x t s of t h i s t r ad i t ion .

The r e s t of the lha sang co n t in u e s in a s i m i l a r fashion. A f t e r

the opening s e c t io n w h e r e Gesar is de sc r ibed a s a king su r rounded by

h i s re t inue , the re is a lengthy p a ssa g e de sc r ib ing Gesar h i m s e l f and

h i s armour:

Lord Gesa r of Jam budv ipa

Appears a t t h i s t im e in the form of a genera l sub ju g a t in g the

enemy

With pennan ts on h i s h e lm e t f l u t t e r i n g in the sky.

With sw i r l i n g s p a r k s of dha rm apa la s and p r o t e c t o r s —

Their pennan ts f lapping w i th a crack ing sound,

Mother dakin is dancing in t im e w i th them.

His w h i t e he lm e t f l a s h e s fo r th r ay s of life.

He b i t e s his l o w e r l ip in dra la fashion...

The lace of his a rm o r of a Hundred Thousand F l a m e s 159 is

impressive. . .

There fol low the v e r s e s iden t i fy ing Gesar a s both a na t ive

de i ty and a Buddhist dei ty .

If t h e r e is a w a r r i o r drala , i t is Gesar

If t h e r e is a w e rm a , i t is Gesar

If t h e r e is a guru fo r the next l ife, i t is Gesar....

Outward, he is ... the general Norbu Dradul.

Inwardly, he is A va lok i te sva ra ,

And his unchanging mind is Lord Padmasambhava .

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The Gesar s e c t i o n ends wi th s u p p l i c a t i o n s fo r his help and

b l e s s i n g s and the f a m i l i a r express ion used w i t h p r o t e c t o r de i t i e s :

"...don't be idle, don ' t be idle.''

Gesar 's h o r se i s ment ioned nex t in a leng thy d e s c r i p t i o n which

i d e n t i f i e s him w i t h Hayagriva, the h o r s e - h e a d e d t u t e l a r y d e i ty , and

then a s wel l in the fo l low ing passage w i th n a t i v e T ibe tan a n i m i s t i c

de i ty p r in c ip l e s— w a rgods or dralha w i t h v a r io u s names:

He is e legant , w i t h a ra inbow s w i r l i n g about ,

He has the t r e a s u r e of the Gait of the S w i f t Wind

And the s t r e n g t h of the wings of birds.

He p o s s e s s e s t h e g lo r ious s t r e n g th of a snow lion.

His v a j r a mane f l o w in g r ight and le f t

Magnet izes the d r a l a White Conch Garuda...

His fo re legs of w h e e l s of wind

Magnet ize the d r a l a Lord of Life.

The four hooves of the s t eed

Magnet ize the d r a l a S w i f t Wind.

On the t ip of e a c h hair , lha res ide.

And the h o r s e is supp l ica ted to g ran t b less ings : ". . .Acomplish

my d e s i r e s , / Arouse the a c t i v i t y of windhorse . . .160''

Then his m i n i s t e r Denma is t r e a t e d a t s i m i l a r length in a

s e c t i o n which p r a i s e s him and t r e a t s him a s a if he w e r e a

dharmapala , a d e p u t i z e d P ro t e c to r of Religion:

The m i n i s t e r is t he leader of the a c t i v i t y of Great Lion,

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He is the guide of a r ro w s ,

He is the renowned t u r q u o i s e dragon in the sky,

He is the lha v ic to r ious in a l l di rections. . . .

I o f f e r to Denma who b r i n g s long l i fe into our home,

I o f f e r to Denma who p r o v i d e s a good journey w h i l e t ravel ing. . .

1 o f f e r to Denma who a c c o m p l i s h e s w h a t e v e r mind d e s i r e s .

And it ends s i m i l a r l y w i t h r e q u e s t s fo r b l e s s i n g s and

a s s i s t a n c e in the t r a d i t i o n a l Nyingma vocabulary of guru

su pp l i ca t ions : "Be a f f e c t i o n a t e to th i s longing child."

There is a c losing s e c t i o n w h e re the e n t i r e a s s e m b ly , King

Gesa r , his horse, his m i n i s t e r and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e r e t i n u e s of

d r a l a s , w e rm a s , t roops , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the human o r d e r s of

s o c i e t y , and Buddhist d e i t i e s a r e all a sked to pe r fo rm Buddha

Act iv i ty :

Don't be idle, don't be idle, p e r f o rm th e s e a c t i v i t i e s .

Bury the black e n e m ie s u p s id e down,

Glorify the whi te nyen....

Don't be idle....

Show the signs and m a rk s r i g h t now

Accompl ish w h a te v e r mind d e s i r e s

And g ran t me the s u p re m e and ord inary s iddhis .

Note the a l t e rn a t io n of B uddh is t and indigenous r e q u e s t s .

“Bury the black enemies u p s id e down" is a very non - lnd ic thing to

say, not only counter to the s p i r i t of h a r m l e s s n e s s in Buddhism, but

d i f f e r e n t f rom the way B uddh is t t e x t s conven t iona l ly e x p re s s

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v io lence , as well. . Of course , Buddhist p r o t e c t o r s ' chan ts involve

gory supp l i ca t ions to do such th ings as "cut the a o r t a of those who

v i o l a t e the i r vows." But " the black enemy" is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

T ib e t a n ep i the t as is " the w h i t e nyen.” And burying enemies u p s id e

down is a thing one does to d e s t r o y the s p i r i t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r

w a r r i o r auras. On the o t h e r hand, "the s igns and marks" is an Indian

express ion . They a re t r a d i t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s in m ed i t a ton t h a t a re

s ig n s of s u c c e s s in s p i r i t u a l p r a c t i c e , in f a c t , the l a s t th r ee l in e s

of the above quote a re com m onp lace closing l ine s for many Buddh is t

chan ts .

The Long Werma Lha Sang p r e s e n t s us w i t h a sy s tem of

h i e ra rch ic a l p a t t e r n s which give c u l t i c cohe rence to the w e l t e r of

gods and men found in the epic . The Buddhist and non-Buddhist

d e i t i e s are desc r ibed in a h i e r a r c h i c a l a r rangem en t . The he roe s a re

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h Buddhist divine p r inc ip les but a re

given na t ive i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s a s wel l . Mipham m ake s sure t h a t t h e

Buddhis t and non-Buddhis t i n v o c a t io n s are abso lu te ly para l le l . The

c los ing sec t ion of every p a s s a g e invokes the c h ie f f igure both as a

Buddhis t guru o r p r o t e c t o r and as a f r iend of the wargods and w e r m a .

Everything is w e l l - o r d e r e d in t h i s lha sang: the va r ious soc ia l

g roups in the epic a re o rgan iz ed according to an o rder of p rec e d en c e

by genera t ion and by t r ib e and by the h ie ra rchy of gurus, m igh ty men,

r i ch men, young w a r r i o r s , e tc .

The overal l s t r u c t u r e of the lha sang r e f l e c t s a Buddhist

agenda. The opening p a s s a g e p r e s e n t s a s o r t of royal mandala of the

Cour t of Gesar the King. He r e c e i v e s the f i r s t supp l ica t ion for

b les s ings . The second is the h o r s e and the th i rd is the m in i s te r .

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Lama Tendzin Samphel s u g g e s t s t h a t we have he re a ve rs ion of the

Nyingma t a n t r i c d ivis ion of v i s u a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e into t h re e roots ,

four or s ix roots. The four r o o t s a r e usual ly guru, yidam, dakini , and

p r o t e c to r . The s ix - fo ld d iv is ion would be Buddha, Dharma, Sangha,

Guru, yidam, and p ro tec to r . The fou r - fo ld d iv is ion is m o s t o f t en

found in cycles of v i s u a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s in which th e r e a re four

d i s t i n c t mandalas and four d i s t i n c t phases of p rac t ice : t h a t of the

guru— for example Padm asam bhava ; the y i d a m — for example

Hayagriva; the dak in i ,— Yeshe Tsogyal (Padm asam bhava 's f am ous

yogic consor t) , and the p r o t e c t o r — perhaps t h e Four Armed

Mahakala. In th i s lha sang t h e four root s y s t e m would have the guru

a s Gesar, the yidam as his horse , Hayagriva, and the p r o t e c t o r

p r inc ip le is the m in i s t e r , Denma. The dakini roo t is not men t ioned a t

leng th— but would be his Queen.

The s t r u c tu r e we have iden t i f i ed in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r i tua l is

gene ra l ly true for Mipham's o t h e r Gesar p r a c t i c e s . It s u g g e s t s an

underly ing s t ruc tu r ing p r in c ip l e fo r the Mipham Gesar in which the

s a m e d e i t i e s occur as c h a r a c t e r s , but r e t a in no t very f a r below the

s u r f a c e the s t r u c tu r in g m a t r i x of th e i r r i tua l re l a t ions .

P r a c t i t i o n e r s who p e r f o r m e d these r i t u a l s would have a

spec ia l re l ig ious way of read ing the epic. They would a lso probably

have a t r iba l connection. Both r e l a t i o n s involve c e r t a i n a l l eg iances

and com m itm en ts . In theo ry ep ic and personal re l ig ion a re

connec ted in th is way th roughou t epic l i t e r a t u r e , not j u s t in Tibet.

Bowra makes t h i s point when d i scuss ing the role the l i s t s of sh ips

in the I l ia d played in the c o n s c i o u s n e s s of Greek l i s t e n e r s ,

emphas iz ing the genea log ica l connection. Speaking of the Catalogue

203

o f the Ships he d e s c r ib e s the soc ial ob l iga t ion Homer had to include

i t in h i s poem: "He took s t e p s to i n c o r p o r a te i t by dev is ing a

r e o r g a n i z a t io n of the Achaean fo rce s b e fo r e it. He m e a n t i t to be

here. He f e l t t h a t he owed i t to his pa t rons . Even in p o s t -H o m e r i c

Greece the Catalogue w a s the 'golden book', and a ppea ls to i t w e re

made over d i sp u te d t e r r i t o r i e s . ...In e a r l i e r days such a u th o r i t y

would have been g r e a t e r s t i l l , and t h i s a c c o u n t s for i t s inclusion.

Homer's aud ience perhaps knew of the Catalogue and expec ted i t in

any poem deal ing w i t h the Trojan War. They reve red i t a s an

a u t h e n t i c acc o u n t of the men who fought , and w e r e d o u b t l e s s able to

c la im a n c e s t o r s among them ."161

Bowra is spe cu la t ing , of course. S ince m o s t e p ic s are r e l i c s of

bygone c iv i l i z a t i o n s , i t has never been p o s s ib l e to con f i rm the " t a l e s

of the t r ibe" e l e m e n t w i t h d i r ec t t e s t im o n y . In t h i s c ase , however ,

i t is indeed poss ib le . Every T ibe tan Buddhis t p r a c t i t i o n e r is def ined

by a m a t r i x of samayas or c o m m i tm e n ts . There are the

c o m m i t m e n t s to h i s family l ineage, invoked in the lha sangs and

m en t ioned in the epic, as we have noted. T here are the c o m m i tm e n t s

to hi s t u t e l a r y d e i t i e s , a lso ment ioned one a f t e r a n o th e r in the Jha

sangs and again, f iguring as c h a r a c t e r s in the epic. And f inal ly

t h e r e a re the po l i t i ca l and regional a f f i l i a t i o n s p r e s e n t in the

eponymous h e ro e s of the epic and in the h i e ra rc h i c a l s y s t e m of

kings, r i ch men, etc. cons tan t ly m en t ioned in the songs. R.A. S te in in

Les Tribus Anciennes des Marches S ino-T ibe ta ines , h i s s tudy of the

t r ib a l d iv i s io n s of Tibet and the i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to geographica l

d iv is ions , has a t t e m p t e d to locate t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s on the map using

Chinese and Cent ra l Asian chronic les . Th is is com p le m e n ted by

204

s i m i l a r s t u d i e s in S te in , 59. S tu d ie s along t h e s e l ines a re

p roceed ing in China a t t h i s very t im e .162 And t h i s is one d i rec t ion in

which anthropologica l r e s ea rch could go fo r w a r d q u i te in te re s t ing ly .

Re turn ing to our cons ide ra t ion of the r e l a t i o n s h ip b e tw een

l i tu rgy and l i t e r a t u r e , i t can be sa id t h a t the e n t i r e l i t e r a t u r e of

Mipham chan t ing p r a c t i c e s is l ike the one w e have j u s t examined.

The sa m e ca re fu l , s l ig h t ly incongruous j u x t a p o s i t i o n of d ivergent

c u l t u r e s and a g e n d a s — the same one might a lm o s t say ambiva lence

be tw ee n aiming for vu lgar m a te r i a l s u c c e s s and sp i r i tu a l

t r an sce n d an c e , the sam e combina t ion of a t r iba l and genealogical

agenda w i t h a u n i v e r s a l i s t e th ica l agenda c h a r a c t e r i z e s all of h i s

Gesar l i tu rg ie s .

Of course , such a re l ig ious mélange could no t have been all

t h a t s t r a n g e to Mipham or e l se he would not nave w r i t t e n t h e s e

chan t ing t e x t s . As S te in ' s ca ta logue of Mipham p r a y e r s shows, t h i s

e legan t , phi losophica l lama had numerous v i s io n s in which werma

and o th e r n a t i v e - s t y l e d d e i t i e s appeared to him. He had d i r e c t

v i s io n s of Gesar a s wel l . And so, in his mind t h e r e w a s no

im p la u s ib i l i t y in the melding 1 have noted, b e ca u se there was no

element o f invention. As fa r as Mipham w a s concerned , the r i t u a l s

ad d re s s ed real beings whom he had beheld, s u b s i s t e n t d e i t i e s who

had a c tu a l ly appeared to him. And yet, a t the s a m e t im e p o r t ions of

th is Long Werma Lhasang involve persona t h a t a r e arguably d raw n

from the epic r a t h e r than prev ious r i tua l text . Of course, it is

u l t i m a t e l y im poss ib le to prove which is pr ior , ep ic or r i tual . But the

m o m e n ts of ove r - lapp ing of the l i t e r a r y and the c u l t i c are highly

sugges t ive , p a r t i c u l a r l y when we look a t the w e l l documented s to ry

205

of t h e p roduc t ion of the Mipham e d i t i o n of the epic.

S t e in in the in t roduc t ion to h i s ed i t ion of Mipham’s Gesar

d e s c r i b e s t h e p rocess by which s e v e r a l ed i t ions of the Gesar w e r e

c o l l a t e d and w r i t t e n down. It is u t t e r l y typical fo r a c h a r a c t e r f rom

t h e ep ic to appea r to the ed i to r , Thub ten Gyurme, in a d ream and

c o n fe r a kind of em pow erm en t o r t r a n s m i s s io n . The s t o r i e s of t h e s e

v i s i o n a r y e x p e r i en c es a re r e p o r t e d in the colophons to the e d i t i o n s ,

f o r r e p o r t i n g h i s vis ions is p a r t of t h e ed i to r ' s a rgum ent fo r the

l e g i t im a c y of h i s colla t ion. B e ca u se of the dream v is ion , t h e e d i t o r

f e e l s the conf idence to produce a new edi tion, to a c c e p t and r e j e c t

l i n e s f rom prev ious ve rs ions , to a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y add, p e rh a p s , h is

own l ine s of poetry and prose. T h is dream vision m akes t h e w r i t i n g

down of t h a t vers ion both p o s s i b l e and va l id in t e r m s of s a c r e d

out look.

But a s so often is the c a s e , t h e v i s ion i t s e l f is no t u n c a u s e d —

- i t h a s i t s own textual backg round— i t s own p r e - t e x t . The

co lophons to Gyurme's c h a p t e r s of the ep ic are in some c a s e s qu i te

p r e c i s e . They indica te which of Mipham's c o m m e n ta r i e s on Gesar

Mipham gave to his s tuden t to he lp him understand how the new

e d i t i o n s shou ld give fo r th i t s l e v e l s of meaning. They i n d i c a t e

w h ic h G esa r l i tu rg ies Mipham p r e s c r i b e d to Gyurme so t h a t he would

be v i s i t e d w i t h the n e c e s s a r y i n s p i r a t i o n . Mipham h i m s e l f w r o t e

t h e s e l i t u r g i e s a f t e r he had r e c e iv e d h i s own v i s ions of G e s a r and

t h e ep ic gods. And these e a r l i e r v i s i o n s them se lves have a s t h e i r

p r e - t e x t s t h e oral and w r i t t e n v e r s i o n s of the epic w h ich Mipham

e n jo y e d in h i s childhood. Those t e x t s f rom his chi ldhood, t h e Ling

v e r s i o n s of G esar , in t h e i r tu rn c o n ta in colophons m en t io n in g

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v i s io n s t h a t t h e i r e d i t o r s had had— v i s ions w h ic h v a l id a te d t h e i r

w r i t i n g and ed i t ing j u s t as would happen l a t e r w i t h Mipham and

Thubten. And thus a l ine of s e r i a l c o n c a t e n a t i o n s of inf luence

s t r e t c h e s back, a l t e r n a t i n g epic, vis ion, l i tu rgy , vi s ion , and epic

again.

The d o c u m e n ta t io n for t h i s causa l s t r i n g is except iona l . We

have the colophons to Mipham's l i t u rg ies , the co lophons to his

s tu d e n t ' s ed i t ions of the epic, and in some c a s e s w e even have

colophons for the t e x t s which Mipham gave Gyurme as e a r l i e r

e d i t i o n s of the Gesar. This ev idence leaves us no room to i n t e r p r e t

the T ibe tan concep t of muse and in sp i ra ton a s a f igure of speech . In

t h a t regard , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to no te t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r

v i s i t a t i o n s by the m u se do not happen, as in the H e l le n i s t i c m ode ls ,

a t t he m om en t of p e r fo rm a n ce , but as e m p o w e r m e n t s t h a t p recede

the whole p r o j e c t of c o m p o s i t i o n and edi t ing. The muse does no t in

t h e s e c a s e s “s ing again" or te l l the s to ry , bu t r a t h e r s imply c o n fe r s

a u th o r i ty to t e l l the s t o r y on an individual.

Other c a s e s t h e r e a re in which the r e p o r t is of divine be ings

who a n im a te the s i n g e r or provide a w o r d - b y - w o r d tex t . The

T ib e tan s have num erous t echn ica l t e r m s for such r e c e p t i o n s —

dagnang ( dag snang, "pure appearance") and g o n g te r ( sgong gter,

"mind t r e a s u r e t e x t s " ) fo r example. Shakapa d e s c r i b e s some Gesar

t e x t s as 'b ads sgrung, "p o sse s s io n t e x t s " — w o r k s in which a f igure

f rom the Gesar epic a n i m a t e s the s inge r who then produces the text .

Such im m e d ia te p o s s e s s i o n s by the "muse" abound. But the e d i t i o n s

in ques t ion here a re not an example of tha t .

As I und e rs t an d i t , the s i t u a t i o n w a s thus: Gyurme Thubten

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Ja m y an g Dragpa OGyur.med Thub.bstan ' J am.dbyangs grags.pa), when

he w a s a s s ig n e d by h i s guru the job of producing an e d i t ion of the

Gesar did not f ee l he w a s up to the task. It w a s beyond his

a b i l i t i e s . He w a s faced w i t h numerous t e x t u a l s o u r c e s , but no way

of knowing w h i c h n a r r a t i v e m a t e r i a l s and p o e t r y to s e l e c t and w h ich

to leave out. Mipham gave him, in addi t ion, e s o t e r i c c o m m e n ta r i e s

on s e c t i o n s of t h e Gesai c o m m e n ta r i e s w h ic h w e re m ea n t to

make po r t ions of the epic into a " re l ig ious h i s to ry ," a chos.'byung.

Thus, w h a t I cal l " the Mipham Gesar" i s an epic w i t h a double

pa rentage : on one hand the popular legendary and n a r r a t i v e m a t e r i a l s

of the e p ic — th e l i t e r a r y p a r e n t — and on th e o t h e r hand, the

p r a y e r s and p r a c t i c e s of the Gesar cu l t w r i t t e n by Mipham, the

r e l ig io u s paren t .

This m a k e s i t qu i te s i m i l a r to a h o s t of r e l i g io u s ep ic s w r i t t e n

in t h e W e s t w o rk s t h a t developed from an i m i t a t i o n of Homer

and Virgil, but changed to inco rpora te the hym ns and theology of

C h r i s t i an i ty . D a n te ’s Div ine Comedy, is of c o u rs e , the m o s t obvious

example, in the Divine Comedy Dante is s h o w n the w or ld as seen

from the po in t o f v iew of God: the poet w i t n e s s e s the h ie ra rchy of

being, good, and evil , pu n i sh m en t and rew ard . He s e e s the inv is ib le

w or ld of s p i r i t s and the in a c c e s s ib l e r e a l m s of the a f t e r - l i f e . He

s e e s d i r ec t l y , in the f l e sh , so to speak, the work ing of God's plan.

In the Mipham Gesar, p a r t i c u l a r ly in the f i r s t book, we se e t h e

equ iva len t theo log ica l v i s ion , the dynamics of good and evil , or

theo log ica l h i e r a rch y , and th e invis ib le wor ld of s p i r i t s and

e n l igh tened e n e r g i e s we see these f o r c e s d e te rm in in g the more

f a m i l i a r a c t ion of the r e s t of the epic. The l i t u r g i e s a c tua l ly

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d e s c r i b e the a r r a n g e m e n t of the se d ivine f igu re s in physical spa ce ,

s e t ou t in ranks , one above the o th e r o r in a c i r c le around a c e n t r a l

f igure. Even a s they are s e t out in r an k s in the l i t u rg i e s , so they a re

a r r a nge d in h ie ra rch ic a l o rd e r in the ep ic na r ra t ive .

Dan te 's epic is in p a r t based on l i t u r g i e s of the Ca thol ic

Church. This i s p a r t i c u l a r ly so in t h e Purgator io , w h e re s e c t i o n s of

the m a s s and sp e c i f i c hymns a re b o r ro w e d and form not only the

i n s p i r a t i o n , but a t t im e s the warp and w e f t of I t a l ian tex t . This

s a m e r e l a t i o n of l i turgy to epic ho lds for Milton's Paradise Lost, fo r

T asso , and even, to journey into modern t im e s , for J a m e s Jo y c e ' s

D / / y s e s s . 163

The T ra n s m i s s io n of the Mipham Gesar

P a r t of the cosmology of the ep ic is, as we have shown,

s t r a n g e l y , the method by which it is t r a n s m i t t e d a s a t e x t f rom

g e n e r a t i o n to genera t ion. The t e x t i t s e l f has a magica l d i m e n s i o n - -

- a s e t of r e l ig io u s b e l i e f s about the n a tu r e of i t s ex i s tence . Th is

s e t of b e l i e f s is connec ted w i th the s y s t e m of gods who make up the

m a c h in e ry of the epic and t h e r e fo r e we m u s t now d i s c u s s in som e

d e ta i l t he magical na tu re of the t r a n s m i s s i o n of the Mipham edi t ion.

The d i s c u s s io n so f a r has exam ined the theo log ica l d im ens ion

of t h e Mipham Gesar epic by compar ing it w i th l i t u rg i c a l t e x t s

c om posed by Mipham. Each of t h e s e l i t u r g i e s has a colophon which

d e s c r i b e s i t s da te of com pos i t ion and the occas ion upon which i t

w a s composed . The colophons d e s c r i b e a c o n s i s t e n t methodo logy of

t r a n s m i s s i o n which involves v i s iona ry exper iences , i n i t i a t i v e

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d rea m s , and a r e c u r r e n t specia l m y s t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n the

e d i t o r and the gods in the epic.

Perhaps, in t h i s id io sync ra t i c m e th o d of pass ing t e x tu a l and

r e l i g i o u s a u th o r i ty down the g e n e r a t i o n s w e f ina l ly do indeed have a

d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the e x i s t e n c e of an independen t Gesarchos, Gesa r

re l ig ion , or a t l e a s t a def inable Gesa r s u b - s e c t . For a d i s t i n c t

l ineage t r a n s m i s s i o n is a sect .

And yet , i t is i m p o r t a n t to poin t t h a t , d e s p i t e the s a c r a l i z a t i o n

of i t s t r a n s m i s s io n , the Gesar o f Ling Epic i s p r im a r i ly a l i t e r a r y

work. It p o s s e s s e s the exce l l e nc ie s of a l i t e r a r y work— the kind of

s t r u c t u r e and in t e g r i t y and poe t ic depth, s e n s e of drama and s e n s e

of d e l ig h t which make be iies ie t tres . And, a s w e wil l now show, i t

i s r e c e iv e d by T ib e t a n s as l i t e r a t u r e r a t h e r than as sc r ip tu re .

It is r ece ived no t as a work w r i t t e n f u ndam e n ta l ly for

r e l i g io u s i n s t ru c t io n or as a r e l ig ious r e v e l a t i o n , but as a w ork of

e n t e r t a i n m e n t . Even though the Gesar w a s m ade into a " re l ig ious

e p i c ” by the E c lec t i c School lamas, i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s designed and

rea d p r im ar i ly and fundam en ta l ly fo r e n jo y m e n t .

This is one of the r ea sons i t is so d i f f i c u l t to t r a n s l a t e Gesar

m a t e r i a l s ; they are not w r i t t e n in the c l a s s i c a l d ia lec t of Buddhist

s c r i p t u r e s and c o m m e n ta r i e s , the formal T ib e t a n of phi losophica l

t r e a t i s e s , hag iog raph ies and T a n t r i c l i t u r g i e s , or even in the more

a c c e s s i b l e n a r r a t i v e language of avadanas . They are w r i t t e n , r a t h e r ,

in the col loquial d i a l e c t of Eas te rn Tibet .

The noted Nyingmapa e xpe r t in the w o r k s of Mipham, Khenpo

Palden Sherab (dPal . ldan Shes.rab ) c a l l s t h e language of the Gesar

Epic "drung y ig " ( sgrung.yig ), “n a r r a t i v e o r ep ic language." Drung y ig

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is e a s y for a T ibe tan to unders tand and is no r e s p e c t o r of c l a s s ,

educa t ion , or w e a l t h in t h i s r e g a rd .164 Converse ly "na r ra t ive

language" is o f t e n q u i te d i f f i c u l t for the W es te rn scholar , who,

p a r t i c u l a r l y in North America, is t r a ined in c l a s s i c a l T ibe tan r a t h e r

than th e w r i t t e n v e r s i o n of colloquial involved in popular n a r r a t iv e s .

This is ironic , b e c a u s e the Tibe tan language t a u g h t , for example, in

A m er ican u n i v e r s i t i e s is i n a c ce s s ib le to all bu t t h e m o s t educa ted

T ib e t a n s a v a n t s and yogins. 165 That is one of the r e a so n s t h a t t h e

t r a n s l a t i o n s and a p p a r a t u s of R.A. S t e in ' s render ing of the Mipham

Gesar, H e l f fe r ' s t r a n s l a t i o n and t r a n s c r p t io n of Gesar ba l l ads , and

Macdonald 's t r e a t m e n t of T ibe tan popular t a l e s have been so h e lp fu l—

— be ca use they provide vocabulary and g r a m m a r f o r t h i s spec ia l

language and l i t e r a r y d i a l e c t of the peop le .166 This a lso expla ins in

p a r t why the C om m unis t Chinese are such large s u p p o r t e r s of Gesar

s t u d i e s , l ike the R u ss i an s giving anything they can think of as folk

a r t t h e i r spec ia l approbat ion.

The tw o Nyingma Khenpos 167 in ques t ion even w e n t so fa r as

to s u g g e s t t h a t s ince w e w e re deal ing w i t h popu la r l i t e r a t u r e , i t

w a s no t n e c e s s a r y to be overly p r e c i s e in the English t r an s la t io n .

The im p o r t a n t po in t , according to them, w a s to be e n te r t a in in g and

a c c e s s i b l e in English. It is odd to hear T ibe tan p a n d i t s say this . In

Engl ish t r a n s l a t i o n s of philosophical and l i t u rg i c a l t e x t s , the

im p o r t a n t point had a lw a y s been t h a t an e duca te d Eng l i sh -speak ing

Buddhis t should not m i s - r e a b the text . That would develop a wrong

or “pe rve r ted" v iew Uog.pa'i Ita.ba ). For to m is u n d e r s t a n d the tawa

( l t a ba), the darsana, the view, is a t e r r i b ly s e r i o u s m a t t e r w i t h

g rave r e d e m p t iv e consequences .

Khenpo Palden, however , ac tua l ly I n s i s t e d on the loose

t r a n s l a t i o n . Speaking of the app ropr ia te s t y l e of t r a n s l a t i o n f o r the

Mipham Gesar 160: "Do no t t ry to t r a n s l a t e Gesar too accu ra te ly . If

you a re a s l i t e ra l w i t h drungy ig , n a r r a t i v e language, as you a re

w i t h madhyamika, i t w i l l not be p l e a s a n t to read. But it m ust be

p l e a s a n t and easy. If t h i s w e re a s u tra o r a sas tra , i t would be ve ry

i m p o r t a n t to t r a n s l a t e i t l i te ral ly . But t h i s is drungy ig . It is

r e a l l y the spoken d i a l e c t of Eas tern Tibe t . It i s m e a n t to go in the

e a r e a s i l y and to give p l e a s u r e to the common man. Ordinary people

canno t unde rs tand the language in t e x t s on madhyamika , but anybody

can u n de rs t and the Gesar Epic when i t i s s u n g . "

He w e n t on to exp la in tha t the language of the Gesar w a s

co l loqu ia l , lovely, e a sy to sing and uncom pl ica ted . Of course, he

a d m i t t e d tha t , like ali Buddhis t l i t e r a t u r e , i t ha s r e l ig ious aims . But

i t m u s t be fun to hear . The English shou ld be p l e a s a n t and the

Am er ican r eade r should en joy the reading. The Khenpos would

coun tenance broad a pp rox im a t ions if they made the Gesar a p l e a s u re

to read in English.

The response of t h e s e two lea rned T i b e t a n s is v i ta l and

revea l ing . In e f f e c t , t h e y are giving the s a m e advice W es te rn

t r a n s l a t o r s of W es te rn e p ic s give to t h e m s e l v e s . For example, the

f am ous 17th cen tury t r a n s l a t i o n s of Homer by Chapman and l a t e r by

Pope, and Dryden w e r e all t r a n s l a t e d w i t h t r e m e n d o u s l a t t i t u d e .

They would quote Horace 's Ars Poética 169 as s p e c i f i c a l l y approving

in t e r p r e t i v e t r a n s l a t i o n s and disapproving w o r d - b y - w o r d t r e a t m e n t

of the or iginal . They w e r e more i n s i s t e n t in t h a t per iod on t h i s

p r inc ip le than we a re today, but s t i l l in modern t i m e s qu i te s e n s ib ly

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the broad t r a n s l a t i o n s of e p ic s by poe ts a re va lued h igh ly— valued

o f ten above th o s e done by p h i lo lo g i s t s and dry c l a s s i c i s t s . 170 In

Dryden’s day to be a poe t w a s cons idered the sine qua non of

t r a n s l a t i o n s of ve rse .

In one very im p o r t a n t way these W es te rn t r a n s l a t o r s were no t

a t all like our T ibe tan in fo rm a n t s , however . They did not w r i t e in

co l loquial language, but in a fo rmal tongue. It m a tc hed the court ly

s t a n d a r d s of decorum of t h e i r t im e and a lso i n d i c a t e s t h e i r sense

t h a t they w e r e t r a n s l a t i n g c l a s s i c a l language .

This a t t i t u d e m arks the spec ia l r ega rd W es te rn r e a d e r s hold

fo r be l ies Je ttres the r eg a rd t h a t d i sg in u i sh es t h e s e works , even

when they are on r e l igous s u b j e c t s , from s a c r e d l e t t e r s . 1 bel ieve

we f ind the s a m e a t t i t u d e among the T ib e t a n s w i t h r ega rd to the

Gesar. Even though the re is a s a c re d d imens ion to the per fo rm ance

of the epic , even though the ba rd may w e a r the a c c o u t e r m e n t s of a

shaman and r e p o r t t h a t he or she e n t e r s a t r a n c e fo r the r e c i t a t io n ,

s t i l l t h i s does not excuse the Gesar from the l i t e r a r y ana ly s i s we

r e s e r v e in the Wes t for s e c u l a r works, nor does i t p lace the Gesar in

the s a m e c l a s s a s r i tua l p r a c t i c e s . A powerfu l r e l a t i o n s h ip wi th

r i tua l p r a c t i c e and s t rong a s s e r t i o n s of divine i n sp i r a t io n , even of

divine in t e r v e n t io n in the compos i t ion , do no t s eem to e f f e c t th i s

p r inc ip le of bel 1 e t r i s t i c l a t t i t u d e .

The t r a n s l a t i o n o f f e r e d here f a i l s in t h i s r e s p e c t . It should be

f r e e r and less l i te ra l , i t should labor w i th a s e n s e of courage and

abandonment to cap tu re the s p i r i t of the or ig ina l . But the epic

d ia lec t , as easy a s it is for a na t ive of E as te rn T ibe t , is p r a c t i c a l l y

opague to W este rn scholars . And so, in o rder t h a t an unders tanding

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of the c o l loqu ia l i sm m igh t not be lo s t whi le we s t i l l have sound

i n f o r m a n t s , I made the t r a n s l a t i o n more l i t e r a l and less poe t ic . My

f e a r has been t h a t w i t h o u t t h i s l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n l a t e r g e n e ra t i o n s

would not unde rs tand th e t e x t c o r r e c t l y and w ou ld s t a r t t h e i r poe t ic

f l i g h t s f rom a f a l s e place.

The Machinery of the Epic

"Machinery," in t h i s case , is a t echn ica l t e r m from l i t e r a r y

c r i t i c i s m . When a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c speaks of gods in epics , he or she is

th ink ing l e s s of r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e than of a s p e c i a l kind of l i t e r a r y

c h a r a c t e r or p e r s o n a g e — a c h a r a c t e r who, be ing divine, p o s s e s s e s

a l m o s t l i m i t l e s s p o w e r s , a lm o s t l i m i t l e s s knowledge , and a

s e v e r e l y d im in ished c a p a c i t y for su f fe r ing . The in t roduc t ion of such

supe rhum an c h a r a c t e r s into a s t o r y can have d e v a s t a t i n g

c onseque nc es for the p lo t s t r u c t u r e and for the c re d i b i l i t y of the

f i c t ion . For th is r e a so n , w e have a lw ays had a spe c ia l t e rm fo r the

p re s e n c e of the s u p e r n a t u r a l in epic and t r a g i c l i t e r a t u r e divine

m ach ine ry , deus ex machina. This is the Lat in t r a n s l a t i o n for w h a t

w a s o r ig ina l ly a Greek t e rm , Sevsdmnvxai/ns‘-u 'i

Clear through the 18 th cen tury , machine r e f e r r e d in t h e a t r i c a l

c o n t e x t s to the a c tu a l physical con t r ivanc e th rough which ange ls and

d e i t i e s or heroes w e r e lowered onto the s t a g e a t the end of

p e r fo rm a n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y to re so lve (too e a s i l y ) a plo t in an impasse .

From t h a t usage as "a c o n t r iv an c e for the p r oduc t ion of s t a g e -

e f f e c t s , " ,72 the r e f e r e n c e of the word m ach ine ry "was expanded to

include all n a r r a t i v e poe t ry at large." And so, the word "machine"

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came to mean "a c o n t r iv a n c e for the sake of e f f e c t ; a s u p e rn a tu ra l

agency or pe rsonage int roduced into a poem; t h e i n te r p o s i t io n of

these." 173 And, j u s t a s i t w a s a m a t t e r of d i s c u s s i o n among th e

Greeks as to w hen dei ex machina we re a p p ro p r i a t e , so, the u se of

divine m ach inery in p o e t i c f i c t ion has a lw a y s been a m a t t e r of

c r i t i c a l i n t e r e s t , o f t e n a m a t t e r of c o n t ro v e r sy a s well .

Consider ing the epic machinery of the Gesar, we can say t h a t

th e r e are a t l e a s t four , perhaps even six, d i s t i n c t re l ig ious

pan theons which c o n t r i b u t e divine machinery in the Mipham's

vers ion . There a r e t h e s e s e p a ra t e s y s t e m s of de i t i e s . Tex tua l ly it

i s d i f f i c u l t , if not Imposs ib le , to d i s t i n g u i s h one pantheon from

a n o t h e r — the p l e t h o r a of gods and magical d e v i c e s occur w i t h

l i t t l e , i f any e x p l a n a t i o n all i n s t an t ly a s s u m e d as pa r t of the

f i c t i o n a l world the ep ic descr ibes . But a highly educa ted and

d i s c r im in a t in g T ib e t a n r ea d e r can know t h a t t h e s e gods have t h e i r

o r ig ins in the c o s m o lo g ie s of four d i s t i n c t r e l ig io n s . And a T ibe tan

p e a s a n t is s e n s i t i v e l y aw are of the varying c u l t u r a l c o n te x t s each

pantheon evokes. The ab i l i ty to evoke one of a number of pan theons

is in teg ra l to the p o e t i c s of the epic. The W e s t e r n scholar , speaking

phi lo logical ly , could say tha t the gods of the G esa r "come" f rom a t

l e a s t four d i s t i n c t r e l ig ious canons.

This complex c u l t i c e lem en t has an e f f e c t Bowra and Green

would have found i n t e r e s t i n g for the act ion t a k e s place in a w or ld

m ade -up a lm o s t e n t i r e l y of gods, demons, and magica l p e r fo rm a n c e -

— a wor ld w h e re a c t i o n and plot movement a re purely in t e r m s of

r i tu a l and so rc e ry , r a t h e r than m ar t ia i h e ro i s m and po l i t ics .

Bow ra ’s a rg u m e n ts concern the plot of epics. The f igu res of speech

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and the imagery form a t igh t ly woven t e x t u r e of r e f e r e n c e s to

d iv e r s e pan theons , theogonies , and r i t u a l g e s t e s . 174

Let us look a t th i s in the beginning pages of the ep ic w h e re one

can s e e a d i sp lay of the va r ious pan theons from which the m achinery

is drawn. The fo l lowing a na lys i s w i l l re ly on m a t e r i a l f rom the

opening t en pages. A f t e r we have cons idered one by one the

cosm o log ica l s y s t e m s r e f l e c t e d the re , I wil l give a t r a n s l a t i o n of

a n o th e r Mipham l i tu rgy ca l led Spontaneous Buddha A c t i v i t y : A

Supp lica t ion and o f fe r in g p ra c t ic e to the Great Lion Gesar Norbu.

This p r a c t i c e a ppea rs to be based p r im ar i ly on the opening pages of

the Mipham v e r s io n of the epic and provides f u r t h e r docum en ta t ion

fo r my t h e s i s t h a t d iverse nat iona l pan theons a re c o nsc ious ly

combined in the Gesar epic machinery .

The Indian Mahayana Pantheon

Let us look f i r s t a t w ha t m u s t be the c e n t r a l m ach ine ry in a

Buddh is t epic, the Indie pantheon of Mahayana Buddhism. This

m ac h ine ry c o n s i s t s of all the d e i t i e s and divine f o r c e s found in the

s u t r a s : buddhas, g r e a t b o d h i s a t t v a s , a rh a t s , and the v a r i o u s

f a n t a s t i c be ings t h a t abound in the agamas a s s u p e rn a tu ra l s e rv a n t s

and i n t e r l o c u t o r s fo r the Buddha. The s u t r a s , of c o u rs e , a r e

re l i g io u s t r e a t i s e s and t h e i r c e n t r a l funct ion is to r e p o r t the

d i s c o u r s e s in which the Buddha d e l ive red h i s t each ings . But the

s u t r a s ' f r am e n a r r a t i v e s a re d e s c r i p t i o n s of the o c c a s i o n s upon

which the Buddha spoke. They d e sc r ib e the c h a r a c t e r s who a t t ended

the l e c t u r e s and the occurences which e l i c i t e d the l e c t u r e — these

216

e l e m e n t s c o n s t i t u t e s to ry na r r a t io n s . Major c h a r a c t e r s in t h e s e

s u t r i c f r a m e n a r r a t i v e s are the Indian gods of popu la r Hindu cu l tu re

dur ing th e f i f t h cen tu ry B.C., Brahma, Indra, etc. These f i g u r e s and

the Buddhist gods c o n s t i t u t e the Indie m ach ine ry in the epic.

Two f ig u re s f rom th is s y s t e m of d e i t i e s f igure p rom inen t ly in

the opening of the epic: Amitabha and A va lok i te sva ra , the buddha

and the b o d h i s a t t v a of compassion. These, of cou rse , are the cen t ra l

f i g u re s in the Pure Land S e c t s t h a t occured a c r o s s A s ia — s e c t s

b a sed on the s u t r a s of a popular devot iona l na tu re : The Lo tus Sutra,

The A m ita y u r -d h y a n a Sutra, and the Sukhava t i-vyuha sutra. One

i n t e r e s t i n g point about these s c r i p t u r e s is t h a t they not only evolve

the d o c t r i n e s of the devot ional w or sh ip of Amitabha , Am i tayus , and

A v a lo k i t e sv a ra , but they also d e s c r ib e in ca re fu l de ta i l

v i s u a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s for these d e i t i e s , so tha t , a l though t h e s e

f i g u re s a re fundam en ta l ly Mahayana in c h a r a c t e r , the p r a c t i c e of

t h e i r c u l t s e m p h a s i z e s the v i s u a l i z a t i o n of m a n d a l a - l i k e s y s t e m s of

gods and f i t s we l l w i t h the c h a r a c e r i s t i c c o n te m p la t io n s of the

t a n t r i c m e d i t a t i o n a l de i t i e s , the yidams. 175

It i s no s u r p r i s e t h a t A v a lok i t e sva ra i n i t i a t e s the ac t ion of the

epic. He is a c t iv e in legends about the o r ig in s of the human spe c ie s

in Tibe t . In numerous forms, including the Dalai Lama, h i s

e m a n a t i o n s in te rvene in the h i s to ry of the country. His s ix sy l l ab le

m a n t r a is the common prayer of all T ibe tan B u d d h i s t s— sa id so

o f t en t h a t i t has become a pious e j a c u l a t i o n for all occas ions . In

New Year’s Day p e r fo rm a n ce s of the Mipham Gesar a t O r i s s a

c han t ing of the s i x - s y l l a b l e m a n t r a by the a s s e m b le d aud ience

p r e c e d e s the p e r f o r m a n c e .176

217

But t h e r e Is a n o th e r agenda which A m i ta b h a and

A v a lo k i t e sv a ra s e rv e when they appea r so c e n t r a l l y in the Mipham

edi t ion . These Buddhist d e i t i e s belong to the h ighes t level of r e a l i t y

and the h ig h es t level of rea l i z a t ion . They a re ' j ig . r te n las mdas.pa'i

lha — d e i t i e s f rom beyond the wor ld or t r a n s c e n d a n t d e i t i e s . They

r e p r e s e n t , t h a t is, a b s t r a c t p r inc ip le s of pu re en lgh tenment . As

t r a n s c e n d a n t d e i t i e s they are an i n s tan c e in t h e Mahayana and

t a n t r i c s y s t e m s of the th r e e s t a g e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of en l igh tened

mind, the Three Bodies of the Buddha or the Three Kayas. In t h i s

h i e ra rchy , Amitabha is the h ighes t level of pure Buddha Mind and

from him evolve in s t a g e s , Ava lok i tesvara , and Padmasambhava .

Thus, through the m ach inery of the f a m i l i a r Tioetan Buddhis t

t r i n i t y of Amit5bha, Ava lok i te svara , and Padmasambhava , t h e r e is

an evo lu t ion of the a c t i o n s of Gesa r out of the dharmakaya , out of

the t r a n s w o r ld l y plane, into the m a te r i a l plane . This s o r t of chain

of being is an a s p e c t of the underlying m e t a p h y s i c s of the ep ic , the

level of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n given by Mipham’s l i t u r g i e s and ph i lo soph ica l

c o m m e n ta r i e s . It exp la ins the ontological d imens ion of Buddhist

ph i losophy of act ion. We see ano ther ve rs ion of t h i s m e ta p h y s i c a l

t r i p l e x in The Long Werma Lhasang where Padm asam bhava is the

dha rm akaya , and A v a lo k i t e sv a ra and Gesa r a re r e s p e c t iv e ly the two

Form kayas. The s a m e p a t t e r n is again the c a s e in Spontaneous

Buddha A c t i v i t y w he re i t w i l l desc r ibe G esa r a s an e m a na t ion of the

c o m p a ss io n of Padma, who is the abso lu te na tu re :

From the Palace of the v idyadharas and da k in i s ,

0 w isdom kaya, the equa l i ty of s a m s a r a and niravana,

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Embodiment of all t h e un iversa l V ic to r io u s Ones, 0 Lake Born

One,

Your com pass ion has m a n i f e s t e d as t h e Form of I l lusory

Wisdom Play....

Great Lion J e w e l Kaya.

This t r i n i t y i n d i c a t e s an im p o r ta n t d iv is ion w i t h in the Indie

Buddhis t pantheon. The d e i t i e s who w e r e o r ig ina l ly Vedic gods, such

a s Brahma and Indra, do not evolve out of the t h r e e kayas because

they are not " t r a n s -w o r ld ly . " They a re c l a s s i f i e d as w or ld ly d e i t i e s

( ' j i g r ten p a l Iha ). There w i l l be an i n t e r e s t i n g example of t h i s

d i s t i n c t i o n in a r e l a t e d n a r r a t i v e which I t r a n s l a t e in c h a p te r V, t h e

"History of the Goloks." The h i s to ry be g ins by in troducing us to the

god Nyenchen Thanglha, a nyen who r u l e s ove r a por t ion of the

o r ig ina l t e r r i t o r y of the Golok t r ibes . Nyenchen Thanglha is

d e s c r ib e d as "a b o d h i s a t t v a of the IOth Bhumi." This means tha t ,

a l though he is p r a c t i c a l l y c om ple te ly e n l ig h ten e d , he is a c tu a l ly a

w o r ld ly de i ty who ga ined h i s r e a l i z a t i o n from the p r a c t i c e of

Dharma. He has g radua l ly r a i s e d his level of unde rs t and ing to the

T en th Bhumi and wi l l e v en tu a l ly e xpe r i enc e the V a j ra l ike Samadhi ,

becoming the reby a Buddha of the I I th Bhumi. But he has a h i s to ry

and a pe rsonal e x i s t e n c e . He does not evo lve t i m e l e s s l y out of the

dharmakaya . This , i t w i l l tu rn out, is i m p o r t a n t to the n a r r a t iv e ,

b e c a u s e in the "History of the Goloks" t h e r e are p r a c t i c a l l y no t r a n s -

w o r ld ly c r e a t u r e s — no a n th rom orph ized a b s o lu te p r in c ip le s f rom

t h e Buddhist s c h o l a s t i c cosmology.

In c o n t r a s t to the Golok History, w e have the u t t e r l y

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t r a n s c e n d a n t and a b s o l u t i s t t r i n i t y of t h r e e u l t i m a t e and p r a c t i c a l l y

i n f a l l ib l e beings: Amitabha , A v a lo k i t e sv a ra , and Padma. The i r

p r e s e n c e has a s p e c i f i c mean ing in t e r m s of the m e c h a n ic s of plot.

It i s n e c e s s a r y to the r e l ig io u s agenda of the work t h a t the a c t i o n be

i n i t i a t e d by a m e ta p h y s i c a l l y a b so lu te m ach inery , by t r a n s - w o r l d l y

d e i t i e s . It i s the Great C o m p as s io n a te Lord, the god A v a lo k i t e sv a ra ,

who i n i t i a t e s the ac t ion of the epic based on h i s v iew of the

developing t r o u b l e s on the plane t . In t h i s way the s to r y of the

d e s c e n t of Gesa r to Ling is a s to ry w i t h the s a m e s o r t of

s i g n i f i c a n c e as The Gospel Accord ing to St. John, which a s s u r e s us

w i t h the w o rd s "In the beginning w a s the Word" t h a t Chr is t is an

e m a n a t io n of the godhead and not s imply a J e w i s h cu l tu ra l hero. In

the s a m e way, w e a re a s s u r e d t h a t Gesar is not s im p ly a t r ib a l

founder , as he a p p e a r s to be in the Ladakhi Gesar, but a u n iv e r sa l

p r in c ip l e of Buddha Act ivi ty .

This dual level of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , which a s s o c i a t e s the Mipham

Gesar w i t h r e l i g i o u s e p ic s such as the Gospels and the Puranas ,

d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t , I be l ieve, f rom W este rn he ro ic e p ic s such as the

I l iad. The level of plot m e c h a n ic s is no d i f f e r e n t , of course. The

a c t io n and a rg u m e n t of the Homeric e p ic s o r i g i n a t e s a t the level of

heaven ly be ings and is played out in the human rea lm w i th the s a m e

s e n s e of the human b a t t l e s being a m ere r e f i e x of a drama w hose

m a in c h a r a c t e r s a re de i t i e s . Virgil m akes s p e c ia l note of t h i s during

h i s dep ic t ion of the sack of Troy in Book II of the Aeneid. The Aene id

is the f i r s t g r e a t im i t a t i o n and co n t in u a t io n in a l ineage of W e s t e r n

epics . In e f f e c t , t h i s p a s sa g e is Virgi l ' s c o m m e n ta r y on the n a t u r e of

the ac t ion in the I l ia d and the Odyssey. Aeneas has j u s t beheld the

220

s l a u g h t e r of Priam and the roya l f a m i l y of Troy by the invading

Achaeans . He reso lves to die avenging them in b a t t l e a g a i n s t the

foe. But Venus, his imm or ta l m o th e r , i n t e r f e r e s and e xp la in s to him

the t r u e na tu re of the s i tua t ion :

Know th a t it is n o t t h e h a te d face of the Laconian

woman, daughter of T yndareus (Helen); i t i s not Pa r i s t h a t is to

blame; but the gods, the r e l e n t l e s s gods, ove r tu rn t h i s w e a l t h

and make Troy topple f rom h e r pinnacle. Behold— for all the

c loud, which now, d raw n o v e r thy s igh t , du l ls thy m o r ta l v i s ion

and w i t h dark pall e n sh rouds thee , I wil l t e a r away; f e a r thou

no commands of thy m o th e r nor r e f u s e to obey her c o u n s e l s —

here , where thou s e e s t s h a t t e r e d p i le s and rocks to rn from

rocks , and smoke eddying up mixed w i t h dus t , Neptune s h a k e s

the w a l l s and foundat ions t h a t his mighty t r id e n t hath

upheaved, and uproots all t h e c i t y f rom he r base. Here Juno,

f i e r c e s t of all . is f o r e m o s t to hold the Scaean g a t e s and, g i r t

w i t h s t ee l , fur iously c a l l s f rom the sh ips her a l l i ed band. Now

on the highest t o w a r d s — turn and s e e - - Tr i ton ian P a l l a s is

p lan ted , gleaming w i t h s t o r m - c l o u d and grim Gorgon. The Sire

h i m s e l f (Zeus) g ives the Greeks courage and a usp ic ious

s t r e n g th ; he h im se l f s t i r s up the gods a g a in s t the Dardan

(Tro jan) arms. 177

This passage e x p r e s s e s the c l a s s i c r ec e p t ion of the

i m p o r t a n c e to the plot of the divine a s se m b ly in the W es te rn epic

t r a d i t i o n , which is tha t the gods i n i t i a t e the plo t and, but fo r the

221

w o r d s of the poe t , inv is ib ly ca r ry it through to i t s conclusion . The

Gesar i s no d i f f e r e n t a s f a r a s t h i s point is conce rned . The co re of

t h e ep ic may d e s c r ib e b a t t l e s fought by hum ans and s e m i - d i v i n e

he roes . But t h e r e is a hidden r e a l i t y which is the t r u e s i t u a t i o n —

t h a t the h e ro e s a r e r e i n c a r n a t io n s of demons and Buddh i s t gods,

f ig h t in g ou t t h e i r divine b a t t l e s according to a d e s t i n y decided a t a

level hidden from human p e rc e p t io n and accord ing to p lans m ade

b e fo re the main ac t ion of the book begins.

When the Mipham v e rs io n of the Gesar g ives t h e s e hidden

c a u s e s of a c t i o n a m e ta p h y s i c a l s ign i f icance , i t e m p lo y s an approach

to the evo lu t ion of the chain of being which o r i g i n a t e s in the T a n t r a s

and l i t u rg i c a l t e x t s of Mipham’s Nyingma t r a d i t io n . T hese t e x t s a re

m a in ly r e c e n t r e v e l a t i o n s — the special "hidden t r e a s u r e " or gter.m a

p r a c t i c e s w h ich he and h i s co l leagues d i scove red and propogated . In

one p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o r t a n t gter.ma Amitayus, A v a l o k i t e s v a r a , and

Pad m asam b h av a form a Buddhis t t r in i ty , each s t a n d i n g fo r one of the

Three Kayas or Three Bodies of the Buddha : A m i ta y u s is the

dharmakaya, A va lo k i t e sv a ra is his emanat ion as the sambhogakaya,

and Padm asam bhav a , as the e a r t h ly m a n i f e s t a t i o n of t h i s p r inc ip le

is the nirmanakaya. This p a r t i c u l a r t r iad is a f e a t u r e of the cyc le of

d e i ty p r a c t i c e s known as the bla.ma'i thugs.sgrub bar.chad kun.seI,

The Guru's Heart Pract ice, D ispe l le r o f A l l Obstacles. This cyc le of

te rm a t e a c h i n g s w a s d i scovered by Chokgyur Lingpa (mchog.gyur

gling.pa ) ( 1 8 2 9 - 1 870) and Ja m y an g Khyentse Wangpo ( ' jam dbyangs

mkhyen b r ts e ' i dbang po) ( 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 9 2 ) . These tw o m en w e re the

i m m e d ia t e p r e d e c e s s o r s of Mipham. Along w i t h J a m g o n Kongtrul

Lodro Thaye Vjam.mgon kong.sprul blo.gros mtha.yas ) they fo rm ed

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the E c lec t ic School of T i b e t a n Buddhism.

Thus, in the c a s e o f t h e Indie Buddhist pan theon , i t s u se as

m ac h ine ry s e r v e s the p u r p o s e s of plot deve lopm en t w h i l e

s im u l t a n e o u s ly f i t t i n g in to the r i tua l and s o t e r i o l o g i c a l agenda of

the ed i to r .

The Vedic Pantheon

A t rad i t iona l p a r t of the Indie Buddhist p a n th e o n is a s e r i e s of

Vedic de i t i e s who a c t u a l l y could be cons idered a s a se cond

p a n th e o n "Hindu" d e i t i e s , if you wi l l , r e p r e s e n t i n g the

p re s u m p t iv e ly dom inan t Indian c a s t e soc ie ty of 6 t h c e n t u r y Northern

Ind ia .178 In the agamas t h e s e gods support the Buddha,

d e m o n s t r a t i n g his v i c t o r y ove r Vedic soc ie ty and re l ig ion . And so

w e f ind them in the L a l i ta v is ta ra , the Buddhacari ta , and throughout

a g a m i c l i t e r a tu r e , l e a d e r s of the Hindu pantheon r e s p e c t f u l l y

approach ing the Buddha and encouraging him on h i s p a t h to comple te

e n l igh tenm en t . They e n c o u r a g e him to t e a ch and th e y p ious ly a t t end

h i s d i sc o u r se s . Chief am ong th e s e is Brahma, the c r e a t o r of the

w o r ld , and Indra, the a n c i e n t aryan w ar god, god of thunder , and,

p a r t i c u l a r ly during the Ved ic period, King of the gods.

Brahma is a t r e m e n d o u s l y impor tan t f igure in Buddh is t

d i sc ou r se . His name is u s e d m etaphor ica l ly in a p p e l a t i o n s which

r e f e r to the higher r e a l m s and to v ir tuous p r a c t i c e . The four

brahmaviharas a re fou r m o ra l p r a c t i c e s which lead to r e b i r t h in the

god rea lm s , which a re o f t e n ca l l ed in the Buddhist c o s m o lo g i e s

s i m p l y the Brahmalokas. Beaut i fu l tunes are c a l l e d " the melod ies of

223

Bráhma."

Then again , Brahma is a lso a s o r t of d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e idea

of o r ig in s ou t of o rd inary Buddhist Maháyána m e t a p h y s i c s and into

the more c o m p r e h e n s ib l e and ord inary and l e s s t echn ica l r e a l m of

t r a d i t i o n a l Indian cyc l ic t ime. Buddhist phi losophy p ro p o se s v a r io u s

t i m e l e s s a b s o l u t e s such as the dharmakaya and the dharmadhatu a s

the t ru e s o u r c e of the phenomenal w o r ld and all exper ience. Even

t im e has i t s s o u rc e in t h e s e t r e m e n d o u s a b s t r a c t i o n s . The no t ion of

such t i m e l e s s a b s o l u t e s underlying the founda t ions of r e a l i t y is f a r

f rom the Vedic idea of a c r e a t o r god. N e v e r th e le s s , Brahma is s t i l l

r e s p e c t e d a s a symbol fo r physical c r e a t i o n and or ig ins w i t h i n t ime .

I have a l s o no t iced t h a t the re is a c e r t a i n fondness t o w a r d s

Brahma on the p a r t of the lea rned Nyingmas I i n t e r v i e w e d in

r e s e a r c h i n g th e Gesar. Seve ra l t i m e s I have been told the c u te ,

i r r e v e r e n t s t o r y of how Brahma developed four heads. It s e e m s t h a t

one of h i s c r e a t i o n s w a s a woman of such superna l beau ty t h a t he

could not t a k e h i s eyes o f f her. Finally , in o rde r not to e m b a r r a s s

h i m s e l f b e fo re the o t h e r gods by a lw a y s tu rn ing in her d i r e c t i o n , he

developed fou r heads, facing in the four d i r e c t i o n s . In t h a t way, he

could fo l low he r m o v e m e n ts a t all t i m e s w i t h o u t seem ing to do so.

His c r e a t o r ro le e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f in the w h i t e n e s s of the

T ibe tan iconography of Brahma. He is u su a l ly w h i t e and r a d i a t e s

w h i t e l ight. He w e a r s w h i t e o rn am e n ts suc h a s a conch she l l on h i s

head. W h i t e n e s s in na t ive Tibe tan r e l i g io n is e spec ia l ly a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h goodness , the p r im ord ia l , and the pos i t ive . There a re n u m e ro u s

n o n - s p e c i f i c ep ic d e i t i e s in the Gesar who have th i s not e s p e c i a l l y

Buddhist w h i t e n e s s — fo r example, lha.chen od.Jdan dkar, t h e Grea t

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God, White Luminosi ty , the d iv ine g r a n d f a t h e r of the god who would

r e i n c a r n a t e a s Gesar. White i s t h e c o lo r of t h e lha who a re opposed

to the b lack m aras (bdud ) 179 As is sa id in the Long Werma Sadhana,

"Above, the w h i t e c louds of the lha domain a re br il l iant . . ." This use

of w h i t e is found very o f ten in Bonpo legends and l i tu rg ie s . Here a re

som e r a t h e r m y s t e r i o u s l ines f rom The Long Werma wh ich con ta in

t h i s s e n s e of w h i t e as p r im o rd ia l i ty :

Show your s m i l in g face of d e a t h l e s s a m r t a

0 g r e a t White Light of A of the womb of space ,

You s o a r on top of the g r e a t t h r e e w o r ld s ,

You play j o y fu l ly on a sm a l l s e a t of g ras s .

The w h i t e Brahma is w o r s h ip e d in T ibe tan t a n t r a and T ibe tan

indigenous re l ig io n as a local d e i ty and p r o t e c to r . He i s i d e n t i f i e d in

many c o n t e x t s w i t h the c o lo r fu l , Centra l As ian de i ty Pehar , who w a s

kidnapped by T ib e t a n s and m ade a p r o t e c t o r a t S a m y e .180

In Medieval Hindu epic l i t e r a t u r e a new pantheon developed in

w h ich the o rder of p r e s c e d e n c e of the Vedic gods and s p i r i t s changed

to r e f l e c t the d e p a r tu r e of Brahm an ica l re l ig ion from the p r e c i s e

cosm ology of the Rg Vedic and Upanisad ic s y s t e m s . Th is evolu t ion

of t h e Hindu cosm ology w a s sy n c h ronous w i t h the deve lopm ent of a

m ed ieva l de vo t iona l i sm s u p p o r t e d by n o n - d u a l i s t ph i lo soph ies such

a s S a n k a r§ c a ry a ' s Advai ta Sha iv ism . And from t h i s w e have the

modern devot iona l c u l t s of V a ishnav i sm and Sha iv ism w i t h Krsna

and Rama as a v a t a r s , as f l e s h ly i n c a rn a t io n s of the Word. And we

have from t h i s medieval t r a d i t i o n the cosmology which holds Vi$nu

and S iva as d e i t i e s of the Abso lu te .

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It i s impor tan t , thus, to d i s t ingu ish b e t w e e n t h i s pantheon and

the one a p p ro p r i a t e d by the Buddha. When, f o r example , the Puranic

w o r l d v i e w gained ascendancy in India, T r i m u r t i ru led wi th i t s

“t h r e e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the Supreme Being: BrahmS, Visnu, and

S iva .” 181 Brahma’s s ign i f icance in t h i s h i e r a r c h y waned as the

d e v o t io n a l c u l t s of Visnu and Siva, grew in s i g n i f i c a n c e and

pop u la r i ty . Today th e re are a lmost no t e m p l e s to Brahma in India,

f o r p r a y e r to him is not regarded as of any s p e c i a l eff icacy.

Although he is the c r e a t o r of the w o r ld s a t t h e beginning of each

c o s m ic cycle , he does not s t and for a p r i n c i p l e of Absolute Being

the w a y h i s tw o divine co l leagues do. And u n t i l the eon is over, he

w i l l no t be of much use, s ince his func t ion i s only to evolve the new

u n iv e r s e when the l a s t one has been d e s t r o y e d by Siva.

But the Brahma who befriended the Buddha is ano ther m a t t e r .

His c u l t con t inued to expand and develop in T ib e t , w h e re his role as a

s u p p o r t e r of the Dharma made him a d h a r m a p a l a — a p r o t e c to r of

the Dharma , (Tib: chos.skyong ). Many d h a r m a p a l a s had or iginal ly

been local d e i t i e s who w e r e "bound by oath" and conver ted to the

way o. the Buddha. Brahma was t r e a te d as a dha rm a p a la and, as

N e b e s k y -W o jk o w i t z showed in his e x t e n s i v e s tu d y of Tibetan r i t u a l

t e x t s 182, the cu l t of Brahma was un i ted to t h a t of va r ious s p i r i t s of

local o r ig in — p a r t i c u l a ry the cul t of Pehar , a s i l k - r o u t e de i ty

a c t u a l l y s t o l e n by T ibe tans during a r a id to t h e West .183 On the way

to t h i s new p o s i t i o n Brahma developed the m u l t i - v a l e n c y we

o bse rved in the beginning of this sect ion .

E f fec t ive ly , the f igure of Brahma b ranched in the 6th cen tu ry

when his mythology w a s appropria ted by B u d d h i s t discourse. A f t e r

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t h a t , he l ived on in tw o d i s t i n c t s y s t e m s of n a r r a t i v e s and legends.

T here con t inued to be a Vedic Brahma who would evolve into the

f igu re of the Crea tor , an in fe r io r r o l e in the Hindu t r i n i t y of

T r i m u r t i . But the Buddhist Brahma con t inued u n a f f e c t e d by th e

P u ran ic d im in i sh m e n t , a Buddhist god. Brahma b e c a m e Tsang.pa, the

T ib e t a n t a n t r i c and n a t iv e T ibe tan de i ty , w i t h a new and en r iched

r e t i n u e , w i th new pow ers , and a new s e t of legends.

Brahma is a good example of the wor ld ly d e i t i e s

C jig .r ten . Ias .m das .pa ' i) who abound in epic d i scourse . He h a s had a

v a r i e d c a r e e r in his p ro g re s s through Buddhist na r ra t ive . By the

t i m e he r e a c h e s T ibe t , a s a l i t e r a r y f igure he is a m u l t i - l a y e r e d

phenomenon. L i te ra ry a l lu s ions to Tsang pa can th u s mean many

th ings , but p r inc ipa l ly he se em s to be used in the epic for co lo r and

l i t e r a r y imagery.

So f a r a s epic machinery is concerned , Brahma e n t e r s f rom

s e v e r a l d i r ec t io n s . For example, we s e e him in the in t roduc to ry

s e c t i o n a s one of the d e i t i e s m en t ioned in the s c a ry d e s c r ip t i o n of

t he de m o n - r id d en env irons of Padm asam bhava on the c o p p e r -c o lo re d

m ounta in . Here he is ca l led a sokdak ( srog bdag ), a 1 i f e - lo rd , which

i d e n t i f i e s him w i t h Pehar. 184 a s I have su gge s te d , t h i s being is

s i m i l a r to the divine g ran d fa th e r of Gesar , the Great God, White

L um inos i ty Uha.chen od.ldan dkar). The T ibe tan rec e p t io n of t h i s

name White Luminosi ty ( od.ldan d k a r ) s e e m s to be t h a t it is s im p ly

th e nam e of som e epic de i ty and nobody in p a r t i c u l a r . N e v e r th e le s s ,

a t l e a s t two pand i t s have a d m i t te d tha t , a l though they had no t

tho u g h t so a t f i r s t , White Luminosi ty could indeed be Brahma. It

would make s e n se , they said , be ca use Brahma is qu i te an im p o r t a n t

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god and no t j u s t be ca use of hi s r e l a t i o n s h ip wi th the Buddha in the

s c r i p t u r e s . He a lso r e p r e s e n t s broad p r in c ip l e s of c r e a t i o n and

or ig ina l puri ty . For example, Khenpo Pa lden Sherap sa id t h i s about

the a c t s of c r e a t i o n a t t r i b u t e d to Brahma: "He did not s im p ly c r e a t e

the w o r ld a t one t ime. He is sym bo l i ca l ly respons ib le fo r the

c o n s t a n t r e c r e a t i o n of things, such a s t h e four seasons , which

c o n s t a n t l y re turn."

Brahma a lso f igu res ac t ive ly in the Tibetan v e r s ion of the

Ramayana. He is f a t h e r and g r a n d fa th e r to grea t he roes who are b o m

to f r ee the w o r ld from evil demons. 185 It may be t h a t t h i s

g r a n d f a t h e r of Gesa r is an inf luence f rom the Tibetan v e r s i o n of t h i s

medieva l Hindu epic.

What u n i t e s all t h e s e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of Tshang pa in The

Gesar is the concep t of epic imagery. Brahma as a divine f igure

does not d e t e r m i n e ac t ion in the epic. He does not i n i t i a t e a c t i v i t y

l ike A v a lo k i t e s v a r a or cause im p o r t a n t tu rn ings in the a rgum ent .

His fu n c t io n as c e l e s t i a l machinery is m ore to e m be l l i sh the co lo r

and imagery of the text . He is an e voca t ion of Vedic gods and the

agam as , o r Hindu epic, or local d e i t i e s of the w h i t e and the good,

depending on the d i rec t ion the t e x t s l a n t s the allusion.

T hom as Greene in his s tudy of ep ic machinery, The Descent

f rom Heaven 186, d i s c u s s e s divine imagery , making an i n t e r e s t i n g

po in t about i t s a s s i m i l a t i o n in C h r i s t i an epics. He n o te s t h a t when,

a t the beginning of the Renaissance, a u th o r s a t t e m p t e d to w r i t e

C h r i s t i an h e ro ic poems, some of them f e l t t h a t as C h r i s t i a n s they

could not a l lude to pagan de i t i e s . The r e s u l t , says Greene, w e r e

e p ic s w h ic h s eem ed faded and w a s h e d -o u t . They lacked the r i c h n e s s

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of imagery t h a t a l ien mythology brings. It s e em s t h a t when one is

r e s t r i c t e d to j u s t a handful of gods and divine f igures , the work

lacks color. T ha t is w ha t is lo s t when a l i e n gods and m agica l

d e v ic es a re o u t l a w e d from the account and d i sa l low ed to the

i m a g i n a t i o n .187

Buddhist n a r r a t iv e s , b e ca u se of the re l ig ion 's r e a d i n e s s to

a s s i m i l a t e gods and magical dev ices f rom o th e r c u l t u r e s have no

such imagery problem. This is p a r t i c u l a r l y so for t a n t r i c pan theons ,

which , in the name of p r in c ip l e s of m e ta p h y s ica l c o n t in u i ty and

a lchem ica l t r a n s m u t a t i o n make a s p e c i a l t y of absorbing local

d e i t i e s and a l i en pantheons. Among t a n t r i c schools the E c l e c t i c s ,

the Rimé school of Mipham, et. al. is p a r t i c u l a r ly good a t

a s s i m i l a t i o n . Thei r aim, in f a c t , w a s to f ind a phi losophica l and

m ethodo log ica l common ground which could uni te the t e a c h in g s of

the m a j o r l ineages of T ibe tan Buddhism.

One of the e x p re ss ions of the Rimê's e c l e c t i c i s m then w a s the

w r i t i n g of sâdhanas , r i tua l p r a c t i c e s , w h ic h combined iconography

from va r ious l ineages. There are c o n te m p la t iv e p r a c t i c e s in t h i s

school in which the d i sc ip le v i s u a l i z e s a v i r tua l sm orgasbo rd of

gurus f rom d i f f e r e n t l ineages. S o m e t im e s the f igures a re l i t e r a l l y

supe r im p osed upon one ano the r , r e p r e s e n t in g in the m os t d i r e c t way

poss ib le the in teg ra t ion of t h e i r d iverse ph i losophies and a pproaches

to c o n te m p la t iv e praxis. There a re m an d a la s in which the d e i t i e s in

some d i r e c t i o n s s tand for Kagyü p r o t e c t o r s and in o th e r d i r e c t i o n s

fo r Nyingma p r o t e c to r s , e x p re s s in g the un i ty of the m e d i t a t i o n

p r a c t i c e s of the two l ineages.

It is in t h i s s p i r i t t h a t Mipham's p r a c t i c e s would include

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d e i t i e s f rom d i f f e r e n t pan theons , consc ious ly us ing the imagery of

t h e i r a p p e ra n c e s to evoke the m ul t ip le h e r i t a g e s he c l a i m s and

w i s h e s to combine.

The Nat ive Tibe tan Pan theon

As w e can see f rom Mipham’s Gesar l i t u r g i e s , the Rime a u th o r s

of t h e s e p r a c t i c e s w e r e v i r t u o s o w r i t e r s of t a n t r i c r i tua l . They

w e r e iconograph ica l p a i n t e r s who used r i t u a l m a n d a l a s as t h e i r

c a n v a s e s and the gods and gurus of v a r io u s s e c t s , including Bon, as

t h e i r pa in ts . The Gesar Epic, then, is a p e r f e c t m ed ium for l i t e r a r y

e f f o r t s in t h i s s t y l e — fo r in i t the epic gods and magica l dev ices

f rom d iv e r s e pan theons a re woven t ig h t ly t o g e t h e r in to f ab r i c s of

iconograph ica l and m agica l a l lusions .

Take, fo r example, t h i s pa ssage in which m ag ic a l machinery is

used, not to advance the plot , Put m ere ly for r i c h n e s s of imagery and

r i c h e r e x p re s s iv e n e s s :

...the i m p r e s s iv e and d ign if ied c i ty of the r a k s a s a s :

Even if you w e re a dea th -g o d , (Sanskr i t : yama, gshin r je ), you

would dread t h i s place.

Even if you w e re the Lord of Life ( s ro g bdag ), Brahma, you

would fal l back and avoid th is place.

Even if you w e re a v inayaka, you would be fo rc e d to c i r c l e

around and shun t h i s place.

If you w e r e an o rd inary man, you could not b e a r h ea r of, much

le s s look upon t h i s place.

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This p a ssa g e s h o w s an i n t e r e s t i n g phenomenon which

c o n s t i t u t e s y e t a th i rd m a j o r s y s t e m of machinery in the Gesar. The

d e i t i e s ment ioned above w e r e given S a n s k r i t nam es in my

t r a n s l a t i o n . But the na m e s of Indian d e i t i e s w e r e or ig ina l ly

t r a n s l a t e d into Tibe tan using w o r d s fo r a l ready p r e - e x i s t i n g na t iv e

gods. Thus, in indigenous T ibe tan re l ig ion the re a re c r e a t u r e s c a l l ed

s h in je (gshin. r je ) who have t h e i r own d e s c r i p t i o n s as harmful and

d e a t h -b r in g i n g na tu ra l fo rces . But "sh in je"" is a l so the convent ional

t r a n s l a t i o n for the Vedic god of Death, Yama.

The sam e ambigui ty e x i s t s w i t h the basic, sh a p e - s h i f t i n g ,

fanged, m a le v o le n t Indian m o n s t e r , the raksasa, sinpo (s r in po ) in

T ibe tan . 188 R aksasas f igure heav i ly in the S a n s k r i t epic t r ad i t ion

and in t h a t t r a d i t io n an i n t e r e s t i n g re v e r sa l t a k e s place. Ravana, the

king of the r a k s a s a s , and king of the c i ty of Lanka on the is land of

Ceylon, r a v i s h e s away Rama 's w i fe . He and his demons are enem ies

of t h e Dharma. But in the Lankavatarasu tra t h i s s a m e demon

w e l c o m e s the Buddha into Lanka and r e q u e s t s him to teach.

Padm asam bhava ' s is land home is the c i ty of the r a k s a s a s among

whom he l ives as a being who can t a m e them and keep them from

ha rm ing o the r s . In fac t , in the Mipham Gesar i t a p p e a r s tha t the

r a k s a s a s on Camara have never ful ly r e a l i z e d t h a t Padm asam bhava is

a Buddhist . He s imply d e s t ro y e d and rep laced t h e i r own king.

But if sinpo is not being used as a t r a n s l a t i o n of raksasa,

then the sinpos are sp e c i f i c n a t iv e d e i t i e s , w r a th f u l , harmful , m a n -

d e s t ro y in g c re a tu re s . In t h i s c o n te x t they have t h e i r own

iconography and c h a rac te r . To c o m p l ica te the t r a n s l a t i o n p ro c e s s

f u r th e r , the word sinpo i s a l so used as a so r t of gener ic name for

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dem ons a t l a rg e .109

A s i m i l a r t r i p a r t i t e i n te rp lay w i t h Indian pan theons e x i s t s for

the c r e a t u r e s cal led vinayaka. Vinayaka i s the S a n s k r i t name fo r the

lord o f the obs t ruc t ing s p i r i t s ( t i b .bgegs, skt . vighna ) who c r e a t e s

o b s t a c l e s to m e d i t a t io n p r a c t i c e or the s u c c e s s f u l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t

of one 's plans. Vinayaka i s a l so an e p i t h e t of Ganesa (Lord of

Hos ts ) , the Hindu e le p h an t -h e ad e d god, who is h im s e l f a d e s t r o y e r

of o b s t a c l e s . But Si.na.ya.ka (Tib. t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n of vinayaka ) is

a l so t h e name of a na t ive T ibe tan s p i r i t , s o m e t i m e s r e p r e s e n t e d as a

black f ig u re w i t h black a c c o u t r e m e n t s , r id ing a black horse. He is

a ccom pan ied in some m a n i f e s t a t i o n s by Sumbha and Nisumbha,

c h i e f s among the o b s t ruc t ing s p i r i t s (Tucci I, 3.) (N-B 285) . It is a

c o m p l i c a t e d piece of m ach inery , because the black f igu re is an

indigenous descr ip t ion , but Sumbha and Nisumbha a re a n c ien t

Indian f i g u re s or iginat ing in Indian Tan t ras .

Thus, in a passage l ike t h i s we are faced w i th a na t iv e

pan theon which could be cons ide red a Hindu or indian Mahayana

pan theon as well . The a l lu s ion of the demon 's Tibe tan name can go in

any one of t hose th ree d i r e c t i o n s or in all t h r e e d i r e c t i o n s a t once. I

would s u g g e s t t h a t s e n s i t i v i t y to the am biva lence of a l lu s io n and

c u l t u r a l background in t h e s e local d e i t i e s c o n s t i t u t e s an im por tan t

e l e m e n t in t h e i r l i t e ra ry r i c h n e s s . S o m e t im e s , for example, the epic

h i g h l ig h t s the Indie a l lu s ions involved in the name of a de i ty and

s o m e t i m e s it foregrounds t h e co lo r fu l , g ro tesque , m ag ica l , and

s h a m a n i s t i c local a l lu s io n s .190

For example, in the f i r s t few pages of the Mipham Gesar, there

a re t i m e s when the t ex t i n s i s t s on the Indian l inkage by a c tu a l ly

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sp e l l i n g in Tibetan t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n the S a n s k r i t w ord raksasa. When

w e se e Padm asam bhava 's c a s t l e i t i s su r rounded by th e s e Indian

d e i t i e s . Thei r S a n sk r i t n a m e s are used and we a re thus r em inded

t h a t t h i s t a n t r i c m ag ic ian s tud ied or ig ina l ly in India t h a t he

c am e from an exot ic p lace to tam e the na t ive d e i t i e s of T i b e t —

t h a t he is a symbol of t h e pow er of t a n t r i c Buddhism as a fo re ign

and e x o t i c religion.

At o th e r p laces in t h e same t e x t Padma is sur rounded by the

"sinpo" (s r in po ). Of c o u r s e , they are ex ac t ly the sam e c r e a t u r e s , bu t

the a s s o c i a t i o n s are now w i t h the t e r r i f y in g f i g u r e s of na t ive

T ib e t a n rel igion. We a re reminded then t h a t Padma came from the

C en t ra l Asia country of Uddiyana and from India to t am e the v i c io u s

local de i t i e s .

We are reminded of t h i s f a c t a few m in u te s l a t e r by the co m ic

s p e e c h of the s e v en -h e a d ed demon m i n i s t e r when he w a rn s

A va lo k i t e sv a ra away f rom Camara. He d e s c r ib e s P adm asam bhava

and the l ineage of demon kings who preceded him as if they w e r e all

sinpo. The kings of Cam ara t h e m s e lv e s have been wi ld , i r r a s c i b l e ,

p r e c i p i t a t e beings who d e s t r o y even t h e i r d e a r e s t s u b j e c t s in f i t s of

p a s s i o n and unpred ic tab le anger. Such w e re the sinpo k ings of

Camara:

Even people l ike me, the i n te r io r m i n i s t e r , when w e

s t a nd before such k ings are ready to be punished, and w e

haven ' t done any th ing wrong. They a re ready to kick us ou t fo r

no reason or a r r e s t u s for no rea l cause. They are ready to

gobble up the f l e sh of a living man and gulp down the blood of a

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l ive horse. In t h i s l ineage th e r e have been such men.

Since Padmasambhava took over as king the leaders of Camara

have been d i f fe ren t :

In r e c e n t g e n e ra t i o n s , however , t h e i r gu ts s e em to have

s o m e w h a t broadened and t h e i r minds, which are e m p t i n e s s and

mercy, uni te all t h r e e t e m p e ra m e n t s : peacefu l , w r a th f u l , and

relaxed.

The Pantheon of Va j ra yana in Gesar

This four th pantheon, the Va j rayana pantheon is highly

o rgan ized and h ie ra rch ized , i t s s y s t e m of d e i t i e s ga thered into

m a n d a l a s — l i t e ra l ly , " soc ie t i e s " of c o sm ic forces . The c h ie f de i ty

in each mandala is a spec ia l kind of t a n t r i c buddha cal led a y idam (

S a nsk r i t : is tadevata ) o r t u t e l a r y deity . These yidams are

a ccompanied by t h e i r own r e t i n u e of gurus, goddesses , p r o t e c t o r s ,

m i n i s t e r s , genera ls , etc. Techn ica l ly the yidams are sambhogakaya

buddhas. That is, unl ike the very a b s t r a c t dharmakaya buddhas, who

r e p r e s e n t the en l igh tened mind and have very spa re r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s ,

t h e s e sambhogakaya buddhas r e p r e s e n t the pr inc ip le of e n l ig h ten e d

com m un ica t ion and m a n i f e s t in r ich sym bol ic form. In the

iconography they have e la b o ra te , colorful m a n i f e s t a t i o n s w h ic h

o c cu r in one of t h re e moods: w ra th fu l , peacefu l , and s e m i - w r a t h f u l .

They appea r to d i s c ip l e s in v is ions. Their numerous o rn a m e n t s have

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symbol ic values.

It is w i th in the cosmology of Tantra t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n is

made be tw ee n the the w or ld ly d e i t i e s (l ib - . ' j ig .r ten .pa ' i Jha,

S k t la u k ik a ) 191 and those who are beyond the w o r l d V j ig . r te n las

‘das .pa ' i , loko t ta ra ). Th is is a v i ta l d i s t in c t io n w i t h o u t which

the re would be no way of d i s t ingu ish ing Buddhist T a n t r a f rom

p o l y th e i s t i c re l ig ions. The y idam s are lords and lady c h i e f s of the

manda las . Their r e t i n u e s a r e w or ld ly and unwor ld ly d e i t i e s —

rep r e se n t in g d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of enl ightened m a n i f e s t i o n .

The wor ld ly d e i t i e s a re ordinary s p i r i t s and as f a r as an

ordinary T ibe tan is conce rned they have the s a m e s o r t of e x i s t e n c e

as human beings. That is, they a re confused and s t i l l l ive w i th in the

rea lm of i l lusion and cyc l ic ex i s tence . They are inv is ib le beings, but

f rom the point of v iew of r e l a t i v e t ru th they e x i s t , have prev ious

karma, memory, and can e x e r c i s e in ten t ions , make plans , and a c t

purposefu l ly in the world.

The d e i t i e s who are "beyond the world," on th e o th e r hand, are

pure p r in c ip le s of e n l igh tenm en t . Most th eo r i e s of t a n t r i c

m e ta p h y s i c s do not take them to e x i s t as beings w i t h p e r s o n a l i t i e s .

Rather , they are "em ana t ions" (sprul.pa) of the a b s o l u t e —

p ro j e c t i o n s of the dharmakaya, fo rm s of the e s s e n c e of the

p r a c t i t i o n e r ' s own mind. We wi l l see ex tens ive use of the concep t of

“emanat ion" in the opening l ines of Spontaneous Buddha A c i t i v i t y

w he re Gesa r is rega rded a s a sp ru l pa of Padm asam bhava , who in

tu rn is a p ro jec t io n of the m inds of the buddhas.

The m e ta p h y s i c s which under l ies the e x i s t e n c e of the de i t i e s

beyond the world is e x t r e m e ly sub t l e and complex. But it s e r v e s to

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d i s t i n g u i s h them on to log ica l 1y from the wor ld ly d e i t i e s . For

example , if a s o p h i s t i c a t e d t a n t r i c p r a c t i t i o n e r w e r e to summon a

w or ld ly p ro tec to r , he or she would unde rs tand t h a t the being had

come to the place of p r a c t i c e f rom afar . It m igh t be a m o u n ta in god

and r e s i d e on i t s eponymous mountain. Then it would come from th a t

m oun ta in to the p r a c t i t i o n e r when he or she pe r fo rm ed th e

invocat ion. Or, as we w i l l see in the "History of the Goloks"— it

m igh t come from a s o r t of divine t e rm in a l , a po r ta l b e tw e e n t h i s and

the o t h e r world.

But for the t a n t r i c d e i t i e s who are beyond the w or ld the

though t t h a t they a c t u a l l y might t r ave l and change p lace would be a

fundam en ta l m is u n d e r s t a n d in g of t h e i r nature , fo r they are , as the

say ing goes, "beyond n e a r and far." In Buddhist m e t a p h y s i c s the

o p e ra t in g not ion here is the n a tu re of m a n i f e s t a t i o n . Beings who

w a n d e r in s a m sa ra , c y c l i c e x i s te n ce , a re reborn w i t h in one of the

Six Realms. They t r a n s m i g r a t e from rea lm to rea lm. A m oun ta in god

m igh t be a human being who through the accumula t ion of g r e a t m e r i t

w a s reborn as a god. Then t h a t god m igh t m ee t an en l ig h ten e d being

and s tudy the Holy Dharma. Making p ro g re s s along the pa th , the god

m igh t become a buddha. This would be, as Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche

put i t, "a being coming up from below."

But then the re a re pure a v a t a r s of pr imord ia l en l igh tened mind

such a s the yidams Va j rayogin i and Hayagrlva. These f i g u re s w e r e

n ever ind ividuals and have no pe rsonal his tory. They a re

m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the dharmakaya . In a sense they are no t be ings at

a ll , but m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of the d i s c ip l e ' s own buddha na tu re . That is

why they are ca l led " the c o m m i tm e n t of the d i s c ip l e ' s mind"— the

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l i t e r a l meaning of the word yidam. They would be roughly equ iv a len t

to the hindu a v a t a r s of Visnu. For Visnu a s we l l is a p r im o rd ia l

being w i t h no h is to ry , in se p a ra b le f rom all m a t t e r and mind.

However , he too in the P u ra o a s m a n i f e s t s a s be ings who appea r in a

c e r t a i n shape to humans. The m y s t e r y of i nca rna t ion is a com plex

m e ta p h y s i c a l i ssue in every rel igion. But in any case , Chogyam

Trunpga Rinpoche would say th a t th e s e a re be ings who " m a n i f e s t

down f rom dharmakaya.'* 192

As a r e s u l t , t h e i r ind iv idua l i ty and ind iv idua t ion are e x t r e m e ly

s l ip p e ry m a t t e r s . P roper ly speaking, the t w o no t ions do not apply to

the t r a n s - w o r l d l y d e i t i e s , f o r they a re not beings inhab i t ing the

rea lm of i l lus ion, cyc l ic e x i s te nce . Th is m ake s i t p o s s ib l e for

t a n t r i c gods such as y idam s and divine gurus to be e m a n a t i o n s of

each o the r , as have we have obse rved in the Long Werma. And it

m e a n s t h a t t h e i r ac t ion in e p ic s is not s t r i c t l y c om p a ra b le to the

a c t io n of an individual. It i s more as if the Godhead w e r e a

c h a r a c t e r in a n a r r a t iv e , i f such a thing is p o ss ib le or imaginable .

In t h i s regard, l e t us look once more a t the opening l ine s of

Spontaneous Buddha A c t i v i t y :

From the Palace of the v idyádha ras and dak in is ,

0 w isd o m kaya, the e q u a l i t y of s a m s a r a and ni rvana ,

Embodiment of all t h e un ive r sa l V ic to r io u s Ones, 0 Lake Born

One,

Your com pass ion has m a n i f e s t e d a s the Form of I l lu sory

Wisdom P l a y , 193

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Accompanied by h is a s s e m b ly of male and fem a le yog ins and

p r a c t i t i o n e r s .

This p a s sa g e says l i t e r a l l y t h a t Padmasambhava (Lake Born

One) is the e m bod im en t of t h e Buddhas. His co m p a ss io n m a n i f e s t e d

as Gesa r , who is the play of h i s wisdom in human fo rm ( th e Form of

I l lusory Wisdom Play). Thus t h e Buddhas, Padm asam bhava , and Gesar

a re iden t ica l beings. This kind of a b so lu te iden t i ty b e t w e e n d e i t i e s

w i t h d i f f e r e n t names, a s p e c t s , and a t t r i b u t e s is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

t he yidams, the t u t e l a r y d e i t i e s , fo r they a re d e i t i e s b e y o n d - t h e -

wor ld . The p r a c t i t i o n e r c h a n t s su p p l i c a t io n s such a s t h i s one in

o rd e r to "bring down the b l e s s i n g s of the divine y i d a m But it is

unders tood among the p a n d i t s and the m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d

p r a c t i t i o n e r s of t a n t r a t h a t the b l e s s in g s occur b e c a u se the

p r a c t i t i o n e r h im s e l f is a l s o i d en t i ca l w i th the yidam. Yidam is, as

we have pointed out , s h o r t fo r y id k y i dam tsh ig— "the c o m m i tm e n t

( samaya ) of the d i s c ip le ' s m ind ."194 The yidam is t h u s in a very

d e f in i t e s e n se a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the d i sc ip le ' s own devo t ion and

inna te buddha nature .

But from the l i t e r a r y po in t of v iew is the re any s e n s e to the

d i s t i n c t io n b e tw e e n the t w o k inds of d e i t i e s ? The sp e c i a l t a n t r i c

gods w i th t h e i r i n i t i a t i o n s , e m a n a t io n s , and t r a n s m u n d a n e na tu re

a re p a r t i c u l a r ly s u s c e p t i b l e to a l l ego r ica l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . But in the

ac t ion of the epic i t s e l f , do they behave d i f f e r e n t ly b e c a u s e they a re

"beyond the w or ld?" In a s e n s e the a n s w e r is no, b e c a u s e w i th in the

f i c t i o n of a l i t e r a r y work, every de i ty is equal ly a c h a r a c t e r , equal ly

a p a r t i c ip a n t . 'J ig .rten.ias mdas.pa'i gods do not a p p e a r more

238

I l luso ry or t r a n s p a re n t because of t h e i r special n a t u r e a s t r a n s -

w o r ld ly beings. On the o t h e r hand, you could i n t e r p r e t

A v a lo k i t e sv a r a ' s s t r a n g e behav io r when he v i s i t s Pa d m asam b h av a in

C ha p te r I a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of h i s b e y o n d - th e -w o r ld n e s s . He

changes into a s o r t of god child and v i s i t s the Copper Colored

Mountain of Padma. There he t a l k s w i t h a demon m i n i s t e r and then

tu r n s into a huge lotus. The lo tu s then t r a n s fo r m s into r ays of l ight

w h ich e n t e r Padma's hear t . L a te r t h e rays of l igh t leave th e top of

Padm a 's head and en te r into v a r i o u s o ther d e i t i e s giving b i r th in

t im e to Gesar. The i n t e r e s t i n g po in t is not s im ply th e s h a p e -

s h i f t i n g he does. Worldly d e i t i e s can do tha t a s wel l . But when he

t r a n s f o r m s into rays of l igh t and d i s s o lv e s into o t h e r beings, he

behaves more like a m e ta phys ica l p r inciple than l ike an individual

c h a r a c t e r . And it is i n t e r e s t i n g to note tha t a f t e r he has

d i s a p p e a re d into Padma's hear t , he cont inues to s ing songs a s if he

w e r e ubiqui tous. When I q ue s t ione d Tendzin Samphel about t h i s

point , asking how w a s i t po ss ib le f o r Ava lok i te sva ra to be in one

place s inging songs while a t the s a m e t ime becoming a ray of l ight

t h a t d i s s o l v e s into ano the r dei ty , he explained t h a t the god ch i ld

m u s t have been or iginal ly an emanation of A va lo k i t e sv a ra and t h a t

he s t i l l d w e l t in his own heaven, the Potala , a t the s a m e t ime .

So, in the ex t rem e ly theo log ica l Mipham v e r s io n of the f i r s t

book of the Gesar there is indeed a d i f fe rence in the t r a n s c e n d a n t

gods a s machinery. They a c t in w a y s tha t even Homeric gods could

not. They are ubiquitous, they blend w i th o ther d e i t i e s , they produce

e m a n a t io n s , and they are all om n isc ie n t .

At one point they ac tua l ly behave in the m anne r of d e i t i e s in a

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r i tu a l p rac t ice . This pa ssage occurs on fo l io 8 of S te in ' s woodblock

pr int . A va lo k i t e sv a ra r e q u e s t s t h a t Padmasambhava c o n fe r on

Joy fu l to Hear the in i t i a t i o n or abhiseka of the five Vic to r ious Ones

and o the r b l e s s i n g s so t h a t he may save the wor ld from the evil

demons of the fou r d i rec t ions . Padmasambhava t r a v e l s to the

p a ra d i se of A va lok i t e sva ra and from th e re p e r f o rm s the a c t i o n s

de sc r ibed in a typ ic a l t a n t r i c sadhana or manda la v i su a l i z a to n

p rac t ice .

He e m a n a t e s green rays of l ight f rom the top of his head which

d i s so lve into the h e a r t c e n t e r of Sam antabhadra , the p r imord ia l

Buddha. He is the t i m e l e s s sou rce of all t h e Nyingma t e a c h i n g s ------

the iconographic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the inward , s e l f - e x i s t i n g pur i ty

of mind. Sam an ta b h ad ra e m a n a t e s from his head c e n t e r a blue f i v e -

pointed s c e p t r e w h ich e n t e r s the h e a r t - c e n t e r or mind of White

Supreme Bl i ss (bde.mchog dkar.po ).195 White Supreme B l i s s then

g ives b i r th to the yidam or t u t e l a ry de i ty , the h o r se -h ea d ed

Hayagriva. In a l a t e r volume Hayagriva wi l l inca rna te as Gesa r 's

magical horse. A s i m i l a r p roce ss , i n i t i a t e d once again in rays

em ana ted by Padma, produces from the divine g randm othe r of Gesar

a red lotus , which becomes the popular f e m a le yidam Vajrayogini .

These male and f e m a le buddha, r ep re se n t ing , as do the v a j r a and

lo tus , sk i l l ful m e a n s and compass ion , uni te , t h a t is, they copulate .

The sound of th i s union of b l i s s and e m p t i n e s s 196 in v i t e s the

Buddhas of the Five Fam i l ie s of the mandala who send out rays of

l igh t in a n s w e r to t h i s call. The rays of l igh t t h a t are s e n t out by

the buddhas pe r fo rm a complex exe rc ise w h ich ac tua l ly d e s c r i b e s in

de ta i l the p r o c e s s by which a god is c r e a t e d or born in heaven. And

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so Joyfu l to Hear, the de i ty who wil l r e i n c a rn a t e a s Gesar , is born.

He r e c e i v e s the e m p o w erm en t of the Five Buddha F am i l ie s , the f ive

d i r e c t i o n s of the mandala and the o th e r b le s s ings involved in the

t r a d i t io n a l t a n t r i c ceremony of abhiseka.

To any t a n t r i c p r a c t i t i o n e r th is p ro c e s s is qu i te f am i l i a r . It is

p r e c i s e ly w h a t occurs in t h e v i s u a l i z a t i o n of a manda la when th e

m e d i t a t o r is performing the developing s t a ge ( skye.rim ) of

Va j rayana contempla t ion . The i n t e r e s t i n g point is t h a t th i s

e s s e n t i a l l y l i turgica l d e s c r ip t i o n is imported whole c lo th into the

n a r r a t i v e and the sending out of l igh t s f rom yogic c e n t e r s on the

co sm ic body becomes epic act ion. It is a de sc r ip t ion of how gods

copu la te and produce through m i racu lous b i r th de i ty ch i ld ren

( lha.phug ). We wil l see in the c om m en ta ry to the t r a n s l a t i o n t h a t

t h i s p a s sa g e includes q u o ta t i o n s l i f t ed w o r d - f o r - w o r d from

Buddhist t a n t r a s .

There is, however , one technica l point in which t h i s is a

decided ly a typ ica l "developing s tage" v i su a l i z a t i o n p rac t i ce . In a

typ ica l p r a c t i c e the l ight emanat ing from Padma, which is g reen to

r e p r e s e n t the Action Family among the Five Buddhas, would have

d i r e c t l y produced the male and fem a le yidams. But t h e r e is an e x t r a

s tep . The rays of l ight e n t e r na t ive d e i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d , accord ing to

Khenpo Palden Sherap, w i t h the language of the epic t rad i t ion .

P re sum a b ly these na t ive d e i t i e s are gods who inhab i t the heaven of

the T h i r t y - T h re e — the spec ia l place where wor ld ly d e i t i e s who are

favo rab le to Buddhism l ive and rece ive t each ings from g re a t

b o d h i sa t t v a s .

These local gods w i l l be ac t ive in the epic in t h e i r na t ive form

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and not a s VajrayognI or Hayagriva . The rel igious m ean ing o f t h i s

p a s s a g e is qui te c lear . Gesa r w i l l be not s imply a m ag ica l hero ; he

w i l l be the embodiment of a l l t h e va r io u s pr incip les of

e n l i g h t e n m e n t desc r ibed in t h e T an t r a s . More than t h a t , he wi l l

s i m u l ta n e o u s ly be a T ibe tan n a t i o n a l symbol, embodying loca l

d e i t i e s and Indie Buddhist a b s o l u t i s t p r inc ip les a t the s a m e t ime .

But does th is dese rve to be c a l l ed epic mach inery a t a l l ? Is it

r e a l l y n a r r a t e d ac t ion or j u s t an a r t i f i c i a l inse r t ion of r e l i g i o u s

c e re m o n y where i t does not b e lo n g ? In Western epic t h e r e a re

e x a m p l e s of th is sam e phenomena and such examples have been

a c c e p t e d by Western l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s as pa r t icu la r ly b r i l l i a n t

e x a m p le s of surpr i s ing ly m o d e rn e x p re s s io n i s t i c poe try .

The most famous e xam ple is the act ion occuring in D a n te ' s

Paradiso. Dante w a s faced w i t h an in te res t ing problem w h e n he had

to d e s c r i b e his journey to Heaven. Parad ise , a f t e r a ll , t r a n s c e n d s

h i s t o r y and t e m p o r a l / s p a t i a l exper ience . There, all b e ings l ive

f o r e v e r in the p resence of God beholding the u l t i m a t e p r inc ip le .

Only through near ly ha l luc inogen ic metaphorica l d i sp lay cou ld Dante

r e p r e s e n t th is u l t im a te e x p e r i e n c e as a narrat ive. And so he shows,

fo r example, l ights which d i s o l v e in to sy l lab les which d i s s o l v e and

r e f o r m into heraldic an im a ls , e x p re s s in g in e s o t e r i c t h e o lo g ic a l

d i s p l a c e m e n t the t i m e l e s s r e l a t i o n s be tween e l e m e n t s in God’s

c r e a t i o n and a sp e c t s of God's na tu re . These s e c t i o n s of t h e Paradiso

w h ic h a re m os t e s o t e r i c and s y m b o l i c read very much l ike t a n t r i c

sadhanas . In both kinds of t e x t the landscape and i n h a b i t a n t s of

heaven have been a l l egor ized in to pure rel igious sym bo l i sm . There

is no longer, in e f f e c t , a p r e s u p p o s e d l i te ral level of even t . Action

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o c c u r s in purely symbol ic imagery .

One Weste rn r e a d e r of t h e Lha Ling r em arked t h a t i t w a s no t

s a t i s f y i n g as epic, because t h e r e w a s no act ion. Miss ing the b a t t l e

s c e n e s of the I l ia d he r e m a r k e d t h a t " there w e r e a s y e t no s p l i t t i n g

of h e l m e t s on the f ie ld of b a t t l e . " T h is level of ev en t wi l l o c c u r

l a t e r in t h e cen tral c h a p t e r s of the epic. But he re w e can s a y t h a t if

the a c t i o n s rep re se n ted in the Paradiso , which a re pure symbol , pure

a l l egory , a re considered e v e n t , t h e n the re is e ven t in the f i r s t

c h a p t e r of the Mipham Gesar.

In the Heaven of the T h i r t y - T h r e e where d iv ine co p u la t io n

p roduces Joyful to Hear a s an e m a n a t i o n of Padm asam bhava , all

a c t i o n is by yidams and e n l i g h t e n e d beings. When t h e s e d e i t i e s move

to o t h e r pure rea lms , they c o n t i n u e to funct ion accord ing to t h e i r

m e t a p h y s i c a l posi t ion in the pan theons . When A v a lo k i t e s v a r a

w a n d e r s in Camara, he c o n t i n u e s to change shape in the f a s h io n of

t a n t r i c buddhas. The s e v e n - h e a d e d demon m i n i s t e r , belonging to

a n o th e r pantheon, is r e s t r i c t e d in h i s ac t ion and hi s unders tand ing .

And so, the behavior of the d i f f e r e n t o rders of c e l e s t i a l m a c h in e ry

fo l low in the epic act ion t h e i r n a t u r e in the co sm o lo g ie s f rom which

they a r i se .

There is one i n t e r e s t i n g p rob lem w i th the Va j rayana m a c h in e ry

w h ich may simply be a w e a k n e s s in the c o n s t ru c t io n of t h i s

r e l i g i o u s epic. Being t r a n s c e n d a n t e n t i t i e s , the t r a n s c e n d a n t

m ac h ine ry are comple te ly e n l igh tened . If a yidam i s a being, then

one could not have a yidam w ho w a s not a r e a l i z e d being. T h e re fo re ,

i t does not make sense to r e p r e s e n t them as s u f f e r in g d e f e a t , f o r it

i s no t in the na ture of Buddhas; they a re the j inas , the v i c t o r i o u s

243

ones. And ye t , w i t h o u t s t r i v in g and r e s i s t a n c e and the t h r e a t of

d e fe a t , t h e r e can be no a c t io n or plot. P lo t conceived in the

A r i s t o t e l i a n s e n s e involves the t r a j e c t o r y of a p r o t a g o n i s t f rom a

cond i t ion of prob lem to a condi t ion of r e s o lu t io n or f ina l i ty . ,97

There m u s t be a need, a que s t , a d i f f i c u l ty to be overcome, a lack to

be se n se d and responded to w i t h a s e a rc h or quest . And y e t , in som e

w a y s the q u e s t is i l lusory, because the end is not in doubt. The hero

in Gesar i s a t r a n s c e n d a n t d e i ty and he canno t but m e e t w i t h

u l t i m a t e s u c c e s s .

It i s e v id e n t th a t Gesar and his im m e d ia te r e t i n u e a re t h i s

spec ia l kind of mach inery . They are not j u s t gods, they a re in the

n a tu r e of a v a t a r s — i n s t a n t i a t i o n s of a b so lu te p r inc ip les . This

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , ev iden t in Mipham’s l i t u r g i e s , should, I be l i eve ,

in f luence our read ing and r ecep t ion of the epic m ach ine ry of Gesar ,

h i s horse , Hayagriva, etc. Fundamenta l ly the su f f e r ing they

e xper i ence in t h e epic is a d isp lay for the be ne f i t of be ings ("the

I l lu sory Wisdom Play") r a t h e r than the t r u e a dven tu res of be ings in

c y c l i c e x i s t e n c e . They are the ///a, the play of Gesar.

P e rhaps t h i s is an o th e r c o n f i rm a t io n of the a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of

B ow ra ' s no t ion of a s h a m a n i s t i c epic. The s h a m a n i s t i c ep ic d i f f e r e d

from the "mature" Greek epic in tha t the hero w a s no t t ru ly human

and could not t r u ly s u f f e r defea t . Gesar is not Achi l l es or Aeneas or

long s u f f e r in g Odysseus and we cannot iden t i fy w i th h i s p rob lem s

the w a y w e would w i t h t h e s e so very human Greek he roes , who

s u f f e r l i m i t a t o n and f ru s t r a t i o n . Instead, we w a i t for Gesa r to

pefo rm his d e s t i n e d ac t ions , to m a n i f e s t h i m s e l f as a hero, to win

the h o r s e - r a c e , to gain the t r e a s u r e s w h ich a w a i t him buried in

244

Magyal Pomra (Ma rgyal sPom ra ) Mountain, to see him v i c t o r i o u s

over the demons in the four d i r e c t i o n s , etc.

The S i n o / T ib e t a n Pantheon

Some of the na t ive T ibe tan gods should be p a r t i t i o n e d off into

a f i f t h pan theon which I would like to cal l the S i n o / T ib e t a n

m a c h in a ry of the Cesar epic. In th is c a tego ry I would pu t the wor ld

of m ag ic a l b e l i e f s which r e f l e c t an an c ien t Central As ian and Far

E a s te rn cosmology. The e a r l i e s t t e x t s on these d e i t i e s a re Chinese.

To t h i s group belong the four he ra ld ic be as t s : the Tiger , Lion, Garuda,

and Dragon, a s well as the pe rv as ive T ibe tan symbol of d ign i ty or

s p i r i t u a l ene rgy— the r iung .r ta (Chinese: lung ma ) o r "windhorse."

There a re a lso the spec ia l gods of human phys ica l i n t e g r i t y and

pe rsona l s u c c e s s — the dra - lha (dgra.Jha ), the wargods . These

m ag ica l e n t i t i e s l i t e r a l l y perch on the human body. They have

t e c h n ic a l n a m e s such as pho.lha, f a t h e r gods, lus .¡ha, body gods, and

in some c a s e s even 'khyung, garuuas. If they can be f r i g h te n e d or

o t h e r w i s e dr iven from the w a r r io r ' s body, then he is v u ln e ra b le to

a t t a c k , having los t his fundamenta l d ign i ty , num inousness , and

i n t e g r i t y . 198

The t e r m dra- lha can a l so be t r a n s l a t e d "enemy gods ,“ because

dra (dgra ) means "enemy" and th e i r m ain purpose is to p r o t e c t the

w a r r i o r f rom enemies. They do not m e re ly p r o t e c t the body, they

a l so s e rv e as o b j e c t s of w orsh ip in the dom es t i c e n v i ro n m en t as

h e a r t h gods, and the genii of a f am i ly ' s sac red env ironment . S i m i l a r

c u l t s w orsh ipe d in very s i m i l a r w a y s a r e found th roughou t China and

Inner Asia , p a r t i c u l a r ly among the Mongolians, who w e r e re l ig ious ly

245

co lon ized by the T ibe tans .199

E le m en t s of t h i s S in o /T ib e t a n cosmology can be found in

a n c i e n t Chinese "Taoist" t e x t s such a s the Pao P'u Tzu of Ko Hung.

200 This f o u r t h c e n tu ry Chinese manual co l l ec t s a lc h e m ic a l lo re

f rom a be l i e f s y s t e m which th e a u th o r bel ieves w a s not o r ig in a l ly

Chinese a t a ll , but a s y s t e m of b e l i e f s and p rac t ice s f l o u r i s h in g in

the m y s t e r i o u s South of C h in a .201 it p a r t i c i p a t e s in a s e r i e s of

r e l i g io u s m o v e m e n ts , s o m e t i m e s specu la t ive , s o m e t i m e s

r e v e l a t i o n a l w h ich w e r e r ich ly e l a b o ra t e d during the T'ang d y n a s ty

in r e v e l a t i o n a l schoo ls such a s the Mao Shan Tao and the T ' ien Shih

Tao, not to m en t io n the Ling Pao.

These m o v e m e n t s involve an e th e r i a l i z a t i o n of the f i g u re of

Lao Tsu, who b e co m es an a l c h e m i s t work ing at his oven, c o n v e r t i n g

lead into gold. They involve in som e schools host s of gods and

magica l f o r c e s which dwell in and on the human body. They involve a

f u r t h e r fo reground ing of the concep t of the hsien jen, the s o - c a l l e d

“im m or ta l " or sage, and the chen jen, the "True Man," a n o th e r w ord

for sage as a kind of s p i r i tu a l hero who gains a Taois t e n l i g h t e n m e n t

f r am e d in a s h a m a n i s t i c m e ta p h o r i c a l language. The i m m o r t a l f l i e s

and v i s i t s o t h e r r e a l m s and l ive s forever . The immor ta l c o n t r o l s the

s a m e s o r t of f o r c e s t h a t Gesar c o n t r o l s and there is much com m on

imagery b e tw e e n the epic and the w o rk s in the Tao Tsang t h a t

c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s e va r ious s t r a n d s of anc ien t Chinese th o u g h t .202

in f a c t , t h e r e is even a common s ty l e of imagery. Livia Kohn

d i s c u s s e d in h e r r e c e n t a r t i c l e in The Journal o f the A m erican

O rien ta l S o c ie ty 203 to w ha t e x t e n t the concept of i m m o r t a l i t y in

Tao ism w a s m e ta p h o r i c a l and to w h a t ex ten t p r a c t i t i o n e r s of T a o i s t

2 4 6

yo g a s had as the ir aim a l i t e r a l physical in d e s t ru c t ib i l i t y . Did

t e x t s such a s the Ting Kuan Ching lead p r a c t i t i o n e r s to a l i t e r a l or a

m e t a p h o r i c a l i m m o r t a l i t y ? Did they r e a l ly confe r v a s t physica l

p o w e r s and the a b i l i ty to t r a v e l to l i t e r a l l y e x i s t e n t s p i r i t r e a l m s ,

o r w a s the message more ph i lo soph ica l , a lb e i t c lo thed in

s h a m a n i s t i c language?

Kohn’s careful su rvey of T a o i s t c o m m e n t a t o r s show s t h a t

t h e r e is an ambivalence in the t r a d i t i o n about t h i s quest ion.

S o m e t i m e s the Chinese i n t e r p r e t e r s t ake the im m o r t a l i t y

m e ta p h o r i c a l l y as a ph i lo soph ica l ind i f fe rence to l i f e and death.

S o m e t i m e s they mix the tw o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s or im m e rse t h e i r

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n in a fog of c a r e f u l am bigu i t i e s .

The reason I d i s c u s s t h i s am b iva lence in T a o i s t r ea d ings of the

s e e m in g ly sham an i s t m a c h in e ry of r eve la t iona l Tao ism is b e c a u s e

t h e r e is evidence t h a t T i b e t a n s have engaged in the sam e s t r a n g e

p a t t e r n of s y s t e m a t i c a l l e g o r i z a t i o n and o b fu sc a t io n w i th r e s p e c t to

t h e S ino /T ibe tan machinery in t h e Gesar. A no tab le work in Engl ish

w h i c h does this is a book by t h e Kagyu and r is .med lama, Chogyam

Trungpa, Rinpoche, fo rm er abbo t of the Surmang group of

m o n a s t e r i e s : Shambhala: the Way o f the Warrior. 204 This s e r i e s of

l e c t u r e s involves a s y s t e m a t i c su b l im a t io n of the S in o /T ib e t a n

m ac h in e ry of the Gesar, d i s p l a c in g the l i t e r a l meaning of the fou r

h e r a l d i c b e as t s , windhorse , and even the wargods , the dra lha, w i t h

psycho log ica l in t e rp re t a t i o n s . Under his reading, the S in o /T ib e tan

c o sm o lo g ic a l appara tus in the Gesar sy m b o l ize s the pe rsonal b a t t l e

of the individual to a t t a i n a s e n s e of s p i r i tu a l w h o le n es s and

c on f ide nce in his own s e l f - n a t u r e . Every e l e m e n t of th i s cosm ology

247

is given an a l l egor ica l reading, the l i t e ra l meaning being g e n e r a t e d

from an unders tand ing of the ac t ion in hero ic na r ra t ive . In Trungpa

Rinpoche 's s y s t e m even the demon kings of the four d i r e c t i o n s a re

given an a l l ego r ica l s i g n i f i c a n ce in the d i s c i p l e s ’ individual

s p i r i t u a l path a s personal psycho log ica l o b s c u ra t io n s w h ic h m u s t be

p e rsona l ly overcome.

I be l ieve a c lo s e exam ina t ion of the l i t u r g i e s of Mipham would

revea l an inv i ta t ion to the s a m e a l lego r i za t ion . Such a r e a d in g is

impl ied in his u se of the sa m e d e i t i e s to a t t a i n for the d i s c i p l e both

r e l a t i v e g i f t s and u l t i m a t e a t t a i n m e n t and in the dual i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

of the gods su pp l i ca ted in the iha sang as both c h a r a c t e r s in ep ic

n a r r a t i v e and abso lu te p r inc ip le s of Buddhist phi losophy.

In any case , the ambigu i ty i t s e l f is an in teg ra l p a r t of t h e

poe t ic of th i s ep ic l i t e r a t u r e and i t s a s s o c i a t e d cu l t s . It i s a l m o s t a

d i s t i n c t s t y l e of wr i t ing: to m en t ion and p rom ise vulgar,

unph i losophica l g i f t s of p o w e r and v ic to ry over enem ies w h i l e a t the

sa m e t im e seem ing ly intending the supermundane e g o le s s g i f t s of

t r a n s c e n d e n c e of s e l f and a t t a i n m e n t of e m p t ines s .

The s t r u c t u r e of th i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y North Asian m ach ine ry

and i t s coherence as a s u b - s y s t e m w i th in the broader range of

na t ive T ibe tan be l i e f should be explored. I be l i eve w ha t I have

ca l led the S in o /T ib e tan pantheon is indeed a d i s c r e t e complex of

fo rce s , d e i t i e s and magical f i g u re s and does not s imply d i s a p p e a r

in the w e l t e r of o th e r na t ive T ibe tan d e i t i e s and sp i r i t s .

The func t ioning of th i s s y s t e m is a key to much of the a c t i o n

in the Gesar legend— for the dra- lha, windhorse , and the fo u r

b e a s t s a re all involved in the ep ic de f in i t ion of a w a r r i o r ' s i n t e g r i ty

248

and conquering c h a r i sm a . Understanding the dynamic of th e s e fo r c e s

thus g ives us an i m p o r t a n t in s igh t into the n a tu r e of Tibe tan

s h a m a n i s t i c w a r r i o r s h i p w i t h in epic legend and l i t e r a t u r e . For

example, when Gesar b a t t l e s a magician, in so m e v e r s i o n s of the

legend the magic ian f i r s t t r i e s to f r igh ten his dra- lha , pho.lha, and

'khyung o f f of his body.

Conclusion

I have l i s t e d f ive m a j o r s y s t e m s of d e i t i e s , s p i r i t s and

magical dev ices w h ic h occu r in the Gesar. I have looked at them as

e l e m e n t s in the l i t e r a r y n a tu re of the epic and a l s o a s e l e m e n t s in

the complex, compounded wor ld of re l ig ious b e l i e f s w h ich underly

the re l ig ion of the Gesar Epic. Many of the p o s i t i o n s 1 took in t h i s

paper are obviously s t i l l in the realm of specu la t ion . The

r e l a t m n s h i p b e tw e e n the s o - c a l l e d S ino /T ibe tan pan theon in Gesar

and a c tua l Chinese s c h o o l s of a lchemica l Tao ism, is, for example,

highly s p e c u la t i v e and I hope to be able to exp lo re it in more de ta i l

in coming years.

The Mipham G e sa r l i t u rg i e s need to be t r a n s l a t e d into a

W este rn language fo r the sam e reasons. In t h i s rega rd , the work of

Geoffrey Sam ue ls in c o l l e c t i n g th is and r e l a t e d li t u rg ic a l m a t e r i a l s

is qu i te impor tan t . S t e in ' s work in analyzing the co lophons to t h e s e

p r a c t i c e s needs to be c a r r i e d fur ther . When all of t h i s is done, then

i t wi l l be poss ib le to con f iden t ly descr ibe the dynamic re l a t ionsh ip

b e tw e e n the Gesar l i t e r a t u r e and the Gesar p r a c t i c e s , at l e a s t fo r

the E c lec t ic School of T ibe tan Buddhism.

249

Spontaneous Buddha A c t i v i t y — a Gesa r Liturgy

The Long Werma Lha Sang w a s w r i t t e n in 1877. Three y e a r s

l a t e r Mipham w ro te t h i s b r i e f supp l ica t ion r i t u a l . 205 Since it

involves the cosm o log ie s evoked in the f i r s t c h a p t e r of the Lha Ling,

i t i s t r a n s l a t e d here w i th tw o c o m m e n ta r i e s , one in foo tno te s by

Tendzin Samphel and the o t h e r by m y se l f a f t e r t h e t rans la t ion .

Spon taneous Buddha Act iv i ty :A supp l i ca t ion and of fer ing p r a c t i c e to the Great Lion Gesa r

Norbu

From the Glorious Mountain, the f ea r fu l Ci ty of the Raksasas ,Which is the Buddhafieid of the Three Kayas, Blazing Lotus

Light,The tum u l tu o u s and t e r r i f y in g ground, blaz ing w i th dark red

bonf i res ,

Which is inward ly the c i t t a (mind) w i t h in the Vajra body—

From the Palace of the vidyadharas and dak in is ,

0 w isdom kaya, the e qua l i ty of s a m s a r a and ni rvana,

Embodiment of all the un iversa l V ic to r ious Ones, 0 Lake Born One,

Your c om pass ion has m a n i f e s t e d as the Form of I l lusory

Wisdom Play, Gesar .206

Accompanied by your a s se m b ly of m ale and fem a le yogins and p r a c t i t i o n e r s ,

In o rder to b le s s t h i s devoted child,

Pe r fo rm ing the v a j r a dance of ycgic d i s c ip l in e , come down the sky path;

A r i se in the body of the wargod w e rm a who t a m e s maras .

Great Vidyadhara, Suprem e Ornament of Jam budv ipa T sa i ,207Armed w i th your m ag ica l devices , the sw ord , bow, and arrow

250

of prajnâ ,

Great Mighty One, you d e fea t the t ro o p s of e n e m i e s in the

phenomenal world.

Suprem e Being, Great Lion J e w e l Kâya (Sengchen Norbu)208

su r rounded by your hordes,

Accompanied by your e n t i r e r e t inue , every s in g l e one, Thundering fo r th t h e w a r r io r c r i e s of Ki and So,

Unfurling in space the banner of your v i r t u o u s fame,

The dancing and s inging you do a s t r i d e your v a j r a s t eed , P u lv e r i z e s o b s t a c l e s . It s c a t t e r s and d i s p e r s e s the l i fe and

h e a r t of Damsr i .209

Your b l e s s i n g s p i le up in c louds and br ing down a rain of

s iddhis .

If I, a w o r th y d i sc ip le , make o f f e r in g s and en th rone you, Through the p e n e t r a t i n g power of your co m p a ss io n come here:

Accept t h i s w a r r i o r drink of a m r t a and t h i s s e l e c t offer ing. Accept t h i s o f fe r ing of the n u t r i t i o u s t o r m a which con fo rm s

to your w i s h e s . 210 Accep t t h i s o f f e r in g of blood, l iquor, and in to x ic a t in g

a r g h a m .

Accept t h i s br igh t and f rag ran t smoke of fer ing .

Accept th e s e o f f e r in g s of va r ious s i l k s , banners , and music.

Accept the s e c r e t of fe r ing of the e xper i ence of the e qua l i ty of

B l i s s and Emptiness .

Accept the o f fe r ing of th is Do f l a g 2 ' 1, bu i l t on the ground of Phenomenal Appearance.

Accept t h i s o f fe r ing of the wisdom of the e q u a l i ty of all

th ings.

Great Lion J e w e l , cons ider us w i t h compass ion .

Nirmânakâya of the Three F a m i l i e s 212, keep your promise, don ' t be idle.

From today onw ards unt il I a t t a i n e n l ig h t e n m e n t

P r o t e c t and b l e s s me and accompl i sh Buddha A c t iv i ty .213

You are the s e l f - n a t u r e of suprem e compass ion .You hold all the g r e a t weapons of Great Compassion.

You are sup re m e among the t a m e r s of the hords of màras .You di spe l all f e a r of the Four Maras.

Manifest ing from the mind space of g r e a t lea rn ing ,Bring down your g r e a t b l e s s ings into the h e a r t c e n t e r of t h i s

251

wor thy d isc ip le .T ran sm u te into w isdom my channels , w inds , mind, and

e le m en t s .T rans fo rm w h a t e v e r happens into the Pa th of Enlightenment .

Let your sp lendor b laze from the t e r r i f y i n g m a n t r a which

t a m e s th e m a r a s And t r a n s fo r m the yearn ings of the many be ings into Dharma By c o r r e c t in g them. Then accept them a s d i s c ip l e s and,

Empowering them in Buddha Ac t iv i ty , g r an t them the s iddh is of power, t a l e n t , and abi li ty .

From the s e c r e t t r e a s u r y of the knot of e t e r n i t y in your h e a r t

Open the ga te to t h e j ew e l mine of memory , daring, and

in te l l e c t .With Buddha A c t iv i t y like the sky, bene f i t ing s e l f and o ther ,

P le ase a c t to a c c o m p l i s h the two b e n e f i t s according to t h e i r w i shes .

By the ac t ion of the bodhisa t tva S a m an ta bhad ra Remain in the s u p r e m e profound Vajrayana.

Widely p ropaga t ing the complete r e a l i z a t i o n of the Pa ths and the Bhumis,

Speedi ly l i b e r a t e us, Lord of all the Buddhas.

This was w r i t t e n in the Iron Dragon Year on the 24 th day o f the 6th month by Mipham, who v/rote down whatever arose in h is mind. May i t be v ir tuous.

X X X X X X X * * X X X X X

And now a s e c t i o n - b y - s e c t i o n commenta ry :

From the Glorious Mountain, the fe a r fu l C i ty o f the Raksasas,

Which is the Buddha f ie Id of the Three Kay as, B lazing Lotus L ig h t ,

The tum ultuous and te r r i fy in g ground, b laz ing w i th dark red

bonfires,

Which is in w a rd ly the c i t ta (mind) w i th in the Vajra body—

From the Palace o f the vidyadharas and dakinis,0 wisdom kaya, the equa l i ty o f samsara and nirvana,

Embodiment o f a l l the universal V ic to r ious Ones, 0 Lake Born

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One,Your compassion has m an ifes ted as the Form o f I l lu s o ry

Wisdom Play, Gesar.

Accompanied by your assembly o f male and female yogins and

p ra c t i t io n e rs ,In order to b less th is devoted child,

Perfo rm ing the v a j ra dance o f yogic d isc ip l ine , come down the

sky path;

A r ise in the body o f the wargod werma who tames maras.

From the Glorious Mountain, the fe a r fu l C i ty o f the

Raksasas.....The su p p l i ca t io n begins w i th an i n v i t a t ion to Gesa r to

approach the p r a c t i t i o n e r . The express ion "From “ ( nas or

...las ) is s h o r t for "I ask you to come to me from the rea lm o f "

Padm asam bhava l ives on the island of Camara in a Pa lace ca l l ed

Blazing Lotus Light. But t h i s is only the s u p e r f i c i a l mean ing of h i s

home. Actual ly , as the nex t ve rse says, i t is the t h re e bodies of the

Buddha. The Pa lace of Blazing Lotus Light is su r rounded by the

t e r r i f y in g land of the r a k s a s a s as desc r ibed in the f i r s t c h a p te r of

the epic. But t h i s burning ground is a c tu a l ly ( in w a rd ly the c i t t a

w i th in the Vajra body ) j u s t the mind of a r e a l i z e d person.

A f t e r su p p l i ca t in g Padma to come from his home, Gesa r is

s u p p l i c a t e d to come from the "Palace of the vidyadharas and

dakinis." Vidyadhara r e f e r s to the en l igh tened human m a s t e r s and

dak in is to th e i r c o n so r t s . But actual ly , Gesa r is the "Form of

l luso ry Wisdom Play"— t h a t is, a playful m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the

a c t i v i t y of Padmasambhava . And this playful m a n i f e s t a t i o n com es

no t f rom a pa lace but, a s the t ex t says, f rom the co m p a ss io n of

Padma.

253

This Gesar , t he Wisdom Play, is accompan ied by a r e t i n u e of

yogins and m e d i t a t o r s . They approach the p r a c t i t i o n e r , " th i s devoted

child." And then, a f t e r t h i s su i t ab ly Buddhis t invoca t ion the s t a n z a

c o n t in u e s in the s t y l e of na t ive T ibe tan l i t u r g i e s , a sk ing Gesar to

descend the m u - c o r d ( come down the sky path ) in the a rm oured

a s p e c t of a dra lh a /w e rm a to d e f e a t the usua l e n e m ie s of Gesar, the

demons (maras ) of the Four Direct ions.

The d iv is ion into fo u r - l i n e s t a n z a s is not in the T ibe tan , but i t

m a k e s sense. The f i r s t s t a n z a invokes Padma from h i s Pa lace on

Camara. The second invokes Gesar to a r i s e f rom Padmasambhava .

The th i rd inv i t e s him to descend and b l e s s the p r a c t i t i o n e r .

Great Vidyadhara, Supreme Ornament o f Jambudvipa Tsai,Arm ed w i th your magica l devices, the sword, bow, and a rrow

o f p r a jna,

Great M ighty One, you defeat the troops o f enemies in the phenomenal world.

Supreme Being, Great Lion Je w e l Kaya (Sengchen Norbu)

surrounded by your hordes,Accompanied by your en t i re ret inue, every s ing le one,

Thundering fo r th the w a r r io r c r ies o f Ki and So,

Unfur l ing in space the banner o f your v i r tuous fame,

The dancing and s inging you do a s t r id e your va jra steed,

Pulver izes obstacles. I t s ca t te rs and disperses the l i f e and heart o f Damsri.

This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s Gesar now t h a t he has f ig u ra t i v e ly

a rr ived . He is ha i l ed by th re e e p i th e t s : "Great Vidyadhara (Wisdom

Holder)," "Great Mighty One," and "Great Lion J e w e l Kaya ( Sengchen

N o rb u ). The f i r s t is a Buddhist t i t l e , the second m i l i t a r y , and the

t h i r d is one of t h e m o s t s t a n d a r d w a y s he is ad d re s s ed in Mipham's

l i tu rg ie s . The r e s t of the s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s h i s a t t r i b u t e s in th is ,

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his m i l i t a r y aspec t . He is shown r iding on a magical ho rse who

dances , t h a t is, p rances in a Tibe tan e qu iva len t of dressage. The

h o r se ' s hooves c rush demons who are sam aya (vow) c o r ru p to r s .

Your b lessings p i le up in clouds and br ing down a ra in o f

siddhis.I f I, a wor thy d isc ip le , make o f fe r ings and enthrone you,Through the p ene tra t ing pow er o f your compassion come here:

Accept th is w a r r io r d r ink o f amrta and th is se lect o f fe r ing .

Accept th is o f fe r in g o f the n u t r i t io u s to rm a which con fo rm s to your wishes.

Accept th is o f fe r in g o f blood, liquor, and in to x ica t in g

argham.Accept th is b r ig h t and frag ran t smoke o f fe r ing .

Accept these o f fe r in g s o f various s i lks , banners, and music.

Accept the secre t o f fe r in g o f the experience o f the e q u a l i ty o f Bliss and Emptiness.

Accept the o f fe r in g o f th is Do flag, b u i l t on the ground o f

Phenomenal Appearance.Accept th is o f fe r in g o f the wisdom o f the equa l i ty o f a l l

things.

The offer ing s e c t i o n encodes an a n a ly s i s of the v a r io u s

a s p e c t s of Gesar, once again ca re fu l ly melding the Buddhist and the

na t ive a spec t s . As a na t ive T ibe tan de i ty of the local T ib e t an

pantheon, he r e c e iv e s the spec ia l non-Buddhis t o f fe r ing of a w a r r i o r

"drink" ( skyem ) and a Budhist offer ing to a yidam known a s the

" s e l e c t offering." In Book I, c h a p te r 2 Chipon, the chief of Ling, and

hi s s e r v a n t s w i l l make th i s sam e of fe r ing in the m os t e l a b o r a t e

manner when rece iv ing the sp i r i tu a l m a s t e r of the Mukpo Dong Tribe,

Thangtong Gyaipo. Here Gesa r a lso rec e ive s the Buddhist o f f e r in g of

to rm a or re l ig ious cakes. This is an o f fe r ing made to Buddhis t

d e i t i e s of the h ighes t c la ss . He rec e ive s the o f f e r in g s of blood and

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l iquor , which a re m ad e to w ra th fu l d h a rm a p a la s (p ro t e c t i v e de i t i e s ) .

He r e c e iv e s drinking w a t e r ( argham ) , which is m en t ioned in

S a n s k r i t to e m p h a s ize t h a t it is a Buddhist o f fe r ing on the s t a n d a r d

Buddhis t shrine.

Si lks , banners , and music occur in all s o r t s of l i t u rg i e s , but

they are s p e c i f i c a l l y o f f e r in g s in lha sangs w h e re the s i l k s a re

placed on the sh r ine a s a g i f t to the gods and the banners a re waved

as a ge s tu re of inv i t a t ion . The Do o f fe r ing is typ ica l of the na t iv e

T ibe tan r i tu a l s , but i t is a l legorized to Buddhist m e t a p h y s i c s by

being placed not on o rd ina ry ea r th , but on the ground of a b s o l u t e

being.

We have a l r eady seen th is in ten t iona l in t e r -m ix in g of r i t u a l

m a t e r i a l s from B uddhis t and non-Buddhist praxis . All of Mipham's

l i t u r g i e s do th i s a s doe s the epic which he superv ised . This is the

consc ious and pu rpose fu l e lem en t of he te rodox imagery which

Mipham’s school evoked when they d e a l t w i th T ibe tan folk n a r r a t iv e .

In the Chapter V of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n we wi l l s e e i t c a r r i ed to i t s

u l t i m a t e point when Do Khyentse Yeshe Dorje, a d e scendan t of the

or ig inal Rime lamas, d e s c r i b e s the b i r th of his p rev ious inca rna t ion

as being hera lded by an assem bly of Gesar ba rd s and s h a m a n i s t i c

m ag ic ia n s who r e p l a c e the usual Buddhist f igures . In th i s way he

a s s e r t s his e thn ic i d e n t i t y in c o n t r a s t to the Indie t r a d i t i o n w i t h i t s

impor ted pantheon.

The las t s e c t i o n l i s t s the a c t i v i t i e s which the c e l e b r a n t

r e q u e s t s Gesar to pe rform, it begins w i t h four l ines which m ore or

l e s s sum m ar ize the r e s t of the chant :

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Great Lion Jew e l, consider us w i th compassion.

Nirmânakâya o f the Three Famil ies, keep your p rom ise, don't

be idle.

From today onwards u n t i ! I a t ta in en l igh tenm ent

P ro te c t and b less me and accomplish Buddha A c t iv i t y .

It beg ins by c le a r ly invoking him using h is m o s t f a m i l i a r name,

Sengchen Norbu, Great Lion J e w e l . Gesa r is the a v a t a r , t h e

nirmânakâya, the f l e sh ly inca rna t ion of the Buddha Mind. He has

been bound by a vow of com pass ion and h i s duty is to p e r fo rm Buddha

Ac t iv i ty .

You are the se I f -n a tu re o f supreme compassion.

You hold a l l the great weapons o f Great Compassion.

You are supreme among the tam ers o f the hords o f mâras.

You d ispe l a l l fea r o f the Four Mâras.

Gesar m a n i f e s t s w a r l ik e co m p a ss io n to d e f e a t the Demons of

the Four Di rec t ions . The amazing ly pa radox ica l e x p re s s io n the great

weapons o f Great Compassion s u m m a r i z e s the bas ic m e s s a g e of the

Buddhis t Gesar. As we wi l l see, t h i s idea is exp la ined in the

opening v e r s e s of the Mipham v e r s i o n — t h a t Gesa r ’s w a r l i k e

behav io r is a c tu a l ly compass ion , b e c a u se i t t e a c h e s the n a tu r e of

c au se and e f f e c t .

F u r th e r i t says:

M an ife s t in g from the m ind space o f g rea t learning,

B r ing down your grea t b lessings in to the heart cen te r o f th is

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w orthy d isc ip le .

Transmute into w isdom my channels, winds, mind, and

elements.

Transform whatever happens into the Path o f Enlightenment.

In o th e r words , he is a lso a Buddhist t e a c h e r who t e a c h e s the

genera l yogas of m e d i t a t i o n and the inner yogas of control of t h e

p sych ic ene rg ie s and the general t a n t r i c approach of t r a n s m u ta t io n .

Here his m a n i f e s t a t i o n , h i s a t t r i b u t e s change and in s tead of

pe r fo rm ing his m a r t i a l fu n c t io n s as a genera l , he p e r fo rm s the

f u n c t io n s of a p r e c e p to r who teaches the va r io u s yogic p r ac t ic e s .

Then his T an t r i c Buddh is t a sp ec t evo lves into som eth ing more

w ra th fu l :

Let your splendor b laze from the te r r i f y in g m an tra which

tames the m ar as

And t rans fo rm the yearn ings o f the many beings in to Dharma

By co rrec t ing them. Then accept them as d isc ip les and,

Empowering them in Buddha A c t iv i t y , g ran t them the s iddh is

o f power, ta len t , and ab i l i ty .

In o the r words , he c o n fe r s t a n t r i c i n i t i a t i o n on his d i s c i p l e s as

a t a n t r i c guru. The "sp lendor" (gz i b r j i d ) i s l i t e r a l l y the c h a r i s m a

t h a t r a d i a t e s f rom h i s head and shou lde rs as a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of his

w a r r i o r ’s p sy c h o -p h y s i c a l power. The job of t h i s pow er is to t am e

h i s e nem ies by o v e ra w in g them. Then he c o r r e c t s h is enem ies ,

e d u c a t e s them, g ives t h e m in i t i a t ion as a t a n t r i c guru, and t e a c h e s

them the specia l s k i l l fu l means known as Buddha Act ivi ty . The

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i n t e r e s t i n g th ing about th e s e l ines is t h a t they could r e f e r to h is

e n e m ie s as e a s i l y as h i s devoted d i sc ip le s . Here the m a r t i a l and

p r i e s t l y a s p e c t s of Gesa r are blended.

But then qu i te suddenly the t e x t t a k e s a s c h o l a s t i c turn:

From the sec re t t reasury o f the knot o f e te rn i t y in your heart

Open the gate to the j e w e l m ine o f memory, dar ing , and

in te l le c t .

With Buddha A c t i v i t y l ike the sky, be n e f i t ing s e l f and other,

Please ac t to accomplish the two b e n e f i ts accord ing to th e i r

wishes.

The knot of e t e r n i t y is usua l ly a symbol for the p r a c t i c e of

m e d i t a t i o n — the f i r s t s t e p and b a s i s for the c o n te m p la t iv e pa th in

Buddhism. Th is leads to the menta l a ch ievem en ts of a Buddhist

(memory, daring, and in te l le c t ) and the physical a c h i e v e m e n t s —

Buddha A c t i v i t y which ...accom p lishes ] the two b e n e f i t s o f s e l f and

other. The l a s t line is a t r a d i t io n a l s t a t e m e n t of a s p i r a t i o n ,

iden t i fy ing t h e s e l a s t v e r s e s as the ob l iga tory a s p i r a t i o n p raye r

(monlam) t h a t ends m o s t chants , i t has the scho la ry a i r of the

d e d ic a t io n s of m e r i t t h a t c lose formal Buddhist t e a c h i n g s e s s i o n s

and l i tu rg ica l chant ing s e s s s io n s .

The m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g thing about t h e s e l as t f e w s e c t i o n s is

t h a t they leave behind by and large the epic context . The l a s t e leven

l ines of the ch an t end on a pureiy Buddhist Va j rayána note , all o the r

pan theons fa l l ing away as we leave o f f any r e f e r e n c e to the

r e l a t i v i t y and cont ingency of epic act ion.

Mipham w r o t e his l i t u r g i e s over a s t r e t c h of y e a r s during the

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e a r l i e r period of his l i fe . They seem, however , to f i t t o g e th e r into a

cohe ren t corpus. The c h a n t j u s t analyzed is a rgyun 'khyer (a daily

p rac t ice ) . The idea is t h a t a fo l lo w e r of the Gesar s e c t might when

th e re is t im e do one of the longer c h a n t s or o f f e r in g procedures . But

th e re would also be a s h o r t daily p r a c t i c e which could be done in a

few m in u te s j u s t to r e n e w one's connec t ion w i t h the bas ic pr inciple .

That is the rgyun 'khyer, which l i t e r a l l y means "ca r ry ing to the

path."

Now, in all the c o l l e c t i o n s of Mipham’s G esa r l i t u rg i e s t h e r e is

an even s h o r t e r v e r s i o n of th is p r a c t i c e ca l led Ge sa r gsol bsdus, The

Abbrev ia ted Gesar Supplication.. Each of the s e c t i o n s I have

analyzed in th is c h a p t e r r e c e iv e s one l ine in t h i s chant . It c lo ses ,

however , w i th the kind of of fe r ing m a n t r a r e p e a t e d when one is

supp l ica t ing dharmapaias. {....saparivara id a m b a i im te k h a h i ) It is

i n t e r e s t i n g to see a c r o s s t h i s range of chant ing p r a c t i c e s , th i s range

of de i ty a spec t s . The p r a c t i c e s d i r e c te d to Gesar in Mipham's

c o l lec t ion mention him a t one t im e or an o th e r a s being every order

of iconographical be ing from the h ighes t level of y idam and guru

down to the r e l a t i v e ly low level of p ro tec to r . The whole range is

there . However, o f ten the s h o r t e s t p r a c t i c e in a c y c l e show s the

e ssence . And so s p e c i a l i s t s in Mipham w i th whom I have d i sc usse d

t h e s e t e x t s seem to c o n s i d e r his p r a c t i c e s as m ain ly in the na tu re of

dharma p ro t e c to r c h a n t s . This qua l i ty is seen in the Ge sar gsol

bsdus, which is indeed l i t e r a l l y j u s t a p r o t e c to r chant .

Now th a t we have a view of the cosmology of the Mipham Gesar

i t is t im e to examine t h i s divine machinery in ac t ion . The next two

c h a p t e r s wil l do tha t , providing two good exam ples of Tibe tan

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Buddhist n a r r a t i v e l i t e r a tu re : the f i r s t c h a p t e r of the Mipham Gesar

and then a s h o r t epic of t r ib a l origins.

! 27 The Journal of Asian Studies has an excellent study of this general topic in a

symposium it sponsored and then published in its February 1994 edition. The symposium was

entitled "Dimensions of Ethnic and Cultural Nationalism in Asia." In it six scholars in Asian

social studies did detailed studies of the hypothesis that Colonialism was an intellectual

movement which dominated and transformed the discourse of pre-colonial national and ethnic

cultural entities. The study looked at specific issues in self-identity discourse for Sri Lanka,

India, China and Japan. JAS, vol. 53. n. I, February 1994, pp. 1-133.

A good broad study of the approach of scholars in multicultural studies would be

"Cultural Studies: An Introduction" by Cary Nelson, Paula A. Trelchler, and Lawrence

Grcssberg in Cultural Studies, ed. by Grossberg, Nelson, and Treichler with Linda Baghman and

John Macgregor Wise, (New York: Routledge, 1992), pp. I -23 .

128 See, for example, Michael Taussig, Shamanism, colonialism, and the wild man: a

study in terror and healing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986)

129 Stein, 56, p p . I -75.

130 Mary Ann Radzinowicz, Milton's Epics and the Book o f Psalms, (Princeton: University

Press, 1989).

13 1 see Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, ed. by Alex Preminger, (Princeton,

University Press: 1974). The article on Myth, p. 539 includes a discussion of Jane Harrison,

A. B. Cook, and others and their theories of the relationship between ritual and myth.

132 For a detailed description of the constitution of the ris med school see Gene Smith's

introduction to the Encyclopedia of Tibetan Buddhism by Kcn-sprul Blo-gros-mtha-yas, editea

by Lokesh Chandra. ( New Delhi International Academy of Indian Culture, 1970).

133 Comments by Khenpo Palden Sherap and Khenpo Tsewang in the course of conversations

about the introduction to the Lha Ling. The literariness of the Mipham Cesar w ill be discussed

in more detail later in this chapter and treated in detail in the commentary to the translation in

Chapter IV.

134 Guisepe Tucci, The Religions of Tibet, trans. by Geoffrey Samuel (London: Routledge &

Kegan, 1980), pp. 199-202. The material on the agni cayana can be found in many works, but

the most useful for my study has been Fritz Staal’s anthropological study of a modern South

Indian performance of the Vedic agni hotra. A close examination of the details of this ceremony

w ill show that it is similar in any way to the lha sang.

There is a Tibetan Buddhist cult of agni which is a conscious imitation and borrowing

from the Indian tradition, its ceremonies iikewise are in every way different from the

indigenous rituals of lha sang.

135 Of course, I have not yet read the entire Mipham Gesar. i t is possible that there w ill be

a later passage m which the gods describe their own pantheon and divine order in the way that

Homer does when he discusses the original division of the world into the three realms of Zeus,

Poseidon, and Hades. At this point, however. I have not found an epic text which does more

than assume a pantheon asserted elsewhere.

136 David L. Roylston, editor, How to Read the Chinese Novel, (Princeton: Princeton

Library of Asian Translations, 1990).

137 The Journey to the West, Vol. I. transl. and edited by Anthony C. Yu, (Chicago: U. of

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Chicago Press, 1977). See Anthony Yu's introduction, particularly page 38 on 'the unification

of the three schools. '

138 Tlbetan-Sanskrlt English Dictionary, Formulator and Editor, Jeffrey Hopkins, a project

of the Tibetan Studies Institute, Free Union, Virginia and the University of Virginia Tibetan

Studies Program, (Free Union: Klnko's, 1989). The Tibetan-Sanskrit English Dictionary is a

good authority for Sanskrit translations of Tibetan expressions, because it gives the origin and

locus classicus of each translation, citing ancient Tibetan dictionaries and scholarly studies of

the language of the sutras.

139 For a technical definition of this term see Louis de La Vallée Poussin,

L'Abhidharmakosha de Vasubandhu, Tome II, pp.78-81. The footnotes give the loci in Buddhist

scriptures for various uses of pratltyasamutpSda and the controversies that ensued over this

notion of causality in the Mahâyâna.

140 Abhidharmakosha.Vol.il, pp.81-86.

141 This explanation of the notion of ‘glorious gate' derives from oral commentary on the

first chapter of the LhaLing by Tendzin Samphel.

142 Hopkins. 11, p.828: 'byung ba cher, po bzhi po dag.

143 i use the term 'native Tibetan rite ' advisedly, since the tradition of the

institutionalized Tibetan religion known as Bon asserts not without reason a non-Tibetan source

for the entire body of teachings and practices it represents. Lha sangs are a component of this

corpus of practices and possibly of foreign provenance.

144 My reading of these texts takes a position in an important modem debate among

Buddhist Tantric practitioners. There are many who would like to rewrite the rituals so that

they would not allude to an 'alien' culture— that of ancient India. Their argument is that the

Buddhist message is universal and should not be couched in the terms of specific culture.

My argument is that the Buddhist scriptures make 'The Land of the Aryas,' as they call

it, a figure for an enlightened culture and ideally sophisticated society. This figure, used alike

by Chinese, Tibetans, and every other tradition of non-lndic Buddhism, is inseparable from the

poetic of 8uddhist expression. Every Buddhist civilization must have a mythologized

relationship with a mythologized India. Without this sense of place, this poetry of place, most

Buddhist verse loses half its comprehensibility. Only people who dream of divorcing poetry

from philosophy would want to purify Buddhist writing of its carefully constructed projections

of cultural context and, in their process of purification, they would leave behind not only the

multi-leveled allusory power of its poetry, but the religion itself.

145 This account can be found in any of the introductory works on Tibetan culture, such as

R.A. Stein's Tibetan Civilization, translated by J Driver, (Stanford: University Press, 1972).

There is nearing completion, howwever, a translation of the famous Sakyapa Lama Dampa

Sonam Gyaitsen's rGyal rabs gSal ba'i tie long ( The Clear Mirror of the Royal Lineages ). it is

provisionally entitled The Clear Mirror and will be published in a popular edition for non-

Tibetanists. This is an historiographical locus classicus of the history of Tibet from the

Tibetan point of view, it has been translated by a Tibetan scholar, Lama Chcdrak Yutok and an

Australian w riter, McComas Taylor.

As Taylor and Yutok say in a joint letter to the Buddha-L Listserve on Internet (August

9, 1994): 'The Clear Mirror is a history of Tibet from the instant the physical universe

coalesced from the swirling winds in primeval void, up until....about the year 1368. It is a

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rich tapestry woven around the lives of the miraculous Dharma-klngs of the dynastic period,

their wise ministers, beautiful and devout queens, etc. Myth, legend, history, philosophical

discourse, song and poetry combine to present a vivid picture of early Tibet. The key events in

Tibetan folk-history are all described: the birth of Avalokiteshvara, the descent of the Tibetan

race from the Monkey and Rock-ogress, the coming of the Dharma, Songtsen Gampo's marriage

to the Nepalese and Chinese princesses, the construction of the Jokhang and Samye, and so on."

146 Giuseppe Tucci, The Religions of Tibet, trans. by Geoffrey Samuel, (London: Routledge

and Kegan Paul, 1970), pp. 163-249.

147 sde dge dgon chen spar m a/ 'jam mgon m i pham rgya mtsho/ Na — sDe-dge dGon-chen

Prints of the Writings of ’Jam-mgon 'Ju tli-pham-rgya-mtsho Vol. 6 , (Kathmandu: sNa-sgyur

rNying-ma Jam-dbyangs mKhyen-rtse). These same works are listed in Stein, '59, pp. 7 1 -

79). There the pagination is different, because he is referring to an earlier Dege edition in

xylographic form which was in his possession and is now in the Pel Hot Collection in Paris.

148 Stein, 59, pp. 71-75.

149 Mlpham 'Jam.dpal dGyes.pa'i rOo.rje, Wer.maT lha.bsang ring.mo dgra' lha dpa'glu.

Stein's text of the collected Gesar prayers of Mipham has this as folio 31 b -34 a. It is part of

a collection of prayers entitled RigpaT 'gyur.medye.shes kyi skyes.bu chen.po'l bla.ma'i

rnal. ’byor, byin.rlabs myur. 'jug.

150 dgra Iha literally means "enemy god.' The idea is that they protect against enemies.

It is translated, however, by the Nalanda Translation Committee and some other non-academic

translation groups as "wargod," because of the martial aspect of the deities in their

iconography.

151 Tales of the use and abuse of dgra lha were told to me by theKagyuiama Chogyam

Trungpa, Rinpoche. In one conversation he recounted an element of Tibetan lore which said that

kings, if they had their war gods intact, were almost impossible to assassinate. Thus, if an

evil minister wished to assasinate his lord, he must firs t humiliate him, degrade him, and thus

drive the war gods away from his body. Only then w ill the assassination attempt be

successful. I asked what would be a typical way of corrupting and degrading a man to this end.

I was referred to the strategies Gesar used in his battles with the Enemies of the Four

Directions. Lacking magical methods of reducing an enemy, one efficacious method of driving

the war gods from a person's body would be to bury him in the ground up to his shoulders. The

war gods having departed in disgust, assasination would then be much easier.

152 This is a motif which is also found in The Romance of Alexander previously cited. In it

Alexander the Great descends to the bottom of the ocean in a gigantic bell-jar. There he

collects treasure and is threatened by the inhabitants of that realm. Actually, Alexander has

adventures in all three realms— the sky, earth, and sea. They do not bear such a resemblance

in detail to the Gesar stones to make the similarities a sure sign of influence.

153 stein identifies ’dan.ma byang.khra as Gesar's minister on page 152 of Stem, '56,

locating several spots in the epic where he is called this.

154 Stein, 59, pp. 508-510 explains the relationship between Gesar and esoteric buddhism.

His generalizations, however, are too broad for this study and. although interesting, do not

apply to this kind of iiterary analysis. He draws his examples of epic machinery from

unrelated editions as if the entire Gesar Corpus were a single work. His sources for Kagyu

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and Nyingma pantheons are likewise heterogeneous. This study, however, seeks specific

previous texts for the lines we find in the epic and specific lines of influence which can be

documented in historical time. Thus, we observe two Buddhist trin ities which are parallel to

the evolution of Gesar in the Mipham Lha Ling because they are specifically attested in the

corpus of liturgies Mipham wrote or practiced.

The problem in Stein is most serious when he speaks (Stein, 59, p. 5 10) of this

particularly trinity: Amitâbha, Avalokitesvara, and Padmasambhava: "Le lien avec la filiation

précédente résulte de la lignée normale des rNylng ma pa (Le'u-bdun-ma, 14b-!5a...' The

previous text is a useful citation, but Nyingma tantrlc sâdhanas, chanting and visualization

practices vary widely in what deities they choose for the three ksyas. There is no lignée

normale.

Further down the page he identifies Supreme Bliss Good Nature, Demchog Ngangyak (bOe

mchog ngang yag), the divine father of Thôpa Ga, with the Buddhist y ¡dam Cakrasamvara. His

argument is that in the Padma Thang ylg( 16 a-b) when Cakrasamvara and Vajravarah* unite,

Varâhi receives the epithet Ngang phag, 'Noble Nature.' The word ngang is, however, not

attached to Cakrasamvara, but to his consort. In addition, Khenpo PS and Tsewang vigorously

deny this connection, despite their knowledge of the previous texts Stein has mentioned. They

argue that ngang yag, good nature, is a term from the indigenous tradition of sgrungyig,

narrative language and should not be understood as a translation of Sanskrit at all. To speak

frankly, I have received from equally authoritative sources yet other divergent translations of

this name.

155 The analysis of Denma which follows is the best I have been able to learn. It does not,

however, really satisfactorily answer the question of why this general of Gesar participates

in so many diverse and seemingly unconnected Kagyü and Nyingma rituals. For example, he is

suplicated by Mikyc Dorje, the Eighth Karmapa Hierarch, in his famous Guru Yoga of the Four

Sessions. "In order that all sentient beings may easily attain the buodhahood/ Of the yogin-

siddha Denma, lord of the buddhas,/ I dedicate ail the virtue accumulated....' (Mi skyd rOo rje,

The Guru Yoga of the Four Sessions, translated and published privateiy by the Nalanda

Translation Committee ) Why he should be suddenly mentioned in this scholastic text is a

mystery.

556 For a territorial identification of the province of iDan see R.A. Stein, Le Tribus

Anciennes des Marches Sino-Tibétaines, (Paris, 1956), pp. 76-79, 49, and 53. Also Stem,

59, pp. 183-184.

157 Stein identifies Tonpa Gyaltsen (sTon pa rGyal mtshan ) with a character from the

Ladakhi epic named Tenpa (bsTan pa or Than pa) and makes some very interesting tribal

connections. We w ill discuss these in Chapter iv when we look further at the Ga tribe in the

History of the Goloks.

158 As a matter of fact, I must admit that the informants upon which I relied most for

production of the following translation were all members of theMukpo tribe. It was by

demonstrating my years of relationship with teachers from this ethnic group that I was able to

purchase with interest and intention so much of their time.

159 'Hundred Thousand Flames" is the proper name of his armour.

160 'windhorse"— this Sino-Tibetan energy principle (Chinese » lung ma) is quite ancient,

it has documented occurences as eary as Ko Hung. There will be more discussion of it later in

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this chapter.

16 1 Bowra, Tradition, 70-71.

162 Personal communication from Samten Karrnay.

163 For a commentary on The Divine Comedy which emphasizes the Catholic theological

dimension, see Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri, The Florentine,

translated with commentary by Dorothy L. Sayers, (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1955).

For treatments of Hilton's Epics in this manner, see Mary Ann Radzinowicz, Milton's

epics and the Book of Psalms, (Princeton: University Press, 1989); Judith A. Kates, Tasso and

Milton, the problem of Christian epic, (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1983); Timothy

O'Kee'fe, Milton and the Pauline tradition: a study of theme and symbolism, (Washington, D.C

University Press of America. 1982).

164 Their insistence on the ease and entertaining quality of the epic is at times in

contradiction with learned Tibetan informants at the Centre d'Etudes Tibétaines in Paris.

March 20, 1992 a seminar occured there in which this subject was discussed at some length.

Present were three Tibetan informants from Amdo and one who was raised in a refugee

community in which the Khams dialect was spoken. One of the Amdo informants remarked that

the Du Ling was ’not what I would call bed time reading." The others agreed, but on further

questioning, we found that the Kham speaker had an easier time with the same material. The

group agreed that the difficulty the others were having in reading the Kham dialect was at

times serious enough to make the difference between a relaxing pastime and what they would

consider work.

! have observed four Tibetan readers who really enjoyed the Mipham LhaLing as they

read it and would stop often to spontaneously to express delight. All four spoke the Kham

dialect, three with accents which guaranteed that this was their first language. But all four had

another factor in common as well: all had memorized through constant chanting a major portion

of the Mipham Gesar liturgical practices. This suggests a disturbing possibility which, although

it contradicts Khenpo PS and Tsewang's characterization of the Mipham Cesar as easy, popular

literature, cannot be rejected out of hand: Those for whom this edition of the Gesar is easy

and pleasant may be no more than fans of the literature of a particular Tibetan author, it should

also be noted that among the Amdo informants I did not find people who recognized the

expression drungyig (sgrungyig) as tt was used repeatedly by the Khampa informants.

165 The same sort of relationship may exist between the language of Taoist ritual practice

in the folk culture (she hui) and Chinese ambient popular balladry. See Schipper's study of folk

religion and liturgical practice in Taiwan: Kristofer Schipper, "Vernacular and Classical Ritual

in Taoism," in The Journal of Asian Studies, vol XLV, Number I, Nov. 1985.

! 66 R. A. Stein, L'Êpopée tibétaine de Gesar dans sa version Lamaîque de Ling, (Pans:

Presses Universitaires de Frances, 1956. Aiexander-Wiliiam Macdonald, Matériaux pour

l'étude de la littérature populaire tibétaine, Vol. I and II, (Paris: Annales du Musée Guimet,

1967). Mireille Heiffer, Les chants dans l ’épopée tibétaine de Ge-sar d'après le livre de la

course de cheval, (Pans: Librairie Droz), 1977.

There are numerous Chinese studies and translations of chapters of the Gesar, see in

particular studies in the two journals, Chung Kuo Ts'ang Hsüeh (khung go'i bod kyi shes rig) and

Hsi Ts'ang fan Chiu, which regularly publish articles on the Gesar Epic and numerous

monograpns from the People's Republic of China such as Ts'ang tsu ku tien wen hsüeh, by Tung

265

Chin-hua chu (Shih Yun chu píen),a modern Chinese survey of Tibetan literature. The Chinese

have also been active in publishing and republishing editions of transcriptions of the Gesar

Epic, usually out of the Szch’uan People's Publishing House (Ssu-chuan min tsu chu pan she.

Now the Chinese Institute for the Study of Ethnic Minorities in Beijing is also active in Gesar

Research, publishing under the name Min tsu tu shu kuan, the library of ethnic minorities.

167 Khenpo is a Tibetan academic degree equivalent to our doctorate. There is a higher

degree offered only by seminaries of the Gelugpa sect called a Geshe ( dge shes) degree.

168 His comments were given in broken English. I have removed repetitions and

grammatical embarrassments.

169 Horace, Ars Poética, line 133: *nee verbo verbum curabls reddere fidus/interpres,

nec desilies imitator in argum.../ if you do not, an all too faithful translator, essay to render

your author word for word..." (translation, Ben Jonson in Horace on the A r t of Poetry, latín

text, english prose translation, introduction and notes,.., ed. by Edward Henry Blakeney,

(Freeport: Books for Libraries Press, 1928), p. 46.

Dryden quotes this passage in his 1680 introduction to a translation of Ovid's Epistles.

There Dryden somewhat misreads Horace's nec verbum.. as a censuring of too literal

translators. It was a misinterpretation already honored by past literary critics. In fact,

Dryden in this same article quotes a translation of Pastor Fido by Fanshawe. the translator of

the Portuguese epic about the exploration of the Far East, Os U'.siados. ‘That servile path thou

nobly doest decline,/ Of tracing word by word, and line by line:/ A new and nobler way thou

dost pursue,/ To make translations and translators too:/ They but preserve the ashes, thou the

flam e,/ True to his sense, but truer to his fame."

For more on 18th century theory of translation see R.P Dowl, The Theory of Poetry in

England, (London: Macmillan and Co, 1914), p. ¡14-115; Judith Sloman, Dryden: The Poetics of

Translation, arranged for publication by Anne McWhir (Tornto: Universi ty of Toronto, 1985);

and Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord woodhouselee, Essay on the Principles of Translation,

(Edinburgh: Archibald Constable and Co, 18 13).

170 As a personal remark, if there is any problem with Van Buitenen's now famous

translation of the tlahëbhârata it is precisely this: that it is a dry and scholarly translation,

not communicating the sensuality and flamboyance of the original verse.

171 An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon rounded upon the Seventh Edition of L idell and

Scott's Greek-English Lexicon, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p 5 12. One locus classicus

for this usuage is Aristotle, Poetics, xv ¡0, 1454b 1 : ‘Clearly therefore the "dénouement" of

each play should also be the result of the plot itself and not produced mechanically as in the

tledea and the incident of the embarkation m the Iliad. The ‘ god in the car: should only be used

to explain what lies outside the play..." ( d X X à xptíot€01' én\tí éÇutoû Spàparo?).

172 The Oxford English Dictionary, (Oxford: University Press, 1971 ), Vol. v i, pp. 7-8.

173 ibid.

174 We should point out an alternative reading which competes with the Bowra-Greene

concept of the shamanistic epic, namely the contemporary iiterary criticism which examines

oral composition taking the Bible as its starting point. The Hebrew Pentateuch is itself largely

oral composition, full of alternating prose ana verse and fulfilling many of the functions

traditionally assigned to epic. But no one woula hasard to call it a ‘ shamanistic epic."

in this regard Everett Fox's commentary on Genesis is relevant: "On the surface this

2 6 6

parallels much of ancient literature and folklore. All peoples are interested in their own

beginnings, picturing them in a way which validates their present existence. Genesis, however,

is different in that, like the rest of the Torah, it downplays the heroic element of the people's

origins and in its place stresses God's role in them." Genesis and Exodus: A New English

Rendition with commentary and Notes, by Everett Fox, (New York: Schocken Books, 1983),

p.3.

Fox. in thus characterizing Genesis is speaking for the respected school of biblical

interpretation founded by Martin Buber and Franz Rosenzwelg. His comments on the Bible as an

oral epic are a serious challenge, I believe, to the genre specification "shamanistic epic"

suggested by Bowra. Both the Shamanistic epic and the biblical epic are distinguished from the

heroic epic by their extraordinary focus on the element of divine intervention at the expense

of the possibility of human identification with the hero.

175 A good study of the scriptural basis for Pure Land visualization practice is given in

Birnbaum, Raoul, The Healing Buddha ( Boulder Shambhala, 1987).

176 Communication by TS.

177 Aeneid, II: 601-617. Translation by H.R. Fairclough in Virgil: Eclogues, Georgies,

Aeneld, 1-6, (Cambridge: Harvard U. Press, 1935), p. 335.

178 " Presumptively dominant" because as a matter of fact, the so-called Aryan culture

may indeed have not been dominant in the foothills of the Himalayas where the Shakyan tribe

had its republic. The Buddha's rejection of Vedic ritual may not have been revolutionary at all.

It could have oeen the conservative reaction of a non-vedic religion seeing the importation of

Aryan religion into his region. I am indebted to Professor Richard Hayes of McGill University

.Montréal, for this perspective, communicated in public correspondance on the Buddha-L

Listserve of internet.

179 See "The History of the Goloks" in Chapter v.

180 Nebesky-Wojkowitz devotes an entire chapter to the Tibetan BrahmS: pp. 145-154.

18 1 Margaret and James Stutley, Harper's Dictionary of Hinduism, (New York: Harper &

Row. 1977).

182 René de Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Oracles and Demons of Tibet: the cult and iconography of

the Tibetan Protective Deities, (Graz: Akademische Druk, 1975).

183 There is no space here to develop a full picture of Pehar. He is an important figure in

the development of Tibet into a national state and for a period of time an empire. He became the

protector of Samyé, the first great royally subsidized monastery in Tibet.

184 Nebesky-Wojkowitz, p. 96.

185 See J.w. de Jong, The Story of Râma m Tibet . Text and Translation o f the Tun-huang

Manuscripts, (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner verlag, 1989), pp.g-12.

186 Thomas Greene, The descent from heaven, a study in epic continuity, (New Haven: Yale

University Press, 1963).

187 Speaking of Maffeo Vegio's epic Christian poem in the early Renaissance, Antoniados,

w ritten 1437, he says that a certain section is: "...bare of any kind of imagery, as is a good

deal of the poem. I think that this bareness is typical of early Christian Humanism because each

tradition (Christianity and Humanism) tended to cancel ou t, for poetic purposes, the abundant

iconography of the other. Christian imagery must h3ve seemed indecorously unbecoming to the

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high style, and classical pagan imagery must have seemed in great part impious. The

sensibilities of later Christian Humanists were to be less fastidious." ibid, p. 11.

188 I have translated this term with the Sanskrit when the text uses the Sanskrit term.

When it uses the Tibetan term, unless the context dictates otherwise, I have translated it by

the more general term "demon."

189 See, for example the demoness in Macdonald's translation of the Tibetan Cinderella

story, Macdonald, Alexander, "Cendrillion au Tibet’ in Tibet civilisation et société, colloque

organisé par la Fondation Slnger-Polignac à Paris, les 27, 28, 29 avril 1987 (Paris: Éditions

de la Fondation Singer-Polignac, 1990, pp. 143-150).

190 See Civilized Shamans: Buddhism In Tibetan Societies, by Geoffrey Samuel,

(Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993). Samuel's analysis of the origins of styles

of practice in Eastern Tibet has convinced him that Buddhist religion there, despite its indie

origins, should indeed be called shamanistic. it is enough like the Tunguz shamans found in

Russia to merit this change in view. Many have spoken against his position. See.for example,

Reginald Ray, "Gone Beyond Lhasa"— a review of Samuel in Shambhala Sun, Vol III, n. I , pp.

62-67. My remarks here on the m ulti-focality of Buddhist machinery in the Gesar supports

Samuels' thesis, for it shows specific instances in the literature where an Indie god hac been

assimilated to a native deity. And as well w ill see, the native deities are indeed treated in a

shamanistic style. In the "History of the Goloks" we will see a divinely inspired priestess

travel to their god realms in the style of a Tungusic shamanka.

191 For the translation of Tibetan terms into Sanskrit see Gadjin Nagao, Index to the

Mahâyânasütrâlamkâra, (Tokyo: Nippon Gakujutsu Shinko-kai, 1958).

192 This entire explanation is present in commentaries on Buddnist abhidharma literature.

My source, however, is a personal conversation with the lama Chogyam Trungpa, Rinpoche.

193 TS: In other words, Gesar Seng Chen Norbu, Gesar, the Great Lion Jewel, is a

manifestation of Padmasambhava, the Lake Born One, who is the embodiment of all the Buddhas

in the universe.

194 yid mean’s "disciple's mind." If it were the mind of the guru, the honorific thugs

would be used. So thus, the expression yid thugs dbyermed literally means "the inseparability

or mind and mind" but is properly translated "the inseperability of the disciple's and master's

minds." This rule of translation cannot be applied rigorously.

195 white Supreme Bliss. Stein translates bde.mchog dkar.po as White Samvara. if this is

indeed a form of the yidam Cakrasamvara, this is a correct translation. But my informants

deny the Buddhist character of this personage. My translation reflects their reception.

1 96 Union here means sexual union. Every visualization text has expressions like this one:

"the sound of the union of..." I have never had the presence of mind to ask a Tibetan monk what

this sound is or what exactly this expression could mean.

197 For a summary of the criticism that deals with this view of plot see Peter Brooks,

Reading for Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative, (New York: Knopf, 1987).

198 Nebesky-Wojkowitz discusses these gods in detail p 318-340.

199 Walther Heissig, The Religions of Mongolia, trans. by Geoffrey Samuel, (Berkeley: U. of

California Press, 1980), pp. 84-101.

200 Ko Hung, Alchemy, medicine, religion in the China of A.D. J20: The Nei pten of Ko Hung

(Pao-pu tzu ). translated by James R. Ware (Cambridge: M.i.T. Press, 1967).

268

201 For a presentation of the Chinese view of the south as an alien and exotic land in the

antique period see Schafer, Edward H., The golden peaches of Samarkand; a study of Tang

exotics, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963).

202 The founding research in this area was done by a col lection of scholars in Paris lead by

people such as Kristoffer Schipper, H. Maspero, Anna Seidel, who worked on the Hobogirin in

Japan, Isabelle Robinet, and Michel Strlckmana These scholars explored the revelatlonal

schools of Taoism and Isabelle Robinet wrote a history of this literature in 1991: Isabelle

Robinet, Histoire du taoïsme des origines auXIVième siècle, (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1991 ).

This book is not really a history of the entire range of Taoist texts and practices, but focuses

on Ko Hung, the Shang Ch'ing Tao, the Ling Pao revelations, and the fortunes of these schools

during the T'ang dynasty Another very important text by her is La Révélation du Shangqlng

dans l'histoire dutaoisme, Vol I and II, (Paris: École française d'extréme-orient, 1984), which

includes a text by text analysis of the Shang Ch'ing texts.

Schipper published the earliest extensive studies of the Pao P'u Tzu in 1975 and then

continued with works on Taoist ritual and the revelational sects. His studies of Ko Hung begin

with Concordance du Houang-t'ing king, nel-king et wai-king (Paris : Ecole française

d'Extreme-Orient, 1975) and continue through a series of monographs. His Concordance du

Tao-Tsang : titres des ouvrages done with the collaboration o f Li Mei-kin, tCh’en Min-tchou,

and Tcheng Yu-tchao (Paris : Ecole française d'Extreme-Onent, 1975) marks the beginning of

an international project to do a detailed analysis of the entire Taoist canon. Today he leads a

school of students who explore this area in Pans. In English Livia Kohn has produced a large

body of studies on revelational Taoism and the schools of mystical Taoism that seem to relate

to the Gesar tradition. For example, Early Chinese mysticism : philosophy and soteriology in

the Taoist tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992) and Taoist Mystical

Philosophy : the Scripture of Western Ascension, (Albany : State University of New York

Press, c l 9 9 1.

203 Livia Kohn, "Eternal Life in Taoist Mysticism," in The Journal of the American Oriental

Society, Vol. 110, Number 4, October-Oecember 1990

204 Trungpa, Chogyam, Shambhala : the Sacred Path of the Warrior, edited by Carolyn

Rose Gimian, (Boulder: Shambhala, 1984).

205 Datings of Gesar liturgies based on Samuel's "List of works on Gesar by 'Ju Mi pham

rnam rgyal (1846-1914)," a privately distributed tabular list of Mipham liturgies.

206 From this point on the verses are directed towards Gesar, who is the "wisdom play" of

Padmasambhava, the Lotus Born One.

207 This is actually a name of Gesar, The Great Vidyâdhara Zamling Gyenchog Tsai Cdzam

gling rGyan mchog rlsa l). rTsal is the last syllable of the name of various forms of

Padmasambhava, for example, Paoma Thothreng Tsai (Padma thod 'phreng rtsal), and RSfcsa

Thothreng Tsai). If one had to translate Tsai, it would mean something like "manifestation of

...." or "...the Powerful."

208 Sengchen Norbu is a name for Gesar. His most usual name is Norbu OradOl (norbu dgra

'dul), Jewel Tamer of Enemies, or Dorje Draoül, Vajra Tamer of Enemies.

209 Damsi (dam sri) are samaya violating demons.

210 TS: yidbzhin (l i t . "according to mind") here means that the torma takes whatever

269

form Gesar wishes and is thus automatically pleasing to him.

211 Do (mdos) is an arrangement of cross-threads attached to a stick and used in native

ransom ceremonies and ceremonies to deflect demonic forces. It is sometimes one of the

objects arranged for the shrine in this Gesar ceremony.

212 The Three main bodhisattvas: Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, and VajrapSni.

213 'phrin ¡as - Buddha Activity is an expression for the the Four Karmas, the four

enlightened activities of a Buddha— pacifying, taming, enriching, and destroying.

270

T his is a t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t c h a p te r of the f i r s t book of

the Mipham Gesar. The t i t l e w h ich appears in the beginning is the

t i t l e of the e n t i r e book, the Lha Ling. Every T ib e t a n book h a s a sho r t

and a long t i t l e . Lha Ling (The Divine Land o f L i n g ) is the s h o r t

t i t l e . The Nine-Squared D iv ina t ion Board.... i s t h e long t i t l e .

Fo l lowing t h a t is t he t i t l e of the e n t i r e m u l t i - v o lu m e d epic: The Epic

o f the K ing o f the Wargods, Gesar Norbu....

The ac tua l t i t l e of the c h a p t e r comes a t t he end of the chap te r

in a colophon and w e have r e s p e c t e d th is T ibe tan order ing by not

giving th e c h a p t e r t i t l e .

In the f o o tn o te s we have ind ica ted the r e m a r k s of v a r io u s

T ib e t a n i n fo rm a n t s by t h e i r in i t ia l s :

SK: Sam ten Karmay

TS: Tendzin Samphel

KP: Khenpo Palden Sherab

Works by S t e in are r e f e r r e d to so o f ten t h a t we have ind ica ted

the m a j o r ones by t h e i r d a t e s , h i s t r a n s la t io n t r a n s c r i p t i o n and

t r a n s l a t i o n of the epic being S te in '56 and hi s im m ense monograph

on the ep ic being S te in '59.

The com m enta ry , as w a s sa id in in t roduc t ion to t h i s

d i s s e r t a t i o n , combines the c o m m e n t s of na t ive i n f o r m a n t s w i th

l i n g u i s t i c n o te s f rom m y s e l f as t r a n s la to r , and a l i t e r a r y

Chapter IV

271

c o m m e n ta ry d i r e c t e d t o w a rd s the sys tem of c o sm o lo g ic a l and poe t ic

a l l u s io n s and the m e t r i c s t r u c t u r e of the t ex t . The phi losophica l

c om m en ta ry , when i t comes from one of the above T ibe tan s c h o la r s

is ind ica ted by t h e i r i n i t i a l s or e l s e there is a s p e c i f i c footnote .

Any o t h e r r e l ig ious c o m m e n ta ry is my own and any e r r o r s in it

should not be a t t r i b u t e d to any of the lea rned A s ian in formants .

It should be noted, however , t h a t when a p e r s o n who is learned

in T ibe tan Tan t ra s t a t e s even the m os t common po in t s about the

n a tu r e of th is path, he or she i s r e f l e c t ing the v i e w of a p a r t i c u l a r

l ineage. Having been t r a in e d in the l ineage of t h e Karma Kagyü and

the Nyingma t r a d i t io n , my own com m enta ry r e f l e c t s th i s s p e c i f i c

v iew of the s t r u c t u r e of the path. There are i m p o r t a n t doc tr inal

d i f f e r e n c e s which show up in the Tibe tan r e f o r m l ineages known as

the Gelugpa and the Sakyapa. The v iew s of t h e s e l ineages as to the

n a tu r e of v i su a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e and the Three Bodies of the Buddha

and a ho s t of o th e r e s o t e r i c p o in t s of Buddhist theo logy are o f ten

d i f f e r e n t and th e r e is no in te n t ion in th is t r a n s l a t i o n to speak for

t h e i r view.

If one w e re to seek a s ing le work which s u m m a r i z e d the view

of p r a c t i c e and theology of the l ineages which have in formed my

pe rsonal com m enta ry in t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n it w ou ld be the Kunzang

Lama'i She lung , The Words o f My Perfec t Teacher, a compendium and

graded in t roduc t ion by Pa t ru l Rinpoche. This w ork has been superbly

t r a n s l a t e d by the Padm akara T rans la t ion Group into both French and

English. The English ve rs ion r e c e n t l y appeared in Harper San

F ra n c i s co ' s e x c e l l e n t "Sacred L i t e r a t u r e S e r i e s . " 214 If one w ished to

read a good, scho la r ly , d e t a i l e d in troduc t ion to the Buddhism of

272

E as te rn T ibe t fo r the n o n - s p e c i a l i s t , t h e re w ou ld be no b e t t e r work

than this .

All t r a n s l a t i o n s in to English, un les s o t h e r w i s e indicated, a re

my own.

273

The Divine Land of Ling215 the Nine-Squared Div ina t ion Board:216

The Epic of t h e King of the Wargods, Gesar Norbu, T a m e r of E n em ie s217

[Gantok I ] Om s v a s t l 2 ’8

Within Dharmata, your unobs t ruc ted c o m p a s s io n gave r i s e to

The impar t ia l aw akened mind (b o d h ic i t ta ) w h ic h b e n e f i t s

be ings .219

Never abandoning t h a t , you took the v a j r a - l i k e oa th

To pe r fo rm the F ou r - fo ld spon taneous A c t i v i t y , 220 the Hundred

Poin ts .221

Once when p e rv e r t e d a m b i t io n s pi led high the m ounta in of

evil m e r i t

And pr ide rose up to a rocky peak of haugh ty a rrogance ,

To show the teach ing of Cause and E f fe c t you c rushed it w i th

t h i s va jra .

G r e a t e s t of heroes , Suprem e being, J e w e l T a m e r of Enemies ,

may you be v i c t o r i o u s .222

274

Chapter I

The Noble Supreme C om pass iona te One's m oonl igh t

Disso lves in to tne h e a r t c e n t e r of the One Whose

Splendor Tam es th e Phenomenal World.

The Five F a m i l i e s of the Blessed V ic to r iou s Ones

Grant e m p o w e rm e n t to Joyful to Hear .223

Now in t h i s t i m e when the five c o r ru p t io n s a re sp read ing and

increas ing , i t is d i f f i c u l t to l ibe ra te f rom evil ka rm a th e s e savage

s e n t i e n t be ings th rough the Causal Path of C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 224 alone.

It i s even d i f f i c u l t to r ipen them through the Fru i t ion Pa th of the

S e c r e t Mantra. For t h e i r minds are hard a s rock and s tone : if you do

not carve i t s hard s u r f a c e w i t h a ch ise l , even if you soak i t in a

s t r e a m , it wi l l no t give way. Even if you rub i t w i t h b u t t e r and oil,

i t w i l l not become f lexible . They are too s t i f f to be ben t by the

t ea ch in g s on t h i s l i f e and the next. They wi l l not su b m i t to the

r e s t r a i n t of the t em p o ra l and sp i r i tua l laws.

Formerly, during the l ives of the Three Dharma Kings,225 the

A nces to r and h is Descendan ts , when the Land of T ibe t pa ssed from

Bon to Buddhism, in o rde r to na tu ra l ly paci fy the t e m p e ra m e n t a l

demons of T ibe t , Lotus Skull gar land,226 the Mantra Holder, bound

them by oath, if he had managed to make them s w e a r t h e i r o a th s of

f e a l ty to the Buddha Dharma th ree t im e s , then the Dharma Kings

would have been long-l ived.

But even though the sovere ign and s u b j e c t s s h a r e d b l i s s and

happiness , dev i l i sh m i n i s t e r s , noblemen and w a r l o r d s 227 tu rned the

275

s u b j e c t s from the comm ands of th e i r lord king. And

Padmasambhava 's f a i l u r e to bind the s p i r i t s of T ibe t more than

t w i c e led to d iso rdered c ond i t ions in the s t a t e and the ausp icious

co inc idence of the Glorious G a tew ay228 w a s m is se d . [Gantok 2:2]. As

a r e s u l t there w a s tu rmoi l of weaponry in the fou r d i rec t ions . The

border land demons w andered into Central Tibet . And the dynasty of

t h e Dharma kings fel l down to the level of comm oners .

In general the whole wor ld (Jambudvipa ) and in p a r t i cu la r , the

land of Tibet, indeed all lands became opp re s se d by su f fe r ing . The

Noble Excel lent Great Com pass iona te One (A v a lo k i t e s v a ra ) gazing on

all t h i s w i th unbearab le229 compass ion , s u p p l i c a t e d the Lord of

Sukhâvat i , Amitâyus:230

"Om mani padme hum231I pay homage to the refuge , the lord of c o u n t l e s s r e a l m sUnchanging Light, lord of Sukhâvat i in the West.Even though your c om pa ss ion is truly unb iasedLook down on the wor ld of Impure cyc l ic e x i s t e n c e ( samsara ).In the vas t whir lpool ocean of su f fe r ingYou are ski l led in ki l l ing the c rocod i les of evil deeds.Have compass ion for s e n t i e n t beings in e n d le s s cyc l ic

exis tence.Surrounded by ocean w a v e s of the five p o i so n s (k lesas ),The m ir ro r of t h e i r m inds is blinded by the o b sc u r a t io n s

( àvarana ).Circl ing end le ss ly in cyc l i c exi s tence , they are t ru ly to be

pitied.Out of compass ion p lea se show supreme s k i l l fu l means.

(upâya)“

[With these w ords he r ev e re n t ly supp l ica ted . The Blessed One

Amitâbha answered] 232w i t h t h e s e words .

Good, good, 0 son of noble family.For se n t i e n t be ings ignoran t and confused,

276

If they are not f o r t u n a t e enough to be t am e d , i t is d i f f i c u l t to draw them ou t [of the ocean where they drown].

Thus, it beings n e a r and f a r Have no iron r ing of fa i th ,Even the t e a c h e r who d r a w s out the th ree w o r ld s Has no way of c a tch ing them w i th the iron hook of

compass ion .N e ver the le ss , in t h e d iv ine Buddhafield of t h e T h i r ty -T h ree The Father , the Great God, Lord White L um inos i ty233 And the Suprem e Mother Manda Divine Beauty Had a son. Suprem e B l i s s Good Nature.He and the Divine P r i n c e s s Il lusory Beauty234 United as E and VAM235 and gave m iracu lous b i r t h 236 Through the r a d i a n c e of t h e i r unwaver ing compass ion To the magical ch i ld w hose b less ings acc om pl i sh all purposes .He is joyful to h e a r and de l ightfu l to see.If he w e r e to t r a n s f e r in to a human body in Jambudvipa That hero ic b o d h i s a t t v a would Lame the d i f f i c u l t to tame. S e n t i e n t be ings in t h e land of Tibet would exper ience bl i ss

and happ iness .There is no doubt they would be free f rom b i r th in the Lower

Realms.T here fo re go to the con t inen t of Camara.And r e q u e s t Padm asam bhava Skul lgar land Pow er for th is .S t r i v e for the b e n e f i t of beings, supreme w a r r i o r of the mind. Remember th i s , E MA HO!

He p ra i s ed and com pl im en ted A va lok i te sva ra w i th t h e s e w o rd s

of prophecy and con f i rm a t ion . [Gantok 4:12]

Then, in a s ing le i n s t a n t , the g rea t ly c o m p a s s io n a t e lord w e n t

to the b l i s s fu l , s p o n ta n eo u s ly a r i sen L im i t l e s s Palace of Lotus

Light237 on the s u b - c o n t i n e n t of Camara. Around it w a s the c i ty of

the t e r r i f y in g raksasas 238 (cannibal demons; T: sr in po ), h is

s u b j e c t s — a p lace so hor r ib le tha t it f r i g h t e n s even the de a th gods

(S: yamas ; J-.gshin r j e ) and makes the Lord of Life, Brahma (T: tsang

pa ) w i th d ra w — a land so t e r r i b l e t h a t even the Vinayakas

277

(obs t ruc t ing s p i r i t s ) shun it, not to men t ion o rd inary men, who

cannot even s t a n d the s igh t of Lotus Light P a l a c e .239 In th i s place, in

o rder to e f f e c t the m e a s u r e l e s s b e n e f i t for be ings , A va lok i t e sva ra

m a n i f e s t e d as a c a nn iba l -de m on chi ld , h i s head surrounded by

o y s t e r s and enveloped in a halo240 of g l im m er ing w h i t e l ight. He

w e n t to the e a s t e r n Gate of Al l -Pe rvad ing Mercy (m a i t r i ). There he

m e t a demon m i n i s t e r r a k s a s a w i t h seven heads who said:

"Wondrous indeed, your inner r e a l i t y and o u t w a r d appearance.I would say you a re a god, but you look l ike a demon cub.I would say you a r e a demon, but for your au ra of light.Within the w a l l s of t h i s Blazing Lotus LandWe s e n t i e n t be ings , confused by ignorance,Have never seen , would be lucky even to hear ,Of the coming of such a unique individual."

With th i s sp e e c h he asked A v a lo k i t e sv a r a fo r w ha t g r e a t

purpose 241 he had come. Then he sang to the Lord t h i s m i ra cu lous

song:

"LU A LA LU,242 the song is sung; in c a se you do not unders tand ,

THA LA, th i s is t h e melody of the song.Surrounding t h i s land of Camara, the coun try of the demons

areThe place of the impure Raksasa and demons Cdre )243And the Field of the pure Wisdom Holcers ( vidyadharas ) and

dakinis.

This morning, young child, you landed here.From what p lace and from w h a t d i r ec t io n do you come?What a ims can you have which a re such g r e a t m a t t e r s ? 244If you do not have in mind g r e a t m a t t e r s ,Then it is m e a n i n g le s s to pursue ends of no g r e a t impor tance .If you are not s e i z e d by the dons (evil s p i r i t s ) of g r e a t

suffe r ing ,What is the po in t in drowning y o u r s e l f in the r i v e r ?

278

If you have not b e c o m e involved in a g r e a t qua r re l ,The re is no g r e a t c a u s e for you to br ing to court .

In Camara ' s Blood Lake of Sin[Gtk 5:1] The food of t h e cannibal demons is h o t t e r than f i re . The reach of the c ann iba l de m o n e ss es is longer than a r iver . The t ra m e n s245 s e e k you out f a s t e r than the wind.

Why have you come to th i s p lace?Who are your f a t h e r and mother , t h e i r r ace and r e l ig ion?Keep back no s e c r e t s ; be s t r a i g h t in your speech.In the m onas te ry our com m erce is all s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d

speech.246S t r a i g h t a r ro w s s t r i k e the t a r g e t yonder.If your path is s t r a i g h t , the roads to U and China are not long.

If you unders tand , you are a supe r io r man: a s ing le s ign is enough.

If you don't, you a r e an aging ox and only u n d e rs t an d th e s t i c k . If t h a t ' s wha t you need , then look to your r ed -b looded l i f e .247 If you unders tand , t h i s is the exp lana t ion of the words.If not , I'm not going to s ing t h i s song again.*'248

Thus he sang and the Lord answered : "Oh ye s , I unde rs t and , S i r .249

The s e c r e t meaning of the e ssence of speech l ike yours m u s t be c l a r i f i e d 250

Or e l s e the profound and s e c r e t meaning of the w o rd s w i l l be si lenced.

If the meaning of t h e words does not p lace the f ru i t ion in you r hands,

Then all those w o r d s are j u s t bubbles of sp i t .If the Earth in e a r ly Spring is not f i r s t fed w i t h w a te r ,Then the Sou thern Turquoise Dragon and the venomous S e r p e n t

will be s i l e n t .In the sky Mount Meru is c i rc led by the Sun and the Moon.If they do not b e n e f i t the plains of the Four Cont inen ts ,Then Meru is of no b e n e f i t or harm.Then the Sun and the Moon would j u s t be d i s t r a c t i o n s fo r the

spinning heads of b ra in les s dupes.251 Then the re would be no g ra t i tude for the good done by the Sun

and Moon.

279

It is impossib le t h a t th ings should be t h a t way.For the black e a r th i s th ick w i th s e t t l e m e n t s .And the m e a s u r e l e s s w h i t e c louds f l o a t f r e e l y above.If my cause is g r e a t , China and T ibe t are c i r c l e d by the

heavenly bod ies each day.If my cause is i m p o r t a n t , then t h e s e w o r d s c a r r y g r e a t

weight.

I r e a l i z e t h a t m o s t c a s e s are brought by p e t i t i o n e r s to the

Court of the Chief, the m a j e s t i c Lotus Skul lgar land , and heard by

the Great M in is te r s in the Imperial A ssem bly Hall. But j u s t as i t is

p o i n t l e s s to plant s e e d anywhere e l s e but in a p lowed f ie ld , so the

n a tu r e of my dis c o u r s e is too g rea t to expla in be fore the P lenary

Council and I m us t see Lotus Skul lgar land h im s e l f . 252 The t a l e I

m u s t te l l i s like this ," and he sang t h i s song:

[Ste in 3b] [Gk 7:6] Om Mani Padme HGm Hrih I s u p p l i ca te the Dharma of the Six P e r f e c t i o n s . 253 J u s t keep to your own place, u l t i m a t e e m p t i n e s s . 254 In case you do no t r ecogn ize me,I am known as the A l l -Benef i t ing , C om pass iona te , Beloved

Child.My f a t h e r is B o d h ic i t t a Sovereign Lord .My m o th e r is E m pt ines s Dharma Torch.This morning I c am e from the Field of Grea t Bl iss .The b e n e f i t I seek is the benef i t of both s e l f and other .My goal is the Is le of Camara, t h a t goal.My suppl ica t ion is to supp l ica te the M a s te r Sku l lgar land .255 Thus, the anc ien t p roverb s a y s256If you t rave l back and for th , a m erchan t , b e tw e e n China and

TibetIt is not t h a t t h e re is nothing of value in one 's own

T ibe tan val ley:257This is the menta l r e l a t io n s h ip of t r u s t t h a t u n i f ie s China and

Tibet.B e tw een m a s t e r and d i sc ip le e m p o w e r m e n t s and t ea ch in g s

t rave l and a re handed down,

It is not tha t the profound teach ings are not p r e c i o u s ,250

280

But t h a t th e s e t e a c h i n g s are a connec t ion be tw e e n a s p i r a t i o n s and c o m m i t m e n t s (skt : sam aya ).B e tw e e n the people and the r u l e r the g re a t m i n i s t e r t r a v e l s

back and fo r th .It is not t h a t w i t h o u t him t h e r e is no way of conduc t ing

Government.He c o n n ec t s the tw o ranks of the l aw -g iv e r and th e m onks .259 T hese w ords of i n f o rm a t io n I o f f e r to you.P l e a s e in te rce de on beha l f of my humble se l f ,

And t e l l the m a s t e r the e s s e n c e of my m e s sa g e .260

In i t i a t e the a l l - p e rv a d in g a c t i v i t y of your c o m p a ss io n .261

My impor t is not s m a l l , 262 i t i s of g rea t impor tance .Of g r e a t impor t is the w e l f a r e of all beings.If i t w e re m e a n in g le s s , why would I explain to you why I have

com e?Those who p o i n t l e s s l y t rave l around in d i s t a n t lands P u rc h as e for t h e m s e l v e s t h i r s t and famine.Those who s u f f e r not , y e t th row t h e m s e lv e s into deep gorges,Have le t t h e i r l i fe fo rce be c a r r i e d away by demons .263 The w e a l th y who b e a r the burden of m a te r i a l goods,Will be ca r r i ed a w a y by p ro f i t and loss.The powerfu l w i t h t h e i r many evil r e p o r t s Will c a s t t h e m s e l v e s down in se l f -h u m i l i a t io n .The poor who u t t e r proud wordsWill bind t h e m s e l v e s to f a l s e f r i ends .264Things such as t h e s e a re indeed w i th o u t point.

But into the e n t r a n c e hall of Lord Raksha Sku l lga r land I have had no choice but to en ter .P l e a s e le t i t be t h a t I am se ized by his compass ion .Tak ing the form of a naga I make t h i s offer ing.P l e a s e l e t my w o r d s e n t e r your h e a r t and hear ing.

Thus he r e q u e s t e d and the demon m i n i s t e r a n sw e re d , "Hey,

you!265 [GT 8: 16] Accord ing to anc ien t h is to ry , our demon king Raksa

Sku l lga r land 's royal l ineage is t e r r i b ly s t r i c t . In co u r t they s t r i k e

w i t h the accuracy of l ightn ing b o l t s . 266 Their s o v e r e i g n t y 267 is

v a s t e r than the blue sky. Their c l o u t 268 is m ig h t i e r than Rahu.269

281

What can a l i t t l e gypsy kid l ike you hope f o r ? Even people l ike me,

the in t e r io r m in i s t e r , when w e s tand be fo re such k ings a r e ready to

be punished,270 and we haven ' t done anything wrong. [Gantok p. 9 :2]

They a re ready to kick us out for no r e a s o n 271 or a r r e s t us fo r no

rea l cause .272 They are ready to gobble up the f l e sh of a l iving man

and gulp down the blood of a live horse. In t h i s l ineage th e r e have

been such men. In r e c e n t g e n e r a t i o n s 273, however , t h e i r g u t s se e m

to have s o m e w h a t b roadened274 and t h e i r minds, which a re

e m p t i n e s s and mercy, un i te all th ree t em p e ra m e n t s : peacefu l ,

w ra th fu l , and relaxed.

In r e c e n t g e n e r a t i o n s they have all been the same t h a t way,

like s l e ev e s all cu t from the sam e p a t t e r n or beads all chosen from

the sam e rosary . In the s t r i c t n e s s of our m o n as t i c law, w e don 't l e t

anything be s w e p t under the ca rpe t .275

We m u s t fo rm al ly r e q u e s t t h a t you be a l lowed the k indness of

en te r ing 276 O th e rw is e we tw o wil l be j u s t like an old ox leaping

into the r ive r when it is t h i r s ty . Or an old cow heading f o r g rass . Or

an old donkey dr iven by rain [and wind.]

No one has ever dared to break in upon him like tha t . 277

General ly when you v i s i t a tem ple , you o f f e r the guru th e r e a w h i t e

sca r f . So w h a t do you have as a p r e s e n t a t i o n offer ing iphyag rze )

to give to the the ruler."

[GT 9:14] "1 have the t h i r t y v a r i e t i e s of formal p r e s e n t a t i o n

of fer ings. If you w a n t to coun t them they are: as Dharma th e s ix

sy l l ab le Mam mant ra , as pa th , the Six P a ram i ta s , as the s ix o b j e c t s

of ou te r appearance, the s ix c o n s c io u s n e s s e s of ir.ner knowing, and

the six g a te s of the sense f a c u l t i e s which lie be tw ee n t h e s e . 278 Are

282

t h e s e s u i t a b l e p r e s e n t a t i o n of fe r ings?"

When he sa id t h i s , t h e m in s t e r a n sw ered , "I c a n ' t r ea l ly say

they wil l be okay:279 The more the poor man v a lu e s food, the more

the r i ch man t ig h t e n s h i s s tom ac h for him. The m ore the r ich man

va lue s a horse , the m ore s tubbo rn -headed the m e r c h a n t is on his

se l l ing pr ice . (Gantok 10:1] If you don't have one, then a Dzo ( fem a le

yak) is l ike a horse. But f o r a g rea t band of robbers , i t is nothing but

a quick snack on the road. The jackal who usua l ly e a t s ho rse s

s o m e t i m e s w onde rs "pe rhaps th is sheep ' s body would do?280

At the sam e t im e 1 cannot say t h a t t h e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n

o f f e r in g s would not do: t h e sac red symbol , the souven i r of a

p i lg r im age to Tsa r i Mountain, is r ea l ly nothing but a n ine-node

bamboo s t i c k . 28' To h a r v e s t Chao Hsi Mountain's t ea , you m us t f ind

your way a c ro s s hill and dale. But anybody w i th money can have i t if

t hey w a n t .282

Genera l ly speaking , you can say t h a t th e s e th ings are both r ich

and abundant and t iny and ins ign i f ican t . 283 Indeed, they are not

g rea t , for th e s e p r e c io u s q u a l i t i e s of being f r e e and w e l l - f a v o r e d 284

all f i t w i t h in the tw o s p a n s and four c u b i t s of the human body.285

Again, they a re not t iny, because if you p o s s e s s a n a ly s i s , they a re

the inexhaus t ib le p ro v i s io n s for th is l ife and the next , the m a t e r i a l s

which fu l f i l l all w i s h e s in the cycle of e x i s te nce , the w i s h -

f u l f i l l in g gem, so d i f f i c u l t to acquire. 286

But if you do not p o s s e s s an ana ly t ica l m ind ,287 then t h e s e

th ings a re the anchor of t h e th ree po isons in the ocean of cycl ic

e x i s t e n c e ; the s t i c k w h ich dr ives us w i t h happ iness and s a d n e s s ; 288

a sack full of impure s u b s ta n c e s .

283

Well now, w h o e v e r you are , I w i l l go and r e q u e s t fo r you

p e rm is s io n to e n te r in to the Presence . Wait he re fo r a m o m e n t , ” he

sa id and [Gantok 10: 9] e n te red the palace.

There on top of a w ra th fu l s e a t of c o r p s e s , 289 [Gantok 10:12,

S te in 5B] on a dazz l ing ly beau t i fu l th rone of gold s a t Lotus R3ksa

Sku l lgar land h im s e l f , h i s mind r e s t i n g in m e d i t a t i o n on the g r e a t

n a tu r e of phenomena ( dharmata ). Even though he a l r e a d y unders tood

t h a t A va lok i t e sva ra w a s ou t s ide , he p re tended ignorance and sa id to

the g r e a t r ak sa m i n i s t e r w i th seven heads:

"Hey you. This morn ing you w e r e s inging p o i n t l e s s songs,

chant ing unlovely m e lo d ie s w i t h imbeci l ie w o r d s ? Who w a s t h a t

who sang in r e s p o n se to you? What g r e a t purpose doe s he aim to

a t t a i n ? In whom does his mind t r u s t ? In w h a t pe rson does his body

take r e f u g e ? ”290

The m i n i s t e r though t to h im se l f , " He s e e m s to be s i t t i n g here

on his lordly t h ro n e ,291 but his f ine br ight e y e s 292 s e e the br idge

ou ts ide . His s igh t m u s t be like the proverbia l royal pa ra so l of the

sun t r ave l ing a c ro s s the sky, i t s l ight pervading the w or ld

(Jambudvipa) , or the sou the rn c lo u d s293 pi led high in the mid

heavens, ra in ing all a c r o s s the dense ear th. " He u t t e r e d t h e s e

say ings thinking t h a t Padmasambhava in his c h a m b e r had probably

seen every th ing t h a t had j u s t happened o u t s id e .294

He sa id to Padm asam bhava , "Oh p rec ious c r e s t j e w e l , In the

va r i c o lo re d demon v i l l a g e ,295 Hundred Thousand G rea t B l i s s e s , a t the

second ga te in the i ron mounta in wal l , the E a s te rn g a t e named Great

Garden of Mercy (skt : m a i t r i ; tib. byams pa ), a l i t t l e boy who is not a

human and not a demon, who is not a god, but has an aura of w h i t e

284

l igh t s a y s t h a t he would have a m a t t e r of p i th and im por tance to

impar t . He s a y s t h i s w i t h w ords c lear , b r ig h t , c onc i se , and lovely to

the ear. Don't be d i s t r a c t e d , 296 l i s t e n ca re fu l ly . " With these words

he p r o s t r a t e d t h r e e t i m e s and then sang t h i s song:

"A la la s ing the song t h i s way.Above in t h e Pa lace of Padma Raga,A m i tabha of Uddiyana, know me!May I and all s e n t i e n t beings f i l l ing s p a c e A t t a i n the d e a t h l e s s s t a t e of a Wisdom Holder

(skt.v idyadhara; tib: r ig 'dzin )On a pe ac e fu l and w ra th fu l j e w e l e d c o r p s e th rone On a b laz ing LotusLeader in t h i s l i fe , dear lord and ch ie f , l i s ten .Guide in t h e nex t l i fe , o guru, l is ten .

Today a t the m om e n t when the golden r a y s of the royal p a r a s o l 297

S t ruc k the peak of the Glorious Mountain At the E a s te rn Gate of the Garden of G rea t Mercy In the m idd le of the Plain of A l l -Pe rvad ing Great B l i s s Appeared a l i t t l e boy made from b e a u t i fu l r a y s of l ight,

[Gantok: 12] Wrapped in ga r lands of i ig h t r a y s and rainbows.His name is Compassion Benef i t ing All.His g r e a t a im, the l i m i t l e s s b e n e f i t of o thers .He says: ‘t h e r e is an urgen t need to se e you.There is no t im e to spare. '

Whether you condescend ingly p ra i s e your g i f t as ' a l m s ' 298 Or e l e g a n t ly cal l i t 'of fe r ings , 'It s t i l l goes to the e rud i te guru who has m a s t e r e d the ten

s c i e n c e s .

It may be to pur ify one' s ins ,Or e l s e the e x to r t i o n exac ted by a m i n i s t e r .E i the r way it is a fine, the pun ishm en t m e te d by the mighty

ch ie f ton .Clouds in the sky may be a s to rm f ro n t coming inOr e l s e the gaping m ouths of the e igh t c l a s s e s of demons.299Eithe r way the rain wil l help to r ipen th e e igh t f ru i t s .

285

A beggar ' s p r a y e r s for your good heal th , may be a l t r u i s t i c a s p i r a t i o n p raye rs

Or e l s e he c a l l s you fr iend j u s t to ge t so m e food.E i the r way, h i s s tom ach ' s hunger is pure a s a w h i t e s i lk scarf .I couldn ' t g rasp him, but I sa id t h a t I would ask the favor.P le a s e g ran t w h a te v e r he r e q u e s t s w i t h h i s long w h i t e scar f .Do not make a m i n i s t e r such a s m yse l f w a n d e r back and fo r th

about the m onas te ry 300P le as e le t him make his r e q u e s t pesona l ly be fo re your golden

throne.These rock - l ike words of a s tup id , p r idefu l pe rsonYou have heard. He should not j u s t w a n d e r in be fore your

golden th rone in the monas te ry .However , if t h e a f f a i r is im por tan t , it i s your honor's

b u s in e s s .301

If you l i s t en to my song, i t is an o f fe r ing up to you.Then p lea se give your reply to w ha t he has reques ted ."

[Gantok: 13] Then the m ag n i f i ce n t Sku l lga r land Lotus answered:

"Oh, Excellent! These sayings a re good. As fo r w h a t you give the guru

who is a guide and a t eacher , he is more p lea se d by the abandonment

of s in (tib: sdig pa ) than by a hundred o f fe r ings . As for w h a t you

give to the ch ie f whose sove re ign ty is v a s t , he is m ore p leased by

the s t r a i g h t t r u t h than by a hundred o f fe r ing g i f t s . 302 When you

begin to p r a c t i c e Dharma and acc um ula te m e r i t , he is more p leased

by one a usp ic ious sign of s u c c e s s in m e d i t a t i o n than by a hundred

m e a s u r e s of p rov is ions for t r a v e l

Today, in the Fire Monkey year , the e igh th day of the f i r s t

moon, on the glor ious Mount of Auspic ious Coincidence, w h a te v e r of

the e igh t o rders of beings he is, w h e th e r god, nyen, s e rp e n t , or man,

l e t him now e n t e r the audience hall and s t a n d be fo re me."303

The m i n i s t e r w en t out to the ga te but [S te in 7a] the l i t t l e boy

had d i sappea red w i th o u t the l e a s t t race. Like the t r a c e l e f t by a bird

286

in the sky when i t m akes i t s way in the pa th s of the winds, j u s t so

w e r e the t r a c e s of the l i t t l e boy on the ground— nothing, no t even

an in d e n t a t i o n in the soi l . But s t r a i g h t ahead t h e r e w a s a golden

lo tu s w i t h e ig h t p e t a l s and a w h i t e Hrih on the an the r s . On the

p e t a l s w e re Om Mani Padme Hum Hrih Ah.304 These e igh t s y l l a b l e s

w e r e r e p e a t in g t h e i r own sounds. He thought , "How s t r a n g e ? What

sha l l I to d e c l a r e to t h e c h ie f ? How wi l l I explain t h i s to the

m i n i s t e r s ? What wil l I say to the s e r v a n t s ? What wil l I p roc la im to

the people?"

Then he began to s t r a t e g i z e . In h i s mind he w e n t through h is

s t r a t e g y t w e l v e t i m e s , he worked out t w e n t y - f i v e t r i c k s and

t a c t i c s . 305 Final ly he thought, "[I m u s t decide. ] Since the mind,

being by n a t u r e empty , is inexhaus t ib le , the i n t e l l e c t of a s u p e r io r

man 306 is ine x h a u s t ib le as well . If you do not c lam p down on your

l i t t l e tongue, 30? t h e r e is no end to the speech of a lea rned man. If

you do no t con tro l the m easu re of your l i t t i e s t e p , the long w h i t e

s t r i p of road wil l s t r e t c h out e n d le s s ly before you. If you do not

touch i t w i t h blue w a t e r , w ha t wil l con tro l the red f i r e ? “

Then he had the thought, “This th ing [might be m ean ing less ] ,

l ike r e l i c p i l l s f rom the grave of a pig, which have no b l e s s i n g s .308

[Gantok: 14] But w h a t can I say in a n s w e r to Padm a 's com m and?

Like the m u te t rying to explain the t a s t e of brown sugar , I have no

w o r d s of rep ly to him. But even though i t may be p o i n t l e s s to t ry to

d e s c r ib e t h i s w i t h my mouth, maybe I can car ry i t in my hands.

I gu e s s t h a t pe rson I saw th i s morning m u s t have been som e

kind of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . So it s e e m s t h a t th i s f l o w e r here is the

c h i ld ’s m ag ica l t r a n s fo r m a t io n . If t h a t ’s so, then why not c a r ry the

287

f low er in and p lace it before the King? [ I t s a s ign of som eth ing and

s igns are n e c e s s a r y ] — like the a usp ic ious s ig n s t h a t are so

n e c e s sa r y to the p r a c t i t i o n e r c o l lec t ing m e r i t . 309 And a f t e r a l l , the

king gave m e o rder s , saying: 'w h e th e r it is a god or a demon, bring i t

in.' This th ing is not solid; i t is a form like t h a t of a ra inbow. Maybe

i t is a m ag ic ia n ' s t r i c k .310 Or pe rhaps it is a w o n d e r - w o r k e r ' s b a s i s

for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 311 Whatever i t is, I am c e r t a i n t h a t i t i s a

m iracu lous thing.

On top of tha t , w h a te v e r th is thing is, I canno t t a lk to it. But

s ince i t i s all I have to show for t h i s morning 's e v e n t s , I wil l c a r ry

i t in and j u s t p r e s e n t it." 312 J u s t a s w h i t e snow is pleasing to the

mind [S te in 7b] and colored o rnam en ts are lovely to the eyes, so t h i s

is probably an ausp ic ious s i g n . "

Then he picked up the lo tus and car r ied i t to the door of Lotus

S e l f - l u m i n o s i t y ' s living room. The f l o w e r in h i s hand turned into a

w h i te l igh t the s i z e of the moon and d isso lved into the h e a r t c e n t e r

of the demon king Raksa Skul lgarland. At t h a t m o m e n t the Noble

Supreme Great ly Compassiona te One told Lotus Born to invoke and

call f o r th f rom the Se l f - lum inous Thought Lineage the mind [of

Gesar].313 His w ords w e re poured into a song so t h a t they w e re easy

to unders tand . 314

[Gantok: 14:14] "Om maoi padme hum hrih From the Pure Land of the Flaming Lotus Blessed One (Bhagavat) Amitabha, know us.And you who a re supreme in the Lotus Family, o m n is c i e n t

t r e a s u r y . 315 Miraculous king, I ask you to think.316

It is d i f f i c u l t to tame the w i l d e r n e s s of Tibet.

288

When they p a s s e d away In the Snowy Kingdom,Nine o a th - b r e a k i n g dem ons317 (damsi ) u t t e r e d p e rv e r t e d

a s p i r a t i o n s . 318 And so w e r e rebo rn a s the Nine kings and Min is ters :

The E a s te rn Devi l319 (Mara of the Eas t) Lhotri T iger Eye ( Iho k h r i s tag m i g )

The Sou the rn Devil, Sadam Poison Tree ( s a dam dug g i sd ong ) The W e s t e r n Devil, Lutsen (Naga Might) of Clan Mu ( d m u ),The Nor thern Devil, White Tent (gur dkar, pronounced "gurkar")

The’u Rang Cub.320

Turquoise Peak ( g.yu r tse, pronounced "Yutse”) Luminous Child,32'

Earth Lord King Nyenrawa (snyan raba ),322 The Lion Devil Ase Khyilpa (A bse 'kh i l pa )The Borde rland Devil King Shingtr i ( shing k h r i — wooden

th rone) ,And the genera l demons of the World such as Black Bear, e tc .

( s r id p a ’i dmangs 'dre dom nag sogs )

Each one of them is su rrounded by an innumerable r e t i n u e — The e n e m i e s who have form and the o b s t r u c t i o n s w i t h o u t

form.They lead the Land of Tibe t into su f fe r ing .They t r e a t the t e a c h in g s of cause and e f f e c t , the Rare and

P re c io u s Three J e w e l s w i t h c o n te m p t [Stein 8a] They guide ali s e n t i e n t be ings on the pa th to the

Lower Realms.They p l a n t deep the seed of b ir th in he l l .323

Oh pi ty the ignoran t in Cyclic Ex is tence (samsara ) .You are the G rea t Powerfu l One who d e f e a t s the d i f f i c u l t to

t a m e —Great Being, god child, Joyful to Hear,P r im ord ia l ly pure, All Good, se lf -1 i b e r a te them.324 And g ran t them the E m pow erm en ts of the Five F a m i l i e s of the

V ic to r io u s One.Grant them the b l e s s i n g s of the Three P ro te c to r s .The t im e h a s com e to fu l f i l l your s a c r e d v o w 325 And evoke the Nirmanakaya to tam e the v ic ious .326 T here fore , don’t be idle, p r o t e c to r of b e i n g s . "

289

Thus he supp l ica ted . And then He Who O ve rpow ers the

Phenomenal World w i t h His Br i l l i ance sm i l e d b r i l l l i a n t l y , hi s h e a r t

glad, he sa id , "Good," and sang these w o rd s in a s w e e t melody:

"Kye Ho, Good, Suprem e Bodhisa t tva;Your s t r i v in g fo r t h e b e n e f i t of be ings is good.In the l i m i t l e s s sky of your awakened h e a r t ( b o d h i c i t t a ) 327The White Luminous One328 is your c o m p a ss io n w h ich b e n e f i t s

o thers .The innumerab le c o n s t e l l a t i o n s are your a s p i r a to n praye rs .Your k indness e l i m i n a t e s the da rkness of ignorance .329

Like the moon shining in the m id s t of the moving s t a r sAre you, c h i ld 330 who wil l m a s t e r the phenomenal world.A Great B o d h i sa t t v a , hear ing you r e j o i c e s and l i b e r a t e s

s e n t i e n t beings.You are t h e lord who embodies the a c t i v i t y of all t h e Buddhas.

For all the buddhas a re one in the sp a ce of wisdom.The buddha na tu re p e rva de s all s e n t i e n t beings.Beings in cyc l i c e x i s t e n c e , not unde rs t and ing th i s ,Must be l ibe ra ted . Thus the Suga tasNever abandon t h e i r v o w s to benef i t beings.[Stein:8b] P r o t e c t o r , w h a t e v e r though ts you have fo r the

b e n e f i t of o t h e r sWill come t rue fo r all s e n t i e n t beings.So may your p r a c t i c e of the P e r f ec t io n of A sp i r a t ion be

p e r fec ted ."331

This w a s h i s u t t e r a n c e of an a s p i r a t i o n p raye r w h ich

confirmed the invoca t ion of the mind s a m ay a of all the t a t h a g a t a s 332

of the ten d i r ec t ions . Through it and the wondrous l ib e ra t i o n

through seeing, th a t demon m i n i s t e r of the Sambhogakaya Buddha

f ie ld of d i s c ip l e s w a s e s t a b l i s h e d in b l is s . Then the Grea t ly

Compass iona te One r e t u r n e d to Pota la Mountain.

Later , on the holy day333 when the d a k a s and the dak in is

e spec ia l ly ga the r , the t e n th day of the mon th , d e a t h l e s s Lotus

290

Skullgar lcr .d h i m s e l f w a s sur rounded by a v a s t a s s e m b l y performing

a t a n t r i c f e a s t (skt: ga.nacakra). At t h a t t im e he w a s dwel l ing in the

Samadhi of the A l l -Pe rvad ing Dharmakaya. From the top of his head

he e m i t t e d a green ray of l igh t which invoked the mind s t r e a m of the

dha rm adha tu Sam antabhadra . Then from the h e a r t c e n t e r of the

Dharmadhatu Sa m an ta b h ad ra em ana ted a f i v e - p o i n t e d blue va j ra

marked in the c e n t e r w i th the sy l lab le HUM. It f l e w to t h e Garden of

the Heaven of the T h i r ty T h ree 334 and e n te red the top of the head of

the god 335 White Supreme Bl iss (bde mchog dkarpo). He exper ienced

inexp re ss ib le b l i s s and h i s appearance t r a n s f o r m e d in to th a t of the

Daka Hayagrlva.

From the he a r t c e n t e r of the Supreme Mother Opulent Goddess

of the Space E le m en t336 e m a n a te d a red lo tus w i t h s i x t e e n peta ls ,

the a n th e r s marked w i t h the sy l lab le AH. It e n t e r e d into the top of

the head of the goddess I l lusory Bliss Beauty ( s g y u m a bde mdzes).

An indesc r ibab le m e d i t a t i o n experi ence blazed w i t h i n her and her

appearance t r a n s fo r m e d into t h a t of Vajravarah l . Horse and Pig

jo ined in p a s s i o n l e s s union.337

The sound of t h e i r union of b l i s s and e m p t i n e s s invi ted the

mind s t r e a m s of the S u g a ta s of the ten d i rec t ions . From the hear t

c e n t e r s of the b l e s se d Ones, the Vic to r ious ones of the Five

Fam i l ies , va r ious co lored l ig h t s emanated in the t en d i r ec t io n s ,

c leans ing the o b sc u ra to n s of the f ive poisons of a ll s e n t i e n t beings.

The l igh t s ga the red back he re and t r a n s fo rm e d in to a c ro s s e d double

v a j r a , the e s s e n c e of the a c t i v i t y of all the T a t h a g a t h a s of the Ten

Direct ions.

That v a j r a en te red into the top of the head of White Supreme

291

B l i s s 338 w he re i t w a s m e l t ed by the f i r e of g r e a t b l i s s , f low ed

th rough h i s body and en te red into the space of i l luso ry Divine Beauty

[Gantok p 18] as w isdom prána. This wisdom prana w a s b l e s se d into

the nirmanakaya. A l i t t l e w h i l e a f t e r t h a t it m iracu lous ly appeared

in h e r lap a s a god child blazing w i th such a m ag n i f i ce n t sp lendor339

t h a t to see him would br ing i l lumina t ion and to hear him would bring

joy. As soon as he w a s born he began to produce the sound of the

hundred sy l l ab le m an t ra .

He w a s f loa t ing in the a i r in v a j r a p os tu re the height of an

a r r o w - l e n g t h above an e ig h t - p e t a l e d golden lotus . He r a i s e d up th i s

song which t e a c h e s the meaning of cause and f ru i t ion .340

"Om Mani Padme Hum HrihFrom the Buddhafield of the Akanis tha DharmadhatuBles sed Ones of the Five Fam i l ie s of the Vic to r ious Ones,

know me.For I and all s e n t i e n t beings like spaceP le a s e n a tu ra l ly paci fy d i scu rs ive thoughts of the f ive

poisons.May we m e e t the Five Wisdoms of the Five Kayas.341

The s ing le bindu Dharmakaya342—If you see it, buddhahood is de l ive red in the palm of the hand.N e ver the le ss , fo r ignorant s e n t i e n t beingsEven if you explain it, i t is d i f f i c u l t to unders tand.

According to the In te rp re ta b le meaning,343 gods and menAre p r o t e c te d from f ea r of cyc l ic e x i s te n ceBy seek ing refuge in the Three Rare and Supreme Ones.Suf fe r ing is na tu ra l ly pac i f iedBy giving b i r th to the awakened h e a r t (bodh ic i t ta ) which holds

o th e r s d e a r e r than self .Beings of the lo w er rea lm s , border t r ibes , and err ing gods,Those of p e rv e r t e d v iew s , inhab i t an t s of buddha le ss lands,

and the mute:When you are f ree from the f a u l t s of these eight s t a t e s of

be ing344

292

And when you a re born in the Central Land, w i t h s e n se organs whole ,345 w i t h f a i th ,

[Gantok: 19] Be f r e e f rom evil ac t ions, incl ined to vir tue.If you don't p r a c t i c e the Holy Dharma in the p r e s e n t ,[What wil l happen when he comes,] the one known as Yama,346

the sharp and s w i f t ?He com es to f r i end and foe alike, to good and bad.

The high ones fam ed a s the "sun" and the "moon"May seem to pervade the four con t inen ts w i t h t h e i r rays.But the re is no way they can overcome the p l a n e t RShu w i th

t h e i r l ight.Even so are the high kings; think on them.

The d i s t a n t r ed rock c l i f f s a re high and s t rong .Only the vu l tu re can make h is way to them.And ye t the re is no way they can bea t t h e i r r iva l , the l ightning

m e te o r i c i ron.347Even so are the m igh ty unr iva led ones; think on them.

In the th ird month of sum m er , t iny c r e a t u r e s e m e rg e above ground.

At h a rv e s t t im e one speck of f r o s t alone w i l l d e s t ro y t h e i r

p rec ious l ive s .340The poor and w eek are humble and weak; th ink on them.

General ly, a t f i r s t you a re born in the m o th e r ' s lap.

You are fed w i t h s o f t food, the de l ic ious t h r e e s w e e t s . 349You are d res sed in s o f t c lo th e s , Chinese s i lk.In the middle , you w a n d e r in world ly a c t i v i t i e s .You turn the wheel of f r i ends and enemies, p a s s i o n and

aggress ion.If you are high up, not s a t i s f i e d w i th your s t a t i o n in l ife, you

s u f f e r f e a r of f a l l ing low.If you are low, you s u f f e r f rom taxes, war , and corvée labor.The s t rong s u f f e r w or ry ing about how to avoid an evil end.If they lose out, then they s u f f e r fea r of o t h e r s ' con tempt .[Gantok 20:1 ]lf you are r ich, you su f f e r b e c a u s e you can ' t

manage to keep up your l ivelihood.350If poor, you can ' t feed your face or c lo the your b a c k . 351

The su f fe r ing of human l i f e is endless , s u f f e r i n g is inexhaus t ib le .352

293

The four hundred d i s e a s e s are s t i r r e d by s i c k n e s s a s the wind. [S te in 10a] Many w i l l die because of sudden o b s t a c l e s .When you a re old, you c an ' t b ea r up a ga in s t s i c k n e s s . 353 An old body is like dry s t i c k s on the r ive r bank.Few are those who l i s t e n to the w o rd s of old speech .When the mind is old i t g a th e r s all the s u f f e r in g in the

kingdom.Then you c a tch a long f a t a l i l l n e s s 354:The nine s w e e t s and the ten de l ic ious f l a v o r s n a u s e a t e

you.355Your s o f t and w arm bed becomes ha rde r than s tone .You a re fed-up w i t h tak ing benef ic ia l m ed ic ines .The s leep guard ian356 g e t s you angry.Your grunts and groans are inexhaustible.357 A day and a night takes forever to pass.358 The divinations mislead, the incantations no longer work.359 This short life, so dear to you,360 Is now without pure dharmas; it is too late for virtuous

roots;36'For the avar ic ious who held back ge neros i ty ,It is too l a te to hope fo r help in the f o r ty -n in e days. 362

[Gantok 20 :13]0n the day when de a th has come Examining the p a t i e n t Is like poking a s to n e .363 On the day when you a re facing Yama,Avert ing c e re m o n ie s a re like a lamp w i th w a t e r f o r fuel .364 Your aura of m e r i t goes down and365 The more you t ry the w o r s e i t ge ts . 366 Your f ie ld of pow er ( a u th e n t i c p resence ) and w in d h o r s e are

expel led and Your s t r e n g th is like a w a t e r bubble.[Gantok 21:1 ]The c a s t l e of the w a rgods is t u rn e d a w a y .367

Now your f o r t r e s s a g a i n s t enem ies t h r e a t e n s your own l i fe .368 All your heroic cham pion 's brave a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s 369 Are j u s t a mound of e a r t h piled on top of you.The r i ch man 's a v a r i c io u s inner s t o r e s 370 Are j u s t the wooden s t a k e of a t t a c h m e n t d r iven in to the

ground.37'You wasted your l i fe on food and clothes.372When you die you a re naked w i th empty [Stein 1 Ob] hands.Even the high king on h i s golden throne Must pi l low his head on cold ear th .

294

And the queen w i th s i l k e n robes on her back Now burns in an oven, c lo t h e d in red f lames .Even, the youthful t i g e r s in t h e i r pr ime, w i t h the s ix

a t t r i b u t e s of a w a r r i o r 373 Are dragged around by t h e King of Birds, the vu l tu re .And the m o th e r s and a u n t s w i t h t h e i r s ix a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s Are bound t igh t ly hand and foot by the black rope.In the red Charnal Ground of Stupi fy ing Fea r37^On the day when the c o r p s e is cu t to p ieces , show ing the round

w h i t e m ar row ,I t ’s all o v e r — too l a t e fo r regret .

The hot and cold of he l l is unbearable.The hungry ghos t s a re s t a r v i n g and parched.The a n im a l s are bound and stupid.The j e a l o u s gods s t r u g g l e and die by the knife.

And we of the higher r e a lm s :Even if we avoid s i c k n e s s and old age, are c a r r i e d away by

d i s t r a c t i o n s . 375 Seven days be fore d e a t h the p o r t e n t s a r i s e :376 [Gantok 22:1 ]The b r i g h t n e s s of th e i r lovely p a l a c e s fades. T he i r de a r w ives w i t h d r a w fa r away.The s w e e t - s m e l l i n g g a r l a n d s of f l o w e r s w i ther .The body s t a r t s to s t i n k , rh inoce ros skinned, i t s l igh t

obscured.The ne ga t ive force of c a u s e and e f f e c t b laz e s up in t e r r i b l e

su f f e r ing and Regre t is j u s t a c au se o f f u r t h e r su f fe r ing .377

All you th o u g h t l e s s and crazy beings of the s ix r e a l m s Don’t wander , turn your mind within.Lord gurus, reso lve us abou t the n a tu re of mind.Imperial ru le r s , do no t m i s t a k e cause and e f f e c t .Mighty ones, do not d i s t u r b the king’s po l i t ica l plans.378

[Gantok 22:]Rich men, o f f e r and give m o s t gene rous ly .379 Ordinary people, do p r o s t r a t i o n s , c i r c u m a m b u la t io n s , and

Manis.380If you do not fail to ga in the s t a t e of being Free and Well-

favored,The more exer t ion and m in d fu ln e s s you p ra c t i c e ,The more you wil l no t f a i l to be f ree and w e l l - f a v o re d .

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I am the Great V a j r a s a t t v aThe pr lmord ia l ly pure Dharmadhatu Sam antabhadra .0 be ings pervaded by impure i l lusions ,L is ten to th is song 's w o r d s and put t h e i r s e n s e into p rac t ice . Carefu l ly guard t h a t unde rs t and ing , the gem of g r e a t price.If you don't und e rs t an d th e song, I won’t r e p e a t i t anyway."381

Thus he p roc la im ed t h i s dharma in a g r e a t vo ice which w a s

heard by all s e n t i e n t be ings , e i the r moving or unmoving, each in

t h e i r own language and e a c h according to his or he r own capaci ty .

Then, knowing t h a t the t ime had come to g ra n t e m p o w e rm e n t

( ab h i sek a )382, from the Glorious Copper Colored Mountain on Camara,

t h e Master , Lotus Sku l lgar land cal led fo r th the m in d s t r e a m of the

Buddhas. From his f o r e h e a d w h i te r ays of l igh t invoked the

m in d s t r e a m of the Buddha Vairocana in the A kan is tha Buddhafield.

From Padma's hear t c e n t e r blue lays of l ight invoked the m in d s t r e a m

of Aksobhya in Abhirat i . From his navel ye l low r a y s of l ignt evoked

the m in d s t re a m of Ra tnasam bhava in the Buddha f i e ld of Glorious

Beauty. From his t h r o a t c e n t e r red rays of l ight invoked the

m in d s t r e a m of Amitabha of Sukhavati . From his s e c r e t c e n t e r green

r a y s of l ight invoked Amoghasiddhi of Supreme Ac t ion Buddha Field.

Then he ra i sed t h i s song in order to s u p p l i c a t e fo r the f r u i t i o n

of the t ru th. 383

"OM384 The Five P o i so n s purif ied are the Wisdoms of the Five Buddhas.385

I invoke the the mind s t r e a m of the Buddhas from unborn space.

The Five E lements p u r i f i e d are the Five G oddesses .306From unceasing s p a c e 387 a r i s e for the b e n e f i t of beings.From wi th in the union of supreme sk i l l fu l m ea ns and

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dharm ata , which is e m p t in e s s Appears the s e l f - e x i s t i n g form of wisdom and com pass ion .380 To the n i rmanakaya who wi l l r escue be ings from the flood, Grant e m p o w e rm e n t so t h a t he may conquer the h o s t s of Mara.

T h is is the meaningfu l song of s e l f - l u m i n o s i t y . 389

According to the t r a d i t io n a l worldly ana log ies ,It i s a poor guru who has ne i the r e m p o w e r m e n t nor t ex tua l

t r a n s m is s io n .It is a poor s t u d e n t who has not taken the s a c r e d v o w s of

samaya;It is a poor r u l e r who has no s u p p o r t e r s to honor and magnify

him,And poor l o w e r c l a s s e s who have no r e s p e c t .

Weapons which a re n e i t h e r sharp nor t em pered ,Even if they have both handle and shea th , cannot handle the

enemy.If you have the Main Six Herbal Ingred ients , but no t the

Addi t ives ,Even if the medic ine is f r ag ra n t , shining, and w h o le so m e , it

wi l l not heal.390 [Gantok 24:1]

Finally, a f i e ld w h ich h a s not been f e r t i l i z e d , 391 Even if i t sp rou t s , w i l l not r ipen to the s ix f ru i t s .

So t h e r e fo r e en th rone him, p ra i se , and c o m p l im e n t him.For the weapon of c om pa ss ion c u t s off the l ives of enemies . The medic ine of b l e s s i n g s heals the Six Realms.And Buddha A c t iv i ty m akes the f ie ld of d i s c ip l e s f lourish.

Fulf i l l ing the a s p i r a t i o n to l ibe ra te all beings,May the a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of comple te f u l f i l l m e n t of goals be

present ."

Thus he invoked the c o m p a ss io n a te mind s t r e a m s of the f ive

Buddhas and t h e i r c o n s o r t s w i th the se w o rd s .392

Then from Akan is tha Vairocana 's fo rehead l ight r a y s s t r e a m e d

out in the ten d i r e c t i o n s .393 They pur i f ied the o b sc u ra t io n s of

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ignorance394 of all s e n t i e n t be ings and ga the red ba ck here in the

fo rm of a sy l lab le OM, the e m bod im en t of the body b l e s s i n g s 395 of

t h e S u g a ta s of the ten d i rec t ions . This became a w h i t e wheel w i t h

e ig h t spokes.396 The wheel t r a v e l e d in the r ea lm of the m id -h e av e n s

and hovered before the divine child. From it c am e t h e s e l f -

p roc la im ing sound resounding w i t h th e s e words:

"OM From the s e l f - e x i s t i n g Wisdom of D ha rm adha tu397 Lord of beings, you w e r e j u s t born.You are the king who p o s s e s s e s va r ious m agica l

t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s .398 [Gantok 24:1]You dispel de lus ions from deluded minds.399

It is sad to see the unhappiness of s e n t i e n t b e in g s .400The bo rde r t r ibe s , because of doubt and de lus ion ,Mental obscu ra t ion and ignorance—If they have free t im e , s t i l l w a n d e r in the a c t i v i t i e s of cyc l ic

ex is tence .Even though they are w e l l - f a v o r e d , they are too lazy for the

Dharma.

When the t im e fo r d e a th f ina l ly a r r ives ,Though the Dharmaless guru has a big golden ha t ,Though he r ad ia te s m a j e s t y and s e e m s qu i te high.He w i l l have t rouble showing the path to the n e x t life.

The r u l e r who has no gen t le mind,Looks g r e a t when he w r a th f u l l y ex ec u te s the l a w . 401 T h row s his karma in the air , l ike a child t h r o w s a s tone .402

The d i s c ip l e who has taken no sa c re d vow of s a m a y a Even though he is lea rned and s e e m s widely r e a d , 403 His exp lana t ions are like a m i s t of sp i t .404

The ungenerous r ich man,Even though he has co l l e c ted b r ibe s through a v a r i c e ,At the t im e of death wil l be naked and em p ty -handed .These are the ph i lo sophers of cycl ic ex is tence .

On t h i s learned child is b e s to w e d

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The name "Joyful to Hear." (Thbpa Gawa).Because he is full of b l e s s in g s , t h i s buddha Is joyful to hear and e x h a u s t s sin.This r u l e r who is sove re ign of a v a s t area,If he r e m a i n s wil l make the kingdom happy.405May h i s body d e fe a t the Enemies of the Four Direc t ions .May everyone who has r e l a t i o n s w i t h him be f r e e f rom r e b i r t h

in the low er r ea lm s .May everybody who s e e s him be pu r i f ied into the Buddha Land. BUDDHA ABHISINYCA OM"

A f te r t h e Wheel had u t t e r e d th e s e w ords , it d i s so lv e d in to t h e

ch i ld 's fo rehead . From t h i s day on he w a s known as Joyfu l to Hear.

406At dawn the nex t day from the Pure Land of Abhi ra t i , f rom

the hea r t c e n t e r of Aksobhya l ight rays s t r e a m e d out in the ten

d i rec t ions . They pu r i f ied the o b sc u ra t io n s of agg re ss ion of all

s e n t i e n t b e in g s [stein I2bl and ga the red back here in the form of a

blue f i v e -p o in t e d v a j r a , the embodim ent of the mind b l e s s i n g s of

the V ic to r ious Ones of the ten d i r e c t i o n s and d i s so lved in to the

h e a r t c e n t e r of the divine child. As a r e s u l t he m a s t e r e d the

t r e a s u r y of t h e Medi ta t ive Absorpt ions ( samâdhî ). Then he w a s

of fe red a ba th by the e n t i r e a ssem bly of the Five F a m i l i e s of

Dei t ies , who ba thed him w i t h n e c t a r ( a m r t a ) poured from a p rec io u s

va se and t h i s song w a s sung:

''HUM From the g r e a t v a j r a space of e m p t i n e s s Flows fo r t h the n e c t a r ( a m r t a ) of m i r r o r - l i k e wisdom.May the w e ap o n s of v a j r a agg re ss ionConquer the h o s t s of enem ies , the po isons (k iesas ).

The igno ran t angry s e n t i e n t beings of cyc l ic ex is tence :The guru who has no compass ion ,Even though he e x e r t s h i m s e l f in m a n t r a r e c i t a t i o n and

r e t r e a t p r a c t i c e ,

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He w i l l s t i l l not be com e a buddha.The ru l e r who has no g e n t l e mind (m a i t r i )May be s t r i c t in the l aw , but h i s people w i l l l e a v e the country. The hero who has no r e s t r a i n t ,May be both he a r ty and brave, y e t he wil l die by th e sword. T h ere fo re , in the s a v a g e minds of s e n t i e n t be ings May no s i n i s t e r t h o u g h ts of aggress ion a r i s e .407

Suprem e being, divine child , Joyful to Hear (Thopa Gawa),Even though you are no t obscured by the t h r e e po i sons ,I g r a n t you the a bh is eka of the com ple te ly pure Three Kayas. May you spon tan eous ly a cc o m p l i sh m en t the Buddha A c t iv i ty of

Pac ifying .408 VAJRA ABHISINYCA HUM"

[Gantok: 27] Thus they ba thed him w i th n e c t a r .

Again, from the Beau t i fu l Pure Land, f rom the naval of

R a tn a s a m b h a v a 409 l igh t r a y s s t r e a m e d out, pu r i fy ing the

o b s c u r a t i o n s of pr ide of all s e n t i e n t beings. They g a th e r e d back here

a s all the q u a l i t i e s and m e r i t of the Vic to r ious Ones of the ten

d i r e c t i o n s in the form of a blazing jew e l and d i s so lv e d into the

naval of the divine child. He w a s then adorned by the b o d h i s a t t v a s of

t en l ev e l s 4,0 w i th p r i c e l e s s p rec ious ornaments : j e w e l e d c r e s t

o r n a m e n t s , t h roa t , shou lde r , hand, leg and e a r o r n a m e n t s , r ings , the

long and s h o r t n e c k la c e s of c ry s t a l , the divine c l o t h e s of Panycal ika

s i lk and so for th , o r n a m e n t s wor thy of a M a h a s a t t v a — w i t h all of

t h e s e he w a s clothed and enthroned. And then t h i s a u sp ic ious song

w a s ra i sed :

"TRAM The p rec ious Wisdom of Equanimity,The Noble J e w e l who co m p le te ly p u r i f i e s pr ide,The Mer i to r ious one, the a cc um ula to r of all m e r i tAnd the g rea t sou rce of J e w e l Wisdom, R a tna sa m bhava .411

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In o rd e r to t a m e those d i f f i c u l t to t a m e ,412 you a re g ran ted em p o w erm en t ,

So t h a t your c om pass ion may ach ieve the b e n e f i t o f beings.

In the sky of your m erc i fu l com pass ionMay th e a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of u n b ia s ed n e s s be p re s e n t .For d i s c i p l e s who are l ike c o n s t e l l a t i o n s ,May th e a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of your l i m i t l e s s and f a s t Buddha

A c t iv i t y be p re s e n t .For your l i f e span which is l ike a va jra ,May the a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y and d e a t h l e s s n e s s

be p re sen t .For th e s w a s t i k a of your v o w s to benef i t be ings ,May the a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of unchanging s p o n ta n e i ty be p resen t . [Gantok 28: i ]By th e s e beau t i fu l o rnam en ts , the P r e c io u s J e w e l

Crown,May the a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of e x a l t e d m a j e s t y be p r e s e n t . 4 ' 3 By t h e s e e a r i n g s and r ich golden neck laces ,May the a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of the s w e e t sound of your fame

pervade space.By t h e s e s i lken , so f t , and broad v e s t m e n t s ,May the a u s p i c i o u s n e s s of conquering the h o s t s of Mara be

p resen t .

G rea t Being, p rec ious Joyfu l to Hear,Although you a re not a t t a c h e d to convent ional o rn a m e n t s ,You a re g ran te d the e m p o w e r m e n t of th e s e f ive p rec ious

q u a l i t i e s .May your v a s t Buddha A c t iv i ty be spon taneous ly accompl ished . RATNA ABHISINYCA TRAM."

Thus he w a s en th roned w i t h ausp ic iousness .

Again, f rom the Pure Land of Sukhavat i , f rom th e t h ro a t c e n t e r

of A m i tabha l igh t rays s t r e a m e d out , purifying the o b s c u r a t io n s of

p a s s io n of ail s e n t i e n t beings. They ga thered back he re as the

e m bod im en t of the b l e s s i n g s of the speech of all the S u g a ta s in the

form of a red lo tus and d i s so lve d into the th ro a t c e n t e r of the divine

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child. He w a s then em pow ered w i th the S ix ty Limbs of Speech and

Singing.414 Fur thermore , the symbol and suppor t of the sac red v ow s

of all the Sugatas , a golden f ive -po in ted v a j r a fel l f rom the sky into

his hand:

"HRiH 4,5 From the space of pass ion pur i f ied as D isc r im ina t ing A w are n es s Wisdom

Great des i re , g r e a t b l i s s , 416 Lord of d i s p a s s i o n a t e Padma Speech ,417 You a re the sup re m e sk i l l fu l means of co em erg e n t wisdom. [Gantok 2 9 : 1 ] T h is v a j r a is the symbol for your sa c re d vows Until the ocean of cycl ic e x i s te nce is empt ied ,You wi l l f ree the ocean of s e n t i e n t beings.Having rea l i z e d the ocean of w isdom s ,May you fulf i l l the ocean of a s p i r a t i o n praye rs .

Receive the e m p o w e r m e n t s of the gods above.Remind the nyen in the middle of t h e i r p rev ious vows.And below open the t r e a s u ry of the nagas.From Ling, the Country of Desi re ,418 look a f t e r the benef i t of

beings.The Black Maras and the Golden Hor,419Those wi th form and those w i t h o u t — bind them all by oath.

Although The B odh isa t tva who looks a f t e r the b e n e f i t of beings

Needs no encouragem en t to keep th e s e vow s ,N ever the le ss we ask: p l ea se take care to pull them out of the

ocean of cyc l ic ex is tence .May you spontaneous ly accompl ish the a c t i v i t y of

m agne t iz ing .420 PADMA ABHISINYCA HRiH.“

This song w a s heard, pronounced in the m id-heavens .

Again, from the Pure Land of Completely Accomplished Action,

from the s e c r e t c e n t e r of the Blessed One Amoghasiddhi l ight r a y s

s t r e a m e d out, pur i fy ing the o bsc u ra t ions of j e a lo u s ly of all s e n t i e n t

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beings. They disso lved into the s e c r e t c e n t e r 421 in the form of a

g reen double va jra , t he e s sence of t h e A c t iv i t y of all the Suga tas . He

r e c e iv e d em pow erm en t in all the v a s t [S te in 14a] Buddha A c t iv i t i e s .

F u r th e rm o re , a s i lve r bell fell in to h i s l e f t hand: i t r e p re se n ted the

s p o n ta n eo u s ly accompl ished Four K a rm a s of all t h e Suga tas .422

[Gantok30:1 ] "AH Je a lo u s y is p u r i f i e d into Amoghasiddhi ,The c o m p le te ly pure Wisdom of A l l -A cc om pl i sh ing Act ion.423 The g r e a t e r voice of the Great W ra th fu l One424 O v e rp o w e rs the s e l f - p r o c l a m a t i o n of the Five Poisons,T a m e s th e five dark ages, s u b j u g a t e s them w i t h i ts sk i l l fu l

means.The G rea t Powerful One, the T a m e r of all o th e r s ,Conquers the grea t mountain of the Phenomenal world.425 You who have p e r fec ted all Buddha A c t iv i ty ,From g r e a t bi llowing clouds of your pe ac e fu l compass ion F lash ou t the t e r r ib l e t h u n d e rb o l t sWhich conquer the rock m oun ta in of the pr ide of g rea t s inners .

The guru who is full of a t t a c h m e n t to r i ch o f f e r i n g s 426 If he is not converted by the ph i lo soph ica l s y s t e m s of the

lea rned ,

Then h is to r so is f i l l ed w i th no th ing but w o r d s .427

The r u l e r who is full of pr ide,If k a rm a does not s t r i k e him in the f a c e , 428Then it wi l l r ipen as agony fo r the kingdom and people.

Like the ca l low youth, full of h i m s e l f , the T iger of the E a s t , 42g

If a r ea l w a r r io r doesn ' t knock him out 430Then his hol low bragging w i l l be l ike the roa r ing of a Dragon.

Like a s tu c k -u p young girl, full of p r i d e ,431

If f a m in e does not exhaust her a r r o g a n c e ,432 Then he r brash s e l f - c e n t e r e d n e s s wi l l be high as the sky. T h e r e f o r e in this t im e of the da rk age

The tough guys full of black th o u g h t s , 433 Have d i s r e s p e c t fo r cause and e f f e c t and p i l e -up pe rve r ted

a sp i ra t ions .

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Let not your compass ion abandon them; l i b e r a t e them in to t h e pure lands.

S t r i k e down the a g g re g a te s ( skandhas ) w i t h the v a j r a weapon .434

Disso lve t h e i r c o n s c io u s n e s s e s into t h i s v a j r a of Dharmadhatu.

[Gantok 33:1 ]Your w a r r io r s h ip is the em bod im en t of compass ion .

Even though you do not h e s i t a t e to apply your [Stein 1 4a] Buddha Ac t iv i ty ,

May your w ra th f u l Buddha A c t iv i ty be spon taneous ly accompl ished .

KARMA ABH1SINYCA AH."

Thus he rece ived abhiseka.

All the a s s e m b l i e s of grea t , sup rem e w ra th fu l d e i t i e s

e n th rone d him com ple te ly w i th the four e m p o w e r m e n t s .435 Then the

div ine chi ld, Joyful to Hear h im se l f w a s full of learning, good

q u a l i t i e s , sp lendor and digni ty unr ivaled in the world.

This w a s the Chapter on the Abhiseka and the Chapter on the

B i r th by Magical T rans fo rm a t ion , known as "Blessings Flaming

Continuously Like a Stream." 436 It has been composed in o rd inary

language, easy to understand.

214 The Words of My Perfect Teacher, by the Padmakra Translation Group, (San Francisco:

HarperSanFrancisco, 1994).

215 lha gling gab tse dgu skor- lha gling literally means "the divine Ling.’ This is the short

title of the first book of the epic. For a full explanation of the meaning of this title , see the

introduction to this dissertation..

216 gab tse dgu skor - The subtitle is gab tse dgu skor, the nine-sauared divination board.

Every informant I questioned about this title gave a different explanation, usually with some

specific supporting documentation as wel 1.

For example, the gab tse was identified by one scholar as a diagram used in Chinese

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and Tibetan divination practices based on the theory of the five elements (Chinese: wuxlng ).

The Chinese equivalent of the gab tse appears to be the ChiuKu, the Nine Palaces. It is used

extensively in Tibetan medicine. See Tibetan Medical Paintings: Illustrations to The Blue Beryl

Treatise of Sangye Gyamtso, ed. by Parfionovitch, Meyer, and Gyurme Dorje. For a color

photo of a gab tse dguskor see Tarap: Une vallée dans I'Himalaya, text and photos of Corneille

Jest, postface by Andre Leroi-Gourhan (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1974), p. 22.

The nine-squared divination board also exists in native Tibetan religions such as Bon,

where it is called rdel drug or Ide'u 'phrul. Counting with a forty-tw o bead crystal mala (or

rosary) and sets of black and white stones, a diagram is generated with nine squares, each

representing a deity, demon, or beast with symbolic significance. For a detailed description

see Namkhai Norbu, Drung Deu Bon: The Narrations, the cult of the enigma and the magico-

religlous traditions (.unpublished manuscript).

The reference here is somewhat obscure. Usually subtitles are metonymies for the main

t itle of the text. Thus, this book of the epic is like a dguskor, a divination board, because it is

magical, well-ordered, and based on principals of Sino-Tibetan astrology. Astrological

calculations of the appropriate moment for great accomplishments, the "glorious gateway,"

constitute one of the principal themes in the Lha gLIng. In this book Gesar appears as an

incarnation of buddha activity. As such, he unites the absolute realm of heaven with the actual

realm of earth, just as a divination board can be used to uncover the relations between the

patterns of heaven expressed as elemental cycles as the patterns of earth, expressed as

historical events.

The nine skor (squares)could also refer to several Mongolian and Tibetan versions of

the Gesar which are organized into nine "limbs," each describing a major episode in the story

of Gesar's life and his victories over the Enemies of the Four Directions.

Lama Tendzin Samphei, however, finds an even more detailed explanation of the term in

another version of the Lha gLing which was recently published in China. This is a prose

version of the epic transcribed in the 30's from oral performances of a bard named Dragpa

(Tib: Grags pa). The performance was from memory and did not use a text. According to Bard

Dragpa's version, gab rtse indeed is a kind of divination, but dgu skor, rather than "nine

squares (or circles)," means "nine times." See Drung mkhan Grags pa (Grags pa, the bard),

gLing ge sar rgyal po'i sgrung: Lha gllng gab rtse dgu skor, transcribed by members of the

Society for the Swift Preservation of the Ling Epic of the Ge-0 Tibetan College (bod Ijong dge os

slop gra chen mo’i gling sgrung mgur skyob tsho chung) in 1982. (Peking: Mi rigs dpe'i skrun

khang (Ethnic Publishing House) 1984).

The Buddhist gods meet in a divine assembly and decide to send a god named Joyful to Hear

to the land of men. But Joyful to Hear refuses to cooperate. He takes the form of a divine child

and escapes from the assembly. He is then hunted by Padmasambhava and Avalokitesvara using

the gab rtse divination, which must be used nine times, as he takes successively nine different

forms. Here is an example from the beginning of Chapter II of Dragpa's version:

"Then in a moment he (Joyful to Hear) w ent to Mount Kailash, the Realm of the

Buddha Lord Aksobhya, and there he hid himself. The gods, not knowing where the

divine child had gone, decided to do the f irs t of their divinations (gab rtse). But

they did not manage to find him that way. So Lord AmitSbha and Jetsün (Noble and

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Venerable) White Tara looked for him with their special Eyes of Wisdom. They saw that the divine child was on Mt. Kallash In the realm of Lord Aksobhya, picking many red and white flowers.

Then Master Padmasambhava took on the magical transformation of an eight- year old boy and went to the place where the divine child was picking flowers. He asked him, "What are you doing here?" The divine child answered, "I abide here, living on the food of Inexhaustible meditative concentration (samadhl). The other child said, "On Mt. Kallash Is a spectacle like none other. Why don't we two brothers go there together; It w ill be most amusing." The divine child was In agreement and they went to the peak of Kallash. There they saw two white Hons w ith turquoise manes, roaring and leaping back and forth here and there, [page 12]

When the divine child saw this, he turned and looked carefully at his friend and saw that he was really the Precious Master. Like the wind the divine child flew to the Palace of Dharma in India. He landed on the right hand slope of Vulture Peak Mountain in the place known as Supreme Steed Mahabala. There he transformed into a colt unlike any other horse in the world. He was surrounded by rainbow lights in the five colors. He abided surrounded by many horses who cavorted about, running back and forth, and leaping here and there.

The Precious Master's emanation as a young boy transformed Into the semblance of the Supreme Steed Wisdom and herded the colt back towards home. On the way back, they passed the Palace of the Five Peaked Mountain (Wu T’al Shan) In

Eastern China. This was the Chinese realm of Manjusrl. The colt ran into a mandala of red rays of light which were emanated by the heart center of Manjusrl. The divine child thought, “If I could hide myself here, it would be fun." So he said to Manjusrl, "The gods, nyen, and serpents ( Iha, snyen, and k l u ) say that I must go into the world, all the way down to the ¡and of men. Bui i'm no: quite ready to do that at this time. Manjusrl, w ill you give me a hiding place here? “ So Manjusrl secreted the divine child inside his begging bowl and there he stayed. ”

Khenpo Paiden Sherap agreed with this interpretation, saying that the nine skor refer

to a series of playful magical emanations of the god who would become Gesar. In the epic Gesar

himself, as a human being, w ill also assume various sgyusprul, magical transformations,

Proteus-like changes in form and aspect.

217 Ge sar nor bu dgra' 'dul - "Gesar, the Jewel, the Tamer of Enemies," the most

freouent of Gesar's epithets.

2 18 This introductory poem is probably written by the editor, for it is a composition in

Classical Tibetan in the compact, many-layered, allusive style of snyan ngag (Skt: kavya),

Sanskrit court poetry.

219 Khenpo Paiden Sherap's commentary: "Pride, which is a fault of mind, gives rise to

haughtiness, which is pride on the level of speech and mind. This leads finally to arrogance,

which is the highest point or "rocky peak" of the mountain of evil merit from perverted

aspirations.

220 "Four-foid Activity" refers to the Four Karmas or four activities (Tib:'phrin las mam

bzhi; Skt: catvsri samudacara ) of a Buddha: pacifying, magnetizing (or subduing), enriching,

and destroying. Once a being has attained complete Buddhahood, then a special ability to benefit

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the unenlightened occurs as four natural activities which effortlessly and constantly unfold.

2 2 1 The one who can perform the four karmas possesses ultimate skil lful means (Skt:

upSya). These are symbolized by the vajra, the adamantine lamaic sceptre. "Hundred points’

Is a classical epithet for the vajra. It refers to the notion that the original vajra was a weapon

with a hundred sharpened points which could destroy an enemy. The vajras used in Tantric

rituals only have three, five, or nine points.

222 Khenpo Palden Sherap gives the following commentary: this stanza or àloka goes to

the heart of the Gesar Epic. Although the Buddhas usually teach sentient beings gently and in

stages, Gesar shows immediately and forcefully the key point which must be understood in

order to escape suffering, the law of cause and effect. His manner of teaching is forceful and

intense. That is why it manifests as the destructive action of a warrior. Thus the epic with its

violence and warfare is considered a special upâya or skillful means. Through its stories, in

which symbols of passion, aggression, and ignorance are actually killed by the warrior Gesar,

the teachings are given in a way which can make an impression on the dull and warlike Tibetans.

Thus, even warfare and seeming wrath can be an expression of compassion. The

operant word here is snyll, "destroy." Gesar's principal activity is to destroy the enemies of

the Kingdom of Ling, symbolizing the ability of enlightened mind to destroy all mental obstacles

to awakening, in this way, it is possible for Buddhist teachers to jusitfy the production of a

martial epic.

Alexander Macdonald, in his studies of a famous collection of Tibetan stories, finds the

same sort of lamaistic agenda. Here putatively oral folk takes are deployed to teach essential

points in the Buddhist path. See in particular "Cendrtllion au Tibet" in Tibet Civilisation et

Société, Colloque organisé par la Fondation Slnger-Pollgnac à Paris, les 27, 28, 29 avril 1987

(Paris: Éditions de la Fondation Singer-Polignac, 1990, pp. 143-150).

223 This four-line verse is not in the Tibetan text of Stein. It is probably an addition

introduced originally in the Sichuan People’s Publishing edition, following the Chinese custom of

adding verse introductions to chapters of novels. Khenpo Palden Sherap agrees. It was

probably composed by a Tibetan Nyingma lama, however, because it reflects the structure of

Mipham’s Gesar liturgies. Gesar is a nirmanakâya (Tib: sprul sku ) or emanation of

Avalokitesvara (T: spyan ras gzig dbangpnyug ), the bodhisattva of compassion and patron of

Tibet. Avalokitesvara, "the Noble, Supreme Compassionate One," is the sambhogakâya or

Speech manifestation of Padmasambhava, who is the ultimate form of the Buddha, the

dharmakâya. Thus Gesar is the body, the Bodhisattva is the speech, and Padmasambhava is the

mind of the Buddha.

Here the firs t chapter of the Lha gLing is summarized as if it were a tantric

visualization practice: Avalokitesvara dissolves into Padmasambhava and the combination of

the two principals, compassion and skillful means grant abhiseka or empowerment to the god

Joyful to Hear (thospa dga' ba ) who w ill incarnate in Book II of the epic as Gesar.

224 rgyumtshan - short for rgyumtshan lam, the Path of Causal Characteristics or the

MahSyâna Distinguished from the Fruition Path of the Secret Mantra, vajrayâna or Tantra.

225 The three kings who ruled during Tibet's imperial period, they are credited with

bringing Buddhism to Tibet: Songtsen Gampo (srongbtsan sgam po ,569 -650 or 6 17-650),

Trisong Deutsen (Win srong de'u b tsan , 790-844), and Ralpachen ira ! pa can, 815-841 or

866-901).

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226 Padma thod phreng - epithet for Padmasambhava.

227 blon dbangbtsan - This passage could be read ‘ Devil ministers, through their power

(dbang) and might (btsan) turned the subjects from the command of their lord. * I have

translated this passage as if it were a Tibetan trisyllabic list: thus dbang is noblemen (short

for ml dbang) and btsan is warlord (short for btsan po). In Chapter II of Book I the epic uses

these terms in this way, deploying them to distinguish distinct social categories in Tibetan

society. The lists usually proceed hierarchically, starting with the rgyal po (king) and blonpo

(ministers) and working down to the common man. This hierarchy is clearly set forth in

Chapter ll of the Lha gLing, when the political and soctal structure of Ling is described in detail.

Fora full explanation of Mipham's political theory and his hierarchical view of society see

Mipham's excursus on the NitiSastras: rGyal po lugs kyi bstan bcos ss gzht skyong ba'I rgyan

(Commentary on the Art of Ruling, the Ornament of the Earth Protector), in Vol. I (Volume Om)

of the sDe geMonastary edition of the collected writings of Mlpham, pp .l- 79.

228 rten bral dpal kha - the glorious gateway of auspiciousness. Tendzln Samphel explains

that this is a term from Tibetan astrology. When the planets, asterisms and formations of

heavenly bodies are in the right position then there is a rten 'brel, literally, a connection— a

moment of good fortune. The dpal kha— the "glorious opening," is the special opportunity that

obtains when the patterns of heaven are in this disposition. At this moment the Tibetan state

could have experienced wealth and success if the proper actions had been taken and the proper

ceremonies had been performed.

In particular, this was the moment when the power of the Tibetan Imperium and the

dynasty of Songtsen Gampo could have been stabilized. Then the Buddhist religion would have

remained unchallenged in Tibet instead of undergoing a period of surpresslon under King Lang

Darma. But through the opposition of an anti-Buddhist faction in Tibetan government,

Padmasambhava was prevented from completing his ritual taming of the nation. As a result,

the precious astrological opportunity was missed and the gateway to good fortune was mistaken

and missed.

229 "gazing with unbearable compassion - In Stem's edition there is merely the word

mthong, "to see" or "gaze." The Sichuan edition changes this to bzod, which means "to accept,"

probably in error for ma bzod, "unbearable." According to Khenpo Palden, both versions mean

the same thing and should be translated "gaze upon them with unbearable..." This gazing down

from above is typical of Avalokitesvara, whose name is interpreted in traditional etymologies

as "the lord who gazes down upon the suffering of sentient beings."

230 Amitayus, the Buddha of Limitless Life, and AmitSbha, the Buddha of Limitless Light,

also figure regulary in Mipham's Gesar rituals, in this case, the order of emanation of divine

principles w ill be from Amitabha as dharmakaya, through Avalokitesvara as sambhogakaya,

down to Gesar as mrmSnakSya. One more variation we will see involves a wrathful form of

Amitabha as Hayagriva.

2 3 1 The following two poems are also in Classical Tibetan. They are based on a

commonplace extended metaphor. Cyclic existence ( samsSra ) is a whirlpool in which

unenlightened sentient beings are drowning. The buddhas and bodhisattvas pull them from the

flood with long poles. At the tip of each pole is the iron hook of compassion. But sentient beings

must possess the iron ring of faith and devotion or else there is nothing for the hook to grasp.

232 The section in brackets is not in Stein's edition.

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233 the Great God White Luminosity: Uha chen od I dan dkar) The Tibetan reception of this

name seems to be that it is simply the name of some epic deity. No Tibetan source identifies lha

chen od Idan dkar as anybody in particular. Nevertheless, 'od Idan dkar is similar to some of

the epithets of the Indian god Brahms, who figures so richiy in legends of the life of the Buddha.

When asked if White Luminosity might not be this deity, Khenpo Palden admitted it would make

great sense, for Brahms is worshipped extensively as a local protector in Tibetan Buddhist

Tantra and he is identified w ith important local deities such as Pehar.

BrahmS also figures actively in the Tibetan version of the RSmSyana. He is father and

grandfather to great heroes who are born to free the world from evil demons. See J.W. de

Jong, The Story ofRâma in Tibet : Text and Translation of the Tun-huang Manuscripts,

(Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1989), pp.9-12. It may be that the appearance of this

grandfather of Gesar is an influence from a Tibetan version of this medieval Hindu epic.

234 None of the above names — Great God White Luminosity ( lha chen od Idan dkar ),

Supreme Mother MandS Divine Beauty (yum mchogman da lha mdzes ), Supreme Bliss Good

Nature (or possibly, Good ManeXPde mchogngang yag ), and Divine Princess I llusory Beauty

Uha team sgyu ma mdzes ) — are identifiable deities. But all of these names have the sound of

typical epic deities, that is, native Tibetan gods as opposed to figures of Indian origia

235 EVAM - Sanskrit for "Thus,“ the firs t word of any Buddhist sutra, ’Thus have I

heard..." But in Tantric Buddhism EVAM is a code symbol for the unification of male and female

principles, of wisdom and skillful means, wisdom and compassion, etc.

236 Miraculous birth (Skt. upapâdhuka, Tib. rdzus te skyes): sentient beings in Buddhist

cosmology are distinguished by their methods of birth into four categories (Skt. catvan-

yonaya, Tib. skye gnas bzhi): womb-born, egg-born, bom from heat and moisture, and

spontaneously or miraculously born. See Abhidharmakosa III, c-d, Louis de la vallée Poussin,

II, 26-28. Later in this chapter we w ill see an extraordinary, detailed description of the

stages in the birth of a heavenly deity, the stages in a ’miraculous birth.’

237 Palace of Lotus Light...: (T-.Padma ‘Od ) The passage describing this locality is a set

piece of entertaining grotescuene in parallel prose, it is reminiscent of liturgical descriptions

of chamal grounds and other horrific localities in tantric visualization texts. Padmasambhava,

The Lotus Born, lives in a magical palace surrounded by four terrifying demons of the complex

pantheon of native Tibetan religion.

Tulku Ugyen in Dakini Teachings: Padmasambhava's Oral Instructions to Lady Tsogyal,

transi by Erik Pema Kunsang, (Boston: Shambhala, I990)gives a modern description:

According to the story, Padmasambhava descended to Bodhgaya and stayed there for some time. He then went on to his pure land, v/hich is known as Sangdok Pain, the Glorious Copper-Colored Mountain. Physically it is a large island, a kind of subcontinent, situated in the ocean to the southwest of Bodhgaya. The island has several levels. The lower levels are inhabited by raksas. According to the predictions of Buddha Shakyamuni, these cannibal spirits would invade the known world in a later historical period when the average life span of human beings would approach twenty years. Posing a great danger, the raksas would subdue and destroy all human beings. The Buddha aiso predicted that Guru Rinpoche should go to their continent and conauer these raksas....

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The main mountain on this copper-colored island descends deep below the ocean into the nSga realm. At the peak the summit pierces the skies even to the level of the Brahma world in the Realm of Form. On the very tip of this mountain there is a miraculously manifested buddha realm with three levels. Uppermost is the dharmak3ya emanation of Guru Rinpoche, as Buddha Amitayus; In the middle level is Guru r.inpoche's sambhogakaya form, AvalokiteSvara, and on the ground level is the nirmanakaya form. Guru Rinpoche himself, surrounded by the eight

manifestations.

238 rSksasa - In general, we will translate the term srlnpo by cannibal demon, rather than

giving the Sanskrit rSk$asa. However, in this instance the Tibetan text actually transliterates

the Sanskrit, reinforcing the sense of Padmasambhava as an Indie figure. VinSyaka is also

given in Sanskrit.

239 The classes of deities mentioned in this passage have two kinds of names. One is theTibetan name that pre-existed the Buddhist conquest of Tibet. As such, they are characters from a Central Asian animistic or shamanistic cosmology. But the Tibetan name is also used as a translation of the names of certain Indian deities and thus every Tibetan name of a deity or fantastic monster can be read in two ways— as a name for an Indian deity in a Buddhist narrative or as a name for a Tibetan local deity in an indigenous narrative.

These deities, of course, are also often referred to by phonetic transliterations of their Sanskrit names. In this case, the bifocality is not as strong.

So, for example, Yama is the proper name of the Indian god of death, a character from

ancient Vedic religion. Yama is also the name for a type of man-killing Tibetan local demon who

was originally called a shinje (bshln.rje s death-Jord). And so, Shinje has become a

translation for the god of death, Yama, and remains the name both of that supernatural

individual and of that class of demons.

Apparently, as Buddhism dominated local religions, the descriptions of these local

demons absorbed elements of Buddhist iconography. Thus, the shinje who abound in non-

Buddhist contexts are probably imagined in Buddhist form with bulls’ horns and riding oxen, like

the Indian god of death. Of course, the Sanskrit name, ya ma, could be used as well.

240 phut) - literally, a humo of white light.

241 Here begins the first epic song of the Lha gLing. It is impossible to translate the

humour in this song, because it is based on a single pun repeated again and again. The word for

purpose, aim, end, matter, cause, meaning, and court case is don (pronounced don). A word

for evil spirit tgdon) is also pronounced don. Dons are special spirits who torture individuals

causing sudden bursts of emotion or even madness. So it is a commonplace that a person can be

beset by dons to the point that he actually commits suicide to escape their attacks.

242 LU A LA LU: Tibetan epic ballads begin with a half-line of alliterative nonsense

syllables which give the tune of the song. A literal rendering would be "A LA, the song is sung

with this tune...* t h a LA are the same sort of musical sounds, like *tra-la* in English.

243 The epic opens with Avalokitesvara's mission to Camara, an island continent inhabited

entirely by cannibal demons. This topos exists throughout Indie literature. In the RSmSyana

and the Lanksvatara Sutra there is the island of Lanka, ruled by a demon king and full of

rSksasa. Tibetan Buddhist sermon literature uses this figure as a symbol for cyclic existence

in the Dark Age. For example, Patrul Rinpoche in The Heart Treasure of the Enlightened Ones

( thog mtha' bar gsum du dge ba'i gtam Ita sgom spyod gsum nyams len dam pa'i snying n o r ):

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Alas! How depressing to see the beings of this degenerate age!

Alas! Can anyone trust what anyone says?

It is like living in a land of vicious man-eating demons—

Think about it, and do yourself a big favor (by practicing religion].

There is no doubt that the editors of this edition of the Gesar had read this poem by

Patrul, the common guru of the group of great scholars with whom Mlpham was associated in

the Eclectic Movement. And here is Dllgo Khyentse Rinpoche's commentary on these lines: "If

you were to find yourself in a land of man-eating demons, you would find it hard to feel

relaxed, knowing that however friendly and polite they pretended to be, they might attack and

eat you up at anytime. In the same way, however agreeable ordinary people may seem, you

are sure to end up in trouble if you listen to the advice they give you...." opus cit. translated

by the PadmSkara Translation Group, (Boston: Shambhala, 1992), p. 25.

244 What aims can you have which are such great matters?"— The structure of this song

is typical of many epic ballads, it is basically an argument full of analogies designed to prove a

single point. The analogies appear as a series of two-line extended metaphors. The basic

argument goes like this: "You had better leave this dangerous place, because you should not be

here unless you have a desperate reason, it is like a person who has no reason to kill himself

jumping in a river or a person taking his cause to court for a trivial gain." The analogies are

given in two-line gnomic expressions such as "If you are not seized by the dons (evil spirits)

of great suffering./ What is the point in drowning yourself in the river?"

245 tramens - wrathful, animal-headed, naked women who serve as protectors of

mandalas. They usually carry conventional weapons and stab their enemies to death.

246 gtam drangpo grva sa'i gzhung na 'grim - (Tendzin Samphel) 'grim indicates

movement which passes from person to person. Here it is the movement of news and

straightforward speech. One oddity is that the palace of Padmasambhava is called here a grva

s a , a monastery.

247 de e dgos srog gi dmar thang itos - Obscure passage. Literally, "is this necessary

(meaning the stick which teaches the stupid ox)? If so, then look to the red field of your life."

Tibetan informants could not understand this either. This sense is probably that the little boy,

if he does not understand the demon's threats, w ill suffer violent punishment.

248 This song shows one of the typical structures of a Gesar epic song. Several kinds of

internal repetition hold the piece together. First there is a tremendous amount of rhythmical

alliteration and internal rhyme, most of the rhymes being word repetitions or nearly complete

homonyms. For example, hnes 25 through 29 rhyme on the words for understand and

necessary: go na.../ma go na..../de e go (dgos) na..../ go na.../ma go na... ( “ If you

understand... if you do not understand...etc.") Most of this song is structured with that sound

pattern.

At the same time specific words are repeated in play to unite collections of aphoristic expressions. The firs t six lines have no special internal structure. But then lines 8 to 14 are all plays on the word "great" ( chen p o ) and the word for matters and ends and cases ( don ).All the words underlined in 8 to 14 sound alike in Tibetan. Lines 21 to 24 are plays on the wore "straight" ( drang po ). And 25 to 29 are based on repetitions of the words "understand" and

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‘ need* (go and go ).

1. "LU A LA LU, the song is sung; in case you do not understand,2. THA LA, this is the melody of the song.3. Surrounding this land of Camara, the country of the demons are4. The place of the impure Raksasa and demons. Cdre )5. And the Field of the pure Wisdom Holders (vldyadharas ) and dakinls.6 . This morning, young child, you landed here.7. From what place and from what direction do you come?

8 . What aims can you have which are such great matters?9 . if you do not have in mind oreat matters.

i 0. Then it is meaningless to pursue ends of no great importance.

11. If you are not seized by the (don) evil spirits of great suffering.

12. What is the point in drowning yourself in the river?

13. If you have not become involved in a great Quarrel.

14. There is no great cause for you to bring to court.

15. In Clmara's Blood Lake of Sin16. [Gtk 5:1] The food of the cannibal demons is hotter than fire.17. The reach of the cannibal demonesses is longer than a river.18. The tramens seek you out faster than the wind.19. Why have you come to this place?

20. Who are your father and mother, their race and religion?

2 1. Keep back no secrets; be straight in your speech.22. In the monastery our commerce is all straightforward speech.23. Straight arrows strike the target yonder.24. If your path is straight, the roads to U and China are not long.

25. If you understand, you are a superior man: a single sign is enough.26. if you don't, you are an aging ox and only understand the stick.27. if that's what you need, then look to your life.28. if you understand, this is the explanation of the words.29. If not. I’m not going to sing this song again."

249 The modern reprintings of the Ling Xylograph fail to notice that this passage is poetry.

Indeed, it is missing the usual "LU A LA LU" which begins every epic ballad. Nevertheless, it is

an epic ballad, for it is in the same dialect, the same verse form, and occurs in the same

couplet structure. The language is similar to the demon m inister's-- rough and humorous.

250 " Oh yes, I understand, Sir. The secret meaning of the essence of speech like yours

must be clarified": Avalokitesvara's speech is indeed d ifficu lt to understand and Tibetan

informants have to give some thought in order to interpret this passage. It has a bifurcate ring

structure. First there is a prefatory poem in formal Tibetan w ith some idiom. Then there is an

epic song that ends by returning to the original auestion, "Do you understand?"

The poem that opens Avalokitesvara's speech is a preface to his declaration of his

identity and his intentions in epic song. The prefatory poem is an extended analogy designed to

prove that the essence of an explanation must be understood or else it w ill help no one. This is

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in answer to the demon minister's question at the end of his song: "If you understand, this is

the explanation of the words. If not, I'm not going to sing this song again." This question, "Do

you understand my song,” is a formuleic end to almost any epic song. But here Avalokitesvara

takes it seriously and responds with his verse meditation on the importance of comprehending

the essence of a speech: if you do not understand the underlying meaning of a speech, the

speech is useless. In the same way, the warmth and light of the Sun and Moon are useless to

the Earth, if there is not rain to firs t soften it.

The total image is from Buddhist cosmology. Dragons (n3gas) are in charge of the

activity of all waters. The earth is made up of a huge ocean containing four continents the size

of worlds and eight "islands." These twelve land bodies surround the four-sided Mount Meru,

which is itself circled by the Sun and the Moon.

2 5 1 mgo 'khor- "spinning head' is an expression which refers to people being fooled and

distracted by a con artist. The extended metaphor is taken from a mixture of Indian and Far

Eastern cosmology. Mount Meru is the mythical mountain at the center of the world. The

heavenly bodies all rotate around it creating the seasons and all cycles of nature. Thus rain and

sun are brought to the fields and crops can grow. If this benefit did not occur, there would be

no point in the ceaseless, ever-repeated rotation of heavenly bodies. They would serve no

purpose but to confuse people who regard their useless spinning. "Spinning head" is also slang

for being duped or conned or hoodwinked.

It is the same with speeches which hide a point in symbols and figures of speech. If the

meaning is not understood, then the speeches serve no purpose— are mere distractions for

brainless dupes.

252 This section is extremely obscure and the translation of the previous six lines is still

seriously at question. However, one thing seems clear. The magical child, Avalokitesvara,

does not want to deliver his petition to the demon ministers, but only to Padmasambhava. This

is quite logical. I t is unlikely that cannibal demons would be disturbed by a report that an

infection of their kind had taken over Central Asia.

253 "Dharma of the Perfections": ( chos pha rol phyin ) - the dharma of paramitas, in other

words, the Mahayana, the path of the six perfections or paramitas (tib: pha rol tu phyin pa).

This supplication introduces a verse sermon on the mahayana path of compassion.

Avalokitesvara, being the bodhisattva of compassion, could be considered almost the patron

saint of the Mahayana path.

254 "Just keep to your own place..." - Rang sa zir, "keep to your own place" is an

expression for the natural relaxation of mahamudra practice, a special tantric approach to

basic meditation practice. By combining the expression "ultimate emptiness" from classical

mahayana with this tantric term, Avalokitesvara invokes the special version of mahayana

practiced by tantrikas, the so-called mantrayana.

255 Avalokitesvara's self-description in this song is a formula from mythic tantric

biographies. The same exchange occurs in Padma dkar po's biography of Tilopa and the

biography of Padmasambhava as well. For example, this from the Padmasambhava biography:

Yeshe Tsogyal, The Lotus-Born: The Life Story of Padmasambhava, trans. by Erik Pema

Kunsang (Eric Schmidt), (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1993) p. 34.

...the king asked the litt le boy:

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"Little boy child, who is your father and who is your mother?

What is your caste and what is your country?

What food do you live on and what is your purpose here?"

In reply to these questions the boy said:

“My father is the wisdom of spontaneous awareness.

My mother is the Ever-Excellent Lady, the space of all things.

I belong to the caste of indivisible space and awareness.

I have taken the unborn dharmadhatu as my homeland.

I sustain myself by consuming the concepts of duality.

My purpose is the act of killing disturbing emotions."

256 "If you travel back and forth, a merchant, between China and Tibet:“ It is d ifficu lt to

translate this section because the verb 'grim means to travel or move between two places,

stopping along the way many times between the two points. (TS) For example, if you serve

wine to people at a dinner table, the verb of motion is 'grim, to move around between two

places. The wine moves between two points stopping at several along the way.

AvalokiteSvara is arguing facetiously that the minister should be an intermediary to

introduce him to Padmasambhava. Actually, such an intermediary is unnecessary between two

omniscient oemgs, but this point must be lost on the minister, who does not truly inderstand

the nature of either the king or the suppliant.

Three examples of connections are given to support the request for an intermediary: 15

The merchant buys articles in China and sells them along the way to Tibet. The fact that he

sells them does not mean they are valueless to him. Rather, it means that there is a mental

connection (sems thag) between the two nations. 2) The guru and his disciples in the lineage

pass on the teachings from generation to generation. But they do not give the teachings away

because they hold them valueless. It is simply an expression of the vows (aspirations) made by

the disciples in previous lifetimes to continue their connection (skt: samaya) in this one. 3)

Likewise, the minister (blon) connects the people (sde- literally, “the divisions' or “degrees“)

with the ruler (.sbon ). But this is not because the minister is necessary to the running of the

government, that is, the techniques ( thabs chags) of its operation. Rather he is there in order

to connect the law-giver with his subjects.

This is actually, therefore, a sort of verse essay on the Tibetan concept of the bar-mi,

the mediator or the intercessor— a functionary who serves in numerous formal, legal, or

social relationships. (Macdonald)

257 so rong - (Macdonald) “one's own valley.“ Here the word for Tibet is Ü, or Central

Tibet.

258 (TS) The fact that we give these teachings are given and passed on to othrs does not

mean they are not precious to the givers.

259 the law-giver and the monks: 'khrims khrva sa, (TS) 'Khrims here refers to the

manuals of behavior and government for a monastery, 'khrims yig. khrva sa actually means in

this context the monks who are bound by these laws. Apparently the government of

Padmasambhava on Camara is actually modeled on that of a monastic institution.

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260 don gyl nyams rtsa dpon la zhu - Literally, tell (zhu ) the master the essence of my

meaning.’ This line brings us around to the beginning of the passage, in which Avalokitesvara

said, ’The secret meaning of the essence of speech like yours must be clarified.’ Note that this

speech by Avalokitesvara begins with a prefatory poem about the importance and subtltv of the

message. And then he answers the ministers questions, which were put in the form of an epic

song, with another song.

2 6 1 snylng rjes cl khyab las khyis phye - Obscure passage. Literally this seems to say,

’Open or clear the action to the extent (cf khyab) of your compassion.’ But this is not a clear

sentence in Tibetan.

262 ’ My import is not small...’ : From here on the text is full of word-play on the term den

(Skt: artha), which means ’ meaning,’ 'importance,' 'a im ,’ ’ w ealth,’ and ’ultimate.’

Avalokitesvara responds to the demon's question about what must he his great aim (don) in

taking the risk of coming to CSmara. Avalokitesvara responds that it is the benefit (don) of

sentient beings, which is of great import (don). One must understand the meaning (don) of these

words. One should indeed have important reasons (don) for taking action: One should not

pointlessly (don med) wander in foreign lands. That would be like a person who pointlessly

throws himself off a mountain, as if his 'l ife force has been carried away by demons (gdon,

pro. don).'

263 ’ ...life force has been carried away by demons’ : (rang srog 'dre yfs khyer le yin ) (TS)

Demons may temporarily possess a person and drive that person off the edge of a c liff. Or they

may suddenly sweep the person from a mountain side. Or they might temporarily drive a

person mad and drive him to his destruction. This particularly happens when a person's ’ life

force ’ is rog ) has left his body temporarily and so. the body is suddenly vulnerable to demonic

attack or possession. TS: ’ When a person loses his srog, his life, he is no longer himself. A

demon has taken his life and so he just jumps off a cl iff.’

The notion here is that when people pointlessly commit suicide, it must be because they

had been suddenly possessed by a demon. If a person is experiencing terrible suffering, it

might make sense for him or her to commit suicide. But if one is free from suffering, the only

logical explanation is demonic possession.

264 grog kha - false friends (TS).

265 'Thus he requested and the demon minister answered, 'Hey. you!": The comic

encounter between an ironic Avalokitesvara and a blustering demon functionary continues with

the demon's grotesque speech on the terrors of the court of Padmasambhava. The minister's

speech is thick with colloquialism and clever folkish puzzles. His language would be absurd and

incongruous in any other situation. But we must remember that this man-eating demon does not

necessarily realize that a Buddha in wrathful aspect has taken over the government of his

country. He still believes the ancient lineage of demon kings rules, for Padmasambhava appears

in his Lotus Skullgarland Power form, which is indeed the physical shape of a raksasa or

cannibal demoa

266 '...in court they strike w ith the accuracy of lightning bolts’: (khrims kha thogzer bas

tsha ) - TS: Literally, 'the court's verdicts are hotter than lightning.’ 'Hot,' however, (tsha

po ) means in this context accuracy, as in the accuracy of a sharp-shooter. The idea is that the

king when he decides a case, cannot be fooled by pretenses or bribed. The penetrating power

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and accuracy of his verdict cannot be deflected. It strikes the malefactor like lightning strikes

the earth, penetrating, devastating, irresistible, and instantaneous. TendzinSamphel gives

the example that in a corrupt country, you might kill somebody and bribe the Judge to escape

punishment. But here that cannot happen The punishment is unavoidable, if deserved.

267 'th e ir sovereignty' (kheb rg ya ) - Literally, 'vast cover." It is used to indicate the

amount of territory over which a king has sovereignty.

2 68 "clout" - (sku dbang ) - lit. their kSya-power. Their aura of power. Macdonald

suggests "clout" as proper translation, particulary happy considering the metaphor which

follows, in which the king’s personal political clout is compared to the power of the planet R2hu

to strike one down. According to TS in this case sku-dbang means his charisma, his personal

field of power, as in dbang thang (field of power or "authentic presence"), sku here is just the

honorific for lus, body.

263 Rahu (¡72a' rgod)- The planet R2hula. (TS) There is an expression, gza'rgodkha rlang dug gi spu khri: "The hair-sharpness of the poisonous breath of R2hu." R3hula is a planet with a body like a thread. It is nearly invisible, but periodically it eats the sun or the moon, causing an eclipse, it also has an influence on the earth. When it passes overhead, sometimes its breath strikes an individual who falls under its terrestrial influence. The person cut down by Rahu’s breath falls to earth in an epileptic fit. It is considered quite dangerous. (TS) "Even on auspicious days, such as Padmasambhava’s feast day, you might see a person suddenly have an epileptic attack. Tibetans would say that 'gza rgodphob pa ’: ’Rahu struck him down.’ Or they w ill say that he was cut down by the razor sharp (lit. "hair-sharp"— sharp enough to split a hair) poisonous breath of Rahu."

As a metaphor it means this: the force of these demon kings’ charisma is so powerful

that you respond to his commands in a split-second, as if struck down by the poisonous breath

of R2hu. There are numerous metaphors for the personal power of a king. Sometimes his

command is likened to the sting of a scorpion: "if he gives the command, you w ill surely obey,

even as the sting of a scorpion w ill surely bring death."

270 "...are ready to be punished..." (.chadpas gcod la khad ). gCod la khad means “on the

verge of..." Literally this passage says, "I, the inner minister and others, when we stand

before him, although faultless, are about to be punished.' My more colloquial translation aims

to communicate the idiomatic quality of the minister’s speech at this point, khyodbu chung

mtha‘ ‘khyams zhigmi dgos dang... This section means literally, "you a young child who

wanders to the ends of the earth are not needed"— but "not needed" (mi dgos dang) seems to

have a concessive sense here of "much less you." "Even I, a minister, have trouble here,

much less a child like you..."

271 'kick us out for no reason..." (hab la 'phen la khad) - obscure passage. We are not sure

what hab means. There is an expression, hab thob Igyab pa In a Tibetan village a grown-up

man could throw a piece of chocolate to a bunch of kids and say, "hab thob Igyab pa"— 'jump

for it."

272 dnosmed sbar- d ifficult passage.

273 thsun chas gzugs - in recent generations.

274 "guts seem to have broadened...": (Ihu drug gi sku khog rgyas zhan 'dra)~ (TS)

Literally, "the organs in their bodies of six limbs have widened"— extremely colloquial and

humorous expression for "they have become more open-hearted."

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275 ’ swept under the carpet’: (rtsva bsre shing bsre ) - TS: Literally, 'c lear away roots

and sticks." (or possibly, ‘ separate roots from sttcks’ HJterally, ’ to separate the roots and

the sticks.’ It means to have your case brushed aside because you have bribed the officials

involved.

276 "We must formally request...’ : (khyod e tshud bka' 'dri' zhu chog) - Literally, "it is

permitted to request the kindness of your being allowed to enter.’ There follow exaggerated

warnings of what occurs to the hapless individual who enters without giving fair warning and

receiving permission.

277 ’break in on him 1 ike that’ : ihar re 'dzul 'gro ye mi phod) - Lit., ’Never has one dared

to go ( 'gro) entering {'dzul) suddenly breaking in (har re).

278 Lists like this are found in many dohas, spontaneous religious songs. There is a

conventional extended f igure which is used in these dohas and is almost a hallmark of oral

religious composition. One takes a conventional enumeration from some classical Buddhist list

of teachings and weaves the song around the list, making the literal referent of the song

figurative for one of the members of the list. So, for example, if the singer had a staff with

four rings on it, each ring might be matched w ith one of the Four Noble Truths, if he were

attacked by a bandit with five weapons, each weapon might be one of the Five Aggregates.

Since the Buddha organized most of his teachings into numerical lists of points, it becomes very

easy to w rite a spontaneous song by employing one of these pedagogical lists. This style is not

found very much in epic songs, but it is absolutely characteristic of doha.

In theory dohas are a form of symbolic song descended from the Bengali and

Aprabhramsa poetry of the Mahasiddhas. See Per Kvaerne, An anthology of Buddhist tantrlc

songs: a study of the Caryagiti. (New York: Columbia University Press. 1977). But a better

model are the songs of Milarepa. See Garma C.C. Chang, The Hundred Thousand Songs of

tlUarepa, Vol I and II (New York: Harper & Rowe, 1962). An even more accurate translation is

the recent French translation, Mane-Jose Lamothe, Milarepa: les cent mille chants, Vol. I - i l l

(Paris: Fayard, 1986 . See also my essay on the doha— the Afterward to The Rain of

Wisdom: The Vajra Songs of the Kagyu Gurus, transl. by the Nalanda Translation Committee,

(Boulder: Shambhaia, 1980), pp.293-332.

The Mam mantra is Om Mam Padme Hum, the mantra of AvalokiteSvara, the mantra of

compassion. The Six Perfections are the virtues practiced by the MahaySmsts. The last

eighteen offerings repreesnt the entire world as it is divided into categories by Buddhist

psychology: six sense objects— color, sound, smell, taste, touch, and objects of mind, the six

sense consciousnesses— eye consciousness, ear consciousness, etc. nose, tongue, body, and

mind, and the six sense organs or faculties which have those consciousnesses— eye, ear,

nose, tongue, body, and rmno. Since color, sound, smeli, etc. comprehend the entire material

world, and the other twelve include every mental factor in the conscious life of a being, these

offerings are in effect every material object in the universe and the mind which cognizes them.

So there can be no doubt that Avalokitesvara's presentation offerings are sufficient and he has

a right to the slight tone of sarcasm in the last sentence, ’Are these suitable presentation

offerings?’

279 ’ I can't really say they w ill be okay...’ : These argumentative aphorisms by the demon

minister are very tricky and entertaining to the Tibetan listener. They are slightly cryptic,

but fun to figure out, especially to Tibetan readers from the region where this dialect is spoken.

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Tibetans from other regions enjoy them too when asked to give them a more careful reading.

The joke is that the minister is giving the suppliant a hard time, delaying his entry with cute,

complicated sophistries.

The overall argument is that the minister is not sure the thirty presentation offerings

of AvalokiteSvara w ill be enough. He cannot say they are enough, because, a fter all, there are

many situations where a person in need thinks something is valuable which the other party

thinks is not. For example, a poor man thinks food is important. But the rich man is not

worried about food. In fact he can make the poor man pay more and more for food, he can

‘ tlghten-up on his (the poor man's) stomach." The rich man may value a certain horse, but if

the merchant has the horse, he can hold out for the highest price. And a lamb may seem like a

lot of food to a hungry jackal, but actually the jackal usually eats horses. Maybe the lamb

won't do! Just so, this precious human body which possesses thirty excellent characteristics

may be prized by Avalokitesvara, but perhaps RSksa Skullgariand will find it of negligible value.

On the other hand, many very valuable things, such as the holy souvenirs of a

pilgrimage to Mount Tsan, are valuable as relics and yet they are actually just l itt le bamboo

sticks.

The language is saucy and colloauial, as in, for example, stubborn-headed: (mgo rtsa je

mkhregs) - literally, the "harder his head-root." it is the Tibetan expression for a person who

refuses to listen to others, but sticks stubbornly to his own way. in this case, a merchant who

refuses to be argued down on his price.

280 "Perhaps this sheep would do": (sphyang ku rta zan lug ros e brgyag na ste) - literally,

"would the taste of this sheep meat satisfy me like horse meat usually does?" The wolf is used

to eating horse, but, seeing a sheep, wonders whether it wouid do or not. brgyag na ste =

bravaa na 'grig gi red ste.

281 bamboo stick: isba smyug tsigs dgu) - sba smyug is a particularly high quaiity

bamboo, tsigs dgu just means that it is eight lengths on— that is, nine nodes. The idea is that

it may be the symbol of one's visit to the holy mountain of Tsari in Western Tibet, but it is

really just a piece of bamboo.

282 ja'u zi'i ri lung ded le de / dngul rin chen rta m ig kha sprod yin - - obscure, but

decipherable. What is Jauzi Mountain Tea? What does it mean to see that you find yourself

meeting the horses eye of precious silver? It turns out that there was indeed a silver coin

which, influenced by Western models, has the figure of a horse's head stamped on one face.

And so. "to look right at the norse's silver eye" is to touch money. The transliteration of Ja'u

zi as a Chinese proper name is pure guess.

283 (TS) ‘ nom pa chen po* is the same as to say "gyu nom pa "= * rich and abundant."

284 "free and well-favored" (dal ‘byor)— Fixed expression from a standard Tibetan

contemplation on the advantages of being bom as a human being. We should practice the

Dharma strenuously right now, because it is d ifficult to be reborn as a human being, possessing

the aualities of being free to practice Buddhism and nch (well-favored) in the physical

circumstances which make this possible. See, for example. The Torch of Certainty, by Jamgon

Kongtrul Lodro Thaye, translated by Judith Hanson, (Boulder Shambhala, 1977).

285 "two spans and four cubits": Cdom gang gru bzhi la) - a'dom is just the length

between two outstretched arms. A gru is the length from fingers to elbows.

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286 loomed- (TS) literally, "not gotten," but here 'd ifficult, all but impossible to get."

287 "if you do not possess an analytical mind": 'dpyadzhes vs. dpyad ma zhes - a

distinction made in the scholastic tradition between two kinds of people, those who have

developed the critical mind of prajnS, of analytical intelligence, and those who have not. These

terms usually occur in philosophical texts, sometimes, as above, in the simple expression, "if

you possess analysis." The idea here is that it is difficult to obtain rebirth in a human body, if

you possess critical intelligence, that body can be used to gain worldly success and trans-

wordly enlightenment. But if you do not possess critical intelligence, analytical intelligence,

then the body becomes involved in grasping and fixation and you sink into the whirlpool of cyclic

existence.

288 yo ge - is obscure. TS thinks it means stick, but this nearly makes nonsense of the

passage, it could be that happiness and sadness are yoked together or we are yoked to the two-

- - an equally unlikely translation, since it would require that yo ge be a Tibetan attempt at a

Sanskrit word.

289 ’There on top of a wrathful seat of corpses": In tantric iconography tutelary deities

(.yldams ) appear standing on special platforms that reflect the mood of the figure. A wrathful

deity symbolizes the destruction of ego by decisive actions such as cutting thoughts. Such a

deity stands on a "wrathful seat" formed by the corpses of evil doers. Contemplation of

wrathful deities is supposed to cut through conditioned psychological patterns and deluded

thoughts. The corpses represent the thoughts and conditioned patterns which contemplation on

this meditational deity in his angry mood has cut through.

290 "In what person does his body take refuge?": SK: zhe bio sgo su la gtodmi red/ lus

thod pa su la gtodmi red / Literally, his mind/head trusts in whom? His body/skull trusts in

whom?" The mention of the skull ( thod ) here refers the act of bowing in homage when a

disciple's head touches the feet of his or her head to the teacher's feet. In tantric discipleship

the student commits himself to absolute physical obedience to the guru. Therefore they say

that he ’entrusts his body" to the guru. So the sense is something like 'to whom does he bow in

homage, entrusting his body to whom?"

2 9 1 rje rgyal po khri la ‘khodzhan 'dra - SK: strange spelling for 'khod, meaning uncertain.

292 "He seems to be sitting here..." : A sudden spate of epic epithets: "fine bright eyes,"

tkhra chung ) - "petit bariolé" (according to Stein '59, p.390), heroic epithet for eyes. Samten

Karmay would translate it as "his varicolored litt le eyes." 8ut Tendzm Samphel feels its

meaning is "small and bright eyes." He points to the fact that in iconography the Buddha's eyes

are usually small and his eyelids are half-opened, whereas demons are round-eyed and wide-

opened. "Royal parasol of the sun" : (.khri ’dugs) - heroic epithet for ’sun," litera lly , ’ throne

parasol"— the canopy over an ancient Indian royal throne. "Southern clouds, "( Iho sprin ).

293 iho sprin - southern clouds. (SK) In Tibet clouds coming from the South always bring

rain, while clouds from the North bring snow, if anything. So southern clouds are auspicious.

294 zerba'i dpe khong gis gzigs song tshod red snyams - Literally, [He, theminister]

uttered these sayings thinking that He, [Padmasambhava] probabiy saw (gzigs song tshod red)

etc."

295 "In the varicolored demon village"...: (TS) Like tantric Buddhist mandalas, the city of

Padmasambhava on Camara on the Copper-Colored Mountain is surrounded by an iron mountain

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wall. Actually, there are two encircling walls and this is the inner one. So this is the second

gate, the Eastern gate in the inner encircling wall.

296 'Don't be distracted, listen carefully'...: ma gyengs means "do not wander.“ It is the

first of a serious of rather oddly insulting remarks to Padmasambhava made by the demon

minister and then AvalokiteSvara. Tibetan language uses honorifics and it is necessary to

address people above one's station in elegant and polite terms. What then is the explanation this

rude address?

One explanation is that there is a religious agenda which borrows the powerful language

of tantric liturgies. Expressions such as ’do not wander* and "don't be idle“ (.thugs ma gyel)

occur in litanies written by Mipham when he is addressing Gesar as a god and requesting his

interf erence in worldly activities. See Wer ma t lha bsang ring mo dpa' glu bzhugs so, by

Mipham, Collected Works, Vol. Na, p. 47a.

According to TS the abruptness of the language is explained by the ritual nature of the

command. It is same with the mode of address employed in the next song. That song is a

supplication calling Padmasambhava to action, asking him to interpose himself in temporal

events. It begins by calling on the ultimate buddha principle from which Padmasambhava

originally emanated saying, "Amitabha of Uddiyana, know me!" "Know me (mkhyen no) has a

special meaning in tantric invocations. It is used in guru yoga practices to request the blessings

of the cosmic teachers, as in "Karmapa mkhyen n o "— "Karmapa know me" or "Karmapa look

upon me" or “think upon me." Now, the tradition is that this request is given abruptly,

because, although it is a request from below to above, it is based on the vow of compassion the

guru has already taken. By that vow of compassion all buddhas, bodhisattvas, and gurus are

required not to abandon them but to remain with and save sentient beings trapped in time and

space. And so it is almost more of a reminder than a request— a reminder to "those who move

from joy to joy’ to consider again "those who move from suffering to suffering." “Don't

wander" and "don't be idle" are reauests of the same nature and so share the air of abruptness.

297 "...when the golden rays of the royal parasol/ Struck the peak of the Glorious

Mountain..." (SK) rVi rise la phog is a conventional figure for the dawn, because in Tibet,

with its huge mountain ranges, when the sun dawns, its light always strikes the mountain peaks

in the West before the globe of the sun is seen itself

298 "Whether you condescendingly praise your gift as 'alms'...": This hegms a set of three-

line arguments by analogy all used to suggest that it is inevitable that Padmasambhava w ill

receive Avalokitesvara.

sbyin pa'l zhing gi che brjod te/ mchodpa'i kha thabs ma yin na/ bla ma bka' bcu rab

byams red. The structure of this three-limbed argument is literally this: "A....de/ 8...ma yin

na/ C....red." "It is A, unless (ma yin na) it is B, but either way it is always C."

In this first triad, A = sbyin pa, the non-honorific word for gifts given to people lower

than oneself; B = mchodpa, the honorific term for offerings given to those higher than oneself.

And bla ma etc., the guru who is... is the object of those offerings, che brjod means literally

"praise" and is meant somewhat ironically here, as if to say, "In all your pride you may praise

those alms you condescended to give, nevertheless...” in the same way kha thabs is a

diplomatic term for eloquent and round-about speech, used here in a similarly ironic tone.

These arguments by analogy employed in the song of Avaiokitesvara are clever,

sophisticated, elegant, and ironic. The idea is that Lotus Born, Padmasambhava, may consider

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Avalokitesvara however he wants, he still must see him. Just like a learned lama, he can

regard gifts as alms, if he is humble, or offerings, if he is proud, it doesn't really matter, he

w ill still accept them anyway.

Comment by Samten Karmay: bla ma bka' bcu rab 'byams — ‘ the guru who has mastered

the ten sciences" is a technical term for a monk who has attained the most advanced degree in

the Tibetan academic establishment. It is used, however, by Sakyapas and Gelugpas, not

Nyingmapas. For the Nyingmas do not place much emphasis on academic degrees. It is

therefore strange that Mipham, a nyingma, uses this term for a guru. Perhaps it is meant

ironically, making fun of the greed of supposedly advanced philosophical erudites.

299 ‘ the eight classes of demons' - sde brgyad za kha - (SK) The eight classes of demons

can cause misfortune supernaturally, eating the life force of sentient beings or bringing

spiritual pollution and ill-health. Dark clouds piling up in the sky are sometimes seen as a sign

of this inauspicious occurrence, an attack by angry demons.

300 nyams r ts a - (SK) nyamskht rtsa ba— ¡it. "the root of his wishes." Samten Karmay's

interesting remark on epic language is that the bards often include expressions from local

dialects, in this case Khams or Amdo. But they also simply make up words. According to SK,

this is an example of a word invented by the author. It is difficult to say what it means.

301 A difficult passage. The translation is uncertain.

302 bden drang - this could be short for drang don gl 'bden pa (skt: neySrtha), the

interpretable or expedient truth, as opposed to nges don gi bden pa (skt: nitSrtha), the ultimate

or definitive truth.

303 ‘ whether god, nyen, serpent, or man': lha, gnyan, klu, mi - gods, nyen,nagas, and

men— a traditional division of beings into four orders. They are roughly equivalent to four

levels— the gods U ha ) dwelling above in the sky, the nyen on mountain tops and the sides of

mountains, the men on the earth, and the n3gas in the ocean and in streams.

304 This, of course, is a version of the mantra of Avalokitesvara If the minister had

known that the magical child was the boohisattva of compassion, he would have recognized the

mantra as a quintessential form of him. But as it is. the mantra is a mystery to him.

305 In his mind he went through his strategy twelve times - yang bsam olo skor brdzogs

bcu gnyis/ bio rise nyi shu rtsa Ina btang nas- literally, ‘He thought it twelve, he thought it

twenty-five and still...' a colloquial expression for doing lots of thinking according to Samten

Karmay.

According to TS this is a version of the expression bsam bio mi 'khor dgu khor/ drug

gsum bco brgyad ‘khor songs. Which means literally 'he made many plans (.bsam bio are plans

or a long series of thoughts planning out a strategy) and went around eighteen times (drug gsum

bco brgyad means "three times six makes eighteen.') bLo rtse are tricks, machinations, little

tactical moves that one plans. So when one makes a bio skhor, a plan, there are in it numerous

bio rtse, numerous tactics or tricks.

TS says this phrase, with its twelve and twenty-five, is an unusual variation on the

expression ‘eighteen plans," which is often given in colloquial Tibetan simply as the brief

expression 'drug gsum bco brgyad', "three times six is eighteen.'

In any case, the demon minister believes he has a serious problem. He is trapped m a

dangerous dilemma. On one hand, if he escorts an unsuitable person into the presence of the

great ana wrathful demon king, Raksa Skullgarland, he will be terribly punished. On the other

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hand, if he fails to show in the small boy, he w ill have disobeyed Lotus Skull garland's command

to bring in whomever was outside the gate, whether they were demon or man. We have heard

already how harshly the demon kings of Camara deal with the slightest infractions of the law

and so can understand why the minister would "think twelve times" before he disobeyed even

the slightest command. To make matters worse, the minister cannot literally obey

Padmasambhava's orders, since the boy has disappeared, leaving only a lotus made of light.

The demon’s plans and strategies are all designed to get him out of this dilemma. But although

he makes twelve different plans with twenty-five stratagems, he can find no good solution.

306 pho rab - SK: a superior man, in keeping w ith a three-fold division of pho rab, pho

bring, and pho mtha' ma superior, middle, and lower maa

307 iche chung - (TS) literally "small tongue," meaning to watch your speech, "iche chung

so rdab maphog na" - "If you don’t pinch your lit t le tongue with your teeth," "if you don’t

control your speech...."

308 "like relic pills from the grave of a pig" iphag giring bsrel)- (TS) When the remains

of an enlightened being, such as the Buddha, are buried in a stupa, the stupa exudes, after a

period of time, a red substance. This substance, known as ring bsrel, "relic pills" is collected

as a relic of the buried saint. It is prized as if it were indeed a piece of the body of the saint.

New stupas can be created around this magical stuff, it conveys blessings and has healing

powers.

Lama Urgyen Shenphen once told me that many people believe the ring bsrel is

indestructible. If you want to divide a piece of it between two reliquaries, you must first

supplicate the relic material, requesting it to divide for the benefit of sentient beings. Then it

w ill divide, if you also hit it with a hammer.

Of course, the grave of a pig would not produce spontaneous relic material. But if it

were to, there would still be no point in collecting the relic pills of a pig, for no blessings could

come from an unenlightened creature such as a pig.

309 "Signs' here refers to the visionary experiences and experiences of sudden insight that

a meditation practitioner has when his or her practice is successful. "Accumulatng merit"

means doing religious practices. Every disciple waits, in theory, for the marks of advancement

towards enlightenment which occur from time to time. If such signs do not occur, it may be an

indication that the practice instructions are not being carried out correctly and one might seek

fresh instruction or counsel.

310 sgyumamkhan- an illusionist.

311 "a wonder-worker’s basis for transformation"- (TS) sPrul gzhi is "basis for

transformation." There is a certain kind of traditional Asian illusionist who uses mantras to

fool people into believing that an ordinary object is something extraordinary. The mantras

exercise their power over the eyes of the spectators and they may see, for example, what is

actually a shoe as the Potala Palace. The shoe is the sprul gzhi, the basis for the illusion or

transformation, the sprul pa There is a story that once a rdzu ‘phrul can, an illusionist, or

literally, a wonder-worker, used the power of his mantras to make an entire audience think

that he had attached a rope to the Potala Palace m Lhasa and was pulling it into the lake. One

man, however, arrived late and, since the mantra had not been pronounced when he was there,

his eyes were unclouded. He says the sprul gzhi, the basis for transformation, as it truly was.

He saw, in other words, an illusionist pulling a shoe into the lake with a rope.

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312 Uncertain translation.

313 "to invoke and call forth from the self-luminous thought lineage the mind [of Gesar]."

(TS) The song that follows is an invocation designed to call forth a deity who will become Gesar

of Ling. The deity is an emanation of Avaiokitesvara, who himself is an emanation of the

Buddha of the Lotus Family, Amitabha.

Therefore the text says that the song thugs rgyud bskul — "calls forth or invokes

the mind-stream" (skt: samtSna). (T.nd-stream (.thugs rgyud) is a technical term in Buddhist

psychology for the mind of an individual, the mind which produces and receives impressions

from the phenomenal world. For this reason some translators merely translate rgyud as

"mind," Ignoring the sense of continuity mixed with momentariness which is the almost

Heracleitlan view of Buddhist phenomenology. It is called a "stream" or "continuity" (rgyud)

because from the point of view of meditation practice it is not seen as an entity or individual,

but as a succession of momentary experiences called "dharmas." Some of the experiences are

thoughts, some are sense impressions, some are feelings. All of them are momentary and they

flow forward as a succession of experiences from lifetime to lifetime. When the mind-stream

is evoked from the breast of Padmasambhava, it w ill arise as the mind of Thdpa Ga, Joyful to

Hear, a deity who w ill later be reborn as Gesar. Strictly speaking, this continuity is simply

one transformation after another of Avaiokitesvara. He undergoes one transformation after

another, each disolvir.g into the next in the characteristic style of tantric visualization

practices.

The calling forth (bskul b a ) is also an important aspect of the technology of tantric

ritual. The idea is that by singing this song AvalokiteSvara can provoke, excite, stimulate, and

arouse Lotus Skullgariand to action, arousing him to generate Thopa Ga/ Gesar. TS likened the

action to that of a subject or minister who tells a king his realm is threatened and that he must

rouse himself and take action immediately. The specific action he must take is to in his turn

evoke or call forth Gesar from the ultimate buddha mind known as the Thought Lineage of the

Victorious Ones.

Thus we have a complex series of emanations. First Amitabha confers authorization on

his emanation, bodhisattva emanation. Avaiokitesvara. Avaioktiesvara transforms himself into

a magical demon-child. The demon-child becomes a lotus, the symbol of compassion and the

MahaySna. The lotus becomes rays of light which dissolve into the heart center of

Padmasambhava. Now, Avaiokitesvara, even though he has evolved into rays of light, still

exists in an absolute sense outside of this series of transformations. Thus his voice can sing

the following invocation which asks Padmasambhava to call forth Gesar.

314 The song is go bde glu tshig la — "in words easy to understand." This is a typical

comment and could be merely conventional. Tendzin Samphel, however, gives some added

interpretation here, saying that the words of the song are easy to understand for

Padmasambhava, for they explain to him how the invoking of Thopa Ga/Gesar w ill occur, bde

here is translated as ’ easy," but its general meaning is "blissful" or "v 3!i."

315 "And you who are supreme in the Lotus Family": Padmasambhava. in tantric

iconography there are five "families" of Buddhas occupying the four directions and the center

of each mandala. The specific names of budohas in a mandala changes from liturgy to liturgy,

but all the buddhas in one direction share certain characteristics in common, in fact, the five

families of buodhas represent the five styles in which wisdom can occur. These wisdoms exist

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in potential form in the egoistic individual as five personality types. For example, a person

whose governing emotion is passion, has the potential for developing into the Buddha of the

Lotus Family. This is Amitabha. In the Mandala of the Five Buddhas he occupies the southern

section and he symbolizes the transformation of passion Into compassion and confused desire

into unconfused wisdom. Avalokitesvara, as an emanation of Amitabha, also belongs to the

Lotus family, as does Padmasambhava, the Lotus Born. Thus he can be called "supreme among

all the beings who belong to the Lotus family of Buddhas."

31 6 It is interesting to note the difference in interpretation of scholars with different

religious commitments. Samten Karmay, a famous scholar of the Bon religion, gives this

section a conventional reading. Tendzin Samphel, however, is a committed lama in the Buddhist

tradition and, although his knowledge of Buddhist doctrine is not superior to Samten Karmay's,

he gives a reading with a very different tone. First, the passage in Tibetan:

Padma ‘bar ba'i zhing khams nas

bcom I dan snang ba mtha' yas mkhyen

padma'i rigs mchog kun mhyen mdzod

sgyu ’phrul rgyal po dgongs su gsol

Tendzin Samphel's reading:

From the Pure Land of the Flaming Lotus

The Biessed One (Bhagavat) Amitabha, know us.

And you who are supreme in the Lotus Family, omniscient treasury.

Miraculous king, I ask you to think.

Samten Karmay’s reading differs in the last line: "Miraculous king, please think of me."

Grammatically this is utterly correct and the most usual understanding of the line. Although

the "of me" is not in the text, it is understood, for this is a standard supplication a disciple

makes to the guru, on his or her own behalf as student. Tendzin Samphel, however, because of

his commitment to the Buddhist religious agenda of the epic, insists that Avalokitesvara must

be speaking to Padmasambhava m an abrupt, almost rough manner— commanding him to start

thinking— that is, to consider the entire situation. Ordinarily saying dgongs su gsol is just

the way a suppliant requests attention and compassionate condescension from a higher being.

But according to TS, it is improper ana indeed out of the Question to think of Avalokitesvara,

the enlightened bodhisattva of compassion, as a suppliant. He is equal to Padmasambhava and,

being enlightened, could not possibly experience any personal problems. He could not be

personally asing for help. Therefore, we must read this line, which Avalokitesvara utters, as

"start thinking" rather than "think of me."

Although this is an unusual translation, it is not inconsistent with the psychology of

invocation. The idea of a Buddhist supplication chant is usually to remind a divine figure of the

vow of compassion or the specific commitments which that being has already made.

Presumably, when Padmasambhava began his path as a Buddhist, he vowed to help and serve all

sentient beings, it is therefore appropriate to mention this vow to him and demand that he

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observe it. For example, there are these lines addressed to Padmasambhava In a poem by

Chogyam Trungpa, Rlnpoche: "0 Guru Senge Dradrok,/ Just as at Hepo Hill at glorious Samye/

You bound by oath devas and rSksasas,/ So utterly destroy these obstacles of maras./

Consider well your former vow of compassion.” (from 'Supplication to Padmasambhava,” by

Chogyam Trungpa, Rlnpoche. Privately published)

Samten Karmay, on the other hand, was not sensitive to this distinction. He easily

placed AvalokiteSvara in the role of suppliant, even though devoted Buddhists might be loath to

regard his level as below that of any enlightened being. And so he read the words dgongs su

gsol, which literally mean ”1 ask to think” as ”1 ask you to think of me,” as if the bodhisattva

of compassion had personal need of Padmasambhava's blessings.

Neither interpretation is incorrect, since both of them quite properly infer words

deleted for the sake of meter. And in an intersting sense it is not quite accurate to say that

these are two different 'interpretations,” for there is no second thought involved in the

reader’s reception of these words. They simply mean a different thing to the two scholars

depending on the differing respect that they have for the speaker.

317 "oath-breaking demons" (pronounded damsi, spelled dam s r i )- TS: Glossed as dam

tslg nyams pa, "corruptors of samaya vows,” damsi are a particular type of demon who has

violated tantric vows. They figure extensively in the Tibetan Buddhist oral literature I have

seen. And they seem to function roughly in the same way demons do in Christian heroic

narratives. That is to say, damst are not simply another scyle of demon in the cosmology.

They are the demons who play the role of villain in Tibetan Buddhist narratives. As far as their

role in plot construction is concerned, the damsi remind me of the fallen angels in Paradise

Lost The same question therefore arises: how can evil demons have any power if the wages

of sin are death?

In this context I asked Tendzin Samphel why damsi are so powerful. Would not the

karma of corrupting samaya vows be death and rebirth in hell rather than deification as a

powerful demon?

His answer was quite interesting and represents, I believe, a Buddhist scholastic

interpretation of the wages of sin. These creatures, damsi, in their previous lives were

tantric practitioners. They took the terrible vows and solemn oaths of tantra called samaya

(tib. dam tsig) and then broke their oaths, either by abusing their powers or by committing

some terrible sin such as attempting to harm their teachers, in the next life, because of the

magical power of their tantric practice, they were reborn as powerful and exalted beings,

kings and sorcerers. But because of their evil karma, they used their power to commit further

sins and to harm the dharma. This created the karma of being reborn in hell realms. And so, in

the second or third life after they have broken their samaya vows, damsi fall into the

especially dreadful hells reserved for tantric vow violators.

The interesting point in TS's explanation is that the particular crimes which are the

proximate cause of their final punishment are the evil deeds they visibly commit in the second

lifetime after their samaya violations. But it was inevitable that they would commit such sms.

because that sinning is the karmic result of having broken vows. So, for example, a certain

tantric disciple might develop an evil temperament and before his death utter a "twisted”

aspiration prayer. He might pray to be reborn as a powerful demon-king who would destroy the

Buddha Dharma. This perverted aspiration prayer is itself a violation of the samaya vow and

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its result w ill be rebirth in hell, but not immediately. Due to the power of the evil disciple's

tantric practice and due to his ability to concentrate his attention, which he learned as he

practiced Buddhist meditation for lifetimes, his aspiration prayer w ill certainly be fulfilled. He

w ill have one lifetime of power and glory before just punishment catches up with him. Just as

the word of a rs1 always comes true in Hindu epics, so the word of a powerful practitioner,

whether for good or evil, comes true in Buddhist epics.

Tendzin Samphei’s comments on the dynamics of this karma were most interesting and

quite lyrical. He said that violators of the oaths of Mah2y2na simply go to hell when they die.

But the tantric practitioners have received abhtseka or empowerment using the mandalas of

tantric deities. They are therefore invested with tremendous power. This power can manifest

either positively or negatively, but it must manifest. So, if a practitioner who has received

empowerments dies, if he has violated vows, his negative karma is too great for him to be

simply reborn as an average person. In order to fu lfill his karma he must be reborn as a

powerful individual capable of performing immense misdeeds which w ill then ripen in

extraordinary hells: "They break something which is very very precious and very high. So

their karma is very big. So they have to fu lfill their negative karma. So they have to take birth

in a strong life so that they can fu lfill their negative karma. Then through that karma they are

born next in hell realms and then they suffer more than ordinary beings. *

318 These nine are the greater enemies of the four cardinal points and the other demons of

the intermediate points, some are blon, ministers, rather than kings.

319 M2ra (Devil): bdud - (skt: tiara), devil- Originally M2ra was the name of the demon

who tried to tempt the historical Buddha to give up his quest for enlightenment. bDud,

however, is also a native Tibetan term for a lower order iife-threatening, disease causing

demon. The term being available at the time when the Buddhist scriptures were translated, it

was used as the translation for m2ra. The bdud in this story, however, are mostly human

beings who have taken up the negative aspirations of M2ra and oppose the Buddha Dharma.

320 Lhotri Tiger Eye: (Iho khri stag mig) TS: This is actually a place name, as if this were

’ Tiger Eye From Lhotri.’ Sa Dam is also a place name. White Tent The'u rang: gur dkar the'u

rangbu- TS: White Tent (Gurkar) is called 'the child of the the'u rang. This implies that he is

a gambler, because the one-legged the'u rang demons are the devils gamblers supplicate in

order to win at cards or dice.

321 Turquoise Peak..: Here begin the demons of the intermediate directions. g.yu rtse 'od

kyi bu - gyurtse is actually the name of a mountain near the Kokonor region, which is

considered in the North, so far as epic geography is concerned. This region figures in "The

History of the Goloks,' a text in the style of oral narrative translated in the next chapter of

this monograph. In theory this is a region which borders the tribal lands of the Kingdom of Ling.

3 22 Earth Lord: sa bdag- earth-lord, a class of local deities associated with the earth.

Earth lords are often the ’ proprietors’ of a region (.bdag po ) See Nebesky Wojkowitz, pp. 2 9 1-

299. Nyen Rawa: snyan ra ba -could mean an enclosure where lovely (snyan ) music is played.

Possible mispelling: If it were gnyan, it could be the ’horns of a nyen deity.'

323 gtlng re zab— re here is more of averse fille r than anything else, gtingre zab

litera lly means ’deep and profound."

32 4 'Great Being, god child, Joyful to Hear,/ Primordially pure, All Good, self-iiberate

them': Notice that at this point Avalokitesvara directly addresses Joyful to Hear (Thopa

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Gawa), who still exists as a potentiality in the breast of Padmasambhava This is the "calling

forth" of Gesar from the thought-1 ineage level, from the mind of Padmasambhava. The

universality of the principle which becomes Gesar is stressed here. He is called All-good (.kun

bzang), that is, Samantabhadra, the primordial buddha of the dharmakaya level in the Nyingma

tradition. The Three Protectors (rigs gsum mgonpo) are the three main bodhlsattvas in

MahSyana and Tantric iconography: Manjusn, Vajrapani, and AvalokiteSvara.

325 "The time has come to fu lfill your sacred vow": This is a standard expression in any

Buddhist supplication, but within the context of the epic narrative it has a specific reference. In

effect, Padmasambhava has already taken a sacred vow, a samaya, to produce a manifestation

on the earthly plane, a nirmSokSya, who w ill complete the taming of the demons threatening

Tibet. This promise is implied in Padma's original failure to complete the taming of the demons

when he firs t arrived in Tibet. Since he did not bind them three times, he still is bound by his

vow to see to their permanent enslavement. Thus there is a pre-existing samaya within

Padmasambhava which AvalokiteSvara can "call forth* when he calls forth Gesar from within

Padmasambhava.

326 This chant follows the iconography of numerous Nyingma litanies: Amitabha, the

Buddha of Compassion, is the dharmakSya. AvalokiteSvara is the sambhogakSya, and

Padmasambhava is the nirmSnakSya Padmasambhava takes numerous forms and has numerous

emanations. Joyful to Hear is one of them, evoked by AvalokiteSvara for this occasion. Joyful

to Hear w ill reincarnate to be Gesar, s till regarded as another aspect of Padmasambhava as far

as tantric metaphysics is concerned.

Mipham Gyatso reflects this icongraphic agenda in the religious practices addressed to

Gesar which he composed. He wrote, for example a daily supplication practice to Gesar (rgyun

'khyer) entitled Spontaneous Buddha Activity: A Supplication and Offering Practice to the Great

Lion Gesar Norbu. its opening stanzas invoke Gesar as an emanation of Padmasambhava:

From the Glorious Mountain, the fear City of the R3ksasas,

Which is the Buddhafield of the Three KSyas, Blazing Lotus Light,

The tumultuous and terrifying ground, blazing with dark red bonfires,

Which is inwardly the citta within the VajraBody—

From the Palace of the wisdom holders and dakin.ls,

0 wisdom k3ya, the eauality of sams3ra and nirvana,

Embodiment of all the universal Victorious Ones, 0 Lake Born One,

your compassion has manifested as the form of illusory wisdom play.

Notice that the word "Gesar" never actually occurs in this chant, only his epithets. The

first actual direct reference to him is the line "Your compassion has manifested as the form of

illusory wisdom play." In other words, he is like a magical illusion conjured up by

Padmasambhava as part of his playful activity.

The same idea of Gesar's three-fold nature occurs mMipham’s Long Werma Lhasang,

"Outwardly, he is the mighty general Norbu Dradul,/ Inwardly, he is Avalokitesvara,/ His

unchanging mind is Lord Padmasambhava." ( The Long Werma Lhasang Called . The Warrior Song

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ofDrala, transl by the Nalanda Translation Committee. (Boulder; private publication, 1979.))

The wording of this liturgy is very much like the epic. For example: "Father Gesar the

king, lha of war,/ At the time when enemies fill the kingdom,/ Lord Dradul, don't be idle, don't

be Idle,/ I put my hope in no other protector but you."

327 gzhan don snying rje... The next five lines are not found in Stein's transcription of the

Ling Woodblock Print, the original publication of the text by Mipham. But they are in the

Chinese and Sikimese editions, which generally seem to be more reliable.

328 White Luminous one Cod Idan dkar), epithet for the mooa

329 "In the limitless sky of your bodhicitta.-*; This stanza shows the most frequently used

extended figure in epic language. "In the sky are stars, constellations, the sun, and the moon,

each of these different kinds of lights, according to its nature, a metaphor for a particular

religious principle. When it speaks of the moon surrounded by the moving stars the idea is that

the moon is brighter when it is surrounded by all these other lights.

330 There is a subtle shift here in the being who is the object of this praise. The first

stanza certainly addresses AvalokiteSvara, with the words the Buddha typically used for

encouragement, "Good, good. Oh son of noble family. (T: legs so legs so, S: sadhu sadhu) But

the second stanza addresses a child who is like the moon surrounded by planets and

constellations. That probably refers to Gesar, for he, as a deity in heaven, w ill be named

Joyful to Hear and this child is addressed with these words: "...hearing you rejoices and

liberates sentient beings." So it seems that the song, in its second stanza turns to address

Joyful to Hear/Gesar. However, since this being is an emanation of Avalokitesvara, they are

practically the same anyway and can logically be addressed as one person in two.

3 3 1 ’ smon lam pha rol phin" - Skt: pranidhSna pSramltS. This is the perfection practiced at

the 9th level or bhumi of the boohisattva path. It is a measure of AvalokiteSvara's degree of

enlightenment, for complete buddhahood is attained just after the bodhisattva passes beyond the

10th level.

332 "the mind samaya of all the tathsgatas": thugs gi dam tshig, the heart or mind samaya,

as in the samayas or vows of body, speech, and mind. Samayas are commitments one makes

as a part of tantric practice. The essence of all tantric commitments is to respect the teacher

and see the world as beyond pure and impure, inherently sacred. Samayas of body are

commitments to do or not do specific physical things— for example, the commitment to keep

one's tantric liturgies secret from the uninitiated. Samayas of speech have to oo with

psychological attitudes and things that one says. Samayas of mind are commitments to cognize

the world according to the wisdom of meditation. Thus, in a sense the "mind samayas of all the

tathagatas" is a state of mind or a connection with the state of mind of all the buddhas. This is

a thing one would do preparatory to requesting empowerment or abhiseka of the buddhas of the

ten directons.

333 "Later, on the holy day... * Here begins the section in which Padmasambhava initiates

the process by which Thopa Gawa is miraculously born (rdzus skyes) as a deity in heaven.

Miraculous birth is a technical term for the method by which gods come into being. Just as

humans and animals are born from wombs, eggs, etc. so gods are "miraculously born." The

entire process of emanating and gathering lights, sounds, and tantric symbols which is depicted

in this passage could be regarded as a technical description of the birth of a deity.

If you think of it that way, it is quite remarkable for its detail. In this case, however,

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tt is a very special deity— a deity who is not Just a long-lived intelligent creature living in an

immaterial realm, but a being who is a manifestation of ultimate truth and will become in his

next incarnation an avatar of such. It is this evolution or devolution, if you w ill, from Reality

to Appearance which is represented by the birth of Thopa Ga.

334 "Heaven of the Thirty-Three": rtsa gsum - short for sum cu rtsa gsum pa, skt:

trSyastrimsa, "The Heaven of the Thirty-three," one of the heavens inhabited by worldly

deities of the Desire Realm, the KSmaloka. CosmologicalIy the text is quite precise and based

on the fact that the "father" of Thopa 6a (Joyful to Hear), that is, the father of Gesar in

heaven, is a worldly deity.

Joyful to Hear is thus literally a combination of absolute principles and worldly deities.

His origins are AmitSbha and the mind of Padmasambhava. But these absolute principles of

emptiness, compassion, and Buddha Activity enter into the divine corpus of a worldly deity in

the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. And by this route Joyful to Hear becomes both a principle of

enlightenment and a manifestation of the worldly deities of Tibetan polytheistic religtoa These

worldly deities are transformed in the process into tantric tutelary deities (yidam ),

Cakrasamvara and Vajrayogini.

335 ' lh a y l sras"- litera lly , ‘son of a god," but this is just the sotric term for a being in

the god realms, in Sanskrit a devaputra.

336 "Opulent Goddess of the Space Element": nam mkha'i dbytngs phyug ma - the goddess of

the element of space. The goddesses of the five elements are the five consorts of the five

primordial buddhas of the Five Buddha Families of the Five Directions.

337 "Horse and Pig join in passionless union...“: This is not meant to be funny. The two

worldly deities have now been transformed by the energy of Padmasambhava into

manifestations of the male and female Buddhist tutelary deities (yidams). Hayagrlva, the

Horse-Headed One, and vajravarShi, the Vajra Sow. The horse-headed buddha represents the

transformation or transmutation of aggression into enl ightenment. It is a form of the buddha

particularly useo in the taming of demons. The Vajra Sow represents the transformation of

passion into enlightenment.

338 "That vajra entered into the top of the head of White Supreme Bliss...“: This paragraph

is a technical description in esoteric terminology of the birth of a god. "...entered into the

space." Space here is mkha‘ dbyings— literally, space-d/iStu, a code term for the private

parts of the goddess, the gsangs ba’i gnas, the secret place of the goddess, wisdom prana: ye

shes rlung- (skt: jnSna-prSna), wisoom wind. In tantric anatomy, wisdom prana is involved in

the complex movement of psychic and biologic energies involved in the production of a 1 iving

embryo from the act of coition, “...the hundred syllable mantra." The process of his birth is

completed with the utterance of the one hundred syllables of the Vajrasattva mantra, a tantric

purification practice. By uttering this mantra Joyful to Hear is declaring that his birth is free

of any worldly stain.

339 gzi brjid (splendor). This term is ofen translated as dignity, confidence, or even

majesty. It is a kind of charisma, almost a light, which supposedly radiates from a being whose

energies are uplifted through spiritual practice. Kings and beings of immense moral force or

great personal power project forth this splenaor and it makes them effective in the world, for

it makes other people see them as imposing and glorious.

340 "He raised up this song which teaches the meaning of cause and fruition..." This song

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by Joyful to Hear/ Gesar presents the Lha Ling’s first complete picture of the political theory

of Mipham. Like many thinkers of the Rls med or Eclectic School of Tibetan Buddhism, Mipham

was fascinated by political theories which were in effect fresh ideas for Tibetan culture in the

19th century.

In this song we see the details of his theory of monarchy as the ideal political system.

Society is constructed of classes or orders of men. Sometimes Mipham presents five orders:

rgyal po or kings.blonpo or ministers, btsanpo or "mighty ones," phyugpo, the rich, and

sde, the commoners, the people. Technically the blon are advisors to the King, but actually

they are often powerful heads of clans, provincial leaders in their own right whose accord the

king must attain for his major decisions to become actions. dBangpo are people who have

power because of the possession of lands, wealth, and principally arms. According to Tendzin

Samphel. they are considered to be people whose power rests on their use of force as much as

their political connections. bTsan po and dbangpo can in certain contexts be considered as

equivalent, in v/hich case "the mighty ones" are in effect the aristocracy. Their wishes also

must be taken into account when the King makes important decisions. The phyug po are rich

men. They are considered to have a special nature because of their wealth. Their wealth is a

sign that they possess an extraordinary accumulation of good karma from actions in previous

lifetimes. Chapter II of the epic describes this ideal hierarchical order as it presents in detail

the social strata of Ling.

The song begins with a traditional sermon on the Four Thoughts Which Turn the Mind.

(See Jamgon Kontrul, The Torch of Certainty , by Judith Hanson, (Boston: Shambhala

Publications, 1977). This contemplation ordinarily is used to motivate the disciple to practice

meditation with greater diligence. However, in this case, it is given a special tw ist arid

becomes the basis for a political message. The Four Thoughts aim to develop motivaton.

Here, on the other hand, the motivational force is directed towards the classes of

society, if a king understands the force of karma, the certainty of death, the difficulty of

finding a precious human rebirth, then, understanding cause and effect, he w ill rule virtuously

and wisely. And the same for the other classes of society— who wiil fulfill their duties

properly if they have a correct perspective on karmic causality.

The horrors of sickness, old-age, and death, the last stages of the twelve nidanas or

causal links, are graphically described. Realizing the impermanence of ordinary human life and

the certainty of suffering should motivate the proper detachment in the high, the middle, and

the low orders of society. Detached from materialistic goals in that way, they w ill perform

the duties of their station properly and w ill thus create an enlightened society.

341 "The Five Wisdoms of the Five KSyas": sku Inga -The five kayas. (TS)The w e ll-

known list of three kayas is sometimes expanded to four and even five in certain tantric

systems, in the Dri medbshagsrgyud, The Tantraof Immaculate Confession, for example, the

two additional kayas are the abhisambhodhikSya and the vajrakSya. In other cases they are the

svabhSvikakSya and the jnanadharmakSya.

342 "The single bindu Dharmak§ya": thig le - (skt: ‘oindu). Literally bindu means something

like "dot" or "drop." This becomes the idea of essence, as if a substance has been reduced to a

single drop which is its essence or nature. Bindu also means semen, for this is a drop of

essence of a being. In this case, according to TS, it means a dot of light, representing the fact

that the dharmakaya is not a thing. It is pure light, not solid matter and it is a dot and does not

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occupy space. This is a typical meaning of bindu in Nytngma visualization practices.

343 drang don (Skt: neyartha) Buddhist hermeneutics divides the sGtras into those of

interpretable meaning (neyartha ) and true meaning (nges don, Skt: nltSrtha ). Those sOtras

which state the ultimate truth directly without need of special acts of interpretation by the

readers are of "true meaning.' Other satras literally express an expedient meaning or useful

message, but are not absolutely true. And so, the reader must interpret the meaning in order

not to be deceived by a view which has limitations and flaws. The literal meaning of drang don

is "pointing meaning." The idea is that these texts, although not ultimately perfectly true,

point to the final experience of the absolute truth or lead to that experience through practice

along the path.

Thus, relative teachings about the relative world are not absolutely true, because the

phenomenal world does not ultimately exist. But since moral teachings about conduct in the

phenomenal world lead to self-purification and ultimately enlightenment, they are good "leading

teachings" and they express the "leading" or interpretable truth.

By identifying this song as an instance of interpretable meaning. Joyful to Hear is

defining the nature of the message Gessr w ill communicate to sentient beings and he is defining

the level at wnich the discourse of the epic will be conducted.

That is to say, Gesar w ill be different from the Buddha in his main message. Where the

Buddha of theMahSyana SGtras concentrates on teaching the unworldly message of the

emptiness of the phenomenal world, the ultimate truth, Gesar's message w ill be about the

proper ordering of society and national politics in an enlightened context, a sort of relative

truth.

As the introductory verses of the chapter say, this is a teaching which is appropriate

for a lesser grade of disciple, the common man— people who cannot see "the space bindu of

DharmakSya," the ultimate buddha who is the nature of mind. As the verse says, ' i f you see it

(the Dharmakaya), buddhahood is delivered in the palm of the hand." But if one were to explain

this to "ignorant sentient beings," it would be difficult for them to understand. And so we

must give them the more phenomenally oriented interpretable meaning, which gives an

enlightened view of the phenomenal world.

344 "eight states of being": Continuing the traditional sermon on motivation. Gesar speaks

of the obstacles to practice, which are two-fold: not being free ( dal ba ) and well-favored

Cbyorpa). The eight states of being mentioned here are the opposite of the eight freedoms or

leisures (dal ba )— the eight conditions of life in which one has an opportunity to hear and

practice the Buddha's teachings: tib: dal ba brgyad) see Tsepak Rigztn, Tibetan-English

Dictionary of Buddhist Terminology, (Darjeeling: Library of Tibetan Works and Archives,

19861, p. 190.

345 "And when you are born in the Central Land, with sense organs whole, with fa ith ,/ Free

from evil actions, inclined to virtue": These are five of the ten endowments with which one is

well-favored— the ten positive qualities or prerequisites which one must possess in order to

be able to seek enlightenment. The list of ten are called the byor ba bcu. the ten endowments.

And so, altogether there are eighteen elements "the precious eight leisures and ten

endowments" with which one is "free and well-favored."

348 "Yama": chi bdag - (skt: Yama) the death lord, the god of death, in North Asian Buddhist

mythology he rules over an under world as a judge who tries newly deceased souls based on the

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record of their previous karma.

347 meteoric iron - Tibetans traditionally believed that lightning was actually the yellow

path described in the sky as a meteor fell to earth. The fused metal found on the ground where

lightning has struck is the meteor itself, which is sky iron fallen to earth.

348 srog dmar - (TS) literally "red life force* - but in Khams po language dmar po (red)

tends to mean "good" or "useful."

349 mngargsum -w h ite suger, brown suger, and honey. (TS) Actually kha 'Jam , which

means literally "soft to the mouth," is here just a synonym for zhlm po or delicious. But in

order to preserve the parallelism with the next line, I have translated it as "soft."

350 This passage is full of Eastern Tibetan colloquialisms. 'Tsho skyong-(TS) Literally,

protecting your life. Here it does not actually mean protecting your life, but rather, protecting

your prosperity, ringdu 'tso ba means a long life, but we also have the question about your

condition which is 'skyed rang gi 'tso ba gang'dra yod red?' — how’syour I ife?'" Translated

here as "livelihood." Actually, according to TS 'tsho ba is food: ‘ tso bangan ngan/gos lhags

skyob:(advice given to yogins about the proper way of living)— "humble food and clothes that

protect from the wind." ngan ngan means simple food that is just enough to keep you alive.

¡hagspa is wind. So tso ba is used for food.

3 5 1 kha rgyab mi sos - (TS) There is an expression, 'kha la sas, rgyab la gos":" feed your

face and clothe your back."

352 We have just finished a general treatment of the suffering which comes from

attachment to your position in society. Now a long, remarkable sermon on the suffering which

comes from different kinds of illness in this life. Of course, the underlying argument, as ever,

is that ordinary human life without enlightenment, is so painful that it is not worth living.

Thus, one should contemplate, for example, the terrible suffering guaranteed us by the

inevitability of sickness, and contemplating this, abandon worldly attachments.

353 khyog in Gantok edition; chags in Stein, khyag in the Gansu Edition, ts chooses khyog.

354 "long fatal illness": gcong chen nad -(TS ) There are two kinds of fatal illnesses. The

first is chiba'i nad, a sickness unto death. In that case, you get sick and die quickly. But then

there is gcong chen nad, a great fatal illness, that is, a long fatal illness. They come because

people have evil karma to fu lfill from a previous lifetime and cannot die until it is brought to

fruition in suffering before dying. The long illnesses produce bedsores, one becomes hyper­

sensitive, the body is weak, and the mind depressed. Tibetans often pray to avoid this kind of

i llness: chi ka nad gcong ‘dug nal mi myong ba / chi tsha ngan song gi sdug ngal mi myong ba.

"in this life to avoid the suffering of a long fatal illness and after death to avoid the suffering of

the lower realms."

355 khyugre bro - (TS): khyug is to vomit and — re bro is to be on the point of vomiting.

356 "The sleep guardian": gnyidsrung grogs— (TS) Tibetans believe that it is unhealthy

to sleep during the day if you are ill. Sleeping in the day causes fever. And so people take turns

sitting by the sick Derson keeping him awake. They even fashion little devices to keep the sick

person awake by prodding him.

357 a tsa - sound a person makes when they are burned. Ana, short for Ana Ana - sound

one makes when hurt or wounded.

358 Literally, "the time of a aay and a night does not pass."— Time moves so slowly that

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it seems to take forever for one day to pass.

359 "The divinations mislead, the incantations no longer work*: The divinations are false—

lit. (.rten 'brel log p a ) "the signs are reversed." (TS) This means that the omens created by a

divination become untrustworthy. The theory is that a person has a certain amount of karma

for life. When that karma is exhausted, the person w ill die, no matter what magical

interventions are employed. Furthermore, the signs are no longer reliable when you have no

more karma to live. The passage mentions mo and phyva. no are divinations using signs or

omens. Phyva are ceremonies related to one's luck and success. But there are also phyva

which are ceremonies to reverse a tendancy, for example, to call back one's departed life force

or to avert sickness. When one's karma of good health is exhausted, the reversal ceremonies

do not work and the signs of divinations are unreliable.

Most treatments of phyva in Western languages deal with the term phyva as a

referring to articles and deities involved in these ceremonies. For example, R.A. Stein, Tibetan

Civilization, trans. by J £ . Driver, (Stanford. University Press: 1972), pp. 2 1 1 and 221. For

this kind of usage see Nebesky Wojkowitz p. 212.

360 Obscure sentence, rib ma te, which means literally, "this fence" does not seem to fit

with the meaning.

361 "it is too late for virtuous roots': (TS) 'Virtuous roots* means here the positive karma

created by doing good deeds and performing religious ceremonies. The treasury of good karma

generated this way is an exhaustible resource. If you have already begun to die, it is too late to

hope that you can generate any further good merit or positive karma to keep you from dying, it

is too late to plant further virtuous roots that w ill improve your lot. The same is true for

religious practices others might perform on your behalf at this time.

362 ’help in the forty-nine days': zhe dgu'i re ba - literally, "hope for the forty-nine."

'Forty-nine" refers to the length of time an individual spends in the intermediate state (.bardo)

between death and rebirth. Tibetan Buddhists believe that if relatives and loved ones pray and

make offerings to the Three Jewels during the forty-nine days of the bardo then the departed's

rebirth w ill be improved.

363 'Examining the patient is like poking a stone': (TS) A Tibetan medical examination is

performed by feeling the patient's body, but on the day of death you might as well be rubbing a

stone.

364 'Averting ceremonies': gto bcos - Averting ceremonies, a class of ceremonies of

native Tibetan religion which aim to prevent death. Includes gto - a ceremony to protect

against evil forces, mdos - an offering ceremony in which barley flour representations of

animals are made to appease spirits, glud- ransom ceremonies in which representations of the

person under attack are presented to malevolent spirits as replacements for the person, and

g.yas, another kind of offering ceremony. See Tucci, 1970 pp. 176-177.

365 'aura of merit": bsodnams dpal - (TS) like dbang thang and rlungrta, this means a

kind of aura of energy which is developed around and through the healthy body/mind complex of

an individual. When you are sick or weak, the bsodnams dpal lessens ( literally 'faces down':

bsodnams dpal kha thur. ) TS remarks that, like rlungrta or'windhorse,' this concept is

related to astrology, when your horoscope indicates the presence of negative forces, it lowers

your aura of merit, corrupts your windhorse: *bsod nams dpal kha thur, rlung rta chags pa“—

"your aura of merit turns down, your windhorse is corrupted."

333

TS remarks further that, although divinations not working, astrological signs showing

negative influences, loss of personal energy, etc. are separate signs, at the time of death they

are all considered by Buddhists as based on a common phenomenon— the exhaustion of good

merit, which is the basis for death. He compares the merit to a house used as collateral for a

bank loan. Without the house, you may go to the bank, but since there is no collateral the bank

officers will not give you the loaa

366 Extremely obscure passage. In Stein the firs t two words are erased: '. khags rog

red.’ there is no more food. Other additions were corrected to so nam ser kha gas rogs

red, which makes no sense neither. Kha gas rogs is probably a misreading for khags rog.

367 ’ The castle of the wargods is turned away": dgra lha bse mkharphyir log - the temple

of the wargods is turned away. Wargods, pronounced dralha, are, among other things, tiny

energetic beings who perch on .he body of the warrior and make him strong. Wargod castles or

temples are tiny shrines to the dralha (.dgra bla or lha) or wargods. There are visualization

practices in which places on the body which the wargods are to bless are pictured as little

castles inhabited by wargods. The expression "the castle of the wargods is turned away’ thus

means that your wargods have deserted your body/mind complex and le ft you unblessed,

vulnerable.

This happens at the time of death, when all the positive energies organized around the

body depart, including the protecting wargods. For the warrior there are practices which

serve to increase one's windhorse, raise one's field of power, and attract the wargods. A

person completely invested with these elements would be completely healthy. And so, at death

these all are scattered and drain away.

368 dgra rdzong rang srog mnar rdzas red - obscure. It may mean that at the time of

death, the fortress of wargods you have created in your body to protect against the attacks of

negative forces turns against you and becomes a threat to your life. But this is a strange idea.

(TS)

We now have a remarkable description of the different ways that people are buried in

Tibet. Some are placed in graves, some are bound tightly in sheets and then buried, others are

burned, others are thrown on barren rocks, cut up into pieces, and fed to vultures. Alexander

Macdonald points out that it leaves out one method of burial: being thrown into rivers.

369 pho rgoddpa'snying 'dzoms le de. le de is missing from Stein edition. Literally, "the

gathered [dualities) of the brave heart of the champion."

370 "inner stores": phugzas- (TS) inner stores, long-term provisions. In Khampa dialect

the most inward room where long term storage of food stuff (zas) is kept is the phug ma, the

most inward room, the furthest room. When food is stored for the winter, there is always an

emergency store in the furthest room. It is held for a last resort, the last stores to be eaten.

By extension phugzas are anything stored away and the object of the greatest attachment,

such as gold and precious gems— things with which the stingy would never part.

371 "the wooden stake of attachment driven into the ground": zhe chags khri sa'i rtod

phurred - Literally," attachment, the stake driven into the ground." (TS) attachment to the

things of this life interrupts the process of rebirth and, like a stake driven into the ground, the

deceased person, instead of journeying on to the next rebirth, remains as a ghost.

372 mi tshe ‘khrulpa'i zas gos de -L iterally , "the food and clothes that confuse human life."

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373 the six attributes of a warrior and the six accomplishments of the mother's and aunts:

dpa' drug - Six attributes of a w arrior (TS: arrow, sword, spear, etc.). stag zhar - 1 it. "tiger

in its prime"— expression for brave, vigorous youths.

(TS) The perfect man and woman m the epic period possessed six qualities— for the

men, perfection in the six attributes of a warrior, for the women perfection in the six

knowledges(2hes 'drug) or accomplishments: how to look after yaks, how to make butter,

cooking, hospitality, etc.

374 skyi 'dong - obscure. (TS) Perhaps means "chamal ground so scarey that the skin

becomes numb."

375 Here Joyful to Hear speaks as a god, a deva, a lha, an inhabitant of the sixth of the Six

Realms, the Realm of the Gods. Their weakness is sel'-indulgence in pure pleasure and comfort.

They are so unfettered and free from physical problems, that they have trouble concentrating

their minds.

376 There follows a traditional list of the signs that occur to gods when they are about to

die and reenter the round of rebirth. The self-existing luminosity of their bodies fades, they

become uncomfortable on their thrones, develop bad odour, and their garlands wither. The

other gods, not able to stand the thought of the end of such a long-lived being, shrink away. The

agony of a god when he or she dies is terrible.

377 "Regret is just a cause for further suffering": (TS) For ordinary people the force of

regret leads to confession of sins. This act of confession leads to actions which favor religion

and so to the eventual lessening of suffering as one becomes free of negative karma. Thus, for

ordinary people regret ordinarily leads to a iessening of suffering.

But when the gods die, their regret does not improve their karma. By regret they

simply increase their own suffering. They have led a dissolute life of self-indulgence in Heaven

and failed all that time to practice religion. Now it is too late to regret their laziness.

378 chus ma dkrug- (T5) chus (water) in this case means something like "planning."

Literally this says something like, "do not stir up the waters."

379 "Rich men, offer and give most generously": phyugpos mchod dang sbyin gtong gyls -

interesting use of the honorific, mchod is the word "offering" and is used to indicate

generosity directed towards those of a higher station, such as the Buddhas and bodhisattvas.

sbym means generosity and indicates charity to those of lower station. So there is the

expression, "yar mchod mar sbyin* — "offer to the higher, give to the lower."

380 "Ordinary people, do prostrations, circumambulations, and Mams": Three devotional

practices traditionally recommended to Tibetan lay people: prostrations to the Three Jewels,

Circumambulations of sacred sites such as stupas and holy mountains, and repetitions of the

mantra of AvalokiteSvara, Om tlani Padme Hum.

381 "If you don't understand the song, I won't repeat it anyway": ma go glu la 'brel ba med

- Standard last line of a song. Literally, "if you don't understand, there's no connection between

us." But Tendzin Samphel says that this implies that the connection is broken and I won't sing it

again just because you didn't understand it the first time. There is an expression blu la gdab

byor : repeat the song, if there is a relation, you can ask the song to be repeated, but if there

is none, you may not.

This closing Iine is a sign that this is a song from an oral epic. The song is actually,

however, a sort of hybrid, combining the style of epic song and the style of a formal sermon.

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382 "Then, knowing that the time had come to grant empowerment (abhiseka)...": It is

very unlikely that this portion of the text is of oral provenance. It reflects a detailed and

sophisticated knowledge of Tantric liturgies of initiation. The language of the empowerment

songs which follow is simple and fairly easy to understand. But it implies some knowledge of

these ceremonies and is probably not comprehensible except in the most general way to the

average T ibetan peasant.

The songs also include citations from Indian tantras and sotras, marking a literary and

non-oral source for some of the epic, in particular, there is systematic reference to the

tlanjusrl NSma Samgltl, probably the most important single scripture participating in the

hermeneutics of tantric liturgical composition. (For a translation and commentary see

Chanting the Names of tlanjusrl. The tlanjusrl NSma-Samglti, translated and annotated by Alex

Wayman, (Boston: Shambhala, 1985) The language is not sgrung yig, epic language, but

classical Tibetan. As we see in the Cosmology Chapter, the presence of this previous text

invites a consideration of the commentaries on the ttanjuir! NSma, which reflect a special

metaphysical agenda underlying this hyperliterate version of the epic.

The firs t eight lines of the song are particularly complex and carefully phrased. They

represent a request to the Three Kayas of the Five Buddha Families to grant empowerment to

the specific nirmSnakSya who w ill be Gesar, so that he may perform salvational activities on

the Earth.

38 3 'fru ition of the truth’: TS's interpretation: bden ‘bras - the fruition of truth. The

aim of this song is to suppl icate the spirit of Gesar to begin the process of manifesting. He is

supplicated from the ultimate truth, namely the principle of Buddehahood, the Buddhas of the

five directions. He develops gradually from this ultimate principle to a manifestation of the

truth in the relative plane as a deity and then as a human. Thus, he is the fruition of the truth.

38 4 There is a typographical convention among some Tibetan translators that mantras

chanted in liturgies are given m all caps. This convention will be followed in the rest of the

chapter, which I interpret as a bardic narration of a single lenghty liturgical performance.

38 5 Each of the Five Buddhas represents the transmutation of one of the Five poisons into

one of the Five Wisdoms. These poisons and wisdoms will be mentioned in the text as each of

the buddha families gives initiatioa

3 8 6 The five female buddhas, consorts of the Buddhas of the Five Families. The Five male

buddhas represent the Five Wisdoms, the subject pole of cognition. The Five female buddhas,

since they represent the Five Elements, are the phenomenal world, or the object pole of the

cogntive act. When they are represented embracing in the famous yab yum posture, this

represents the union of the inner mind with the outer objects.

'chung ba Inga - the five elements: ‘byung ba yum Inga— the mothers of the five

elements: Sky is Kun tu bzang mo, earth into Sangs rgyas che ma, water into hamaki, fire is

Na bza' dkar mo, and wind is Dam tshlg ‘grcl ma

3 8 7 *1 invoke the the mind stream of the Buddhas from unborn space.

The Five Elements purified are the Five Goddesses.

From unceasing space arise for the benefit of beings.'

The epithets 'unborn' and "unceasing" are significant in Tantric liturgical poetry. They are

two of the traditional three qualities of the ultimate nature: unborn, non-dwelling, and

unceasing— the opposites of arising, dwelling and cessation— the three moments of

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phenomenal becoming.

(TS) In thts schema 'unborn' represents absolute emptiness and "unceasing" represents

its manifestation. The unborn Five Buddhas are the dharmakaya level of Buddhahood and the

unceasing or unobstructed Five Goddesses, female Buddhas, are here the sambhogakaya level.

Beings on these two levels of reality Join with lower beings to form the Nyingma

concept of The Three Lineages. The dharmakaya Buddhas dwell on the highest level. When they

communicate to the next level of manifestation, they are called the 'thought lineage" or "mind

stream" idgongs rgyud). This lineage exists when the dharmakaya Buddhas transmit the

teaching in an inconceivable manner to the sambhogakaya Buddhas, who can be seen in their

glorious form only by IOth Bhumi bodhisattvas. In the Nyingma schema of the Three Lineages,

it is the 10th Bhumi Bodhisattvas, dwelling on the intermediate plane of the Sign Lineage ibrda'

rgyud) who receive the teachings and pass them on to beings in the human realm, who initiate

the third lineage, the Hearing Lineage (snyan brgyud). So this opening section of the verses

which accompany the empowerment already indicate the descent of the absolute into form.

388 "Appears the self-existing form of wisdom and compassion": In other words, Gesar,

who is the union of emptiness and compassion, or the union of the ultimate Buddha Mino with its

manifestation in Buddha Activity. He is the manifestation of Buddha intentional ity in Buddha

Activity.

(TS) As is signaled in the next verse, this is the nirmSnakSya level, completing the

devolution of the principle which w ill become Gesar through the Three K3yas.

389 de nl rang gsal don gy1 glu - Two possible meanings: the meaningful song of self­

luminosity, that is the self-appearance of Gesar or the song of the meaning of self-luminosity,

that is, the nature of self-existing buddhahood, the three k3yas.

390 "Even if the medicine is fragrant, shining, and wholesome": dri mdangs bzang - the

ways Tibetan medicine is judged is by its odor, *ts color, and its taste. The pills often shine

with reflective bits that are sprinkled onto the surface.

3 9 1 Obscure passage. In Stein's edition this line had so many blurs and lacunae as to be

almost entirely unreadable. Later editors restored it to so nam medpa'i zhing sa la. Samten

Karmay reads this as so nam medpa- an unprepared field. If a field ¡s no-: periodically allowed

to lay fallow for a year, it w ill cease to produce.

392 Gantok edition has nams, ail others nas, which is unqiestionably correct.

393 Here begins the Vase (bum ) portion of a traditional empowerment ceremony.

Technically, an abhiseka is a coronation ceremony used to turn an ordinary man into a king. It

has been adapted to the tantric function of ceremonially turning an ordinary person into a

buddha. In order to perform the sophisticated tantric ritual practices called sSdhanas one must

receive an abhiseka that empowers one to do practices devoted to the particular buddha

mentioned in the ritual. Usually sadhanas are devoted to the iconographicaily flamboyant

tutelary deities such as Vajrasattva, Vajrayogini, or Hayagriva. This empowerment, however,

is a sort of generic abhiseka, turning Joyful to Hear into the five primordial buddhas of the Five

Buddha families. It thus completes the formation of the two-naturcd buddhist/native Tibetan

deity Joyful to Hear, who w ill become Gesar of Ling when he takes incarnation as a human

being.

39 4 Vairocana represents the transmutation of ignorance into wisdom.

337

395 'the body blessings of the Sugatas': In empowerment ceremonies a student may

receive five basic blessings from the Buddhas and the guru: the blessings of body, speech,

mind, quality, and action.

396 The Eight-spoked Wheel In tantra is the symbol of vairocana's family in the Five

Families. Each family has a name and direction. The direction of vairocana's family is Center

in the Mahamudra tantras and East in the tantras of the Old School, it is called the ‘ Buddha

Family.' Here the Wheel as a 'vessel' or 'support"(rten ) for Vairocana, sings this song

preparatory to confirming on Joyful to Hear empowerment with the wisdom of Vairocana.

397 Ignorance is transmuted into the Wisdom of Dharmadhatu— the wisdom of A ll—

encompasing Space.

398 'You are the king who possesses various magical transformations': sgyu 'phrul -

magical transformations, the ability to assume a number of different appearances. Also a

famous characteristic of Padmasambhava. who possesses eight special aspects which are

'transformations.'

(TS) These verses are borrowed from the Arya Manjusrl nSma samgita (phags pa 'jam

dpal gyi mtshan yang dag par orjod ). (In Kha ton gees btus, p. 44 ) Dudjom Rinpoche in his oral

commentaries on his History of the Dharma, when he lectured about the predictions that

Padmasambhava would arise and come to Tibet, quoted these verses as a prediction in the

Manjusrl Tantra that 6uru Rinpoche would come to Tibet: dpal Idan sangs rgyaspadma skyes/

kun mkhyen ye shes mdzod 'dzin pa /rgyal po sgyu phrul na tshogs 'chang .* You w ill be born

a lotus of the glorious Buddha./ You w ill hold the treasury of omniscient wisdom./ You w ill be

the king who holds various magical transformations.' Now these verses are being used to

prophesy the coming of Gesar.

399 ‘You dispel delusions from deluded minds': From another section of ‘phags pa'Jam

dpal gyi m tshan yang dag par 'brjodpa (p. 18 ): “'mchod pa chen po gti mug che/ gtl mug bio ste

gtl mug sei: This is the first of a series of quotations from the offering section of the hlanjusrl

NSma. These lines are often used in the empowerment liturgies— in my experience usually in

the section in which the Vajra Master is supplicated to grant empowerment.

400 mi bsal bgyad 'phrul mi smra skyo - This translation is just a guess. The Tibetan

sentence seems to make no sense.

401 'Looks great when he wrathfully executes the law": rgyal khrlms btsan drag che zhan

'dra - literally, "Seems to be great when he is mighty and terrible in the temporal law '— the

meaning being that he is rigorous and harsh in his courts of justice, punishing criminals

harshly, inflicting fierce penalties at w ill.

402 "Throws his karma m the air, I ike a child throws a stone": (TS) rgyu 'bras gnam la rdo

'phen 'dra - Literally, "his cause and effect are like flinging stones in the air." The idea is that,

since he does not have maitri, or loving kindness, this ruler has no respect for the laws of

cause and effect. Therefore, even tnough he is harsh in the administration of justice, he plants

for himself unwholesome karmic seeds that w ill ripen in unhappiness. His actions seem

righteous and systematic, but from the point of view of the science of cause and effect, they

are aimless actions, like throwing a stone in the air.

403 "Even though he is learned and seems widely read": mthongrgya - Literally, "vast

seeing,' meaning that in the discipline of the three learnings, hearing, contemplating, and

meditating ( thos, bsam, sgom ), he has seen many bocks.

338

404 "His explanations are like a mist of spit': mchil ma'l rlangspo - 'the vapor of spit.'

(TS) Since the student has no religious commitments, his explanations are senseless. There

are numerous expressions for the senselessness of worldly existence that use expressions like

this: 'khorba 'chit ma'i thal ba bzhin phorba - 'Abandon cyclic existence like the dust of spit in

the a ir,' or rgyal srid mchil ba'I thal ba bzhin phor has , ’having abandoned his royal realm like

the dust of spit.'

405 bdeba labkodpa- (TS) Literally, establish in bliss, but actually just an expression for

being happy.

406 Strangely, we now begin the empowerment of the Vajra Family of the Five Families of

the Buddhas. We should have had next the Lotus Family, the family which would represent the

empowerment of speech. But this is skipped in all texts and moved to the end, perhaps because

Amitabha is the Lord Buddha who initiated the Gesar project and Gesar is in a sense an

emanation of him and his Buddha Family, the Lotus Family.

407 The sermon emphasizes aggression among the five poisons of passion, aggression,

ignorance, pride, and Jealousy. In the abhiseka of the vajra Family disease aggression is

transformed into the wisdom of Aksobhya Buddha, which is the wisdom of discrimination.

408 One of the four buddha activities of an enlightened being: pacifying, taming, enriching,

and destroying. As the activity manifestation of the buddha principle, Gesar should be

particularly invested with these four qualities.

409 Ratnasambhava literally means 'Born from a Jewel.' This is the Buddha of the Ratna

or Jewel Family. It represents the enlightened side of the notion of wealth. Thus, in this

portion of the empowerment the disciple is dressed in precious Jewels and the gorgeous raiment

of an Indian king. This same outfit is precisely what the 'great being' (Mahasattva)

bodhisattvas wear— the silks and jewels of a king.

410 '...adorned by the bodhisattvas...'— TS insists that although there is no instrumental

marker on the word bodhisattva, nevertheless, this is the meaning of this passage. The Gansu

edition has phyogs(direction) for sa (level), in the expression sa bcu'f byang chub semsdpa:

This would give the reading 'bodhisattvas of the ten directions, "instead of 'bodhisattvas of the

ten levels.' TS argues the Stein text must be right (in saying 'directions”), because only

bodhisattvas on the ten bhumis would oe elevated enough to witness the god realm where this

particular abhiseka is being given. 'Bodhisattvas of the ten directions' is thus too inclusive.,

mentioning as it does bodhisattvas who have not yet attained the stages of the bhumis or levels.

411 'And the great source of Jewel Wisdom, Ratnasambhava”: rin chen 'bhyung gnas -

untranslatable pun for the name Ratnasambhava, which means ’Born from a Jewel.”

This passage can be interpreted in many different ways, since it is grammatically just

a string of nouns in apposition. T5 interprets it so that fhe accumulation of merit is the source

of the Wisdom of this Buddha family. Indeed the concept of accumulation is central to the notion

of the Jewel Family in general, since this is the family of the Buddha which emphasizes an

enlightened approach to wealth and the gathering of wealth.

412 Taming, another of the four Buddha Activities.

413 'May the auspiciousness of.... be present"— this formula usually occurs at the end of

a practice and is a ceremonial celebration of the merit and good fortune that must have been

created by the practice session. Since it is a celebration, it is associated with a sense of

richness and fits in the Jewel Family portion of the empowerment.

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414 “the Sixty Limbs of Speech and Singing': Among the major and minor marks of a

Buddha, the qualities of his speech.

415 Stein has HRlUH, a non-existent mantra. He speculates that this may be HOM HRi. If

this were HOM HRlH, it might be the mantras of male and female protectors. But TS argues it

is Just amispelling of HRlH. in theTantras of the Old School the seed syllables of the five

Buddha families are OM AH HOM SVA HA. In the Old Translation School the seed syllables are

OM HOM TRAM HRlH and AH.

416 Another quote from the ManJuir! NSma. Chapter V, verse 6, Wayman pp. 68-69.

4 l 7 gsung gi dbang - Reading the Manjuiri N3ma, TS explains as 'gsung gl dbang phyug" -

not the abhiseka of Speech, but the Lord of Speech.

418 'From Ling, the Country of Desire": mthong smon gllng - (TS JLiterally, "seeing-

one-wishes Ling." Ling is so lovely that if a person but once sees this country, he will

immediately wish or aspire to be reborn there.

419 "The Black Maras and the Golden Hor": (TS): In the epic there are two groups of

Horpas which must be subjugated by Gesar. the White Tent Horpas (gur dkar hor) and the Gold

Tent Horpas (gur gser h o r ). These are merely examples of the many nations who need to be

tamed.

420 dbang gi phrin las - short for dbang bdus gi phrin las, magnietizing, another of the four

Buddha Activities or Four Karmas.

421 'secret center" - euphemism for the area of the genitals of the deity.

422 Since the buddha family of the Karma Family is the lord of all activity, all the four

Buddha Activities fall to him.

423 The Buddha Family of Amoghasiddhi (All-Accomplishing 5 1s the family of action or the

Karma Family.

424 'The greater voice of the Great Wrathful One": kho ba chen po sgra che ba - Manjusrl

NSma samgiti: mchod pa chen po khro ba che/ kho ba chen po dgra che b a , "great offering.

Great Wrathful One,/ The voice of the Great Wrathful One. the Great Enemy." Note the

homonyms dgra and sgra, "enemy" and "voice." The Manjusrl NSma says "great enemy." This

becomes in the epic "great voice." Chapter v, line 4, Wayman p.69.

425 "Conquers (or destroys) the great mountain of the Phenomenal world": stobs chen pha

rol gnon pa po/ srid pa'i r i bo chen po 'joms -quotation from Manjusrl NSma samgiti, Chapter V,

verse 12, p. 72.

426 "The gurus who is full of attachment to rich offerings": dkor- often refers to the

food and wealth offered to the Three Jewels by the faithful, it is considered a typical fault of

priests who desire to collect these offerings as personal wealth.

427 tha snad tshig - Literally "conventional words," but here the sense is of words with no

deep sense, just consensual meaning, in other words, just words, no meaning— all talk and no

personal realization or trace of spiritual accomplishment.

428 "If karma does not strike him in the face,/ Then it w ill ripen as agony for the kingdom

and people": (TS) rg yu 'gras rang thog ma babs na - Literally, "if cause and effect do not land

direclty on his own head..." The idea is that if the ruler is evil, the results of his evil actions

w ill cause him harm. If this harm does not remove him from power or convert him to the good,

then nothing will stop him and he can continue to cause harm to his subjects.

340

429 “Like the callow youth, full of himself, the Tiger of the East* -.stag shar- TS: Tiger of

the East, an expression for a healthy young man in his athletic prime. A young brave, proud of

his physical prowess and courage in battle, always ready to fight to prove himself. I suggested

to TS the translation “young punk.“ He said, “something like that.“ Goes with dman shar or

smart shar, proud young woman, “young princess.“

430 sna ma bcag - Literally, hit his nose. But the idea is to knock him out in a fight.

431 rang snang - TS: snang ba mgo po - proud, stuck-up.

432 mu ges bio rgyag ma byung ba - uncertain translation. What does bio rgyag mean?

Macdonald suggests “depressed." in which case this line would be literally, “If her mind is not

depressed by famine,...“

433 nags sems - TS: The colloquial connotations are of somebody who is crude, rude,

rough, and tough not just a person with an obscured mind, but w ith an uncultivated,

untrained, savage mind.

434 The five aggregates are form, feeling, perception, concept, and consciousness. These

are the five psycho-physical constituents of ego. Each of the five Vase Abhisekas purifies one

of the five aggregates, transforming it into one of the five wisdoms. Therefore this verse is a

summary of the effects of the empowerment, for by destroying the five aggregates one

destroys ego-clinging, and brings out the five wisdoms.

435 Actually, the five empowerments just depicted were only five aspects of the first of

the four empowerments in a full coronation ceremony. They make up the five-fold vase

abhiseka. The other three empowerments were not represented here, although this sentence

may mean that the Buddhas of the Five Families continued and performed the full ceremony.

436 This is the typical colophon which ends any book or chapter— 'Chapter on the Abhiseka

and the Chapter on the Birth by Magical Transformation, known as 'Blessings Flaming

Continuously Like a Stream.* The actual title of the chapter is “Blessings Flaming Continuously

Like a Stream.“ The rest of the words are a description of the chapter. So in Western printing

conventions, this colophon would be given this way: Blessings Flaming Continuously Like a

Stream: the abhiseka and the birth by magical transformation.

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Chapter V

The Histo ry of the Goloks- - a s tudy in E as t T ibe tan N a r ra t iveMachinery

The fo l low ing t r a n s la t io n is a s to ry to ld in the ( mGo log )

Golok d i a l e c t and i n s e r t e d by a g r e a t 19th c e n tu r y m a s t e r of

m ed i t a t i o n , Do Khyen tse Yeshe Dorje (mDo mKhyen b r t s e Ye s h e s rDo

r je ) , into his autobiography. In theory i t is a h i s t o r y of the f am i ly

l ineage of Do Khyentse , who is a r e in c a rn a t io n of the g r e a t Ati

t e a c h e r , poet, ph i losopher , and l ib ra r ian J i g m e Lingpa ( 'J igs med

gLing pa). But a c tu a l ly , it is the fabu lous s to r y of the deve lopm ent

of h is t r ibe , the Golok, f rom the i r magica l o r ig in s to the b i r th of Do

Khyentse.

In t h i s in t ro d u c t io n to the t r a n s l a t i o n I w i l l argue tha t ,

a l though i t is w r i t t e n in a d ia lec t of T ibe tan and p r e t e n d s to be a

m ere t r iba l ch ron ic le , i t i s ac tual ly a p a r t of t h e t ex tua l t r a d i t i o n of

the Mipham Gesar. I have included i t in th i s monograph in o rd e r to

i l l u s t r a t e the d im e n s io n s of the epic involved w i t h folk r e l ig ion and

t r iba l n a r r a t iv e t r a d i t i o n s . One of Do Khyentse 's p o in t s in t e l l in g

The His to ry of the Golok is to show the na tu ra l r e l a t i o n s h ip which

e x i s t s b e tw e e n the o r ig in s of the Golok t r ib e and r e l ig ious wor ld of

the Gesar Epic. In t h i s s t o ry we wil l see divine c h a r a c t e r s f rom the

Mipham Gesar a c t i n g out h i s to r ica l e v e n t s in t h e pu t a t i v e ly non-

f i c t iona l wor ld and the sacred dimens ion of the epic wi l l be seen

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j u s t as the normal r e l ig ion of the e thn ic m in o r i t i e s of E a s te rn Tibet.

We begin w i t h the s to ry of a t e m p o ra r y m ar r i ag e b e tw e e n the

daugh te r of the god Nyenchen Thanglha (gnyan chert thang lha )437 and

a p a r t i cu la r ly bungl ing human being, the f i r s t Golok. The n a r r a t i v e

s t y l e is pi thy, f l u e n t , and ex t rem ely humorous. The ch ron ic le

con t inues through h i s de scendan ts unt i l we reach the p a r e n t s of

J igmê-Lingpa , a p rev ious incarna t ion of Do Khyentse Yeshe Dorje.

This h i s t o ry w a s drawn to my a t t e n t i o n by Tendzin Samphel

because of i t s g r e a t s i m i l a r i t y to s e v e ra l non-Buddhis t ic , or pe rhaps

I should say l e s s - B u d d h i s t i c , v e r s i o n s of the beginning of the Gesar

Epic. It s e e m s t h a t all v e rs ions of Gesar begin w i th the

p r e s e n t a t i o n of som e kind of divine w a r b e tw e e n Padm asam bhava

and a group of demon kings. In the Buddhist ve r s io n s I have read, the

s to ry of t h i s w a r evokes the m ot i f of the "enemies of the four

d i rec t ions" and Buddhis t t a n t r i c t a l e s of the taming of Hindu demons.

This plo t m o t i f h a s a l ready been d i scussed .

The v e r s io n s of the epic which a re no t a s l i t e r a l l y involved

w i t h a Buddhist t h e o c r a t i c agenda o f t e n begin w i th an o th e r kind of

s t o r y the s t o r y of a w a r b e tw ee n the black demons and the

w h i t e gods. For example , there is F rancke 's Ladakhi v e r s ion of the

G esar , d i s c u s se d in the in t roduc t ion to t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . That

Ladakhi Gesar b e g ins w i th a cosm ic b a t t l e be tw ee n a g ian t w h i t e

yak and a g ian t b lack yak. The w h i t e yak is a c tu a l ly Indra, the king

of the gods. The black yak is none o t h e r than the king of the bdud,

the mâras, or devi ls . The human hero of the s to ry i n t e rv e n e s in the

b a t t l e b e tw een t h e s e two forces of good and evil on the s ide of the

whi te . He k i l l s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of the demons and is r ewarded .

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Par t of his r e w a r d is t h a t h i s t r ib e is in troduced to a god. This god

p r o m is e s to take b i r th as a human among the peop le of the t r i b e and

he wil l come to be the king of Ling. From t h i s p o in t on we e n t e r the

t r a d i t io n a l s t o ry of the b i r th of Gesar.

The sam e s t o r y is found in the beginning of a h a n d - w r i t t e n

Gesar epic brought back from Tibe t by Alexandra David-Neel . This

t e x t r e s i d e s in the a t the C en t re s D'Études T ib é ta in es . The P a r i s i an

s c h o la r s chose the David-Neel ve rs ion p a r t ly b e c a u s e t h i s is a

ve rs ion of Gesar which s e e m s r e l a t i v e ly non-Buddhist ic . Although

they a re not being c o m p le te ly a c c u r a t e to say t h i s , some T ibe tans

would cal l t h i s ve rs ion , as we l l as Francke 's Ladakhi one, "Bonpo

Gesars .“ W es te rn s c h o l a r s who theo r i ze a "p re-Buddhis t" sou rc e of

the G esar , t r e a s u r e t h e s e ve rs ions , hoping t h a t they show the core

of the ep ic w i t h o u t i t s "Buddhist veneer." Francke , as I have said,

w a s one of the founders of th i s theory. He saw th e Ladakhi Gesar as

a p o ss ib le model fo r l a t e r ve rs ions. You could say , using the c u r r e n t

t e rm ino logy of cu l tu ra l s t u d i e s , t h a t Buddhism w nen i t cam e to

T ibe t “co lon ized the d iscourse" of na t ive T ibe tan re l ig ion and

t r a n s fo r m e d the epic i t s e l f so t h a t i t now p r o j e c t e d a Buddhis t

s e n se of cu l tu ra l iden t i ty . 438 "The History of the Golck," a s I am

cal l ing it, s h o w s the d i f f i c u l ty w i t h t h i s theory, f o r it is obviously

of the type of the s o - c a l l e d Bonpo Gesars, but i t i s w r i t t e n by an

i m p o r t a n t Buddhist l am a — a lama, in f ac t , who both d o c t r in a l ly and

by l ineage is c lo se ly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Mipham Gyatso.

This h i s to ry and the l e s s Buddhi st ic Gesars m en t ioned above

seem in language, imagery, epic mach inery , t r iba l a f f i l i a t i o n s , and in

t h e i r spec ia l s e n se of mag ic to be p a r t a s ing le n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n - -

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- a t r a d i t i o n which Do Khyentse Yeshe Dorje s e e m s to be consc ious ly

evoking by h i s purposeful use of all s o r t s of f o lk i sm s .

At the same t ime, even though i t evokes the non-Buddhist

G esa r n a r r a t i v e t r ad i t ion , the p o r t io n of the Golok h i s to ry devoted to

the a c tu a l b i r th of Khyentse is ve ry s i m i l a r to the Buddhist v e r s io n

of the b i r th of Gesar, found in t h e second book of the Mipham

ve rs ion , The B ir th o f Gesar CKhrungs gL ing). And i t is a lso s i m i l a r

to Alexandra David-Neel’s La Vie Surhumaine de Gesar de Ling. Tha t

French v e r s io n of the epic is n o t a t r a n s l a t i o n of the t e x t she

brought back to Paris. It is, r a t h e r , a p a ra p h ra s e of severa l

B uddh is t i c v e rs ion s which she e n co u n te re d in Tibet .

Fur the rmore , the p a r t i c u l a r d e i t i e s m en t ioned in the Golok

His to ry a re pr incipal c h a r a c t e r s in the Buddhist Gesars. This is

i n t e r e s t i n g . The gods w i t h w hom the Golok people m u s t become

involved in order to th r ive a re the local d e i t i e s who appear in t h e

Buddhis t Gesar. The His to ry s h o w s them to us in pecu l ia r de ta i l .

We see , in e f f e c t , the daily l i f e of the local gods and we see a

p r a c t i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n of the r e l i g io n of the people who heard the

Buddhist epic. My fee l ing is t h a t Do Khyentse m e a n t t h i s s to ry to be

a s o r t of br idge be tw een tw o w or ld s . It w a s to be a bridge b e tw e e n

w h a t he saw as an ear thy n a t iv e t r a d i t i o n and the h igh - f low n ,

e x a l t e d Buddhist t rad i t ion .

The use of gods and m ag ic a l re l ig ion in the Golok’s s to ry is

f a s c in a t in g . As Ste in obse rved th roughou t Les Tribus Anciennes des

marches s ino -t ibe ta ines , the gods are r e s p o n s ib l e fo r the o r ig ins

and c r e a t i o n of every g re a t t r i b a l e n t i t y in Tibet . Like the Homeric

he roes , the founders of t r iba l s t a t e s are genera l ly sons or d a u g h te r s

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of local gods. Khyentse t ake s advan tage of t h i s f a c t to r e t e l l a s to ry

which r e f u r b i s h e s his Buddhist b i r t h mythology in non-Buddhis t

e th n ic p a r t i c u l a r s .

K hyen tse ' s e th n ic i ty is e x p re s s e d in four domains. The gods

a re local r a t h e r than Indie Buddhist . The e f f i c a c y of r e l i g io u s

p r a c t i c e is ba sed on the dynamic of the na t ive T ibe tan r i t u a l s r a t h e r

than Buddhist co n te m p la t iv e p r a c t i c e . The a n c e s t o r s a re f avored by

p rov idence not be ca use of t h e i r dha rm ic v i r tue , but be ca use of

s p e c i f i c c o m p a c t s w i t h local de i t i e s . And f ina l ly , the l i t u rg ica l

p e r f o r m a n c e s r e p o r t e d come not f rom the Buddhist re l ig ion , but

f rom the r i t u a l s and songs o f Gesar epic bards .

There is, of cou rse , a venee r of Buddhist iconography w hich

exp la ins t h a t the va r ious divine coupl ings a re p a r t of

P a dm asam bhava ' s overal l plan. J i g m e Lingpa's m ag ica l r e b i r t h is

p a r t of Paam a 's program to con t inua l ly r e tu rn hi s or iginal d i s c ip l e s

to T ibe t a s inca rna t ions . These in ca rn a t io n s p ro p ag a te Nyingma

Buddhis t r e l ig io n in Eas te rn Tibe t , fo l lowing the a g e s - lo n g plan of

Padma. But even a c o m m i t t e d and o bse rvan t lama such a s Tendzin

Samphel r e m a r k s t h a t the Golok t r i b e s r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s p a s sa g e

a re shown to be r e l a t i v e ly u n f a m i l i a r w i th Buddhism and he f e e l s

t h a t t h i s t e x t s e e m s to r e f l e c t , to u se his w o rd s , "a kind of

p r i m i t i v e level of T ibe tan re l ig ion w he re Buddhism i sn ' t known t h a t

wel l." 439

The Goloks are a t r ibe genea log ica l ly im p l i c a t e d in the Epic o f

Gesar. The i r t e r r i t o r y is r e l a t i v e ly un inhab i ted and they a re mainly

b a n d i t s th e m se lv e s . The mountain Magyal Pomra (rMa rgyal sPom ra)

is loca ted in the c e n t e r of the t e r r i t o r y they con tro l , i t is o f t e n

3 4 6

ind ica ted on maps by i t s Chinese name Amnye Machen. Magyal Pomra

i s only second to Nyenchen Thanglha in power and importance . And

he a c q u i r e s spec ia l s ign i f icance , because the magical weapons of

Gesa r and the m arve lous w a r im p le m e n t s d e s t in e d fo r the w a r r io r s

o f Ling a re all bur ied in the v a l l e y s be tw ee n h i s peaks. Gesa r is said

to have l e f t h i s miracu lous s w o rd behind and i t i s s t i l l bur ied in

Magyal Pomra, a source of p o w e r fo r the Golok.

When J.F. Rock wro te h i s monograph on the Amnye Machen

range , he explored a s much of the Golok region a s he could sa fe ly

v i s i t . S te in s e n t him a l e t t e r giving a summary of the h i s to r y of the

Goloks which is included in Rock's book. According to S a m te n

Karmay, t h i s sum m ary o r ig in a t e s in a vers ion of the Golok h i s to ry

very s im i la r , pe rhaps ident ica l w i t h the p a s sa g e t r a n s l a t e d below.

4 4 0

Rock, in t ry ing to c h a r a c t e r i z e th i s f a s c in a t in g group of people

t e l l s s t o r i e s t h a t one hears q u i te o f ten when d i s c u s s in g the Golok

w i t h Tibe tans :

Although murder was said to be outlawed within the sanctuary of the Am­nye Ma-chen the 6o-log attack anyone approaching the region west of the Yellow River. They acknowledge no one's authority except that of their chiefs, and as the Shing-bzah incarnation told us th e ir word could not be trusted. They enjoy attacking anyone, especially foreigners who penetrate their mountain fastness. They have always been thus, and w ill probably remain so.... Their life is spent on horseback, always ready for battle and even among themselves they squabble to the point of combat.

....I quote a speech made by a Go-log: You cannot compare us go-log with other people. You obey the laws of strangers, the laws of the Dalai Lama, of China, and of any of your petty chiefs. You are afraid of everyone; to escape punishment you obey everyone. And the result Is that you are afraid of everything. And not only you, but your fathers and grandfathers were the same. We go-log, on the other hand, have from time immemorial obeyed none but our own laws, none but our own convictions. A go-log is born with the knowledge of his freedom, and with his mother's milk imbibes some acquaintance with his laws. They have never been altered. Almost in his mother's womb he learns to handle arms. His forebears

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were w arriors— were brave fearless men, even as we today are the ir worthy descendants. To the advice of a stranger we w ill not hearken, nor w ill we obey ought but the voice of our conscience w ith which each go-log enters the world. This Is why we have ever been free as now, and are the slaves of none— neither

of Bogdokhan nor of the Dalai Lama. Our tribe Is the most respected and mighty In Tibet, and we rightly look down w ith contempt on both Chinaman and Tibetan.“

The r e a d e r may be i n t e r e s t e d to know t h a t even today, under

the rule of the Peop le ’s Republic of China, the a rea a round Macnen

Pomra is s t i l l c o n s id e re d a dangerous place to t rave l and the Golok

a re s t i l l a m araud ing p re sen c e .441

The p i c t u r e w e have from t h i s account is of a th in ly populated,

m oun ta inous d i s t r i c t which is only gradual ly being s e t t l e d by human

beings. When the hum ans f i r s t a r r ive , they d i sc ove r t h a t the

t e r r i t o r y has been inhab i ted s ince t im e im m emor ia l by a so c i e t y of

d e i t i e s w i t h t h e i r own p o l i t i c s and th e i r own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

connec ted w i th the physical s t r u c t u r e of the area. Each d i s t r i c t , in

e f f e c t , is owned by a lord or p rop r i e to r , bdag po, who is the god of

t h a t land. These d e i t i e s are ca l led s a bdag, e a r t h lords , gzhi bdag,

ground lords, gnas bdag, p lace lords, or s o m e t i m e s j u s t " the lord,"

bdag po. They are of va r ious "races" ( r ig pa ), meaning ty p es of

beings. For example, Nyenchen Thanglha is sa id to be of the " r ac e ” of

the raksasas (gnod sbyin ). Of course , here t h e r e is ve ry l i t t l e of the

Indian epic conno ta t ions of ra k s a s a s . Desp i te our convent ion of

t r a n s l a t i o n , the T ibe tan t e rm is probably or ig inal and m e a n s "harm

c a u s e r . ”

Each e a r th lord is thought to have a n a tu ra l so v e re ig n ty over a

c e r t a i n amount of t e r r i t o r y extending out f rom a c e n t e r w h e re he

d w e l l s when he is in the ordinary wor ld or human rea lm. This c e n t e r

is ca l l ed his "gateway" (sgo ).442 It leads to an o th e r r e a lm w h e re

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th e god t ru ly dwe l l s . Buddhis t and Bon l i t u r g i e s r e f e r to t h e s e

r e a l m s as pa laces . In t h i s a ccoun t we ac tua l ly s e e the i n t e r i o r of

one of the se pa laces , when the fu tu re mothe r of J a l u Dor je ( t h a t is,

Do Khyentse) is kidnapped by gods. We see t h a t the t ru e home of the

gods is a s e p a r a t e r e a lm w h e r e t ime moves d i f f e r e n t l y and where

s p a t i a l and t em pora l r e l a t i o n s h i p s are profoundly a l t e re d . Most of

t h e gods in t h i s a cc o u n t a re "wrathful ." This m e a n s they appea r in

an angry, m a r t i a l a s p e c t , w i t h f i e rce f e a t u r e s , long f angs , ta lons ,

and wear ing o rn a m e n t s of bone and human skin. In Buddhist

l anguage w ra th fu l (krodha ) i s a technical t e rm . It i n d i c a t e s th a t

t he gods appear in angry a s p e c t , as opposed to the o t h e r t w o

iconograph ic c a t e g o r i e s of peacefu l and s e m i - w r a t h f u l . Ord inar i ly

the a s p e c t would be taken as having some ph i losophica l s ign i f i cance .

In t h i s t ex t , however , we see the jargon of T a n t r i c Buddhism used in

col loquial language to te l l a s tory. The techn ica l vocabu la ry t akes

on a new and more d i r e c t , l e s s a lchemica l meaning. To be honest to

the in ten t ion of the t e x t I would say, for example, t h a t the gods are

w r a t h f u l in the s i m p l e and convent ional s e n se of the w o r d tha t

is, they are i r a s c i b l e and e a s i l y angered. They tend to r ega rd human

be ings a lm o s t as invade rs in t h e i r t e r r i t o ry and a re e a s i l y in fu r ia ted

by w h a t we would c o n s id e r to be r i tual pollut ion. For example , a t

one point the f a t h e r of J ig m e Lingpa c ons ide r s moving to Yutse. He

d e c id es not to b e ca u se it is a s e n s i t iv e and r e a c t i v e land. (phug thog

shor ba ). A person could ail too easi ly make a m is t ake : u r ina t ing in

the wrong place or i n a d v e r t e n t ly moving a s to n e which is the power

sp o t of a naga or po l lu t ing the atmosphere by cooking r o t t e n m ea t

and sending out u n f r a g ra n t , unclean smoke. Any such a c t i o n s might

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i n f u r i a t e the local d e i t i e s and a t t r a c t c a t a s t r o p h e , i l l n e s s , and

death.

S im i la r ly , if the d e i t i e s should appear to the c h a r a c t e r s in t h i s

s t o r y in pac i f ic fo rm , i t is no t because they a re m a n i f e s t i n g the

fundam en ta l peacefu l n a tu r e of e n l igh tenm en t , bu t b e c a u s e they

"have made fr iends" w i t h the humans and have "promised to be

friendly."

Di rec t ion w o r d s in t h i s t e x t are a b i t confusing . At one point ,

f o r example, the f a t h e r and m o th e r of Khyen tse go on a p i lg r im ag e to

v i s i t Lhasa. When people head upwards, they a re not going north,

but t o w a rd s mounta in highlands. And so the journey from Khams to

Lhasa is upwards and the r e t u r n d i rec t ion is "downwards."

On t h i s t r ip f rom E a s t e rn T ibe t so u th w a r d and w e s t w a r d to

Centra l T ibe t we a r e given a p ic tu re of the re l ig ion of the people

who live around Magyal Pomra. The d e sc r ip t i o n is not w i t h o u t humor

fo r w e see the s u p e r s t i t i o n s of the v i l l a g e r s and t h e i r

q u a r r e l s o m e n e s s as they ignoran t ly respond to every m i ra cu lous

fo reshadow ing of t h e coming b i r th of the g r e a t s a in t . The r e a d e r is

in fo rmed by the n a r r a t i n g voice and knows w h a t gods and divine

phenomena t ru ly obtain. The f a l s e be l i e f s of the v i l l a g e r s then

appea r a s gul lible s u p e r s t i t i o n . At the sam e t im e , t h e r e are a lw ays

s e e r s who can g l im p s e the t r u e s i t u a t io n by see ing the inv is ib le

wor ld of s p i r i t s and by having symbolic v is ions.

The p i lg r im s have tw o a im s on t h e i r v i s i t — to i n c r e a s e t h e i r

m e r i t by paying homage to the famous s h r i n e s in Lhasa and to

in c re a s e t h e i r good fo r tune by rece iving the b l e s s i n g s of famous

lamas. The lamas may be Buddhis t c e l e b r a t e s , but w i t h i n the

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f r a m e w o r k of th i s n a r r a t i v e t h e i r p o w e rs a re r ea l ly l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t

f rom those of vi l l age shamans. For example, t h e r e is an in te rv iew

w i t h tne Dalai Lama, Gyalwa Ja m p e l Gyatso. His w isdom and

k in d n e s s is not r ep re sen ted . All w e know of him is t h a t he can see

the t r u e na tu re of J i g m e ' s m o t h e r — t h a t she is a r e i n c a r n a t io n of a

goddess . He id en t i f i e s her in a c rowd of w ha t m u s t be thousands of

r e s p e c t f u l p e a s a n t s and g ives he r a magical s t a t u e made of herbs.

His a im is to c r e a te a "connection," d re lp a i 'b re l pa ), so t h a t he may

have the good for tune , tendre l ( r ten 'b reJ ) , to be r eborn in her

wom b in h is next incarnat ion.

This word for “connect ion" is an im p o r ta n t idea in the rel igion

of the people. Like tendrel, i t has a technica l meaning w i th in

Buddhis t phi losophy and psychology and ind ica te s the p r e s en c e of a

ka rm ic link. But, again like tendrel, i t t a k e s on in t h i s t e x t a

meaning , r e l a t e d to r i tua l p u r i ty and taboo and thus more in keeping

w i t h t h e p r inc ip les of a n i m i s t i c r e l ig ions than w i t h the carefu l

f o rm u la t io n s of Buddhist abhidharma.

Thus, the m o the r being or ig ina l ly a goddess , is a pure vesse l

into which the incarna t ion may be born. If she w e r e an ordinary

pe rson then she would not be able to "sus ta in" i th e g p a , l i t e r a l l y

“hold up.“) his m er i t and the ch i ld would die. She m u s t be kept clean.

If she touches d r e l ( 'b r e l ) a person who has s u f f e r e d po l lu t ion , she

wi l l become ill because of he r own pu r i ty and t h a t of the child

w i t h in her. If she "has a connec t ion with" anything touched by the

hand or mouth of an impure pe rson , she wi l l su f fe r .

The Buddhist v i e w p o in t p r e v e n t s the t e x t f rom us ing the words

"clean" and "unclean." Instead, impur i ty would be "obscurat ion"

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dr ib -pa ( sgrib pa or g r ip pa ) coming from the v io la t ion or co r rup t ion

of t a n t r i c vows, samayas. Drip ( sgrib ) i s the t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e

S a n sk r i t t e rm varana, meaning l i t e r a l l y "veil."443 It o r ig ina l ly

appl ied s imply to the tw o ve i l s of e m o t ions and knowing, w h ic h we

s tudy in the abhidharma. But he re in the wor ld where t a n t r a and

local re l ig ion have mixed, sgrib has become r i tu a l po l lu t ion and it

can be t r a n s m i t t e d by touch. So when the Dalai Lama g ives the lady

h i s l i t t l e s t a tu e , he r touching of i t should c r e a t e the connection.

But inadve r ten t ly it i s pa s se d from hand to hand and so is touched by

a "g rea t s i n n e r” dikchen ( sdig chen ). It t h u s becom es obscured

(sgr ib ) and so the connec t ion is broken and the lama lo o se s the

t end re l , auspicious coincidence, but r ea l ly "good for tune." to be

reborn in her womb. AAA

The a s s i m i l a t i o n of the se Buddhist t e r m s to a n a t iv e c o n te x t

is a s ign of the overa l l fo rce of the t e x t and perhaps of the e n t i r e

n a r r a t i v e t r a d i t io n in which i t p a r t i c i p a t e s . Here we se e no t the

a s s i m i l a t i o n of local t a l e s to Buddhist philosophy, but the r e v e r s e

a s s i m i l a t i o n of Buddhist t e a ch in g s into an indigenous rel ig ion.

Notice, for example, t h a t the p reva len t c e re m o n ie s a re sm oke

p u r i f i c a t i o n s ( iha sangs ) and naga o f fe r ings . The p r e v a l e n t d e i t i e s

are mountain gods and naga women. And m o s t i n t e r e s t in g ly , the

ac tua l b i r th of the t e r t o n J igm e Lingpa is hera lded not by Buddhis t

gods and b o d h i s a t t v a s , but by t roops of inv is ib le ba rds chan t ing

e p ic s and wear ing t h e i r spec ia l Gesa r hats . The p r a c t i c e of Buddhist

re l ig ion is a lm o s t never s e p a ra t e f rom the w orsh ip or p r o p i t i a t i o n

of local de i t ies . But he re the t e x t is r e s t r u c t u r e d to fo reg round the

local gods.

352

For example, a t the t im e of the b i r t h an inv i s ib le s h r in e is

c o n s t r u c t e d on w h ic h o f f e r i n g s are made to the r e t i n u e of gods who

a t t e n d the bi r th . It i s no t a Buddhist a l t a r , however , b u t the special

fu rnace used fo r Bon o f f e r i n g s and the p e r f o rm a n c e of lha sangs.

The d e i t i e s a r e d r e s s e d in a rm our and blue s i l k s l ike C h inese and

Centra l Asian d e i t i e s and the c h a r a c t e r i s e T ibe tan m a r t i a l s p i r i t s

c a l led "wargods" ( dgra lha ). Like the w a r gods, they s in g not of the

s ix p e r f e c t i o n s of the b o d h i s a t t v a path, bu t of the e x c e l l e n c e of

w e ap o n s and ho rse s . And the ce re m on ie s p e r fo rm e d f o r p o s i t iv e

e f f e c t are non - lnd ic c e r e m o n ie s of r i t u a l p u r i f i c a t i o n su c h as the

lha sang. The o f f e r i n g s a re chemar, e t c . — the o f f e r i n g s of local

re l igion . The ch i ld is ba thed j u s t as the Buddha w a s b a th e d a t his

b i r th , but no t in s a n c t i f i e d w a te r . He is b a th e d in a m i x t u r e of milk

and w a t e r — one of the r i tu a l m a t e r i a l s o f f e re d in lha sangs.

The s t o r y is not only para l le l to the b i r th s t o r i e s of Gesar.

It m ake s e x p l i c i t m en t ion of Gesar. I t s d e i t i e s , a s I have argued, are

near ly s t r i p p e d of t h e i r Buddhist iconography, and have become the

n a t iv e m ach inery of the Gesa r epic.

All of t h i s is of c o u r s e subord ina te in theory to the cen t ra l

plo t which is t h a t the b i r th of Do Khyentse is an a s p e c t of the

an c ien t m a c h in a t io n s of Padmasambhava . But the im a ge ry which

su r rounds hi s b i r th and the long s to ry of the d e v e lo p m e n t of his

t r ibe , the Goloks, m akes t h i s Buddhist s a i n t into a c u l t u r a l hero of

the clan l iving in the v i c i n i t y of the tw o mounta in r a n g e s which

f igure c o n s t a n t l y in the epic as wel l as t h e h i s to ry of t h e t ribe.

This may be a s t o r y of the fu r t h e r sp re a d of Nyingma Buddhism. But

i t is told as if i t w e re the s to ry of the s p re ad of the c l a n s to which

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the l a m a s in th i s m o v e m e n t belonged.

Sac red Geography

Another i n t e r e s t i n g connec t ion be tw ee n t h i s Histo ry and the

Gesar ep ic is t h a t the Golok History involves many of the pr incipal

lo c a t io n s in the s a c r e d geography of the epic. Magyal Pomra is of

c o u rs e the s i t e w h e r e G e s a r ’s t r e a s u r e s , the p a t r im o n y of the

w a r r i o r s of Ling, i s buried. As a de i ty he is a c t iv e in the epic and is

o f t en invoked in t h e c o rp u s of Mipham's p raye rs to Gesar. (S te in, ‘56,

p. 124).

rMa is the land w h e r e Gesar w a s banished when he was a child

a f t e r being dr iven f rom Ling by his evil uncle i r o th u n g (khro thung )

(S te in , 125) and i t i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the m o th e r of Gesa r a g rea t

deal. Through i t p a s s e s the rMa Chu, the Ma River (Huang Ho XStein,

ft . 34, p.209).

Nyenchen Thang lha and Magyal Pomra are the two m os t

im p o r t a n t local d e i t i e s of l a rg e s t importance. The w a r f a r e and a t

t i m e s love a f f a i r s b e t w e e n Nyenchen Thanglha and Magyal Pomra are

c e n t r a l to the f e s t i v a l s of Gesar p r a c t ic e d in the au tumn when Jha

sang (T: lha bsangs ) a r e perfo rmed on the va r ious s a c r e d m ounta ins

of Amdo and E as te rn Tibet . Ste in deals w i th t h e s e p r a c t i c e s a t

length pp. 4 5 2 - 4 5 5 .

As a de i ty r a t h e r than a mountain, Nyenchen Thanglha is

r e l a t e d to ano ther f i g u r e in th is History of the Goloks— a f igure

who a lso has a s s o c i a t i o n s w i th sac red sp o t s in Minyag, p l ac es holy

to the gods Pehar and the Great S odh isa t tva Manjushri . in the middle

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of the s t o r y we learn t h a t the f a th e r of the g r e a t yogin Ja lu Dorje is

a de i ty who l ives in a magica l court in a s o r t of w ra th fu l fa i ry land.

A Golok woman of the t r i b e of Achung is kidnapped to heaven and

the re im pregna ted by the god in order to br ing J a l u into the human

rea lm. The de i ty in t roduces h imse l f by say ing "1 am the son of

Zurphu ngapa (zur phud lgna pa)— th e divine ch i ld wide ly known a s

Lhabu Dung Thodcan (lha bu dung thod c a n — the divine child w e a r in g

a conch turban).

in f a c t according to Nebesky-Wojkowi tz (pp. 100, 1 2 9 -1 3 0 ,

2 0 6 - 2 0 8 ) , Zurphu Ngapa h im se l f is a l so c o n s id e re d a form of

Nyenchen Thanglha. A number of his e p i t h e t s r e f e r to the f a c t t h a t

he w e a r s a w h i te conch headpiece and Nyenchen Thanglha is o f t en

d e sc r ib e d as wear ing such a hat, being d r e s s e d in w h i t e s i lks , and

r iding a w h i t e horse. Never the le ss , c o n t r a d ic t in g the Nyingma

sadhanas upon which Nebesky-Wojkowi tz b a s e s h i s iden t i f ic a t ion ,

the H is to ry of the Goloks is c lear in saying t h a t t h i s grea t being,

Zurphu Ngapa, is not the god himself , but the son of Nyenchen

Thanglha.

There has a lways been some m y s t e r y abou t the iden t i ty of t h i s

f igure. N ebesky-W ojkowi tz r e l i e s so le ly on l i t u rg i c a l t e x t s and

in s t i t u t i o n a l com m e n ta r ie s . He aims to give a b a s i s for

unde rs t and ing the cogn i t ive s t r u c t u r e s t h a t would ac tua l ly ob ta in in

the f ield. In o the r words , when N ebesky-W ojkowi tz iden t i f i e s a

c e r t a i n de i ty as being r e l a t e d to ano the r one or to a ce r t a in family,

he is r e f l e c t i n g the p o ss ib le opinion of some Tibe tan.

S te in , on the o th e r hand, pursuing his anthropolog ica l s t u d i e s ,

s e a r c h e s f a r beyond the corpus of t e x t s a s ing le T ibe tan s cho la r

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m ig h t have read when he t r i e s to iden t i fy Zurphu Ngapa. He se e k s

b ro a d e r s t r u c t u r e s of d i sc o u r se t h a t n e c e s s a r i l y t r an scend the

c o n s c i o u s n e s s of any s ing le Buddhist or Bon adherent .

Thus, a l though no s ing le holder of a t e x tu a l t r ad i t io n may be

a w a r e of the connec t ion , S te in a s s o c i a t e s Zurphu Ngapa (S t e in '59,

p.2 8 - 2 8 7 ) w i t h the Four Ce le s t i a l Kings w ho guard the four

d i r e c t i o n s and w i t h the Cent ra l Asian d e i ty Pehar. S i m i l a r i t i e s in

the or ig in s t o r i e s fo r th e s e gods sugges t som e h i s to r ica l r e l a t i o n in

the deve lopm ent of t h e i r myths. He goes f u r t h e r and p o in t s out t h a t

zur phud Ina pa is Pancashikha, "Five topknots ," in S a n sk r i t , an

e p i t h e t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the m yth ica l w h i t e lion, but a lso w i t h

Manjushrl . As Manjushr i ' s e p i the t , i t would be, according to Ste in ,

Pancacira, which m eans "Five Curls of Hair."

This dei ty , Pancacira, is ment ioned in the Padma Thang Yig,

T o u ssa in t , Le D icton de Padma or Le Grand Guru Padma..., pp. 2 4 6 and

in the ManjushnmuiakaJpa. 445 But S te in ana lyzes his conceptua l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h a f a sc ina t ing breadth of mythical f i g u r e s from

num erous Centra l Asian c u l t u r e s all gods of wea l th , a ll involved

in a t r a n s f e r of c u l t u r e via the Si lk Route f rom Khotan to China and

T ibe t , and all connec ted w i th the iconography of the Gesar epic and

the image of the snow lion. The m a t r ix of a s s o c i a t i o n s when

f i l t e r e d through T ibe tan chron ic le s and e p ic n a r r a t i v e s end up

a s s o c i a t i n g th i s de i ty w i th Minyag and the nor thern r e a c h e s of

E as te rn Tibet. The im p l ica t ions of S t e in ' s r e s e a r c h are t h a t t h i s

conch she l l adorned local de i ty w i th his sp l e n d i t court , the r ich

a ppo in tm en t of h i s p resence chamber , h i s wondrous demonic

c o n s o r t s , and h is im por tan t po l i t ica l a s s o c i a t i o n s , is a m a j o r player

PLEASE NOTE

Page(s) not Included with original material and unavailable from author or university.

Rimed as received.

UMI

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f rom the mounta in Yutse.

The region of Yutse is im p o r t a n t to the h i s t o r y of Buddhist

re l ig ion in Tibet . For example , the m o the r of the founde r of the

Gelugpa s e c t is sa id to come from th e re and the monk Palgyi Dorje

(dpal gyi rdo r j e ) , who a s s a s i n a t e d gLang Darma, the l a s t of the

g r e a t T ibe tan kings, took re fuge there . And the nam e Achung in

num erous v a r i a n t s is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s i t e s there .

It is a l so an a re a a s s o c i a t e d according to S t e i n w i t h the

Ladakhi and Mipham v e rs io n s . S t e in ' s a rg u m e n ta t io n is e x t r e m e ly

involved, but i t w orks to t h i s e f fe c t : one of Achung’s sons w a s the

t e a c h e r and a d i s t a n t r e l a t i v e of Kyalo (skya Jo ), a m em ber of the

t r i b e of Ga (sG a ) and the q u i n t e s s e n t i a l r ich man in the Mipham

G e sa r Kyalo Thonpa (skya lo s ton pa rgyal m ts h a n ) . The home

reg ion of t h i s t r ibe of Ga is iden t i f i ed as Jyekundo, a t the sou rc e of

the Yellow River and the place na m e s we e n c o u n te r in the Mipham

ep ic are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i s b ro thers .

But hi s name a lso o c c u r s in the Ladakhi epic , for it is a man

named Tenpa (bsTanpa or Than pa) who gives Gesar the r a re o b j e c t s

he needs fo r hi s t r ip to China, which occurs in a l a t e chapter . The

name Tenpa becomes Tonpa Gyal tsen in the Mipham, but in both c a s e s

i t is the sam e pe rson— a r ich man of the clan of Ga who has

i m p o r t a n t connec t ions w i t h the gDong t r ibe, is r e l a t e d to Achung,

the founder of a Golok t r i b e and connec ted w i t h a reg ion a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h Yutse.

The s t r u c t u r a l i s t and phi lolog ica l a rg u m e n t s S t e in u se s a re as

i n t im id a t in g iy complex as the t r iba l r e l a t i o n s t h e m s e lv e s . And they

are made more d i f f i c u l t to fol low by the phenomenon of geograph ic

358

d i sp lac em e n t : When a c lan en t i ty changes loca t ion , i t t ends to keep

th e sam e nam es for p l a c e s and the sa m e d i r ec t io n a l names. Thus, if

an a rea w a s once n o r t h e a s t of the t r ibe , they con t inue to cal l i t

"no r theas t " even a f t e r they have moved so t h a t i t i s now l i t e r a l l y to

t h e i r south.

Pe r sona l ly I find h i s a rgum ents convincing d e s p i t e the

s p e c u l a t i v e e le m en t in them , because they accoun t f o r the in tr iguing

f a c t t h a t all the place n a m e s tha t occur in the Golok s t o r y are found

in the epic as well in s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t spel l ings .

In conclusion , Yutse i s a locat ion t h a t f igu res in the epic

through t r ib a l d e s c e n t s and as a sac red sp o t fo r the c la n s of m a j o r

c h a r a c t e r s . It is s a c r e d to the l ineage which d e s c e n d s from A Kyong

and is im p l i ca ted not only in the s to ry we read, but in the l ineages

of the l am as who p a r t i c i p a t e d in the product ion of the edit ion.

359

H i s t o r y of t h e Goloks f r o m t h e A u t o - b i o g r a p h y of Do

k h y e n t s e Veshe D o r j e (mDo mKhyen r t s e Ye shes rDo r j e )

[5:3] As fo r the g r e a t Wisdom Holder (v idy5dhara ) J i g m e

Lingpa ( ' J igs .med gLings.pa), he is in the l ineage of the Lord of

S e c r e t s Garab Dorje (Ga.rab rDo.rje) and he is an e m a na t ion and

m a n i f e s t a t i o n of Manjusnri and an a s p e c t of the play of the Dharma

King Trisong Deutsen (Khri.srong IDe'u bt san) , who m a n i f e s t e d in

every l i f e t im e only as a T reasure Finder ( t e r t o n ) , the l a s t of the

t h i r t e e n prophesied in the dGongs 'dus lung bston bka' rgya ma.

Now what in t h i s l i f e w a s his race , his t r ib e , his m a t e rn a l

lineage, and so on? He w a s from the place known as Golok. It is the

p r a c t i c e place of the T a t h a g a t a s of the Eight Grea t Heruka Sadhanas,

the P r a c t i c e s of the Eight Logoi, a p lace b l e s se d by Vajravarah i . The

g re a t Maste r iacarya ), Padmasambhava , p r a c t i c e d the re s ix months

and came the re seven t im es . The lord of t h a t p lace a lw a y s

m a in ta ine d a powerfu l black wra th fu l form. His name w a s Nyenchen

Thopa Tsai (gNyan.chen Thod.pa rTsa l ) .446 He w a s a g rea t being

(m ahasattva ) of the lOtn Level (b h u m i ). He is accompanied by h is

Great Consort , [7:1 ] a goddess , a s e r p e n t e s s (Skt: n a g f , Tib. k lu ),

and a lady nyen447, t h e s e four, as we l l as his r e t i n u e of sons , h i s

em ana t ions , and the e m a n a t io n s of h i s e m a n a t i o n s — a n u m b e r l e s s

re t inue .

In t h a t place the re are e ight g rea t ou te r lakes . Among them

are the Upper and Lower Blue Lakes, one known as the Lake of the

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Gods ( l h a ) and one known a s the Lake of the Devi ls (mSra, bdud,).

Near the Upper Lake t h e r e is a w h i t e boulder shaped l ike a crouching

Tiger. This is t h e Grea t Ga teway of the zodor sp i r i t . 440

Once a man u n s u r p a s s e d in hi s sk i l l a t a rchery cam e up to the

p lace of t h a t nyen s p i r i t and s t a y e d there . His name w a s Longchen

Thar (Great Space Freedom). One day w h i le he w a s l iving t h e r e he

s a w two w a t e r b u f f a l o e s come out of the Upper and Lower Lakes and

s t a r t f igh t ing w i t h each other . They fough t and fought. They did

noth ing bu t fight.

That evening the man s l e p t nex t to t h a t w h i t e boulder . He

d ream ed t h a t a w h i t e man r iding a w h i t e ho rse came up to him and

sa id , "Where do you come from?" 449

[7:4] "I come f rom Upper Ngari," he said.

"What is your name?"

"Lhongchen Thar."

"What a b i l i t i e s do you h a v e ? ”

"I am an a r c h e r of g r e a t p ow e r and abi l i ty ," he said.

"Well then, l i s t en . Tomorrow tw o bull yaks w i l l l eave the

Upper and Lower Lakes and wil l f ight each other . The Upper one is

the l i f e s u b s ta n c e of the gods 450 The one who com es out of the

Lower Lake is none o t h e r than the l ife s u b s ta n c e of the d e v i l s (bdud,

mara ). If you p i e r c e him and cu t off h is l i fe , we gods w i l l win and

those dev i l s wil l be defea ted . [8:1 ] You and I wil l become c lo s e

f r i e n d s and we, the gods, wil l c o m p le te ly fu l f i l l all your desi res ."

With th e s e w ords the god gave his promise.

But when the t w o oxen em erged from the lakes and fought ,

t h e i r shapes w e re so s i m i l a r t h a t the man could not f igu re out which

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ox to slay. He s t a y e d th e r e all day, but could n o t sh o o t h i s arrow.

[8:2] T ha t evening the man on a w h i t e ho rse c am e and s a id “Why w a s

i t you didn ' t shoo t the a r row ?"

He a nsw e red , "I couldn ' t te l l one ox from the o ther , they w ere

so much alike."

"Well then, tom or row th e r e wil l be a mark on my l i f e

s u b s t a n c e so t h a t you can r ecogn ize it. Be a le r t ! We w i l l fulf i l l

your every desi re , " he sa id and then left . [8:4]

The next morning once again the oxen fought . This t im e ,

however , looking very ca re fu l ly , he saw t h a t one of them had hanging

among i t s nape h a i r s a b r igh t ly shining mir ro r . He a im ed s t r a i g h t

a t the h e a r t of the one who had no m i r ro r and p i e r c e d him w i th an

a rrow. That ox jumped into the Lower Lake and d i sappea red . The

w a t e r of the Lake w a s s t a in e d w i th red blood and the h i l l s , rocks,

lake, and t r e e s f rom the Upper p a r t of the va l l ey all c r ied out "Ki ki

so so, the gods are v i c t o r i o u s . “ ( k i k i bsvo bsvo Jha rgya l Jo ) The

sound of the v i c to ry c r i e s w a s g r e a t enough to s h a k e the ear th . But

every th ing in the l o w e r p a r t w a s full of g roans and awfu l sounds.

That evening the sam e man came and said , "Now the w h i t e gods

a re v i c t o r i o u s and the black dev i l s are de fea ted . Our w i s h e s have

been fu l f i l led . We wil l repay your kindness . T om o r ro w morning at

the foo t of t h i s boulder some kind of f r igh ten ing an imal wi l l appear.

[You m u s t touch it] The b e s t would be w i t h your hand. [9:2] The

middle would be to s t r o k e it w i t h the f e a t h e r s of your arrow. The

l a s t and l e a s t way would be to th row two hand fu l s of sand on i ts

body." He sa id th is and left .

The next morning when the sun rose, f rom the top of the

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boulder came a divine w h i t e yak— f r igh ten ing , w i t h i t s mouth open

and i t s tongue s t i c k i n g out into space and moving about. Steam

issued from i t s m ou th and pi led up in c louds of m is t . I t s hooves

pounded the boulder to rubble. The man w a s so f r ig h te n ed he could

not even look a t th e c r e a t u r e and remained f rozen t h a t way unt il

f ina l ly it d i sa ppea red in the lake.

[9:4] That even ing the f r iendly de i ty c am e j u s t as before: "You

w e r e n ' t much of a man, w e re you.451 Now, t o m o r ro w ano the r

c r e a t u r e wi l l come. You need not fear; all you need do is to a c t as I

told you l a s t t i m e . " He sa id t h i s and left .

The nex t morn ing a t dawn from the top of the boulder appeared

a f ea r fu l t i g r e s s , her mouth open, her eyes bulging, he r fangs

clenched. Her c l a w s reduced the s tones to rubble . She appeared

crouching, about to leap f ie rce ly . The man w a s p e t r i f i e d w i th f ea r

and rem ained t h a t way, not dar ing to move unt i l the b e a s t f inal ly

d i sappea red in the lake.

That evening the f r iend ly de i ty came j u s t as before . "You're the

kind of b lundere r who has exhaus te d his m e r i t . [ 10:1 ] Where is t h e r e

a n o th e r man like you who can’t ge t anything done. I t ' s rea l ly hard for

us on our end to help you."

The man sa id , "Now you're not going to keep your promise."

"I am not b reaking my promise. It 's you who can ' t perform. The

divine yak which c am e the day befo re y e s t e rd a y (khar nyin ) w a s my

younger daughter , the goddess (Od ldan dpal mo) Oden Pa lm o—

Luminous Glorious Lady. 'O thers have begged her hand in

m a r r i a g e 452, but a l l have fai led. She is su p e r io r to all o th e r s and

th e r e f o r e , if you had gained her, your family l ineage would have

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gained g r e a t m e r i t in the Dharma and would have c e r t a i n l y produced

an uncorrup ted l ine of Wisdom Holders ( vidyadharas )in a f am i ly

s t y l e l ine of d e s c e n t .453 They would have subdued India and T ibe t

[10:4]. The i r g r e a t n e s s and fame would have s p r e a d a c r o s s India and

Tibet . But you m is s e d your chance fo r th i s good fo r tune .

The t i g e r who appea red today w a s of the r a c e of the nyen,

Meri t GLorious T re a su re (Sod nams dpal s t e r , p ronounced Sonam

P a l t e r ) She is my middle daughter . There have been s u i t o r s and I

have given he r hand in m ar r iage . If you had a t t a i n e d her, the

re l ig iou s r i t e which c o n fe r s e m p o w e rm e n t454 on your human l ineage

would [10:5] have t aken p lace [or] you would have a t a i n e d

p ro sp e r i ty , might , glory and the r e s p e c t of all . But you m i s s e d your

chance fo r t h a t good for tune.

Now the re is my o l d e s t daughter , B r i l l i a n t Superb V ic to r ious

Over Enemies (gZi ‘do sg ra rgyal , pro. Zido Dragyai). Al though I have

her, it has been decided to give her in m a r r i a g e to Magyal Pomra

(rma rgyal spom ra). 455 N ever the le s s , I wi l l a l lo w he r to be given to

you o n c e 456[! 1:1]

We’ve been t ry ing to help you for some t im e , b u t it is hard.

When you win her, t h i s is w h a t you wil l rece ive . Your f a m i ly l ineage

wi l l a lw a y s t h i r s t fo r sin. Their work wil l be w a r and all s o r t s of

thievery . They wil l make t h e i r living off the w e a l t h and p r o s p e r i t y

of o t h e r s and only t h a t way. They wil l kill l iving c r e a t u r e s and

d i l ige n t ly s t r i p the c a r c a s s e s , taking the m e a t and red blood. As

long as your human l ineage l a s t s , you w i l l never be d o m ina ted by

o thers . Your heads w i l l never be lowered.457 This is the l a s t good

fo r tune I can gran t to you. [1 1:2]

3 6 4

However [l 1:2] if t om or row morning you c a n n o t show your

courage, t h e r e is nothing more I can do for you. In t h a t case , leave

th i s p lace in p e ac e and find ano the r country. I w i l l give you as much

w e a l t h 458 a s you can take w i t h you," He sa id t h i s and then lef t .

Next morn ing [1 1:4] a t sun r i se once again f rom the top of the

boulder came a f e a r f u l c rocodi le , i t s mouth open, i t s eyes bulging,

i t s tongue s t i c k i n g out. The man w a s not brave enough to rub i t w i t h

hi s hand or the a r r o w f e a t h e r s , but he managed t o th ro w a handful of

sand t o w a rd the c r e a t u r e ’s ta i l . In a moment i t becam e a lovely and

charming w om an d r e s s e d in s i lken c lo th e s and p rec io u s j e w e l s who

o f fe red her help and fr iendsh ip .

Three days l a t e r [1 1:6] the girl said, "Go today to the upper

p a r t of the val ley. There is a l i t t l e lake there . By i t s sh o re s is my

dowery, some of my herds. Drive the sheep down here. “ [12:2]

So he l e f t and, herding about a hundred head of sheep w i t h

d i f f e r e n t c o lo r s of wool , he came back down the valley. By the t im e

he had a r r ived on th e banks of Sky Lake it w a s a l r e a d y night. He

found a f ine yak h a i r t e n t s e t up and in i t w e re al l the p roper ty and

a c c o u t r e m e n t s of a home. All the proper ty and e x c e l l e n t w e a l t h had

been s e t up and a r r a nge d [ 12:2]

He asked , “Where did we get all t h i s s t u f f ? ”459

"My b r o t h e r b rought it, " she said.

“Is your b r o t h e r the sa m e as my f r iend f rom yes te rday ," he

asked.

“I t ’s p o s s i b l e , ” she said.

From then on those tw o prospered t o g e t h e r in c om fo r t and

happiness and s p o r t e d t o g e t h e r all the t ime. They had a male child.

365

When he w as a y e a r old the w i fe said, "Now we have been f r i e n d s fo r

t h r e e years . All t h a t t im e our l i fe has been ful l of c o m f o r t and joy.

Our son is one y e a r old and we have never had a b i r thday c e l eb ra t io n .

Three days from to m o r r o w , le t ' s have a big p a r ty and we can p r e s e n t

a huge offer ing for the fami ly of h is m a te rn a l uncle."

The husband thought t h i s w a s an e x c e l l e n t idea.

The woman sa id , "Sleep c om for tab ly t h i s evening. I w i l l make

all t h e prepara t ions ." [12:5] In the middle of the night many people

and all s o r t s of a n im a l s a ssem bled th e r e and w e r e bus t l ing around,

pe r forming lha sang,460 making o f f e r in g s of t o r m a 461 [13 :1] and

bu tche r ing a n im a ls f o r food o f fe r ings , s t r i p p in g away the m e a t and

draining the blood. Inconceivably v a s t o f f e r i n g s of hundreds of

thousands of o f f e r i n g s of s e r p e n t t o r m a s and o f f e r ings to v a r ious

d e i t i e s were s e t out. From moment to m o m e n t c o u n t l e s s t roops of

gos, nyen, and s e r p e n t s such as had never been seen be fo re en joyed

the offer ings. A f t e r all of them had gone back to t h e i r own p laces ,

t h e r e remained the w h i t e man on h is w h i t e horse . [13:2]:

"Hey, f riend. Your w i fe , as I explained to you before , is the

g r e a t e r daughter of the King of the nyen and she w a s given to Magyal

Pomra. Three days from now he is coming in all his pow er to t ake

her back. At t h a t t im e , do not look over a t your son, your c a t t l e or

any of your w ea l th . J u s t hold onto th i s girl w i th your l e f t hand and

hold th i s sw ord a l o f t in space w i t h your r ig h t hand and say th es e

words : 'I am Great Space Freedom Victory Banner (Long chen th a rp a

rgyal mtsan). The name of th is sw ord is R e s i s t l e s s Blazing Blade

( 'bar ba lan med). No one wil l t ake from me the woman whom I have

found on th is ground. ' Say th is , expand your bravery , and rem a in t h a t

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way. They wil l no t take your woman. You wi l l once again be

su r rounded by ev e ry th in g — your son and your weal th ." He sa id t h i s

and d isappea red .

T h ree days l a t e r [13:6] a black cloud cam e moving in f rom the

North, sending f o r t h a t e r r i b l e s c rea m in g sound. [14:1] T e r r ib le b o l t s

of red l igh tn ing and s to n e s r a ined down and t h e r e w e r e v a r ious

f r i g h t f u l m a n i f e s t a t o n s . The w i f e said, "The t ro o p s of Magyal Pomra

a r e coming. Now w h a t e v e r happens today depends on you."

He s e ized hi s w i fe and held on to her t igh t ly , j u s t the way his

f r i en d had told him. [14:2] He gr ipped h i s sw ord pommel and s tood

h i s ground. The t e n t , h is p o s s e s s i o n s , h i s f l o c k s — all w e r e c a r r i e d

a w ay by a m i s t and a wind. N e v e r th e le s s , f e a r l e s s l y he held his

ground. For a m om e n t his son w a s also l i f t e d by the wind. Then the

m an ' s h e a r t w a s t o r tu r e d by an unbearab le s e n se of poverty. He l e f t

h i s w i f e and ran quickly to grab hi s l i t t l e boy. The m o m e n t he se i z e d

him, howl ing and roar ing the g r e a t red wind and the fog mixed

t o g e t h e r , enwrapped the w i fe and c a r r i e d her away. Fa ther , son,

s w o r d — only t h e s e th ree w e r e lef t .

For th ree days they rem a ine d th e r e in a m i s e r y unl ike t h a t

anybody e lse has ever experienced.

Final ly , he w e n t back to the foot of the boulder and dwel led

the re . Eventual ly two came. One w as r id ing a sup rem e s t e e d

T urquo ise Mane (Ngag pa g.yu mgog). He w a s a w a r r i o r of

i n d e s c r ib a b le sp lendour (gzi b r j i d )462 The o the r w a s the w h i t e man

on the w h i t e horse. He said , "Souless being, your spinning head463 is

d i s t r a c t e d and deceived. When you do not heed the comm ands I u t t e r ,

your a c t i o n and a c t i v i t i e s wil l be ca r r i ed away by the wind j u s t t h i s

3 6 7

way.[ 14:63 I have come here to have a look a t my nephew. You j u s t

do w h a t ever you like." [15:1]

Since he now had n e i th e r w i fe , s u b s ta n c e , nor c a t t l e , he

thought they had come to s tea l away h i s son as well . He c o w ere d

the re in fear. Then out of the lake c am e a woman w i t h t u r q u o i s e

locks of hair. She took the child in he r a rm s . She poured ou t f o r i t a

sm a l l cup of milk and said, "I pi ty the poor m o th e r l e s s l i t t l e boy. I

m u s t give him a t iny port ion of my weal th ." Then she l e a p t back in to

the lake.

[15:3] The r a k s a s a 464 said "Li t t le child , not only do you have no

luck (m e r i t ) in Dharma or in weal th , bu t s i n c e you are m o t h e r l e s s ,

you also lack the good m e r i t of a c o m f o r t a b l e and happy life. May

you be brave, sk i l l fu l , and p ene t ra t ing in your act ions. Until the end

of your fami ly l ineage, may your pe rsonal pow er and independance

be g r e a t and may your head never be l o w e r than others ." Saying t h i s

he s t ro k e d h is head.465

To the f a t h e r he said , "Even though you are a b lunder ing idiot ,

s i nce I have become your f riend, ! have no choice but to r em a in your

boon fr iend. T here fo re I have no choice bu t to take revenge on Pomra

fo r w h a t he has done to you." [15:5] He took back the s w o r d and

t h r u s t i t into the she a th a t his w a i s t . Mounting the horse , he

disappeard. . The fr iend from before rem a ine d the re be fo re him. The

man asked, 'Who w a s t h a t splendid man who w a s j u s t h e r e ?

"That w a s the Raksa Thopa Tsai."

"Are you h i s son?"

"No. How could t h a t be? You m u s t n ' t t a lk iike tha t . I am the

inner m i n i s t e r Lhabu Nyur Khyog .466 Now, you go back to your own

368

bed and s t a y t h e re . The ch i ld 's por t ion of t h e w e a l th w i l l a r r i v e

then."

That even ing he s l e p t a t home. The nex t morning when he

awoke from h i s dream the re w a s the l i t t l e t e n t w i th all h i s t h in g s in

i t — the d o m e s t i c u t e n s i l s and p rov i s ions and f i f ty head of sheep.

Then they w e n t up and l ived th r e e y e a r s be tw een the t w o lakes .

One day, when the boy w as f ive y e a r s old, he w a s playing around the

Upper Lake. Out of the lake c a m e the blue woman who had appea red

befo re . "L i t t le boy, your h o r s e s a re in the v i l l age over yonder. I

c o n f e r on you the name P a t se i Bum (Brave Pow er Myriads, dPa' r t s a l

’bum)

The ch i ld sa id , "Did you sa y P a th a r Bum?" (Brave Freedom

Myriads, dpa' t h a r ’bum)

"No and s in c e you mispronounced your name, your m e r i t w i l l be

s m a l l and your w e a l t h n o n - e x i s t e n t . Although your d e s c e n d a n t s

w i l l be brave (Pa, dpa'), if you a lw a y s run away, you w i l l be f ree

( t h a r ) f rom harm. Give them e x a c t ly the sam e name as yourse lf ."

She sa id t h i s and d i sappea red in the lake.

[16:4] The l i t t l e boy w e n t back down and said, "Father, I w a s

wander ing around t h a t lake over there and m e t the blue lady again.

She con fe r red on me the name P a - t h a r Bum. And my por t ion of

h o r s e s is over in t h a t village."

His old f a t h e r a n sw e red "The day be fo re y e s t e rd a y when the

t r o o p s of [ 17: l ] Magyal Pomra came, I w a s a s brave as a man need be.

If you are brave enough you w i l l be ca l led brave; if you a re f r e e

enough you w i l l be cal led f ree . "467

Then f a t h e r and son w e n t down into the vi l l age to see w h a t

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w a s the re . Near the w h i te s tone w a s a sm a l l blue horse ado rned w i t h

a sadd le , b lanke t , etc. And th e r e w a s t h e s w o r d and panoply of a

w a r r io r . The old fa ther [17:2] began to do s a c r e d dances Ccham )

crying ou t "Oh Great. 0 Great , my young boy, all your w i s h e s have

been fu l f i l l ed ." Since t h a t day t h a t v a l l e y h a s been ca l led "0 Great "

(0 bZang) There at Oh Great Val ley t h e f a t h e r and son l ived fo r

s e ve ra l y e a r s and the son became even b r a v e r and more p e n e t r a t i n g

in his ski l l .

T here w a s a woman from the r eg ion around Nyag Rong n a m e d

Iron Lady Cagmo468 (ICags mo, pro. Chagmo). She had been s t o l e n

away and taken off by the power of an Ear th Lord. 469 Now she had

come to t h a t place where the young man lived. The two m e t and by

the p o w e r of ka rma through the d e s i r e connec t ion they fel l in love.

They b e c a m e man and w i fe and s e t t l e d in Upper Ma Thama. A boy

w a s born, p leas ing his g r a n d f a th e r who sa id , ‘The land here is

p l ea s in g and w i t h my grand son I am even m ore pleased. T h e r e f o r e I

name t h i s land Happy va l l ey (dga' mdo ).

When the l i t t l e boy grew o lde r , f i r s t he s e t t l e d in a p l a c e

ca l l ed The Val ley of Mar (sMar mDo)470 The mountain v a l l e y s t h e r e

w e r e all under the control of All Glo r ious Shul (Kun dpal Shul). So

the couple became s u b je c t s of G lor ious Shul. After a whi le ,

however , all the t r ibes and people in the highlands the re began to

g radua l ly be brought under the c o n t r o l of the young man. [Final ly]

even Glorius Shul could not hold h i s own s e a t and had to f lee to Kha

Khog. S ince the one who bowed h i s head became himself the head , the

son of Iron Lady was given the nam e Golok, which means " S w i t c h

Heads."

370

He had th ree sons. The o l d e s t w a s Great Power Myriads (dBang

chen 'Bum, Wang chen Bum). The m idd le one w a s Lotus Myriads

(Padma 'bum). The youngest one w a s named A kyong Myriads (A

sKyong Bum). 471 They s e t t l e d r e s p e c t i v e l y in Upper, Middle and

Lower Mar Valley (sMar Khog). T h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s spent all t h e i r

t im e in w a r , bandit ry, s t ea l ing , and so o n — only unvir tuous

a c t i v i t i e s . This was all they did. [18a]

The Vidyadhara Dudul Dorje (bdud 'dul rdo r j e ) 472, Kunzang

She rap of Palyul (kun bzang sh e s r ab of dpal yul)473, and the G r e a t

Widom Holder Kah Thog Rig azin Chen po (kah thog Rig 'dzin chen po ),

t h e s e t h r e e gurus v i s i t ed t h i s r eg ion once. All the Dharma l in e a g e s

[of the Golok] spread from th e s e th ree .

From A Kyong's l ineage c am e White Heart King (sNying dka r

rgyal , pro. Nyingkar Gyal). In h i s g e n e r a t i o n there was c o n te n t io n

among the b ro th e r s and cousins and so he w e n t down to the l o w e r

region. 474 Extending out f rom th e ground of the Earth Lord Nyenpo

Yutse (gnan po g.yu r t s e ) 475 w a s a r eg ion ca l led Gawar (ga var) . He

s e t t l e d t h e re . Near White Val ley Lake (Lung dkar, lung dkar ) he

found tw o handfu ls of gold. With t h i s he p r in ted a gold P e r fe c t io n o f

Wisdom Sutra. He changed hi s n a m e to Dharma Wealth King (Chos

phyugs rgyal , Cnochug rgyal) His d e s c e n d a n t s were all ca l led

Dharma Wheel (Chos skor, pro. Chokor).

In t h e F i f th genera t ion [ 19 :1 ] the f a t h e r was Dharma Wheel

Meri t B e n e f i t ( Chos skor bsod n a m s ’phan) Now, there w a s once a

w om an named Arrow of Pra i se (sTod kyi mda' , Tokyi Da) who w a s

fam o u s fo r having descended from a Tsen s p i r i t (btsan).476 Her

younges t daughte r , Garza (mgar za) w a s d i f f e r e n t from o th e r women:

371

dur ing he r m e n s t r u a l pe r iod ( ra k ta ' i tsams ) m ilk f lowed out in s t ea d

of blood. She had all s o r t s of d i f f e r e n t v i s i o n s and d ream s. Her

d a u g h t e r w a s named Life Pow er Maid (Tshe dbang sman, T sewang Men

)477 [and Life Pow er Maid m a r r i e d Dharma Wheel Merit. [ 19:3]

Once they w e n t to Lhasa fo r a v i s i t and to do p r o s t r a t i o n s . 478

One day w h i l e they w e re t h e r e they w e n t up to the s t a t u e of the One

Mother Glorious Goddess (Ma gcig dpal lha, Machig P a l - lh a ). Out of

the s t a t u e cam e tw o w om en who grabbed Life Pow er Maid from the

la rge c ro w d there . A door appea red on the r i g h t s ide of the s t a t u e

of Glor ious Goddess. It opened and she w a s a c tu a l ly taken through it.

Her p e r c e p t i o n s became in to x ic a t e d and confused . She f e l t 479 as if

she t r a v e l e d down a long road and f inal ly c a m e to the door of a

m i r a c u l o u s palace. She w a s held be tw ee n the tw o women and taken

inside. They c l imbed a c r y s t a l s t a i r c a s e [19:6]. Inside t h e r e w a s a

g r e a t v a s t co u r t f i l l ed w i t h many be ings— som e humans, o t h e r s

h u m an-bod ied but w i th v a r io u s non-human h e a d s .480

Some w e re dancing [20:1 ]. Some when they saw her , tu rned

t h e i r f a c e s away. Some of them w i t h d r e w f a r away. Some hid to the

s ide.

She asked the tw o l a d i e s w h a t t h e s e people were. The two

w o m e n a n sw ered , "These a re the r e t inue of the Great King. [20:2]

They a r e of the r ace of the gods and they a re playing and sport ing .

Some a re of the r ace of nyen and some a re s e r p e n t s (Tib: klu, Skt:

nagas ). Most of them a re po isonous and you could be harmed by t h e i r

po ison , e i t h e r by see ing them or touching them or through the

po isonous vapor of t h e i r b rea th . So, out of f e a r th a t they might harm

you, t h e y w e n t into a c o rn e r . "

372

They cont inued on and cam e to a l i t t l e door on the side. It

opened and they told her "You go in the re and s t a y there."

When she w e n t in, tw o l i t t l e boys led h e r upwards . [20:4] There

she found a handsome, e f fu lgen t , youthful P r ince s i t t i n g on brocade

cush ions on a j e w e l e d throne. He w a s c lo thed in b rocade c lo th e s and

wore a s i lken sku l lcap or tophet . He w as adorned w i t h many j e w e l

o rnam ents . He sa id , "[20:4] "You a re the Medicine Wife (skye dman ),

48,come up. You are not t i r e d a re you?

You used to live here and you w e re one of my lovers. Once, fo r

c e r t a i n r ea so n s , you had to be reborn in E a s te rn T ib e t (Khams).

There is a r e a so n t h a t we have now m et again."

He had he r s e a t e d befo re him and o f fe red he r food and drink. In

her v i s io na ry exper ience it s e e m e d t h a t they sp e n t a whole night

t o g e t h e r in joy and pleasure . 482 [21:1] The n e x t day th a t Great

Being placed an e x ce l l e n t s i lk s c a r f on her neck: "I am the son of

Zurphu ngapa (z u r phud Igna pa )— the divine chi ld wide ly known as

Godling Conchshell Topknot (Lha bu dung thod can, Lhabu Dung

Thocan).483 You and I have a ka rm ic connec t ion from a prev ious life.

In t h i s l ife, through the play of Pa dm asam bhava 's buddha ac t iv i ty ,

you have e n te r e d into a womb. But ac tual ly , I am the son of a nyen of

the r a c e of gods and you are a w om an of the r a c e of f l e s h - e a t i n g

dakinJs."

When they w e r e spo r t ing in Great Bl iss , the union of e s se n c e

drops (bdud th ig Je ) of the red and w h i te e l e m e n t s , 484 Rainbow Body

Vaj ra C J a ’ lus rdo r j e , J a lu )485 took bi r th in a body of f lesh and

blood. [21:3]

“In the fu tu r e may he b laze above the h o s t s of demons and

373

dom ina te them," he said. Then the tw o women from before cam e in

and sa id , "Now you go back home." That Great Being even e s c o r t e d her

for t h r e e s t e p s and took her be fore the door to the hall: [He said], "In

the fu tu re , when your t im e in the land of humans is f in ished and

come to an end, r e tu rn here."

She h e r s e l f did not w an t to go fo r she w a s qu i te a t t a c h e d to

him. But the re w a s nothing she could do and so she w en t out. There

a blue woman a rose and said [address ing the ch i ld in her belly]:

"I am the m o the r of all your cyc le s of l ives.

Child, in the space of the wisdom of m ind466

You have been playing in comple te e n jo y m e n t of g r e a t

b l i s s . 487

T ha t the t im e has come for you to b e n e f i t be ings

Has been s igna led by the s ign of the space dak inJs400

I w i l l [ 2 2 : 1 ] a lw ay s help you."

She p laced a w h i t e s c a r f around the w om an ' s neck. Above Life

Pow er Maid a l i t t l e window opened [in the wa l l ] and out of it leaned

a man full of splendor . He looked down on he r and s t r e w f l o w e r s on

her, saying:

"Once Lord Padma confi rmed him

As the Lord of the Life Force of the whole w or ld (of

Jambudvipa):

In the fu tu re a t the end of the Kalpa

He would take bi r th in a womb to perform b e n e f i t through

374

va r ious sk i l l fu l means.

At t h a t t im e I p roc la im ed and p ro m is e d tha t I func t ion as his

s e r v a n t . 489

Now the t im e has f inal ly come: i t i s marve lous, wondrous

indeed.

Even if he does not o f f e r to me, I w i l l not be idle to p r o t e c t

him.

And even if he does not command me, I wil l s t i l l a c t fo r him.

I proc la im this : I wil l not break my promise, sam aya490

May the ga rden of the teach ings f l o u r i s h in Lower Do Kham

(mDo kham s sm a d )491

It is in the reg ion of Rong where he w i l l benef i t beings, hi s

d isc ip le s .

And u l t i m a t e ly he wi l l be act ive in the f ield of d i s c ip l e s of

Maha China.452

May his l ife and a c t i v i t i e s be c o m p le te ly fulfil led."

He said t h i s and c losed the l i t t l e window.

A woman w i t h a dark brown body and full of sp lendor placed a

w h i t e s c a r f around her neck,said, "A !a la ho! Om Svasti," and

smil ing , w en t inside.

Then the tw o women took her b e tw e e n them and w e n t outs ide.

Next to the door w a s a f r igh tening Bhante 453 w i th a long braid t h a t

coi led on the ground. [23:1 ] He said,

"Oh, th is is the Blood Drinking Heruka.

375

Great and wondrous t h a t he t a k e s b i r th among humans.

The gir l is the f l e s h - e a t i n g dak i n i

The s e l f - e x i s t i n g lord, em ana t ion of the Sovere ign ,494

Once again com es to the land of Tibe t .

You a re the woman who wil l give b i r th to him."

When she looked over a t him he r body became numb and s h e fe l t

as if she w a s going to fa l l to the ground. The two g i r l s l i f t e d he r by

he r r ig h t and le f t a rm s and s t a yed t h e r e for a whi le w a i t i n g f o r her

to come to. [23:3] Then again they descended the s t a i r c a s e and w en t

out by the g rea t door. A wave of u n s t e a d i n e s s p a sse d over her , like a

pe rson in a cora c le boa t , and then in an i n s t a n t she found h e r s e l f

be fo re the door. She w e n t through it and founo h e r s e l f aga in be fo re

the s t a t u e of the One Mother Glorious Goddess. Then sh e c am e out of

the rea l door.

Her husband, Meri t Fur the r B e n e f i t (Sonam Phenyang), had also

come there . The tw o women said , "Here is your m ed ic ine w i f e ( skyes

dman) back.” She h e r s e l f cow ered t h e r e in shock and fea r .

The husband said, "Three days have gone by s inc e I l o s t you. I

l o s t t r a c k of you when you w e re in f r o n t of the s t a t u e of Glorious

Goddess. A f te r a day of looking fo r you, i f inal ly though t m aybe you

had f a l l e n into the we l l over t h e r e on the left . But I d idn’t s e e any

h in t of the body of my w i fe there .

[I a lm o s t gave up], but I w a s a sham ed and e m b a r r a s s e d . [24:1] I

thought , ”1 wil l never be able to r e t u r n to my own country w i t h o u t

my wife . 495 I t ’s rea l ly g r e a t t h a t you’re back. Where have you been.

Who gave you all t h e s e s c a r v e s ? ”

3 7 6

She said, "There w e r e t h e s e tw o ladies took me away. There

w e r e women and many beings and they gave me food and s c a r v e s and

all s o r t s of t h i n g s . " She told him vaguely and confusedly how she

had been given things , but could not explain in de tai l .

From tha t day on she w a s not the same. Her body w a s l ight and

he r in te l l igence w a s grea te r . She had c le a r d ream s and saw various

v i s io n s from t ime to t ime. And she would be p o s s e s s e d a t t im e s by

a god- l ike being. At those t im e s , she would te l l about th ings t h a t

w e re hidden from people 's knowledge and i t would tu rn out to be the

t ru th . 496

The o ther people who w e re companions the on p i lg r image said,

"This girl has e i t h e r been se ized by a demon or e l se has gone mad.

She 's not going to be a help to you anymore."497

They went to have an audience w i th the Sovereign Gyalwa

Jam pa l Gyamtso (rgyal ba ' j am dpal rgya m ts h o )448 There w e r e many

people who went t o g e t h e r to the audience. When they w e re all there ,

he said, "That Medicine Wife over there , have her come here."

He be s tow ed on he r a medic ine s t a tu e and a man d z i 499

p r o t e c t io n cord. When they a rr ived a t the hos te l th a t evening, the

whole c i r c l e of companions p a sse d the s t a t u e from hand to hand to

look a t it. Unfortunate ly , t h a t way i t fel l into the hands of a man

who w a s a g rea t s inner . This w a s a m is t ak e and because of it the

Gyalwa himse l f , who had w ished to be reborn in her womb, m is sed

h i s opportun i ty fo r t h a t good for tune. [25:1 ]

Then gradual ly the p i lg r im age moved ahead to i t s end. When

they had re tu rned back to t h e i r t h e i r home in Eas te rn T ib e t 500, to

the region cal led Dungbu Tra (gdung bu bra), they were surrounded by

3 7 7

r a i n b o w s and snow c l u s t e r s in the shape of f l o w e r s snowed down on

them. The lady had a v i s io n in which she s a w t h i r t e e n ho rsem en

r id ing a c r o s s the land. Not only she, but he r t r a v e l in g companions as

w e l l s a w the t h i r t e e n ho r se m en r ide around he r t h r e e t im e s and then

spe ed o f f into the high country. This w a s Nyenchen Thanglha 's way

of see ing her off f rom his country. And then in gradual s t a g e s they

t r a v e l e d the way to t h e i r own home and a r r iv e d th e r e easily .

Then i t came to p a s s t h a t the Only Mother, the P r o t e c t r e s s of

Mantra , E ka j a t i ,501 suddenly descended on her, p o s s e s s e d he r [25:4]

and said: " In th is land dem ons and devi l s Cdre bdud) are

propaga t ing . People w i t h p e rv e r t e d v iew s , c o r r u p t o r s of vow s

( s a m ay a c o r rup to r s ) , and people w i t h p e rv e r t e d a s p i r a t i o n s a r e

g a th e r in g here. This land cannot support the b i r th of the l i t t l e

ch i ld .502 You two as a couple are j u s t a ho te l t h a t has been r e n t e d

fo r a while . In r e a l i t y he is j u s t l ike me, a ch i ld of the gods." She

s a id t h a t and showed many s igns.

Then some people in the v i l l age said t h a t she had been taken by

the Great King of the Dons.503 Some sa id t h a t he w a s a mag ical

e m a n a t io n and they thought t h a t maybe Gesa r would be born to her.

[26:1 ] Someone sa id t h a t a devil w a s going to be born and he would

br ing abou t the degene ra t ion of the coun try of Khams (Eas te rn Tibet) .

And everybody quarre led w i t h each other .

In t h a t vi l lage the re w a s a s e e r who sa id t h a t he saw from

t i m e to t im e v is ions n e a r the house of the f a t h e r and the mother . He

sa id t h a t on top of th e i r house and in the f ie ld to the r igh t of the

house and o the r p laces a s we l l the re we re s o m e t i m e s many peop le

w e a r in g the bard's s a c r e d hat. 504 And they had p i tc h e d t e n t s and

378

w e r e invoking the gods and pe r fo rm ing s u p p l i c a t i o n s to them, but

only th rough the chan t ing of the m e lod ies of epics. They would s ing

of h o r s e s and they would s ing of w e a p o n s 505 and th e s e e r s a w t h a t

t h a t w a s all they did. So he thought t h a t they m ig h t be the c a u s e of

the m o t h e r ’s s i c k n e s s e s . 506

The f a th e r ' s a t t i t u d e , however , w a s n e i th e r po s i t i v e or

nega t ive . He j u s t l i s t e n e d and obeyed w h a t e v e r the god p o s s e s s i n g

the m o th e r said. So he asked the god: "Now to w h ich country do w e

have to g o ? ”

"Go upwards ( S o u t h w e s t ) and then i t w i l l be c lear ," it sa id . So

they did not l i s t en to the o th e r s and one night j u s t w e n t off. They

w e n t up to the fami ly of the m a te rn a l uncle. That tu rned out not to

be a s u i t a b l e place fo r t h e m to s t a y e i t h e r and so they kept on going

u p w a rd s f u r t h e r and fu r th e r .

Then they came to the place c a l l e d Dothog (mdo thog). The

m o th e r w a s p o s s e s se d by a god again and she sang in the m e lod ies of

epics:

"Ki Ki So So Imperial god,

P r o t e c t o r in sep a rab le f rom the divine Rare and

Pre c io u s Three J e w e l s .

And the Three Roots o f guru, yidam, and dákini.

S tay a lw ays i n se p a ra b le as my c r e s t ornament .

Lord Uddiyána Padma look on me w i t h compass ion .

Lords of the Five F a m i l i e s of the v i c t o r i o u s Ones, s ing the

a c c o m p a m m e n t . ( 2 7 :1 ]

379

The song is led by the m o th e r dakini.

It i s su re t h a t I w i l l not s t a y in t h i s place.

It is caught b e tw e e n the dev i l s and r a k s a s a s .

It i s the running ground of the t s e n and the dem onnesses .

Here you wi l l touch w i th hand and mouth sa m aya

c o r r u p t o r s . 507

O the rw ise , go to Yutse J a (gyu r t s e ' i rJa) .

On the o the r s ide of lake Yutsho Chugmo (g.Yu m ts h o phyug

mo),

In a pond in the r ig h t c o rne r ca l led Dark Red Rakta ( d m ar nag

Rakta)

There is a boulder t h a t looks like a w h i t e tent .

In t h i s place Mother you can give bi r th to your l i t t l e boy.

Or e l se , go to the Country of Ma (rMa) in Khams.508

This is the p lace where the r i c h n e s s of the Indian Dharma

ga thers .

Th is is the p lace where the r i c h n e s s of the l aw s of China

gather .

This is the p lace where the r i ch herds of the Yellow Mongols

gather .

This is the p lace where the good for tune of the land of T ibe t

ga thers .

Ma Yang Chug Mo, the land of Ling,

F u l f i l l s the a s p i r a t i o n p r a y e r s of the gurus of the oral

l i n e a g e s 509.

This is the p lace where the s iddh is of the the Yidam D e i t i e s

enter.

380

All the a usp ic ious co inc idence ( r ten 'b re l ) of the Mothers and

Dakinls w i l l a r i s e here.

The P r o t e c t o r s and P r o t e c t r e s s e s of the Dharma pe r fo rm the i r

buddha a c t i v i t y here.

The Eight Orders of Demons w i l l help and p r o t e c t here.

!f the young child is born in t h i s land,

He w i l l be the j e w e l on the c r e s t of the b lac k -h e a d e d humans."

Then the f a t h e r thought , [28:1] "I don' t even know where the

land of Yutse is. If she had ano the r divine p o s s e s s i o n , maybe we

could find ou t? The loca l s p i r i t s of the land a re so w ra th f u l and

powerfu l t h a t if the ch i ld w e r e born the re , we m ig h t a c c id e n ta l l y

i r r i t a t e them one day and e x c i t e t h e i r w r a th and pun ishm en t , a th ing

not to be desired. 510 So maybe the p lace of Murra Go Do (Mu ra sgo

mdo) in Ma Knog (rMa khog) is b e t t e r . There are a few d iv is ions of

people l iving there . 511 I think it would be adv is ab le to go and s t a y

there."

So they w e n t t h e r e and s t a yed a few days. But because of

some rea l ly su b t l e n e g a t iv e c ond i t ions the m o th e r be ca m e grave ly

ill. They did the p r a c t i c a l r i t u a l s 512 to cure her, bu t they had no

e f f e c t .

Now, in t h a t v i l l a g e th e r e lived a divine who w a s a medium for

the sam aya-bound de i ty Va j ra sadhu (dam can rdo r j e legs pa)513. In

a t r a n c e he said: "I am the lord of half the sky and land of th i s world

(Jambudvipa) . I am the p r o t e c t o r of the child who is in th is woman 's

box. The many a c t s you have com m ited while l iving among th es e

many d iv is ions have cau se d t h i s reac t ion . Do not s t a y here. Go to a

381

p lace w h e re you wi l l not touch w i t h m ou th or hand anyth ing touched

by o the r wom en .514 Go down now t o w a r d s shad . T omorrow m orning

when the moon of the f i f t e e n th day a r i s e s , a l i t t l e c i r c u l a r l igh t

w i l l a r ise . Near t h e re are g ras s l ands . On them you wi l l find f i v e -

co lo red r a in b o w s in a circle. Go there . S t a y t h e r e and i t is c e r t a i n

t h a t your a im s wi l l spontaneous ly be f u l f i l l e d . "

So they dec ided to do t h a t and ea r ly nex t morn ing they lef t .

[29: l ]They a r r ive d a t the top of the m oun ta in a t night. When they

looked down they s a w clear ly m a n i f e s t i n g all the s igns the S a m a y a -

bound had told them would be there . They w e n t t h e r e and j u s t n e a r

to t h a t p lace they ren ted a small tent . The f a th e r , m o the r , a s i s t e r -

i n - l a w on the f a t h e r ’s side and tw o s e r v a n t s l ived in t h a t ten t . All

t h e o t h e r s tu rned back to t h e i r own co u n t ry and the m o th e r l ived

th e r e touch ing nothing wi th hand or m ou th touched by anybody e lse .

Then on the eight day of the month w h ic h is in the P le iades ,

t h e th i rd lunar mansion, the m o th e r w a s p o s s e s s e d by a god:

"The S ix th Suddha, the Dharmakaya V a j ra a h a ra ,

Full of the b l e s s in g s of the Buddhas of the Five fam i l ie s ,

Tara Goddess , long-l i fe goddess ,

P lease g r a n t t h i s child the sup re m e abhiseka.

If you don’t know this p lace ,515

On the r i g h t s ide is the w a t e r f a l l of the Ma River ( rma chu).

On the l e f t s ide is the w a t e r f a l l of the Kong River (gong chu).

In f ron t is the w a te r f a l l of the Golden River ( g s e r chu).

It is ca l led Kong Ser Trashi Kha Oo (Kong Golden Auspic ious

mkha mdo).

382

On the th rone of the W is h - fu l f i l l i n g Gem

If you don’t know w ha t w om an i am,

Among the high rank of the imperial gods

i am Queen of P r a c t i c e ('Grub pa'i rgyal mo), the l i f e -h o ld in g

Mother .516

I have come to g ran t l o n g - l i f e em pow erm en t to t h i s baby.

A m i s t of b l e s s i n g s p i l e s laye r on layer.

A rain of s iddh i s f a l l s t inkl ingly.

A s h e a t h of l igh t rays of compass ion f l a s h e s out.

May your i n d e s t r u c t ib l e body be clo thed in Vaj ra a rm o u r . [3 0 :1 ]

May your unchanging sp e ec h m agne t ize the th ree r e a lm s .

May your i n d e s t r u c t ib l e mind hold the t r e a s u r y of Dharma

Of the Widom Holder P adm aka ra

May you be the ru l e r ove r the profound t e r m a s 517.

May you hold the t e a ch in g s of the Buddha. [30:2]

And may i t come to p a s s t h a t you de fea t the t ro o p so f Mara.

May you un i te the eight t r i b e s of Ling and

May your p o w e r and a b i l i t y for the White s ide be grea t .

May you e s t a b l i s h s e n t i e n t be ings in b l i s s

And may you t ake th e i r a s p i r a t i o n s to the u l t i m a t e end.

May you un i te the Three Realms

And subdue w i t h your l ight the three a s p e c t s of the

phenomenal world.

May the ausp ic ious sun of dharma dawn

And may you c o m p le te ly enjoy bl iss , happ iness and glory."

383

When she had sung this , t h e n from inside the m o t h e r ' s s tom ach

a vo ice said, "Noble Lady {A Che ), i t is good!" Everybody heard it.

Then on the t e n t h day of the month, a god p o s s e s s e d the

mother : "Today the t i m e has com e for the ch i ld to be born. [30:4]"

A f t e r a l i t t l e w h i l e the god sa id , "0, the dak in is s t i l l have not

arr ived! The p l a n e t s and c o n s t e l l a t i o n s have not come to g e t h e r in

the app ro p r ia te p a t t e r n yet. The t im e has not y e t come." And the god

d isappeared .

Again, on the fo u r t e e n th day, in the ea r ly morning the f a t h e r

had a dream in w h ich he saw t h a t before t h e i r l i t t l e t e n t many t e n t s

had been put up. Many g rea t be ings and women g a th e r e d and s e t up a

la rge r i tua l s t o v e 518 in the middle . They a r ranged on t h a t a f e a s t

w i t h all s o r t s of foods. [31:1]

Above t h a t on a g rea t th rone a g rea t being w e a r in g the sa c re d

ha t of a bard invoked the gods w i t h the m e lo d ie s of ep ic songs.

Some o the r s sang songs. Some did sac red dances on the dancing

grounds. Some o t h e r s were rac ing horses . Some w e r e shoot ing

a r ro w s . Again, on top of the r i t u a l oven, s e a t e d on a th rone w as a

w om a n adorned in many o r n a m e n t s and full of sp lendor . She said,

"This bi r thday c e l e b ra t io n m u s t go on fo r t h r e e days."

Others t h e r e w e r e of the r a c e of men; they s e em e d to speak all

s o r t s of d i f f e r e n t languages. They wore all s o r t s of d i f f e r e n t

o r n a m e n t s and n u m b er l e s s d i f f e r e n t s t y l e s of c lo thes . In his dream

v i s io n i t seem ed t h a t the place w a s c om ple te ly f i l l e d w i t h all t h e s e

beings.

Then on the f i f t e e n t h day a t day break, the m o th e r w a s

p o s s e s s e d by an e x t r e m e ly w r a t h f u l deity. He sa id "Hey you, s e t out

384

a cushion quickly! h a k e o f f e r i n g s of chemar, 519 drink, and the

s e l e c t offer ing. The t im e has come for the child to be born."

The fa the r , how ever , w a s used to taking o rd e r s from his w i fe .

But he w a s a fra id of the god who p o s s e s s e d hi s w i fe and he pu t ou t

the w h i t e wool cushion. He made o f f e r in g s and s e n t up ju n ip e r

smoke. He s e n t the s e r v a n t s out of the ten t . Then the f a t h e r a l so

lef t .

When the sun s t r u c k the p innac le of the t e n t , t h a t god shou te d

out "ha ha, you the man, come in he re and if you do not se rve t h i s

l i t t l e boy I 520 wii i indeed im m e d ia t e ly d e s t ro y your l ife [32:1 ] fo r

I do not c a r e much about the a c t i o n s and behavior of those who have

a human form."521

The man w as t e r r i f i e d and quickly w en t into the dwell ing. The

b i r th of the child had been a cc om pl i she d and he w a s s i t t i n g t h e r e in

the Vaj ra Pos ture . Rays of l ight cam e through a s l i t in the t e n t and

the son held them in h i s hand as he sa id "a a i i e t c . 522 as he s a t

there . The god spoke v a r io u s d i f f e r e n t languages and gazed up into

the middle heavens. The f a t h e r h i m s e l f cut the umbil ica l cord of the

baby and pe r fo rm ed the o th e r womanly dut ies .

He handed the ch i ld into the a rm s of the mother . The m o t h e r

sa id , “Bring s o f t milk and w a t e r and wash his whole body ca re fu l ly .

Man, you come from the ra c e of r a k s a s a s . We w e re connec ted by

p rev ious karma. Even then you w e r e a m ediocre se rvan t . This t im e

be a good se rv a n t to t h i s chi ld .523 If you and the wor ld have the

m e r i t to suppor t th i s being, then it wi l l be enough [to benef i t

beings]." Then the god d i sappea red . And then i t w a s morning.

437 Nyenchen Thanglha - This is a mountain range which extends Southeast of Kokonor

385

around the 36th paralell and south of that. It Is also the name of the god of this mountain, one

of the most important deities in Tibet and often considered the chief of the mountain gods. It

seems that in some legends he is a lake in this region as well as the mountain. (Nebesky-

Woykowitz 205-210 discusses his iconography. The story of his submission to

Padmasambhava is told in the Padms Kha Thang, see Le Diet de Padma or Le Grand 6uru

Padmasambhavaiopus cit.) p. 245. He is usually shown mounted on a white horse and his

retinue are usually large numbers of horsemen.

438 For a detailed treatment of the notion of cultural studies and post-colonialist discourse,

see Cultural Studies, ed. by Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paul Treichler, (New York:

Routledge, 1992), particularly the opening essay, pp. 1-16 and Horní K. Bhabha, 'Postcolonial

Authority and Postmodern Guilt," pp. 56-65. For a good recent discussion of the notion of

orientalism and post-colonial discourse, see The Journal of Aslan Studies, vol 53, number 1,

Feb. 1994, "Dimensions of Ethnic and Cultural Nationalism in Asia— A Symposium," pp. 3-

123. In this issue of the JOAS John D. Roger's examination of post-colonial discourse in Sri

Lanka is particularly interesting, as it shows the complexity of the problem using a great

variety of documentation. (John D. Rogers, "Post-Orientalism and the Interpretation of

Premodern and Modern Political Identities: The Case of Sri Lanka," pp. 10-23.) I believe his

ambivalent conclusions are like what I have found to be the case for a Tibetan sense of pre-

Buddhist identity. Cultural colonization by Indian Buddhism has clearly taken place and

domination of categories of discourse by the colonizing culture has clearly occured.

Nevertheless, this does not mean that there was a def inite Tibetan pre-Buddhist identity. The

essentialist position that a discrete native Tibetan religion called Bon pre-existed the period of

Buddhist domination is still questionable and may itself be a colonial period point of view. As

Rogers puts it for the category of "caste" in Sri Lanka, "There was clearly no precoionial

status quo waiting to be transformed by colonial discourse."

439 ¡t is possible that Tendzin Samphei's remark reflects Western influence. But this does

not mean that the observation that the Goloks are religiously primitive and of a more primal era

is solely a result of Western colonialist discourse. The History itself presents this idea as

well. In this sense it is an invaluable document offering a striking counter-example

"orientalism" or "post-colonialist discourse" argument that fascination with shamanism and

early religion is soley a result of Western imperialist condescension. For the argument of those

who oppose “orientalism" as a colonialist strategy of domination of discourse see Edward Said,

Orientalism (New York : Vintage Books, 1979).

440 j . f . Rock, The Amnye Ma-Chhen Range and Adjacent Regions, (Rome: Istituto italiano

per il medio ed estreme oriente, ¡956), pp. 123-131.

441 Despite this fact, Katia Buffetnlle, a French ethnologist recently traveled, a single

woman on foot, with pilgrimage caravans to Machen Pomra— her aim, to study pilgrimage

texts of the area. See "Le Grand Pelennage de L'A-mnyes rma-chen au Tibét: tradition ecrite,

réalités vivantes" by Katia Buffetrilie. Unpublished article available from author. Centre

d'EtudesTibétaines, Ave. Pres. Wilson, Paris.

442 The concept of mgo or "portal" (fr: seuil )is treated by Stein at some length in his

studies of early Tibetan divination poetry and Tun Huang records. See R. A. Stein, Annuaire du

College de France, Resume des cours de 1971- 1972, p. 504-505 et sq., p. 508 ; ibid., Resumé

386

des cours de 1972- 1973, p. 447. In exploring this notion Stein discusses practices and

usages of Chinese Taoism, Chinese 8uddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan native religion, and

the customs of certain other Central Asian groups. His frame of references is extremely broad

and comparative.

443 Anne-Marie Blondeau points out an additional complexity in this analysis of the Tibetan

concept of miasma. It is possible, in fact, likely that the term grib, "obstructed" or "polluted"

had a meaning in this semantic family before it became the translation for varana. Now the

Sanskrit term definitely means "veil" and communicates the sense of obstruction. But is that a

meaning contributed to an original Tibetan concept of pollution in grib or was that the original

meaning of grib? It is possible that grib orsgrib originally meant some kind of Tibetan miasma

and gained the additional sense of veil or blockage when it became associated with the Indian

tradition.

444 The word obscured is not present in the text. I have used it in order to supply the rest

of the explanatory apparatus in the Buddhist description of the events. My sanction is the

complex of other terms which accompany grib and are present in the explanations in the text.

And then the final scene in which the child is born, like Gesar in the Mipham version, chanting a

purificaton mantra. The philosophy of obscuration as ritual impurity as I have presented it here

is drawn from the explanations that accompany Tantric Buddhist purification rituals such as the

vajrasattva practice.

445 The Manjusri-mQIa-kalpa is in theory a vaipulya sOtra, part of the Avatamsaka . In it

Shakyamuni Buddha gives numerous instructions to Manjusri, some of them of a tantric nature.

For a French translation of one small part see Ariane Macdonald, Le mandala du

manjuirimulakalpa (Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve. 1962).

446 This is a name of gNyan chen Tnang lha. Nebesky-Wojkowitz, pp. 100, 130. 258. He is

literally the owner of the land (gnas bdag)— that is, the deity who rules over that territory.

"He always maintains..." means that he always appears in wrathful aspect.

447 nyen - (gnyan ) a class of deity usually associated with mountains, mountain ranges,

and the sides of mountains.

448 zo dor - "A local deity who protects the locality and is the chief of the earth lords

there or a most wrathful deity." (Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo, p. 2 4 7 1.)

That the white boulder is his gateway means that when the zodor leaves to go

somewhere else, he leaves from that place, when he returns, he returns to that rock. He

enters the world via that boulder.

449 This could be Nyenchen Thanglha, who is described this way in some manifestations.

Nebesky-Wojkowitz pp. 100, 130, 258. But as the story unfolds we find out that this is a

minister of Nyenthen Thanglha.

450 lha'i bla zog- bla or !ha (pronounced "la") is a kind of soul which all people possess.

When it leaves the body, soon after the person must die, for it is responsible for the life

principle. As in Slavic folklore, it can be hidden in an object away from the body. This is a

m otif very similar to the Russian folktale by the name "Koshchei Bezsmertny ("Koshchei the

Deathless')."

4 5 1 khyod gyi pa ma byas song — According to lama Tendzin Samphel, this expression

means 'you did not suceeed."

387

452 The language of this passage is a obscure.

453 Many Tibetan lineages are lead by reincarnations of the sectarian leader. But the

Shakyapas, for example, use a method of descent through family to ensure the continuity of

their religious leadership.

454 Obscure.

455 Magyal Pomra is another nyen and the god of a mountain range in the 6olok region. He

is a very important deity and figures as a major character in the Tibetan Gesar of Ling Epic.

456 "... given to you once.' This is a strange expression. At this point in the story it

means little. But as the story goes on, the sinister meaning of the expression 'once' will

become clear.

457 'Your heads will never be lowered.' - a pun on the name Golok, which literally means

'switch heads' as in to change leaders by placing another person at the head or tn charge.

458 'Wealth' (n o r) This expression, which usually is translated as wealth or jewels, in

the Golok dialect and in many other dialects as well, usually means sheep, livestock, and

horses. The friend god is here offering the golok a small herd as a consolation prize if he lacks

the hardihood to touch the third daughter.

459 The speech here is thick w ith colloouialisms and humorous Golok dialect.

460 The famous offerings of jumper smoke that are a hallmark of native Tibetan religion.

46 i Ritual cakes.

462 The word 'splendor' (gzi b r j id ) has a special meaning in these texts. Literally it

means majesty or splendor. But it only occurs in people who have great personal dignity and

confidence. And so, it has become a word for kingly confidence as well. Thus, charisma would

be a good translation as well, particularly if one considers the use of this term in Byzantine

Orthodox Christianity.

463 'Spinning head' is a Tibetan expression for a person who is distracted by a deceiver

and then robbed while his head is turned.

464 The Raksasa - This unquestionably is Nyenchen Thanglha, the I Oth Bhumi Bodhisattva

zodor and sa bdag or ‘proprietor" mentioned in the beginning. There is another possible

translation of the term raksasa. v/e have taken it in this translation to refer to the wrathful,

demonic form the zodor takes when he appears in the human realm. Macdonald points out,

however, that the word also means "protector” and could refer to his benevolent activity for

human friends and followers of the Buddhist religion.

465 Again puns on the name Go-iog.

466 Lhabu - devaputra, the generic term for the luminous spirits who live m the god

realms. Literally it means ‘ son of a goo.'

467 Obscure passage— puns on the meaning of father and son- names.

468 Nyag Rong - A region along the Nyag chu river (Chinese name Yarlung River), longtitude

100, between 32 and 30 lattitude. This is an area south of Golok territory about twohundred

kilometers West of Chengou. lCag mo is a name often associated with the Goloks.

469 Earth Lord - sabdag, a kind of local spirit attached to a specific locality. Tendzin

Samphel: Such spirits often steal human women, who are taken away to distant mountain tops

and lonely places and later found there. After having been kidnapped by spirits for a certain

time, they are returnee and re-enter human society. Of course, Nyenchen Thanglha was the sa

388

bdag, proprietor of his region. So it was probably he who ravished Iron Lady.

470 sMar mDo is probably located in the Northwestern portion of 6olok territory along the

rMa chu river. But the name rMa and sMar are associated through an ancient tradition of

variant spellings and localizing this place is extremely difficult. Stein in Les Tribus(50-53)

associates it with several important tribes of the name Ma and admits its involvement with the

Gesar epic, somtimes a name for a portion of the land of Ling.

471 a Kyong - A fter this the story w ill branch and treat of the Archung or Achung branch

of the Goloks. Stein provides close philological work to show a relationship between the stories

that involve descendants of this family in the Eastern Tibetan versions of Gesar and interesting

details of the Ladakhi Gesar. See the section on Yutse in the introduction to this translation.

472 Vidyadhara DGdul Dorje - rig 'dzin bdud ’dul rdo rje. See Stein, '59, p.70. This could

be the Sixteenth Karmapa, born in 1733. But there is no record that indicates his activities in

this territory.

473 Palyul is a famous Nyingma monestary south of Dergé. Today the teachings of the

Palyul school thrive in a community of American Buddhist disciples living around Poolesville,

Maryland. Curiously, the various esoteric schools of Buddhist and folk religious practice that

thrived in the Golok area are now well represented by a number of diverse meditation groups in

the Delmarva and New Jersey areas of the United States.

474 m otherwords, he went northwards. As we see in Stein’s complex arguments on the

tribal, geographic, and ethnic associations of Yutse, it appears that Achung traveled

northwards towards Jyekundo and the region around the source of the rMa Chu, the Yellow

River. There one finds names of families and terrestial eminences which are like the place

names in this History of the Golok.

475 Nyenpo Yutse -gnan po g.yu rtse - Another holy mountain sacred to the Goloks. The

deity is a nyen, sometimes called "the divine child ( lhabu) of Magyal Pomra. In The Horse Race

Book of the Mipham version of the Gesar of Ling Epic, Gesar goes to this mountain to find his

magical mount, which he calls a "wind horse' (rlungrta) . The place is associated with the

royal family of Minyag. There ts a study of it in Stein '59, pp. 191-193. It also figures

centrally in the Book of the Epic devoted to Gesar's adventures in the land of Minyag. Stein

p. 192: this place is particularly associated with the descendants of the A Kyong branch of the

Golok.

476 btsan - Tsen - gods who inhabit the sides of mountains, are often the gods of

impressive boulders, usually red in color.

477 Life Power Maid - Tshe dbang sman - Literally this means Longevity Empowerment

Herb. The word sman is short for sman mo, which means literally "herbal lady" or "medicine

lady." It is a standard epic and folk term for a housewife.

Her name, Longevity Empowerment, is extremely auspicious. The Longevity Empowerment is a

very important ceremony which is meant to confer long-life on the recipient. It is often given

to gurus at the request of their disciples. The most popular deity involved with this

empowerment is Amitabha, whose name is taken to mean 'lim itless life." There is also,

however, a very important local Tibetan deity, one of the twelve istanma) Tenma, who is

named Long Life Lady (Tseringmo). She was a vicious demonness tamed first by

Padmasambhava and then later again by Milarepa. Life Power Maid is a reincarnation of the

389

Flesh-eating Dakini and I wonder if this might not mean that she is related in a way to the cult

of Tseringma. Practices invoking Tsermgma still flourish. I once observed a mirror divination

that invoked her. It was performed by a lama with connections of kinship to Nyingma lamas

involved in the Golok region.

478 Knowing the great distance between Lhasa and the liagyal Pomra region, this sentence

clearly indicates to the reader that they set off in a large on an extended pilgrimage.

479 The ravishment of Life Power Maid is told from the point of view of her intoxicated

perceptions. The Tibetan, both grammatically and lexically, definitely brackets the question of

the actuality of these events as reported. Something magical happened involving some sort of

magical beings, but further than that we cannot know. We only know that this is how the deity

ravished housewife experienced it all. The language here is precise and yet dreamy and

fantastic— a stark contrast to the matter-of-fact reporting of the encounter between the

firs t Golok and the gods at Sky Lake.

480 i thought of these as a collection of local deities. But Tendzin Samphel responded to

them as Buddhist iconographic deities, saying that they were like the Peaceful and Wrathful

Deities of the Bardo instructions. See The Tibetan book of the dead: the great liberation

through hearing in the dardo , by Guru Rinpoche according to Karma Lingpa; translated with

commentary by Francesca Fremantle & Chogyam Trungpa, (Boston: Shambhala, 1987).

4 8 1 Medicine Wife (skye sman ) Another village expression for a beautiful woman.

482 in her visionary experience - The tibetan qualifies all her experiences from the moment

of her kidnapping as nyams, meditation experiences. In other words, she is half-intoxicated or

confused, as if she were in a dream. Later she w ill only vaguely remember this time. TS

remarks that time seems to move differently in the human and the god realm. For what is one

night to Life Power Maid is many days to her husband in the terrestrial world of Lhasa.

483 According to Nebesky-Wojkowitz (Oracles and Demons of T ibe t ) this is a form of

Nyenchen Thangla. But see the introduction to this translation for the associations with sacred

geography.

484 'the union of essence crops of the red and white elements.' In the Indo-Tibetan system

both men and women are conceived of as having semen. The male semen :s the white drop and

the female is the red drop, '//hen these two combine, conception occurs.

485 \Ja' lus rDo rje - name for 'Jigs med gLing pa. In other words, Do Khyentse Yeshe

Dorje is an incarnation of Jiame Lingpa, who, through the machinations of Padmasambhava, has

once again been reborn in Tibet.

486 rigpa'i ye shes - literally, the vigySjnSna, the knowledge wisdom. But in ati texts

rigpa , which usually means wisdom, is often better translated simply as mind.

487 longs su spyod- there is a word play on the word Sambhoga of SambhogakSya. The

literal meaning of longs spyod or Sambhoga (Skt.) in Tibetan is enjoyment. Sambhoga means

'complete enjoyment.' But this ¡s also the name for the level of 8uddha who is represented

richly ornamented in iconography and who appears in visions to advanced disciples, in other

words, 'Ja‘ lus rDo rje has been dwelling in Pure Lands as a glorious buddha during the period

before his rebirth as a humaa

488 space osktnls - These are the oakinls who dwell in space. They are thus not the

worldly dSkinls, but the dSkinls from beyond the world or more precisely jnSnadSkinls, wisdom

390

<iSkinls. The sign of the dSkinls, brda las 'byung, is a symbolic appearance of one of these

divine women to deliver a message. For example, (TS) when a great spiritual master's time of

activity for the benefit of beings in the human realm is about to end, a dakini may appear to him

to deliver the message that soon he w ill be called back to a higher realm. This is known as the

invitation of the dakini ibson ma).

489 "be his servant" - zhabs tog bsgrubs pa.

490 "samaya“ - a Sanskrit word meaning "seal" or "promise" or "commitment." Here it is

used like a mantra and means something like 'Let my oath be sealed."

4 9 1 This is the region known today as Amdo, north of Eastern Tibet.

492 Maha China - The Tibetan expression includes the Sanskrit term "Maha".

493 Bhante - an Indie term of address used usual 1y for monks and meaning something like

"venerable one."

494 mnga. bdag - The Sovereign, meaning Trisong Deu Tsan, one of the kings of Tibet who

sponsored the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet.

495 TS: ra ryu l should be rang yul.

496 Ikoggyur means things that people didn't know. For example, she could teli about

future events. And then it would turn out that they were true. This would happen while she

was being possessed by this deity.

497 ‘She won't be a help to you anymore." In other words, “she w ill not perform her

wifely duties now and you should abandon her."

498 This is probably the Dalai Lama, holding court in Lhasa and giving blessings to great

crowds of pilgrims.

499 A protection cord is a red string which with a knot in it. It is blessed by a guru and

then tied around a disciple's neck as a symbol of the connection between teacher and disciple. It

is considered to protect the disciple against mishaps. I do not know what precisely a man dzi

protection cord is.

500 mar rang yul - You go "up" to Lhasa and "down" when you head Northeast to Khams.

These directional statements depend on where one starts from.

5 0 1 Ekajati is the protectress of the Ati teachings, the ultimate and highest instructions :n

meditaton practice. She has one eye, one turquoise lock of hair, one breast, and one fang.

502 This land cannot support the birth of the little chi Id - de yi bu chung btsas pa'i gnas sa

y ism i theg. TS: This means that the land would not be suitable or conducive to the upbringing

of such an enlightened being. The baby would die if he were raised in such an impure

environment. R3K: This message w ill be brought to the parents several times. It is a general

belief of Tibetan Buddhists that tulkus (sprul sku ), reincarnations of great lamas, must have

very special families or else they w ill suffer irreversible mental and physical injuries m their

childhoods, if they are not placed in an environment suitable for the study and practice of

religion, they may go mad or die. In that case you would say that the country could not hold up

(mi theg ) or support such an incarnation.

503 Don - gdon, invisible spirits who create illness, obstructions, and suoden irruptions of

negative emotions, as well as accidents, and major and minor mishaps. Dons move auickly and

invisibly, suddenly landing on a person when that person loses his or her uoliftedness for a

moment and falls from alertness. Dons are also famous for sudenly possessing a person ano

391

while in control of the body causing that person to commit suicide usually by jumping in a

river or leaping off of a cliff. If somebody k ills him or herself unexpectedly, it said that they

were 'seized by a don.*

504 See introduction about the priestly functions of the epic bards and the connection of

Oesar of Ling with native religioa

505 rta bshad dang go mtshon gyt bshad pa - l iterally, they explained horses and they

explained weapons. TS: In other words, they would sing songs in praise of the excellent

qualities of horses and in praise of famous weapons.

506 cause of sickness - literally it says that he thought they were nad bdag, sickness lords

attacking the mother. These would be spirits who cause illness. There are many different

kinds of invisible spirits that could benadbdag.

507 kha lag brei pargda* -TS: In other words, you w ill have to touch things they touched

with your hands and eat the same things they eat with your mouth. You w ill be connected to

samaya corruptors through eating and through touch. RBIC The effect of corrupting samaya is

that one is obstructed, gribpa. In a sense this obstruction has the same place in Tantric

buddhism as ritual pollution in other religions. That is to say. those who violate their vows are

considered to be full of grib pa,- obstructions. The metaphorical language which is used to

describe these obstructions or "obscurations' presents them as a substance which must be

cleansed or else one will suffer harm. The harm w ill occur as ill luck striking one in body

(illness, poverty, death), speech (misunderstanding the dharma), or mind (failure to have

meditation experiences and the visions which are signs (rten 'brel) of success. More research

on this question would be in order. An interesting method would be to ignore the metaphysical

explanations of the pandits as regards key terms like grib pa and analyze the intent of the

metaphorical language in narrative literature. This would give us a clearer view of the non­

scholastic understanding of many Buddhist teachings.

508 the Country of rfla - This is the region around Mount Ma rGyal sPom ra.

509 bka' brgyuo bia ma - TS: This refers to the gurus of the snyan rgyud, the hearing or

ear-whispered lineage, among the three lineages of the Nyingma system. See footnote 384.

5 10 irritable - phog thug shor - TS: Tibet has many places which are uninhabited and when

you enter one of those places, it is very easy to irritate the local deities, to excite their wrath

and punishment. For example, if you urinate in a sacred stream or cook rotten meat, it can

excite the irrascible local deities and they w ill harm you.

5 1 1 rudud- division is originally a m ilitary classification of troops, but has come to be

used to indicate tribes of a certain size. But it situ has its military connotation. Stein in Le

Tnbus, p. 68, relying on Chinese texts reconstructs the development of communities of

brigands, descended from disbanded groups of slaves and troops who were stationed in North

Eastern Tibet in the ninth century. Particularly in Yarmo thang these groups were organized

originally in 'divisions' and kept this m ilitary name for the groupings within the tribe.

512 practical rituals - rim gro phran bu Tucci defines these as rituals which aim at

practical attainments in the relative world, such as curing sickness. They are also called sku

rim. The Religions of Tibet, p. I ¡5.

5 13 Another important protector of religion, dharmapSla, like all the other deities

mentioned in this text, he was subdued by Padmasambhava and 'bound by oath' or 'bound by

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samaya. Thus he is of the class of the dam can, the "samaya-bound." Nebesky-Wojkowitz

devotes a chapter to his iconography and theogonies. pp. 154-159. He is believed to be on the

verge of enlightenment and about to pass from the order of the worldly deities to that of the

transcendent deities. He is associated with mountains and boulders and in fact carries a

belows, telling us that he was once the god of black-smiths.

514 TS gives further examples here of being contaminated by touch and mouth. She might

have eaten food touched by other women or worn clothes they had worn. Macdonald remarks

that Tendzin Samphel's explanation is controversial. TS's interpretation of the text reflects

the attitude discussed above which reads grtbpa , in effect, as miasma.

5 15 Macdonald remarks that this exact expression often occurs when a possession takes

place.

516 in other words, she is a goddess of longevity.

5 17 terma - ( g t e r m a ) "Found teachings." When Padmasambhava taught in Tibet he had his

disciples bury the principal texts and religious artifacts of his tradition. Then those disciples

undertook to be reborn again and again in Tibet to rediscover these teachings and make them

freshly available to later generations. Jigme Lingpa and one of his reincarnations, Do Khyentse

Yeshe Dorje were famous tertons or finders of these texts.

518 This ritual stove is a special kind of fire altar used to make smoke offerings in the

tradition of native Tibetan religion. When one is going to make really large and numerous

offerings to the local deities or in the tradition of the Gesar of Ling Epic then such a stove is

put to use. it is also used extensively in the non-Buddhist Tibetan religion called Bon. The

stoves I’ve seen have a fla t top, stand about three feet off the ground on three legs and have a

large opening in front. Juniper branches can be placed in the stove and lit to make an extensive

lha bsangs offering. There is sometimes room on top of the stove for further offerings to be

placed When the fire is well lit and the column of smoke is well established, then pieces of

brocade, chemar, and other offerings can be placed in the fire through the hole in the top of the

stove from which the smoke escapes.

5 19 chemar- phye mar - Macdonald: A m ixture of barley flour gri I led w ith butter. Used as

an offering substance in native Tibetan ceremonies. "Drink" here refers to the skyem the

typical non-Buddhist offering of a delicious liauor. The "select offering* refers to a special

tantric offering made to a god. When a divine feast is held, the main feast substance is divided

into two sections. One is offered to the god and the other distributed to the practitioners. The

one offered to the god is called "the select offering." The language here is not lovely or

gracious, but abrupt and rude. I have translated it in the same tone of voice in English.

i speculate that this rude command from the god is make-work to keep the husband

occupied while his w ife gives birth. Gathering the necessary substances for the chemar,

formuiatng the drink offering, and producing the select offering should take even a man who is

prepared to perform those activties perhaps thirty minutes.

520 TS corects 32 :1, da Ita nyid ba knyod to da Ita jyid du khycd.

521 Literally he says, "I don't know much about....* The idea is that the deity who is

possessing temporarily the body of the mother does not care about the human custom in which

the man does not serve, but >s served. He insists that the father take a woman’s traditional role

and that he take a subservient role to his son. it should be noted that this is a particularly

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wrathful deity.

522 a 3 i I... The Buddhist mantra which is composed of all the letters of the Sanskrit

alphabet— used in purification practices.

523 it is still the god possessing the woman who speaks.

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Chapter VI

Conclusion

This has been a s tudy of the cosmology of a por t ion of the

Gesa r Epic and the ope ra t ion of t h a t cosmology a s l i t e r a ry

machinery . It i s the l i t e r a r y agenda which o rgan ized the d iv e r s e

app roa c hes to r e s e a r c h and ana ly s i s combined in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n

and in t h i s conclusion I would like to su m m a r i z e w ha t such a

l i t e r a r y agenda can c o n t r ib u t e to Gesa r s t u d i e s and how it changes

G esa r s tud ies .

If w e look at W es te rn approaches to the ep ic genre in g ene ra l ,

we w i l l s e e the sa m e odd combina t ion of app roa c hes to the s u b j e c t

m a t t e r . F i r s t t h e r e is an ana ly s i s of plot. As a n a r r a t i v e w i t h a p lo t

s t r u c t u r e , the epic can be the o b j e c t of f o r m a l i s t s t u d i e s w h ich

exam ine i t as a purely l i t e r a r y phenomenon. Th is is w h a t A r i s t o t l e

did in hi s Poetics when he a t t e m p t e d to de f ine w h a t a w e l l -

p ropor t ioned and p aus ib le plot would be. Modern th inke rs ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y s inc e the New Cr i t i c i sm school have thought t h a t in

looking a t the plo t th i s way we are seek ing out the " l i t e r a r i n e s s " of

the work. And w o r k s t h a t show a r t in t h e i r p lo t s t r u c t u r e a re

thought to d e se rve the te rm belles le t t res , to be e spec ia l ly l i t e r a r y

a r t i f a c t s .

The I l ia d is such a work. It has a p lea s ing s to ry s t r u c t u r e . I ts

p lo t s a t i s f i e s the a e s t h e t i c p r inc ip le s e nunc ia ted by such as

A r i s t o t l e and Horace. We have looked a t Bow ra 's and Greene’s

upda ted A r i s t o t e l i a n t r e a t m e n t s of the I l ia d and seen t h a t a f t e r

c e n t u r i e s of such c r i t i c i s m , Homer's ep ic s s t i l l s t a n d up to the

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analys is . Desp i te changing fa sh ions in l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s and a wor ld

of new da ta , the concep t of the I l ia d a s a w e l l - w r o u g h t and s ingle

work of a r t s t i l l ho lds w a te r .

And ye t , a t the sam e t im e , t h i s a e s t h e t i c t r e a t m e n t of the

I l ia d has n eve r been enough for l i t e r a ry scholar s . They cannot help

but a lso t r e a t the so c i o -p o l i t i c a l component of the epic. For

example, t h in k e r s f a s c i n a t e d by the I l ia d cannot ignore the

t r em endous educa t iona l role i t played in anc ien t Greek soc ie ty . The

c o m m e n ts of P la to ' s c h a r a c t e r s in his dialogues document i t s

c en t r a l ro le in the c o n s t ru c t io n of Greek rel ig ion and iden t i ty . And

so, the s t r u c t u r a l i s t s who de l igh t in examining the pure fash ion ing

of plot are the sa m e sc h o la r s who examine the s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l ro le

of the epic as the " t a l e s of the t r i b e " — the t ex t w h ic h in fo rm s i t s

r e a d e r s on the e s s e n t i a l s of t h e i r own cu l tu ra l and na t iona l iden t i ty .

These tw o s o r t s of s t u d i e s — one of the p lo t and the o th e r of

the po l i t i ca l f r a m e w o r k typ ica l ly go hand-in-hand , a l though they a re

m ethodo log ica l ly qu i te d i f f e r e n t f rom one another.

There is a th ird e le m en t which usua l ly is s t u d i e d in pa ra l le l

w i t h th e s e two. The o ra l i t y of the I l ia d makes i t a pe r fo rm a n ce

tex t . This im m e d ia te ly br ings into the mix of s c h o la r ly conce rns the

s tudy of r i tu a l , which is taken to be the pr imal i n s t a n c e of

pe rformance . For example, none of the Homer s c h o l a r s to whom we

have r e f e r r e d in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n l e f t ou t an a n a ly s i s of the

re l a t io n sh ip b e tw ee n the epic genre and l i tu rg ica l p r a c t i c e s .

Andrew Ford examined the Proem to the I l ia d and found it to be a

genuine i n s t ance of a r e l ig ious supp l ica ton or hymn. Bowra looked a t

the or igins of the epic genre in choral hymns. Greene developed his

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ideas of the d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n the s e m a n t i c of r i tu a l p o e t ry and

s e c u l a r poe t ry and s p e c u l a t e d on the n a tu r e of d i f f e r e n t ep ics from

t h a t point of view.

And so, i t s e e m s t h a t the Weste rn t r a d i t i o n of Homeric s tu d i e s

has a lw ay s combined a t l e a s t th ree d i s c i p l i n e s of a n a l y s i s , t h ree

kinds of s tu d i e s : a s tu d y of p lot s t r u c t u r e a s in the Poet ics , a s tudy

of re l ig ion and cosmology , and a more or l e s s po l i t i ca l s t u d y of the

soc ia l or t r ib a l r e l a t i o n s involved in the p e r fo rm a n c e and recep t ion

of the epic. This t h r e e - f o l d s tudy is, I w ou ld say, typ ica l of Western

c u s t o m s of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

I have c o n t r a s t e d in th i s d i s s e r t a t i o n such a l i t e r a r y approach

w i t h the p r e v a l e n t anthropologica l or e thno log ica l p r a c t i c e s

W es te rn s c h o l a r s use in examining Asian epics . We have men t ioned

s c h o l a r s such as Dumézi l, Wendy Doniger, Biardeau, Van Buitenen,

and Hi 1 t e b e i te l . These a re th inke rs t r a in e d in the d i s c ip l in e we cal l

today "Religious Studies" or in sociology, or h i s to ry of r e l ig ions , or

an th ropo logy— va r ious branches of the so c i a l s c i ences . They have

used ep ic s such as the Mahâbhârata to p u r sue q u e s t io n s about the

n a tu re and o r ig in s of r e l ig ious thought and about the p o s s ib l e

e x i s t e n c e of un iversa l m o t i v e s underlying all wor ld re l ig ions . 524

Without p re jud ice a g a i n s t the i r work , I have s im p ly labored to

expose how d i f f e r e n t it i s f rom tha t of a s c h o l a r such a s m y s e l f — a

pe rson w i th a p r im a r i ly l i t e r a r y agenda. To a person w i t h an

an th ropologica l agenda, the o rganiza t ion of the five c h a p t e r s in th i s

d i s s e r t a t i o n m igh t seem odd and th row n toge the r . But t h e s e

c h a p t e r s pursue a l i t e r a r y quest ion which cannot eas i ly be asked in

any o th e r way or de a l t w i t h in an order much d i f f e r e n t f rom the one

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I have employed.

Let me explain why t h i s is so. In o rd e r to deal w i t h a t e x t

f rom a l i t e r a ry point of v iew , one m us t f i r s t de f ine o r iden t i fy i t s

u n i ty — the boundar ie s of the tex t . One m u s t t r y to f ind in the m a s s

of e d i t i o n s and v a r i a t i o n s a s ing le l i t e r a r y work w i t h a beginning,

middle , and end. W ithout t h a t pr ior d e te rm in a t io n , ou r A r i s t o t e l i a n

c r i t i c a l s t u d i e s of b e l le s Jettres could not proceed . Without an a t

l e a s t p re l im ina ry d e f i n i t i o n of a s ingle work , w e could not ask the

q u e s t io n s involved in the Poet ics any more than a b io log i s t could

pe r fo rm d i s s e c t i o n s w i t h o u t a l ready being in p o s s e s s i o n of whole

organisms .

Of course , the denia l of such un i t i e s is p r e c i s e ly the b a s i s of

D e r r ida ’s d e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t approach to l i t e r a t u r e . But th i s is an

approach expl ic i t ly opposed to the e n t i r e W e s te rn t r a d i t i o n of

c r i t i c i s m , which he c a l l s logocentric. I have not h e s i t a t e d to ignore

a ph i losophical world w h ic h den ies the p o s s i b i l i t y of my beginning

to pe rfo rm the f u n c t ions of my p ro f e s s i o n — to e l u c i d a t e l i t e r a r y

w o rk s fo r a reader.

Of course , as S t e in and his s u c c e s s o r s have shown, th i s is a

vexed i s su e in Gesa r s t u d i e s , for the range and v a r i e t y of ve r s io n s of

t h i s epic is much v a s t e r than anything e ncoun te re d in the annal s of

W es te rn l i t e r a ry c r i t i c i s m .

Now, s ince we m u s t f i r s t have a uni ty if w e a re to examine

t e x t f rom a l i t e ra ry po in t of v iew, th i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , a f t e r a broad

in t roduc t ion , cons idered the ques t ion of w h e t h e r o r no t the re is a

"com ple te Gesar." And s i n c e the concept of c o m p l e t e n e s s here m us t

f i t the un i ta ry l i t e r a ry o b j e c t for an A r i s t o t e l i a n s tudy , we used

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A r i s t o t l e ’s de f in i t ion of plot. In t h a t way we w e r e able to f ind a

new d e f in i t io n of a whole and com ple te Gesar E p ic— a de f in i t ion

ba sed on p r in c ip l e s of poe t i c s . We examined, a t t h e sam e t ime,

o t h e r ap p ro a c h es to w h o le n e s s such as those of Sam uels , Yiyuan, and

Karmay. They were found to be i n t e r e s t i n g and he lpfu l , but designed

fo r an th ropo log ica l s t u d i e s of the geographica l m ovem ent of plo t

m o t i v e s r a t h e r than for the s p e c i f i c purposes of l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m .

We de fined a com p le te epic t h e r e fo r e a s a long n a r r a t iv e

having a beginning which p ro j e c te d a d e f in i t iv e conc lus ion— a

conc lus ion which fu l f i l l ed the q u e s t or need or command ind ica ted in

th e beginning. In th i s we fo l lowed Brook's Reading fo r Plot, an

upda t ing of the A r i s t o t e l i a n de f in i t ion of plot. We a lso made

r e f e r e n c e to Propp’s work on plo t and the a p p ro a c h e s of Russian

Form al i sm . All point to the sam e se n se of a beginning as a

d e c l a r a t i o n of plan and in ten t ion and the end a s the complet ion of

t h a t in te n t io n in action.

Th is a n a ly s i s of the A r i s t o t e l i a n approach to examining plo t

involved a c lo s e reading of A r i s t o t l e ’s and Homer ' s language in t h e i r

t r e a t m e n t s of beginnings. Our aim w a s to e l u c i d a t e t h e i r concep t of

an ep ic beginning and then compare i t w i th t h a t i l l u s t r a t e d in the

f i r s t c h a p t e r of the Mipham Gesar. This E a s t - W e s t compara t ive

s tu d y a im ed to c la r i fy a common point in epic l i t e r a t u r e world wide.

For the W est we took Homer 's opening to the I l i a d a s an ins tance of

ep ic beg inn ings and we took A r i s t o t l e ' s Poetics a s a general theory

of the n a tu r e of beginnings. We had at hand the s a m e pair ing of

p h i lo so phe r and poet in the Mipham Gesar, s inc e Mipham, like

A r i s t o t l e , w r o t e exhaus t ive ly on every a s p e c t of T ibe tan sc ience and

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phi losophy a s we l l a s l i t e r a tu re . We no ted t h a t the ep ic s under

cons ide ra t ion , both E as te rn and W es te rn , begin w i t h a de i ty u t t e r i n g

a plan which t u rn s out to be the p lo t of the e n t i r e work. This, I

a s s e r t e d , is an e s s e n t i a l f e a tu r e of epics .

Now, both the I l ia d and the Gesar begin w i t h a divine council

which s e t s out a d iv ine plan. There f o l l o w s in bo th c a s e s a s t r i n g

of inc iden ts which a re linked in a c au sa l cha in un t i l the plan is

fu l f i l led . Since bo th A r i s t o t l e and Mipham w e r e qu i te exp l ic i t about

t h e i r t h e o r i e s of c a u s a l i t y , we then examined the concept of causa l

r e l a t i o n in the e p ic s before us. We found t h e i r ep ic no t ions of

c a u s a l i t y to be a t odds w i th modern no t ions of phys ica l c a u s a l i t y

and causa l n e c e s s i t y .

Simply put , t h e d i f fe re nce is t h a t divine providence, the w i l l

of God or the Buddha or Zeus, is seen by th e s e t r a d i t i o n s as the m o s t

p roper causa l p r in c ip l e for an epic. Events s i m p l y occur as they a re

f a t e d to occur— the product of divine m ac h ina t ion . This m igh t go

a g a i n s t modern t h e o r i e s of m a t e r i a l i s t c a u s a l i t y , but it is p e r f e c t l y

in keeping w i th the Buddhist phi losophy of c a u s a l i t y as a

combina t ion of ka rm a , a sp i ra t ion , and m ind’s p r o j e c t i o n of an

i l luso ry world.

And so, a t t h i s po in t in the d i s s e r t a t i o n w e w e n t deeply into

the cosmology of the Mipham Gesar in o rde r to be able to exam ine

t h i s divine m ach ine ry closely. Such a t r e a t m e n t is qu i te t r a d i t io n a l

in W este rn l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . In f a c t , every high school c ou rse in

Homer involves t h i s e x a c t combina t ion of s tu d ie s . The s t u d e n t s a re

asked to unde rs tand and learn the p lo t s t r u c t u r e of Homer's w o r k s a t

the sa m e t im e t h a t they s tudy and lea rn Greek and Roman mythology.

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It is good pedagogy, but i t is a l so a l i t e r a r y ne ce ss i ty . The tw o

s tu d i e s , epic and m yth or cosmology, are in separab le for the r ea so n

th a t l i t e r a r y t r e a t m e n t s do not make s e n se un les s th e s e tw o th ings

are combined in them. The epics s e rv e to give us a grand and

co m p le te schema of the pantheon of a people 's rel igion. And a t the

sam e t im e such a pantheon m us t be c l e a r ly unders tood in o rde r to

a p p re c ia t e and fo l low the plot of the epic.

There are many rea so n s th i s combina t ion is necessa ry , but one,

I hope, s t a n d s ou t p a r t i c u l a r ly in the p r e s e n t c o m p a ra t iv e t r e a t m e n t

of the Gesar and the Il iad. The p lo t s of the kinds of ep ic s we a re

cons ider ing do no t make sense causa l ly un les s we know the

c o sm o lo gy /m ac h ine ry very well. A r i s t o t l e w r o t e th a t the mythos ,

the plo t , the s t o r y m u s t be plausible. And he a s s e r t e d t h a t the

s e r i e s of even ts r ec o u n ted by a poet should be connec ted in a s t r i n g

by causa l necess i ty . His not ion of causa l n e c e s s i t y tu rns out to

conta in a s t rong e l e m e n t of intent ion , of purpose, of tcXos. Thus, the

plot in the epic genre is b e s t s t r u c tu r e d when i t s denouement is

indeed a m a t t e r of f a t e and divine ordainment . Thus we m u s t know

the cosmology of an epic in order to do an in te l l igen t s tudy of the

plot s t r u c t u r e of the epic. In the epic wor ld e ven ts are not caused

by phys ical e ncoun te r s , e i the r m a te r i a l or e f f i c i e n t , but by the

i n t e n t io n s of gods and demons.

My t r a n s l a t i o n of the f i r s t c h a p te r of the Gesar i l l u s t r a t e s

t h i s p r inc ip le in g r e a t detai l . That c h a p t e r begins by t e l l ing us the

s to ry of hew Padmasambhava fai led "to paci fy the t e m p e ra m e n ta l

demons of Tibet," fa i l ing to bind them by oath the n e c e s sa ry t h r e e

t imes. This s e t in motion the karmic p a t t e r n which lead to the

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downfa l l of the T ibe tan Imperium: “...the co inc idence of the Glorious

Gateway w a s m is sed . As a r e s u l t there w a s tu rmoi l of weaponry in

the four d i rec t ions . The borderland demons wandered into Central

Tibet . And the dynasty of the Dharma kings fel l down to the level of

commoners ."

This t e r r i b l e s i t u a t io n , demons conquer ing the T ibe tan

government , oppress ing the people and t h r e a t e n i n g the boundar ie s of

the country , is based on the key concep t of the damsi, the s a m a y a -

v io la t ing demons. To unders tand the fa ta l c a u s a l i t y which s t r u c t u r e s

the plo t , we m us t unde rs t and t h i s a sp ec t of T ibe tan epic cosmology

ve ry wel l . J u s t as ord inary be ings a re c r e a t e d by pass ion and

ignorance and buddhas a re c r e a te d by wisdom , so damsi a r e c r e a te d

by v io la t ion of taboos. Indeed, all fa ted inc iden t in the Gesar is

r e l a t e d to the logic of taboo and r i tua l pur i ty . The damsi are devils

who can p reven t an e n t i r e s o c i e ty from thr iving. Thei r n a tu r e is

t h a t they a re "obscured" (full of sgrib ) and very powerfu l . Our

com m e n ta ry on the s o - c a l l e d "History of the Goloks" by Do Khyentse

Yeshe Dorje made t h i s c l e a r and explored t h i s not ion of taboo and i ts

r e l a t i o n to p lo t a c t i v i t y in some de ta i l , r e ly ing on the c om m e n ta ry

of va r ious learned T ibe tan informants .

The com m e n ta ry on the opening s e c t i o n s of the Gesar

t r a n s l a t i o n made the s a m e point. Samaya v i o l a t o r s are p r a c t i t i o n e r s

who took powerfu l oa th s and rece ived g re a t e m p o w erm en t s . Then

they tu rned a g a i n s t t h e i r oa ths , cor rup ted t h e i r vows , produced

p e rv e r t e d a s p i r a t i o n s and were reborn as demons. Their p rev ious

r e l i g io u s p r a c t i c e made them powerful. The i r v io la t io n s make them

evil , harmful , 3nd hel l-bound.

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T h e i r be ings, t h e i r ka rm ic s t r e a m s a re sg r ib c a n , full of

o b sc u ra t io n s . This r i t u a l ly s t a in e d condi t ion m a k e s c o n ta c t w i t h

them d e s t r u c t i v e . We s a w t h i s in the Golok c h a p t e r when the fu tu re

m o th e r of J i g m e Lingpa had to f l ee f rom reg ion to region, e scap ing

the po l lu ted e nv i ronm en t of the s t a in e d s a m a y a - v io l a to r s . She, a t

the s a m e t im e , had to r em a in p e r f e c t l y pure, f r e e of any k a rm ic or

r i tu a l s t a in . The pure b i r th of J i g m e Lingpa is d e sc r ibed in som e

de ta i l . The Gesar Epic a l s o d e s c r i b e s a pure b i r th , the c r e a t io n of

an i m m a c u l a t e being, Joy fu l to Hear, in heaven. He is born of r i t u a l ly

pure gods, is born pronouncing the m a n t r a of pur i ty , the hundred

sy l l a b l e V a j r a s a t t v a Mantra, and he then he is pu r i f i e d and

e m p o w e re d by the Five Buddhas.

Ali of t h i s m y s t e r i o u s epic ac t ion is des igned to show him to

be the u n s t a in e d being who may oppose s u c c e s s f u l l y the s t a in e d

demons of Tibe t . As the epic un fo lds in f u r t h e r c h a p t e r s i t w i l l be

seen t h a t he is the embodied a usp ic ious r ten ' b r e l , the good fo r tune ,

the a u sp i c io u s co inc idence of the Kingdom of Ling. He is t h e i r

"g lor ious g a t e w a y " — the o b j e c t of t h e i r r i tu a i su p p l i c a t io n s t h a t a

hero be born and the s u b s eq u e n t s e c r e t of t h e i r suc ce ss . My

c o m m e n ta ry on the f i r s t c h a p t e r exp lo re s t h i s point as well . We

look a t t h e a s t r o lo g ic a l and ka rm ic n a tu re of a "glor ious g a t e w a y “—

- the way such a portal of c a u s a l i t y m u s t be exp lo i t ed through the

p e r fo r m a n c e of t im e ly r i t u a l s , and the way t h a t t h e i r ausp ic ious

co inc idence m u s t not be d e s t ro y e d by v io la t ing taboo and br inging

about the o p p o s i t e of good coinc idence, m iasm a .

And so, t h i s is the underlying dynamic of the plo t s t r u c t u r e of

the Mipham Gesar a s it may be unders tood from h i s f i r s t c h a p t e r and

403

a good knowledge of epic cosmology.

The divine machinery, as I have sa id before, is no t pu re ly

Buddhis t , bu t is ac tua l ly a hybrid of t h e be l ie f s y s t e m s of s e v e r a l

c u l t u r a l m i l i eu s . This f a c t is c l e a r l y r e f l e c t e d in w h a t I have c a l l ed

the " t w o - f o ld nature" of Gesar— t h a t he is both a Buddhis t d e i ty

and a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of the fo rce s and b e l i e f s of n a t iv e T ib e t a n

re l ig ions . Some v e r s io n s of the ep ic e m phas ize his B uddhis t s i d e

and o t h e r s h is na t ive side. The David-Neel vers ion t r a n s l a t e d by

Blondeau 's group in Par i s is c le a r ly l i g h t on the Buddhist

a f f i l i a t i o n s . The Ladakhi ve rs ion of Francke , a l though i t c e r t a i n l y

does have Buddhist e le m en t s , s e e m s l i k e w i s e to r e f l e c t m a in ly the

lore and b e l i e f s of indigenous s y s t e m s . I have argued t h a t t h e s e non-

Buddhis t be l i e f s y s t e m s are not pu re ly Tibetan, but have o t h e r

Cen t ra l Asian e l e m e n t s in them and o f t e n contain a he f ty c o m p o n e n t

of Chinese a lchem ica l Taoism.

It is ev iden t from Mipham's l i t u r g i e s and Do K hyen t se ' s

"h is tory" t h a t the lam as of the r i s m ed t r ad i t ion u n d e rs to o d and

a p p r e c i a t e d the re l ig ious m u l t i - f a c e t e d qual i ty of Gesar . They

obvious ly en joyed combining Buddhist and Bon e le m en t s . They

en joyed s h i f t i n g the a l lus ions of t h e i r poe t ry be tw een Indie,

Chinese, and na t iv e Tibe tan t r a d i t i o n s . In one line Mipham a l l u d e s to

the Names o f Manjusri, a Buddhist t a n t r a . A few l ines l a t e r he

evokes Bonpo r i tua l tex ts . The ebb and f low of m u l t i - c u l t u r a l

r e f e r e n c e s to prev ious t e x t s is an e s s e n t i a l par t of T ibe tan Buddhist

poe t i c s .

It is not an acc iden t t h a t l am a s l ike Mipham Gyatso and Do

Khyentse Rinpoche w ere com m i ted to t h e s e ph i losophical ly hybr id

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n a r r a t i v e s . For the r easoned com bina t ion of native, Indie, and

Chinese e l e m e n t s is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e i r Ec lec t ic School. T h is is

no t the p l a c e to explore in de ta i l t h e ph i losophica l connec t ions

which l ink J i g m e Lingpa to the Khyen tse inca rna t ions and the

de ve lopm en t of the Eclec t ic s . But w h a t should be noted here is t h a t

the re is indeed in the r i s med school a r a t iona l and s y s t e m a t i c

fusion of f o lk i s h lore w i th high sc ience . This fusion is m o s t c l e a r l y

seen in t h e Gesar Epic and the l i t u r g i e s t h a t accompany it.

We explored th i s not ion of the fus ion of folklore and s c h o l a s t i c

r e l ig ious s c i e n c e in de ta i l when we examined the term r ten 'bre l in

the cosm o logy chapter . We began w i t h the Buddhist ph i losoph ica l

a bh idha rm ic de f in i t ion of It as m o m e n ta r y c a u sa l i ty (co inc idence) .

And then we no ted how th i s concept s e e m s to have evolved s t e p - b y -

s t e p into the T ibe tan indigenous not ion of "good fortune." Behind the

evolu t ion of t h i s t e rm from phi losophy to the lore of the common

man th e r e i s a r a t iona l agenda made e x p l i c i t in other r i s med w o r k s

such as J a m g o n Kongtrul ' s Encyclopedia o f Indo-Tibetan Culture . 525

It is a s o p h i s t i c a t e d m e taphys ica l and theo log ica l view which can

a c c o m m o d a te the Buddhist philosophy of e m p t in e s s as u l t i m a t e

t r u th and n a t i v e rel ig ion as p rec i s e r e l a t i v e t ruth. At the a b s o l u t e

ievel It c an s t a t e th a t all beings a r e beyond puri ty and impuri ty . At

the r e l a t i v e levei it can explain e x a c t ly why one m us t not anger

local d e i t i e s by pol lut ing th e i r sa c re d p r e c i n c t s — not s imply w hy

th i s is i m p r a c t i c a l , but why it is e th i c a l l y wrong.

The s y n t h e s i s of the se two leve l s of r e a l i t y w as c a r e f u l ly

worked ou t by the E c lec t i c s and is show n fo r th in the w orks I have

t r a n s l a t e d in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . We s e e the sy n th e s i s being c a r e f u l l y

405

fash ioned a s the nat ional Buddhist d e i t i e s of T ibe t fash ion Gesa r ou t

of t h e i r own s u b s t a n c e and t h a t of local d e i t i e s . We see i t in the

"History of the Goloks" when J i g m e l ingpa, the g re a t Buddhist

au tho r and f inde r of t r e a s u r e t e x t s , is be go t t e n by the union of the

F le sh -E a t ing Dakini and a T ibe tan mountain god in a divine pa lace

inhab i ted by local m o n s t e r s , Buddhis t s a i n t s , and dharmapalas.

In sho r t , the ep ic s h o w s fo r th a s y s t e m of thought w h ich

embraced s h a m a n i s t i c c a u s a l i t y and s o p h i s t i c a t e d no t ions of

c a u s a l i t y in one s y s t e m — the union in n a r r a t i v e of Buddhist

s c h o l a s t i c i s m and na t ive rel igion.

This b r ings us to our l a s t po int R.A. S te in when he d i sc overe d

t h i s v e r s ion of the Gesar Epic recogn ized i t s value both as an

example of the genre and as an e thno logica l d ocum en ta t ion of t r iba l

l i f e in t h a t region of Centra l Asia. Much of h i s l a t e r Gesa r r e s e a r c h

w a s devoted to explor ing the e thn ic dimension of the epic and it

ex tended to h is t r e a t m e n t of the t r i b e s of the T ibe tan m a rc h e s .526

The v is ion of t h i s work has in formed my t r e a t m e n t of the Gesar

throughout . S t a r t i n g from the c r i t i c a l p ropos i t ion th a t oral epic as

p e r fo rm a n ce is "the t a l e s of the t ribe," it becam e n e c e s s a ry to

iden t i fy to which t r i b e s the Mipham Gesar w a s ac tua l ly d i rec ted .

S te in e lu c id a t e s th e s e connec t ions in his m a g i s t e r i a l work on the

Gesar epic and in Les Tribus. I have t e s t e d h is hypo theses in

f i e ldwork , ques t ion ing T ib e tan s who c la im ed they unders tood and

en joyed t h i s ve rs io n of the epic. I ques t ioned them as to t h e i r se nse

of pe rsonal t r iba l ident i ty. The i r p ro jec t ion of s e l f - i d e n t i t y

c o n f i rm s S te in ' s analysi s . They see t h e m s e lv e s a s m em b e rs of the

Mukpo t r ibe and unders tand the o th e r a f f i l i a t i o n s of Ga, Bru, and

406

Denma much as S te in sa id they would.

This does not mean t h a t t h e s e are t ruly e x i s t e n t c lan

a f f i l i a t i o n s and n e tw o rk s of k inship. We are deal ing he re w i t h

ind iv idua ls ' imagina t ions of t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s a s e x p re s s e d in the

t e x t s to which they are c o m m i t t e d — t e x t s w h ich they a re

c o m p e t e n t to read and have been r a i s e d to read and enjoy. As re c e n t

t h e o ry and r e s e a r c h in m u t t i c u l t u r a l i s m have emphas ized , e thn ic and

c l a s s id en t i ty is as much a func t ion of modes of d i s c o u r se a s i t i s a

func t ion of su b s ta n t iv e genea log ica l connect ions.

What I a t t e m p t e d to i d e n t i f y in t h i s monograph is not a t ru ly

e x i s t e n t ne tw ork of kinship r e l a t i o n s , but a m a t r i x of in te r lock ing

t e x t s based on the notion of such an in s t i tu t io n a l ne twork . The

m a t r i x of t e x t s include homely s t o r i e s such as Khyentse ' s "h is to ry

of the Goloks," s im p le l i t u rg i e s such as Mipham's Gesa r r i t e s , the

ph i lo soph ica l w orks and t a n t r a s of a c e r t a in branch of the Nyingma

s e c t , and the Mipham O esar, w h ic h w a s based on the Xylograoh of

Ling.

Let us take Tendzin Samphel as an example. He w a s a

p a r t i c u l a r l y valuable in formant f o r the Mipham ep ic b e ca u se he

spoke a d i a l e c t c lo se to if not iden t i ca l w i th t h a t in which the Ling

Xylographs were w r i t t e n . I o b se rv e d tha t he unders tood many more

id iom s in the t e x t than the Amdo in fo rmants . But i t cannot be said

t h a t l am a Tendzin is a na t ive of Khams. His childhood w a s sp e n t in

T ib e t a n re fugee c o m m u n i t i e s — the m os t im por tan t of which seem s

to have been in Orissa . When i a sk ed him what h is na t ive d i a l e c t

w a s , he said t h a t in the re fugee c o m m u n i t i e s many d i a l e c t s w ere

spoken.

407

When we began to read Do Khyentse 's au tob iograph ica l accoun t

of the h i s t o r y of the Goloks, Tendzin Samphel exc la im ed w i t h

de l igh t , "Why, th is is in Golok language!" And I d i scovered , to my

de l igh t , t h a t t h i s d i a l e c t he a l so knew. His e x c i t e m e n t in read ing the

t e x t w a s he ign tened by h is i n te n se s e n s e of a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h the

c h a r a c t e r s in the s tory .

But w h a t is the or igin of t h a t co n n ec t io n ? Is i t t h a t hi s f am i ly

h a s been involved w i th Mukpos and Goloks fo r g e n e r a t i o n s ? Perhaps.

But his educa t iona l background expla ins the se n se of s e l f - i d e n t i t y

j u s t a s wel l . Lama Tendzin becam e w h i l e in India a d i sc ip le of the

h ig h e s t lama of the Nyingma se c t , Dudjom Rinpoche. He w a s

e d u c a te d in p a r t a t Duajom's se m in a ry in Katmandu and t r a i n e d by a

ve ry s p e c i f i c group of lamas. A f t e r the dea th of Dudjom Rinpoche,

he e n t e r e d into s tudy w i th sc h o la r s work ing under the a u s p i c e s of

Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche.

Now, ail of these people a re c o m m i t t e d to the d o c t r i n e s and

w r i t i n g s of Mipham Gyatso and all of them seem to adm i t to the

t r ib a l a f f i l i a t i o n s ment ioned in the epic. They all p e r fo rm ed

Mipham's Gesa r p r a c t i c e s when they w e r e young, chan t ing the

l i t u r g i e s I d i sc u sse d in the c h a p t e r on cosmology. Thei r

c o n s t r u c t i o n of th e i r own iden t i ty as Mukpos and people

geneaog ica l ly r e l a te d to Gesar, and fu r th e rm o re a s v i s iona ry ho lders

of the Gesar cu l t p r a c t i c e s could be the source of Tendzin S a m p h e l ’s

s e n s e of a f f i l i a t i o n , even if his fami ly had not come from t h a t

s e c t i o n of T ibe t a t all. And h is ab i l i ty to unders tand the d i a l e c t and

en joy i t, w h i le probably a func t ion of being brought up by people

speak ing it na t ive ly , could also have been r ece ived tex tua l ly , s ince

408

he w a s heav i ly t ra ined in Mipham’s t ex t s .

This is a perennial conundrum in l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s of ep ic s . The

sam e problem occurs in the I l i a d . If i t is the t a l e s of any t r ibe , t h e

I l ia d is the s t o r y of the Greek-speaking peop le s of anc ien t Minoan

c iv i l iz a t ion . The Ionian Greeks who probably composed the ep ic

songs of Troy w e re looking back on a van ished c iv i l iza t ion . The

A t t i c Greeks who appropr ia ted the I l ia d and the Odyssey a s t h e i r

na t iona l e p ic s s om ew hsre around the s i x t h cen tu ry B.C. were even

more d i s t a n t and d isconnec ted from the c u l tu ra l source.

Since t h a t t im e numerous genea log ica l ly un re la ted c u l t u r e s

have laid c l a im to the sam e epic s to ry , iden t i fy ing a t t i m e s w i t h the

T ro jans , a t t i m e s w i th the Achaeans. The Aenead p roposes t h a t the

Romans w e r e descended from T ro ja ns who escaped the d e s t r u c t i o n

of t h e i r c i t y by the Greeks. There are e p ic s and rom ances in which

the i n h a b i t a n t s of the Br i t i sh i s l e s make the s a m e claim. You cou ld

say, in t h i s s e n se , t h a t i d en t i f i c a t io n w i t h the epic is based on

c o m m i t m e n t s to f i e lds of d iscourse .

And so i t could be w i th the G esar . The Mipham vers ion is

based on the a s su m p t io n t h a t the 19th c. T ibe tan province of Ling

w a s the ac tua l s i t e of the or iginal ep ic Ling. S t e in explores

numerous t r a i t s as he ca l l s t h e m — phys ica l s i t e s which c o n ta in

r e i i c s or phys ica l fo rm a tons a t t r i b u t e d to the r e a l i t y of the epic

c h a r a c t e r s . But the Gesar s to ry is told a c r o s s Central Asia and no t

a lw a y s w i t h the same geographical a s s o c i a t i o n s . The Ris med

l am as of the Kagyu and Nyingma l ineages who c la im they are Mukpos

and who c e l e b r a t e the Mipham Gesar a re a league of East T ibe tan

s a v a n t s who have been working to g e t h e r in a loosely organized

409

re l ig ious e s t a b l i s h m e n t throughout the 19th century. T he i r

m o n a s t e r i e s a re in the v ic in i ty of Dergé, Surmang, and the reg ion of

Magyal Pomra. There are t i m e s when I think t h a t t h e i r t r i b a l c u l t u r e

and s e n se of e thn ic iden t i ty is a s much a p ro jec t io n of t h e i r l i t e r a r y

and r e l i g io u s a s s o c i a t i o n s as i t is of t h e i r ac tua l kinship s t r u c t u r e s .

This h a s become an im por tan t i s sue in a Br i t i sh and American

school of though t cal led "Cultural S tud ies . ” There the tendancy is to

s e e the c o n s t i t u t i o n of co m m u n i t i e s through d i scourse a s a ne g a t iv e

thing. M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s t s speak of "colonial dominat ion" of d i scourse .

Thei r idea is t h a t there m us t be a phys ica l ly e x i s t e n t com m un i ty

whose e x i s t e n c e and boundaries w a s s u r p r e s s e d by the im p o s i t io n of

f a l s e r ac ia l and c l a s s o r ien ted d iscourse . So, for example, t h e r e

m u s t have been a t rue Indian s t a t u s quo t h a t preceded B r i t i s h

dominat ion of di scourse. And thus, the Vedic and English canons of

c l a s s i c a l w o r k s could be seen a s a v ic ious imposi t ion.

I pe r s o n a l ly see involvement w i th a w e l l - d e f in e d c l a s s i c a l

l i t e r a ry canon as a posi t ive thing. It involves in many c a s e s the

joyful a c c e p t a n c e of the s e n se of iden t i ty p r o j e c te d by a m a t r i x of

s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d documents . T ha t has been my personal

exper ience in s tudying the W este rn Graeco-Roman c l a s s i c s and the

Buddhist c l a s s i c s as well. In undertak ing to m a s t e r t h e s e t ex tua l

t r a d i t i o n s , I am laboring to fash ion my own iden t i ty in a p o s i t i v e

s t a t e of f r e e choice.

Such, I believe, is the a t t i t u d e w i th which emigré T ib e t a n s

embrace and re fu rb i sh the Gesar t r ad i t io n of t e x t s — repub l i sh ing

in numerous e d i t i o n s Mipham's Gesar f a r beyond the c on f ine s of i t s

original reade rsh ip . The epic, as Mipham p r e s e n t s it, is abou t the

410

fa l l and r e f u rb i s h m e n t of the T ibe tan s t a t e through t a m in g i t s

demons. And h i s epic is u sed in the sa m e way to r e f u r b i s h the

T ib e tan s e n s e of iden t i ty in diaspora.

There is much e x p lo ra t ion to be done in t h i s a rea . And th e r e is

much anthropolog ica l f i e ld w o rk which m u s t be done to prove or

d i sp rove t h e s e h yp o theses of l i t e r a r y theory. S te in ' s s t u d i e s w e re

b a sed on an exhaus t ive e xa m in a t io n of l i t e r a ry sou rces . His

s u c c e s s o r s a re a n th ro p o l o g i s t s or e th no log i s t s , if you w i l l , who

have as t h e i r main o b jec t of s tudy oral and w r i t t e n documents .

My work dea l s w i t h the sam e documents , but f rom the point of

v iew of a l i t e r a r y c r i t i c and a t r a n s la to r , i n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, to

be a t r a n s l a t o r of Tibe tan t e x t s one m u s t a lso be a s o r t of p a r t - t i m e

a n th ropo log i s t . One m u s t do a specia l kind of f i e ld w o rk in the

checking of one 's t r a n s la t io n . This is because each d i s t i n c t genre of

document is w r i t t e n , fo r all p r a c t i c a l purposes , in a d i f f e r e n t

d i a l e c t of T ibe tan. And each genre of document a s s u m e s a d i f f e r e n t

c u l tu r a l mil ieu. All T ibe tan t r a n s l a t o r s , t he re fo re , r e ly on l ine -by -

l ine checking or control by n a t iv e in fo rmants . For the Cesar Epic

t h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y im por tan t . Each ve rs ion of the epic , no m a t t e r

how i t conres to be employed in publ icaton, is composed in a d i a l e c t

d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s the s p e c i f i c audience it is m ean t to e n t e r t a i n and

to inform.

Let us end by looking a t the fu tu re of s t u d i e s such a s the one

embodied in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . A f t e r four yea r s of w ork on the

Mipham v e rs io n of th is epic , I have managed to focus on the

geographica l and l in gu i s t i c locus of th i s document , i t is now c l e a r

t h a t w i t h o u t in fo rm an ts qua l i f i ed in the lore and language of t h i s

reg ion of Eas te rn Tibet , a q u a l i ty t r an s la t ion , a com prehens ive

t r a n s l a t i o n canno t move fo rw ard .

Working c lose ly w i th such in formants , record ing s e s s io n s w i t h

them and not ing down t h e i r r e m a r k s is the proper w a y fo r a pe rson

l ike m y s e l f to cont inue R.A. S t e in ' s work. More than 40 y e a r s ago he

began a p r o j e c t to t r a n s l a t e t h i s vers ion of the epic and bring it to

the scho la r ly public. His t r a n s l a t i o n and g lossa ry w e r e in a s e n se

incom ple te , but they r e p r e s e n t e d the f u r t h e s t a dvances scho lar ly

knowledge of t h a t period could make. Since then the f lood of

T ibe tan r e fu g e e s into the W es t has made it poss ib le fo r us to

advance h i s work to comple t ion.

The comple ted p ro j e c t would involve a t r a n s l a t i o n and

com m e n ta ry as de ta i led a s t h a t which appea rs in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

This m ea ns hundreds of hours of i n t e rv i e w s w i th E as te rn Tibetan

e r u d i t e s such a s Tendzin Samphel and Khenpo Pa 'den Sherap. And i t

m eans the scrupulous logging of all the lore they r e l a t e a s they a re

asked to judge and comment on the t rans la t ion.

It a lso m eans a com prehens ive t r a n s la t io n and a n a ly s i s of

Mipham's Gesar l i turgies . S t e in rea l ized the v i ta l im p o r ta n ce of

the se r e l ig ious t e x t s and compared the i r language w i t h t h a t of the

epic in the g lo s sa ry to h is t r an s la t io n . I have explored in some

de ta i l a few of the i n te rconnec t ions be tw een epic and r i tu a l to

which he pointed in his work.

The cu lminat ion of h i s work as 1 envisage it would be a

c om ple te t r a n s l a t i o n of all the Mipham Gesar t ex ts . This t r a n s la t io n

should be of l i t e r a r y qua l i ty so t h a t th is Asian epic can be given to

41 1

the c o ns ide ra t ion of a v a s t e r academic c o m m un i ty— one tha t goes

beyond the a s i a n i s t so c i a l sc i enc es and c ons ide r s the Gesar on the

v a s t e r s t a g e of w o r ld ep ic l i t e ra tu re . Such a work c anno t be done

w i t h o u t a t r e m e n d o u s ly s e r i o u s in v e s tm e n t in e thnograph ica l

r e sea rch . But the o u t c o m e should be fo r the b e n e f i t of l i t e r a r y

s c h o l a r s and the l i t e r a r y public. People who read Homer, Virgil ,

Milton, and Dante b e c a u s e of the i r i n t e r e s t in the ep ic should a l so

read the Mipham Gesar.

524 I do not mention Stein at this point, because I have indeed relied extensively on his

approach to Asian epic. Although he too belongs in the social sciences rather than in the

scholary world of literary criticism , his treatments have been a basis for my own

investigations rather than an alternate path.

525 Kon-spru! Blo-gros-rrtha-yas, Ses bya kun khyab, Kongtrul’s Encyclopaedia of Indo-

Tibetan Culture / edited by Lokesh Chandra; with an introduction by E. Gene Smith, (New Delhi

: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1970).

526 Stein, Les tribus anciennes des marches sino-tibetaines, (Paris: Presses Universitaires

de France, 19 6 1).

4 ’ 2

413

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