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i n G l o b a l C o n t e x tintimately tied to Latin America byits cultural and commercial links,now finds itself at the center of amedia economy that includesHispanic markets in the UnitedStates and Europe, as well as LatinAmerica.

Shared CharacteristicsWhat characteristics do these

media capitals share? All are centersfor enterpr ises tha t re ly oninstitutional features common tocommercial media worldwide, suchas durable genres, secure distributionnetworks, and a s tar systemsupported by celebri ty newscoverage. These cities are alsoperceived as magnets for creativetalent, centers of financial exchange,and stable social environments thatare relatively tolerant of cultural andpolitical diversity.

Notice too that these cities areport cities with long histories oftransnational trade and humanmigration. Goods, money, people,images, and ideas have flowedthrough these cities for some time.Each city’s prosperity relies on itslinks to regional trading networksand at the same time depends on itsopenness to global circulations andinfluences.

These cities also have a historyof attracting migrants that have beendriven from their homes by war andprivation. Bombay benefitedtremendously from an influx oftalent following the partition ofIndian and Pakistan, and the collapseof the movie industry in Lahore. InMiami, Cuban émigrés that fledCastro’s revolution came to play animportant role in building atransnational Hispanic mediam a r k e t . L i k e w i s e , I g b oentrepreneurs fleeing devastation intheir tribal homelands helped tob u i l d t h e i n t e r - t r i b a l a n dtransnational appeal of Nigerianvideo films. And Lebanese émigrésstaff the top executive ranks inDubai’s media city.

Media capitals furthermoreenjoy a cultural cachet among theaudiences they serve. The residentsof these cities live middle-classlifestyles to which millions livingelsewhere aspire. When citizensthroughout Latin America look toMiami they see their future, a worldof opportunity that is dynamic andprosperous, and relatively free fromthe political oligarchies that controltheir homelands. Notice that none ofthese cities is a national politicalcapital. All of them operate at arms-length from government censors andnational regulators.

Successful media capitals tendto feature a range of mediainstitutions: large and small,commercial and non-commercial,popular and elite. They furthermorecreate possibilities for productivelinkages between print, music, andscreen cultures. If not for the musicand television industries, the Bombayfilm industry would be in tatters. Ifnot for Nigeria’s free press, activisttheater, and popular market literature,the video film industry would haveno other models or resources thanthose available from the moribundstate broadcasting system.

Finally, media capitals tend tobe places where entrepreneurs canbuild multi-faceted, large-scaleb u s i n e s s e s t h a t e n c o m p a s sf i n a n c i n g , p r o d u c t i o n , a n ddistribution in a variety of media.Such conglomerates are effectivevehicles for cross-promotion andthey capture profits in a variety ofm e d i a f o r m a t s . Ye t m o s timportantly, these enterprises focustremendous energy and resources onthe c rea t ion and successfu lexploitation of core content.

Not all of the media capitalsmentioned above exhibit all of thecharacteristics I’ve described, but tothe extent that they do, they tend toprosper more. Media capitals exist notbecause they are created whole clothby government planners or powerfulfinanciers but rather because they are

cities that are especially conducive tothe establishment of new enterprises,the fostering of creativity, and theappropriation of influences from nearand far.

Situation in Hong KongAs Hong Kong considers the

challenges faced by its mediaindustries, what actions mightexecutives, citizens, and policymakers take? How might theyrestore the luster of their mediaenterprises? How might they insureHong Kong’s status as a mediacapital in the future?

Clearly, there are no easy orshort-term solutions. Hong Kongpolicy makers have already takenimportant steps to support the mediaindustries with financing, education,job training, and infrastructuredevelopment. Media executives aremeanwhile striving to transform theirbusinesses to make them moreamenable to new distributiont e c h n o l o g i e s a n d a u d i e n c econsumption patterns, as well as tonew markets in mainland China. Theseare important steps that will havepositive effects over the long term.

What receives less attention,however, are measures to protect andenhance the distinctive virtues ofHong Kong as a free, cosmopolitan,port city. Hong Kong attractsinvestment and talent because it ismore open and transparent thanmany other Chinese cities. It attractstourism and celebrities because of itsquality of life. And it attracts theattention of audiences because itsmedia seem to represent a future rifewith opportunity. These seemingly“softer”, less tangible aspects ofmedia capital therefore deservecareful consideration if Hong Kongis to retain its status as an importantcenter of creativity and imagination.

�=jáÅÜ~Éä=`ìêíáåProfessor and Director of Global

Studies, University ofWisconsin-Madison, U.S.A.

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C h i n e s e M e d i a C a p i t a l

Hong Kong enjoys a long andstoried status as one of Asia’s

premier centers of media creativity,distribution, and financing. Yet overthe past decade the city’s reputationas “Hollywood East” has diminishedat the very moment when mediaindustries in such cities as Shanghaiand Beijing are enjoying significantgrowth. Confronted with thesechanges, Hong Kong producers andtalent express anxiety about thestatus and future of the industry,while government officials are tryingto craft policies that might re-energize the city’s media businesses.

Whether consciously or not,these efforts are often shaped byreflections on the logics andtendencies of what I refer to as“media capital”. The term plays onthe double connotation of capital,pointing both to the geographicalprominence of particular cities –such as, Bombay, Lagos, Miami, andDubai – and to the resources,reputation, and talent that make theselocales important centers of theglobal cultural economy. Put simply:media capitals tap resources andattract creative labor from otherlocales in order to produce culturalg o o d s w i t h w i d e a p p e a l .Consequently, we can understand agreat deal about the current situationin Hong Kong by comparing it notsimply to Hollywood, but to othermedia capitals around the globe.

Geographical ConcentrationQuite interestingly, once a city

begins to emerge as a media capital,it tends to attract even moreresources. For example, as HongKong became recognized as animportant center of media activity,it fired the imaginations of those whoaspired to work in the film, music,and television industries, so thatmany talented people migrated to thecity in search of jobs and in searchof a place where they might learnfrom others engaged in similarendeavors. Some analysts refer to the

latter as mutual learning effects andsay it is a crucial component ofcreative labor in many differentindustries. Such learning effects canonly be realized in places wheretalent enjoys regular physicalcontact, such as Silicon Valley in thecomputer industry or Milan in thefashion industry.

Geographical concentrationhas other benefits as well, especiallywith respect to designing andfinancing media projects. Much hasbeen written about the fact thatHollywood now shoots many of itsmovies in locations around theworld, but this seeming dispersionof production is anchored byplanning, financing, and post-production services in Hollywood.That is, the face work and consensusbuilding that are so necessary tolaunching a movie and the crucialcreative decisions made during post-production still take place inS o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a w h e r eexecutives, agents, and talent forma dense web of social relations thathelp to facilitate their work. Mediacapitals are therefore necessary tothe functioning of media industriesno matter how dispersed theshooting locations may become.

Th i s t endency towardsgeographic concentrat ion ofproduct ive resources differsmarkedly with the energeticdispersion of media products. Lowreproduct ion costs and easyportability mean that movies, music,and television programs can bedistributed far afield at relatively lowcost. Screen products are also whateconomists refer to as “publicgoods”. That is, unlike a kilo of rice,movie consumption by one customerdoes not make it unavailable toothers: one film could theoreticallyserve audiences around the world.Given the t remendous costsassociated with the creation of a newfilm or television series, producersaim to distribute their products aswidely as possible.

GlobalizationThese spatial tendencies

toward concentration of productiveresources and the widespreaddispersion of cultural outputs arefundamental to commercial mediaand they are even more pronouncedin an era of globalization. That is, tothe extent media industries operatein a world without barriers, weshould expect to see one city emergeas the global center of film andtelevision industries. This isessentially the argument advancedby cr i t ics who contend thatHollywood is an increasinglydominant presence worldwide. Astrade barriers fall and as nationalmedia regulation diminishes, weshould expect to see Disney, Fox,and NBC grow ever more influentialsince they attract vast resources andthey can effectively distribute theirproducts worldwide.

In te res t ing ly , however ,globalization has been characterizednot simply by the growth ofHollywood media conglomeratesbut also by the increasing vitality ofother centers of media activity suchas Bombay, Lagos, Dubai, andMiami. These media capitals haveflourished because they effectivelyexp lo i t soc i a l and cu l tu ra ldifferences that distinguish theircreative communities and theircultural outputs from those ofHollywood. They are capitals forIndian, African, Arab, and LatinAmerican media, serving regionaland even global audiences.

Indeed, revenues for Bombaymovies are currently growing fastestin Europe and North America, whilevideo films produced in Lagos enjoylively distribution in Sub-SaharanAfrica and via dedicated web sitesserving audiences on five continents.Meanwhile, the government inDubai invested substantial resourcesbuilding a media city that aims tocapture a share of the surgingsatellite advertising revenues in theArab word. And Miami, a city

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