Richard l. Mccreery

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Raman Spectroscopy forChemical Analysis



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND

ITS APPLICATIONS

Editor

J. D. WINEFORDNER

VOLUME 157

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto



Raman Spectroscopy forChemical Analysis

RICHARD L. McCREERY

The Ohio State University

Columbus, Ohio

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto



This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright 2000 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any

form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise,

except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without

either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the

appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA

01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4744. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be

addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York,

NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-mail: [email protected].

For ordering and customer service, call 1-800-CALL-WILEY.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

McCreery, Richard L.

Raman spectroscopy for chemical analysis / by Richard L. McCreery.

p. cm.— (Chemical analysis ; v. 157)

“A Wiley-interscience publication

Includes index

ISBN 0-471-25287-5 (alk. paper)

1. Raman spectroscopy. 2. Chemistry, Analytic. I. Title. II. Series.

QC454.R36.M33 2000

543’.08584 — dc21 99-086491

Printed in the United States of America.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1



CONTENTS

PREFACE ix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xv

CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES xix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE 1

1.1. History Preceding 1986 1

1.2. Technological Advances 5

1.3. Comparison to FTIR and NIR Absorption 10

1.4. Overview of the Book 12

CHAPTER 2 MAGNITUDE OF RAMAN SCATTERING 15

2.1. Theoretical Overview 15

2.2. Definition of Raman Cross Section 20

2.3. Magnitude of Raman Cross Sections 24

2.4. Raman Scattering Intensity 30

CHAPTER 3 COLLECTION AND DETECTION OF RAMAN

SCATTERING 35

3.1. Signal Magnitude and Collection Function 35

3.2. Instrumental Variables Comprising the Collection Function 37

3.3. Spectrometer Response Function 413.4. Multiplex and Multichannel Spectrometers 43

CHAPTER 4 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE IN RAMAN

SPECTROSCOPY 49

4.1. Definition and Measurement of SNR 49

4.2. Noise Sources 52

v



vi CONTENTS

4.3. Signal-to-Noise Ratio Expressions 61

4.4. SNR Figure of Merit 65

4.5. SNR and Detection Limits 67

4.6. SNR for Multiplex Spectrometers 68

CHAPTER 5 INSTRUMENTATION OVERVIEW AND

SPECTROMETER PERFORMANCE 73

5.1. Major Spectrometer Components 74

5.2. Laser Wavelength 755.3. Dispersive vs. Nondispersive Spectrometers 78

5.4. Performance Criteria 79

5.5. Samples for Spectrometer Evaluation 83

CHAPTER 6 SAMPLING MODES IN RAMAN

SPECTROSCOPY 95

6.1. Sampling Overview 95

6.2. Performance Criteria 97

6.3. 180° Backscattering Geometry 99

6.4. 90° Sampling Geometry 114

6.5. Reducing the Laser Power Density at the Sample 1186.6. Path Length Enhancement 120

6.7. Polarization Measurements 122

CHAPTER 7 LASERS FOR RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY 127

7.1. Overview 127

7.2. ArC and KrC Ion Lasers 130

7.3. Helium–Neon Lasers 133

7.4. Neodymium–YAG (Nd:YAG) 134

7.5. Diode Lasers 137

7.6. Laser Wavelength Filtering 142

CHAPTER 8 DISPERSIVE RAMAN SPECTROMETERS 149

8.1. Overview 149

8.2. Dispersive Spectrometer Configurations 155

8.3. Detector Considerations 179

8.4. Single-Channel Detectors 180

8.5. Multichannel Detectors and CCDs 183



CONTENTS vii

8.6. Recording Methods for Dispersive Spectrometers 203

8.7. Examples of Dispersive Raman Applications 215

CHAPTER 9 NONDISPERSIVE RAMAN

SPECTROMETERS 221

9.1. Tunable Bandpass Filters 221

9.2. Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy 225

9.3. Multichannel Fourier Transform Raman Spectroscopy 240

9.4. Extensions of FT-Raman for Longer Wavelength Operation 2459.5. FT-Raman Examples 246

CHAPTER 10 CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION 251

10.1. Overview 251

10.2. Frequency and Raman Shift Calibration 251

10.3. Instrument Response Function Calibration 269

10.4. Absolute Response Calibration 288

10.5. Summary of Calibration and Validation Procedures 289

CHAPTER 11 RAMAN MICROSCOPY AND IMAGING 293

11.1. Overview of Raman Microscopy 293

11.2. Single-Point Raman Microspectroscopy 295

11.3. Line Imaging 309

11.4. Two-Dimensional Raman Imaging 316

CHAPTER 12 FIBER-OPTIC RAMAN SAMPLING 333

12.1. Overview of Fiber-Optic Sampling 333

12.2. Fiber-Optic Basics 334

12.3. Fiber–Spectrometer Interface 337

12.4. Fiber-Optic Probes 342

12.5. Comparisons of Fiber-Optic Sampling Probes 35912.6. Waveguide Sampling for Analytical Raman Spectroscopy 364

12.7. Examples of Fiber-Optic Sampling 369

CHAPTER 13 RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY OF SURFACES 373

13.1. Overview 373

13.2. Surface Sensitivity 375



viii CONTENTS

13.3. Sampling Considerations 379

13.4. Surface Raman Spectroscopy without Field Enhancement 382

13.5. Electromagnetic Field Enhancement 390

13.6. Examples of Analytical Applications 409

INDEX 415



PREFACE

This book was inspired by the transition of Raman spectroscopy from a

technically demanding research technique to a useful and practical methodof chemical analysis. There are many fine texts and thousands of scientific

articles on research in Raman spectroscopy, primarily oriented toward under-

standing the Raman effect itself and using Raman scattering to probe molecular

structure and dynamics. These research efforts have reached a high level of

sophistication and have yielded valuable chemical and physical insights, but

they rarely resulted in practical techniques for chemical analysis until approx-

imately 1986. The impediments to broad applications of Raman spectroscopy

to chemical analysis were mainly technological rather than fundamental. The

instrumentation required to observe the weak Raman effect was too cumber-

some and expensive for routine analysis, and interference from fluorescence

precluded application to a broad range of industrial samples. As a result, the

advantages of Raman spectroscopy over more common infrared absorptiontechniques were not exploited in analytical problems.

Major technological and scientific innovation in the past 10 to 15 years

has significantly broadened the applicability of Raman spectroscopy, partic-

ularly in chemical analysis. Fourier transform (FT)–Raman, charge-coupled

device (CCD) detectors, compact spectrographs, effective laser rejection filters,

near-infrared lasers, and small computers have contributed to a revolution in

Raman instrumentation and made routine analytical applications possible. An

increase in instrumental sensitivity by factors as large as 105, plus decreases

in both interferences and noise resulted from this “revolution.” The number

of vendors of Raman spectrometers increased from 3 to 12 over a 10-year

period, and integrated commercial spectrometers led to turnkey operation and

robust reliability.

This book is intended to introduce a student or practitioner of analytical

chemistry to the technical elements and practical benefits of the “Raman revo-

lution.” It is not intended to describe “high-end” Raman techniques such as

nonlinear or time-resolved Raman spectroscopy, nor does it attempt to describe

the many theoretical treatments of Raman scattering. The book emphasizes the

concepts and technology important to applications of Raman spectroscopy in

chemical analysis, with attention to calibration, performance, and sampling

modes. While many recent innovations in analytical Raman spectroscopy are

ix



x PREFACE

technically sophisticated, their objectives are reliability, accuracy, reduction of

interferences, and ease of operation rather than ultimate spectral resolution or

sensitivity. The emphasis of both the theory and instrumentation discussions

in this book is the practical analysis that has resulted from recent technolog-

ical developments. Techniques such as nonlinear Raman (CARS, hyperRaman,

stimulated Raman, etc.), picosecond transient Raman, single-crystal Raman,

gas-phase Raman,and so forth are excluded not because they are unimportant,

but because they currently have limited use in routine chemical analysis.

The audience for this book should include graduate students, practicing

chemists, and Raman spectroscopists who seek information on recent instru-mentation developments. It is not a comprehensive review but more of a

textbook intended as an introduction to modern Raman spectroscopy. In most

cases, the techniques discussed are available in commercially available spec-

trometers, and the book should be useful to chemists who are implementing

Raman spectroscopy in industrial or academic laboratories. Although a large

number of useful Raman applications involve custom-built instrumentation,

the book emphasizes configurations and components used by current vendors

of integrated Raman spectrometers.

Since commercial spectrometers can be constructed in a variety of config-

urations, instruments from different manufacturers often differ significantly

in applicability and performance. Specific manufacturers are mentioned in

the text to identify a particular approach or optical configuration. Available

commercial units differ widely in performance and are often optimized forparticular sample types. Mention of a manufacturer in the text does not imply

an endorsement but may be useful to the reader in order to appreciate differ-

ences in design objectives. There is no “best” manufacturer or configuration,

but certain designs are more applicable to certain situations, depending on

the sample and analytical objective. It will become obvious that the sample

dictates the choice of spectrometer type, and no single Raman system covers

all possible applications.

The book is divided into roughly three general areas on theory and instru-

mentation. Chapters 1 to 4 cover the origin and magnitude of Raman scattering

and the major factors determining the signal/noise ratio. Chapters 5 to 10

discuss instrumental components and configurations and methods of calibra-

tion. Chapters 11 to 13 address the widely studied specialty areas of Ramanmicroscopy, fiber-optic sampling, and Raman spectroscopy of surfaces. In

most chapters , many examples of applications to Raman spectroscopy to

analytical problems are provided.

Notes on Conventions

The definitions of several symbols and certain conventions are not used

uniformly in the Raman spectroscopy literature, and some choices were



PREFACE xi

required to retain internal consistency in this book. Raman shifts are plotted

from left (low shift) to right (high shift), in opposition to the usual practice for

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) frequencies. Furthermore, the Raman shift

axis shows only Stokes-shifted bands unless noted otherwise. The differential

Raman cross section is assigned the symbol ˇ instead of d/d often used

in the literature. As explained in Chapter 2, ˇ has specific significance and is

a more convenient symbol for equations. Modern CCD Raman spectrometers

count photons rather than measure power, and it is more convenient to define

power and intensity as photons per second and power density as photons per

square centimeter per second (Chapter 2). The sampled volume discussed inseveral texts is explicitly defined herein as the detected area, A D, times the

sampling depth, dz. There are several additional and more minor differences

in definitions between this book and certain treatments from the literature, and

a complete list of symbols is provided to reduce possible confusion.



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I thank my wife and children for their support and under-

standing during the long process of writing this book. Much of the technicalinformation was provided by graduate students in my research group, both

past and present. I appreciate their willingness to acquire data not directly

related to their research projects. Many technical discussions with practicing

spectroscopists were very valuable to the effort, particularly those with Bruce

Chase, Chris Frank, Rick Van Duyne, Jack Spencer, Fritz Allen and Jun Zhao.

Valuable collaborations with the technical staff at Chromex provided many of

the illustrative examples in the book, as well as some innovations in instrument

design. Finally, I appreciate the efforts of Margaret Dodd and Anna McCreery

with preparation of the manuscript and figures.

xiii



LIST OF SYMBOLS

˛ polarizability

A D sample area monitored by spectrometer, cm2

˛F scattering coefficient of fibers, dB/m

L scattering and absorption coefficient at laser wavelength, cm1

R scattering and absorption coefficient at laser wavelength, cm1

˛o polarizability in the absence of vibrations

ˇ differential Raman cross section (d/d), cm2 molecule1 sr1

B observed intensity due to background, e

P B rate of background accumulation, e sec1

ˇ° frequency independent differential Raman cross section, cm6 sr1

molecule1

b sample thickness, cm

ˇS differential Raman cross section for a surface species, cm2

molecule1 sr1

c speed of light, cm sec1

C collection function for Raman spectrometer, usually cm2 sr e

photon1 cm1

D number density, molecules cm3

d distance between mirrors, cm

DS surface number density, molecule cm2

d increment of observation angle

dz path length increment, cm

υ CCD gain, e /ADU (analog-to-digital converter unit)

υa spectrometer depth of field, cm

υ spectral resolution, cm1

molar absorptivity, M1, cm1

blur diameter, cm

E electric field, V cm1

EG grating efficiency into first order

f/# aperture ratio (f number)

f1 focal length

xv



xvi LIST OF SYMBOLS

FS figure of merit for Raman signal

FSNR figure of merit based on signal-to-noise ratio, using power

density, cm3 sr e (photon)1

F0

SNR cm3 sr e (photon)1

CCD gain, e /ADU (analog-to-digital converter unit)

mirror velocity in an interferometer, cm sec1

h Planck’s constant

I0 incident laser intensity, W

I R Raman intensity, W

k Boltzman constant

K geometric factor depending on observation geometry, units vary

with the situation

wavelength, cm

L specific intensity, photons sec1 cm2 sr1

La specific intensity of analyte, photons sec1 cm2 sr1

0 laser wavelength, nm or cm

M molar concentration, mol/liter

m diffraction order

frequency of light, Hz

NC number of channels along spectral axis of a multichannel detectorn refractive index

0 laser frequency

N R number of resolution elements in a given spectrum

frequency expressed in wavenumbers

j vibrational frequency of mode j, expressed in wavenumbers; also

Raman shift, in cm1

p frequency of an electronic transition, cm1

P polarization, V cm1

P D incident laser power density, photons sec1 cm2

P0 incident laser intensity, in photons sec1

P R scattered Raman intensity, photons sec1

d rate of dark signal accumulation, e sec1

S average flux of e generated by photons reaching the detector,

photons sec1

Q quantum efficiency of detector, e photon1

Qj jth normal vibrational mode

Q°j amplitude of Qj

RF reflectivity of focusing mirror



LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii

j integrated Raman cross section, cm2 molecule1

S Raman signal, in electrons, e

0j integrated Raman cross section, with intensity stated as photons

sec1

Sa Raman signal, due to analyte band of interest, e

S mean value of Raman signal, e

PS signal rate, dS/dt, e sec1

PSa rate of analyte signal accumulation, e sec1

Si signal in ith channel (e)

S0

i signal in ith channel, in analog-to-digital units (or counts)Sbiasi bias electrons in ith channel

Sdark i dark electrons in ith channel

B standard deviation of the background (or blank)

bk standard deviation of a blank “sample”

d standard deviation of dark signal, sometimes called dark noise

F flicker noise

r readout noise

S standard deviation of analyte Raman signal

y standard deviation of peak height

°j frequency-independent cross section of mode j, cm6 molecule1

SNR signal noise ratio

sr steradian RC reflectivity of collimating mirror

T transmission of optics or spectrograph, unitless

T absolute temperature, K

tg global image acquisition time

t M total spectrum acquisition time, sec.

TS spectrometer transmission

ts single-channel measurement time, or time of observation for a

single Raman shift

Tl line focus image acquisition time

TP transmission of polarization scrambler

Tp point-to-point image acquisition time

v vibrational quantum number

W D total width of detector

w0 radius of beam waist, cm

WP width of pixel or exit slit

z depth into sample

solid angle of collection

D solid angle observed by the spectrometer at the sample



CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

A SERIES OF MONOGRAPHS ON

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND ITS APPLICATIONS

J. D. Winefordner, Series Editor

Vol. 1. The Analytical Chemistry of Industrial Poisons, Hazards, and Solvents.

Second Edition. By the late Morris B. Jacobs

Vol. 2. Chromatographic Adsorption Analysis. By Harold H. Strain (out of print )

Vol. 3. Photometric Determination of Traces of Metals. Fourth Edition

Part I: General Aspects. By E. B. Sandell and Hiroshi Onishi

Part IIA: Individuals Metals, Aluminum to Lithum. By Hiroshi Onishi

Part IIB: Individuals Metals, Magnesium to Zirconium. By Hiroshi Onishi

Vol. 4. Organic Reagents Used in Gravimetric and Volumetric Analysis. By John

F. Flagg (out of print )Vol. 5. Aquametry: A Treatise on Methods for the Determination of Water . Second

Edition (in three parts). By John Mitchell, Jr. and Donald Milton Smith

Vol. 6. Analysis of Insectidies and Acaricides. By Francis A. Gunther and Roger

C. Blinn (out of print )

Vol. 7. Chemical Analysis of Industrial Solvents. By the late Morris B. Jacobs and

Leopard Scheltan

Vol. 8. Colorimetric Determination of Nonmetals. Second Edition. Edited by the late

David F. Boltz and James A. Howell

Vol. 9. Analytical Chemistry of Titanium Metals and Compounds. By Maurice Codell

Vol. 10. The Chemical Analysis of Air Pollutants. By the late Morris B. Jacobs

Vol. 11. X-Ray Spectrochemical Analysis. Second Edition. By L. S. Birks

Vol. 12. Systematic Analysis Surface-Active Agents. Second Edition. By Milton J. Rosen

and Henry A. GoldsmithVol. 13. Alternating Current Polarography and Tensammetry. By B. Breyer and

H. H. Bauer

Vol. 14. Flame Photometry. By R. Hermann and J. Alkemade

Vol. 15. The Titration of Organic Compounds (in two parts). By M. R. F. Ashworth

Vol. 16. Complexation in Analytical Chemistry: A guide for the Critical Selection of

Analytical Methods Based on Complexation Reactions. By the late Anders

Ringbom

Vol. 17. Electron Probe Microanalysis. Second Edition. By L. S. Birks

xix



xx CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES

Vol. 18. Organic Complexing Reagents: Structure, Behaviour, and Application to

Inorganic Analysis. By D. D. Perrin

Vol. 19. Thermal Analysis. Third Edition. By Wesley Wm. Wendlandt

Vol. 20. Amperometric Titrations. By John T. Stock

Vol. 21. Reflectance Spectroscopy. By Wesley Wm. Wendlandt and Harry G. Hecht

Vol 22. The Analytical Toxicology of Industrial Inorganic Poisons. By the late Morris

B. Jacobs

Vol. 23. The Formation and Properties of Precipitates. By Alan G. Walton

Vol. 24. Kinetics in Analytical Chemistry. By Harry B. Mark, Jr. And Garry A. Rechintz

Vol. 25. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Second Edition. By Morris Slavin

Vol. 26. Characterization of Organometallic Compounds (in two parts). Edited by

Minoru Tsutsui

Vol. 27. Rock and Mineral Analysis. Second Edition. By Wesely M. Johnson and John

A. Maxwell

Vol. 28. The Analytical Chemistry of Nitrogen and Its Compounds (in two parts). Edited

by C. A. Streuli and Philip R. Averell

Vol. 29. The Analytical Chemistry of Sulphur and Its Compounds (in three parts). By

J. H. Karchmer

Vol. 30. Ultramicro Elemental Analysis. By Gunther Tolg

Vol. 31. Photometric Organic Analysis (in two parts). By Eugene Sawicki

Vol. 32. Determination of Organic Compounds: Methods and Procedures. By Frederick

T. Weiss

Vol. 33. Masking and Demasking of Chemical Reactions. By D. D. Perrin

Vol. 34. Neutron Activation Analysis. By D. De Soete, R. Gijbels, and J. Hoste

Vol. 35. Laser Raman Spectroscopy. By Marvin C. Tobin

Vol. 36. Emission Spectrochemical Analysis. By Morris Slavin

Vol. 37. Analytical Chemistry of Phosphorous Compounds. Edited by M. Halmann

Vol. 38. Luminescence Spectromoetry in Analytical Chemistry. By J. D. Winefordner,

S. G. Schulman and T. C. O’Haver

Vol. 39. Activation Analysis with Neutron Generators. By Sam S. Nargolwalla and

Edwin P. Przybylowicz

Vol. 40. Determination of Gaseous Elements in Metals. Edited by Lynn L. Lewis, Laben

M. Melnick, and Ben D. Holt

Vol. 41. Analysis of Silicones. Edited by A. Lee Smith

Vol. 42. Foundations of Ultracentrifugal Analysis. By H. Fujita

Vol. 43. Chemical Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy. By Peter R. Griffiths

Vol. 44. Microscale Manipulations in Chemistry. By T. S. Ma and V. Horak

Vol. 45. Thermometric Titrations. By J. Barthel

Vol. 46. Trace Analysis: Spectroscopic Methods for Elements. Edited by J. D. Wine-

fordner

Vol. 47. Contamination Control in Trace Element Analysis. By Morris Zief and James

W. Mitchell

Vol. 48. Analytical Applications of NMR. By D. E. Leyden and R. H. Cox

Vol. 49. Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen. By Michael L. Hitchman



CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES xxi

Vol. 50. Analytical Laser Spectroscopy. Edited by Nicolo Omenetto

Vol. 51. Trace Element Analysis of Geological Materials. By Roger D. Reeves and

Robert R. Brooks

Vol. 52. Chemical Analysis by Microwave Rotational Spectroscopy. By Ravi Varma and

Lawrence W. Hrubesh

Vol. 53. Information Theory As Applied to Chemical Analysis . By Karl Eckschlager

and Vladimir Stepanek

Vol. 54. Applied Infrared Spectroscopy: Fundamentals, Techniques, and Analytical

Problem-solving. By A. Lee Smith

Vol. 55. Archaeological Chemistry. By Zvi Goffer

Vol. 56. Immobilized Enzymes in Analytical and Clinical Chemistry. By P. W. Carr

and L. D. Bowers

Vol. 57. Photoacoustics and Photoacoustic Spectroscopy. By Allan Rosenewaig

Vol. 58. Analysis of Pesticide Residues. Edited by H. Anson Moye

Vol. 59. Affinity Chromatography. By William H. Scouten

Vol. 60. Quality Control in Analytical Chemistry. Second Edition. By G. Kateman and

L. Buydens

Vol. 61. Direct Characterization of Fineparticles. By Brain H. Kaye

Vol. 62. Flow Injection Analysis. By J. Ruzicka and E. H. Hansen

Vol. 63. Applied Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis. Edited by Hassan

Windawi and Floyd Ho

Vol. 64. Analytical Aspects of Enviromental Chemistry. Edited by David F. S. Natusch

and Philip K. Hopke

Vol. 65. The Interpretation of Analytical Chemical Data by the Use of Cluster

Analysis. By D. Luc Massart and Leonard Kaufman

Vol. 66. Solid Phase Biochemistry: Analytical and Synthetic Aspects. Edited by William

H. Scouten

Vol. 67. An Introduction to Photoelectron Spectroscopy. By Pradip k. Ghosh

Vol. 68. Room Temperature Phosphorimetry for Chemical Analysis. By Tuan Vo-Dinh

Vol. 69. Potentiometry and Potentiometric Titrations. By E. P. Serjeant

Vol. 70. Design and Application of Process Analyzer Systems. By Paul E. Mix

Vol. 71. Analysis of Organic and Biological Surfaces. Edited by Patrick Echlin

Vol. 72. Small Bore Liquid Chromatography Columns: Their Properties and Uses.

Edited by Raymond P. W. Scott

Vol. 73. Modern Methods of Particle Size Analysis. Edited by Howard G. Barth

Vol. 74. Auger Electron Spectroscopy. By Michael Thompson, M. D. Baker, AlecChristie, and J. F. Tyson

Vol. 75. Spot Test Analysis: Clinical, Enviromental, Forensic and Geochemical

Applications. By Ervin Jungreis

Vol. 76. Receptor Modeling in Enviromental Chemistry. By Philip K. Hopke

Vol. 77. Molecular Luminescence Spectroscopy: Methods and Applications (in three

parts). Edited by Stephen G. Schulman

Vol. 78. Inorganic Chromatographic Analysis. Edited by John C. MacDonald

Vol. 79. Analytical Solution Calorimetry. Edited by J. K. Grime



xxii CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES

Vol. 80. Selected Methods of Trace Metal Analysis: Biological and Enviromental

Samples. By Jon C. VanLoon

Vol. 81. The Analysis of Extraterrestrial Materials. BY Isidore Adler

Vol. 82. Chemometrics. By Muhammad A. Sharaf, Deborah L. Illman, and Bruce

R. Kowalski

Vol. 83. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry. By Peter R. Griffiths and James

A. de Haseth

Vol. 84. Trace Analysis: Spectroscopic Methods for Molecules. Edited by Gary Christian

and James B. Callis

Vol. 85. Ultratrace Analysis of Pharmaceuticals and Other Compounds of Interest.

Edited by S. AhujaVol. 86. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry: Basic Concepts, Instrumental Aspects,

Applications and Trends. By A. Benninghoven, F. G. Rudenauer, and H. W.

Werner

Vol. 87. Analytical applications of Lasers. Edited by Edward H. Piepmeier

Vol. 88. Applied Geochemical Analysis. By C. O. Ingamells and F. F. Pitard

Vol. 89. Detectors for Liquid Chromatography. Edited by Edward S. Yeung

Vol. 90. Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectroscopy: Part 1: Methodology,

Instrumentation, and Performance; Part II: Applications and Fundamentals.

Edited by J. M. Boumans

Vol. 91. Applications of New Mass Spectrometry Techniques in Pesticide Chemistry.

Edited by Joseph Rosen

Vol. 92. X-Ray Absorption: Principles, Applications, Techinques, of EXAFS, SEXAFS,

and XANES. Edited by D. C. KonnigsbergerVol. 93. Quantitative Structure-Chromatographic Retention Relationships. By Roman

Kaliszan

Vol. 94. Laser Remote Chemical Analysis. Edited by Raymond M. Measures

Vol. 95. Inorganic Mass Spectrometry. Edited by F. Adams, R. Gijbels, and R. Van

Grieken

Vol. 96. Kinetic Aspects of Analytical Chemistry. By Horacio A. Mottola

Vol. 97. Two-Dimensional NMR Spectroscopy. By Jan Schraml and Jon M. Bellama

Vol. 98. High Performance Liquid Chromatography. Edited by Phyllis R. Brown and

Richard A. Hartwick

Vol. 99. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry. By Ron Jenkins

Vol. 100. Analytical Aspects of Drug Testing. Edited by Dale G. Deustch

Vol. 101. Chemical Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds. Edited by Tuan Vo-

DinhVol. 102. Quadrupole Storage Mass Spectrometry. By Raymond E. March and Richard

J. Hughes

Vol. 103. Determination of Molecular Weight. Edited by Anthony R. Cooper

Vol. 104. Selectivity and Detectability Optimization in HPLC. By Satinder Ahuja

Vol. 105. Laser Microanalysis. By Lieselotte Moenke-Blankenburg

Vol. 106. Clinical Chemistry. Edited by E. Howard Taylor

Vol. 107. Multielement Detection Systems for Spectrochemical Analysis. By Kenneth

W. Busch and Marianna A. Busch



CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES xxiii

Vol. 108. Planar chromatography in the Life Sciences. Edited by Joseph C. Touchstone

Vol. 109. Fluorometric Analysis in Biomedical Chemistry: Trends and Techinques

Including HPLC Applications. By Norio Ichinose, George Schwedt, Frank

Michael Schnepel, and Kyoko Adochi

Vol. 110. An Introduction to Laboratory Automation. By Victor Cerda and Guillermo

Ramis

Vol. 111. Gas Chromatography: Biochemical, Biomedical, and Clinical Applications.

Edited by Ray E. Clement

Vol. 112. The Analysis Chemistry of Silicones. Edited by A. Lee Smith

Vol. 113. Modern Methods of Polymer Characterization. Edited by Howard G. Barth and

Jimmy W. MaysVol. 114. Analytical Raman Spectroscopy. Edited by Jeanette Graselli and Bernard

J. Bulkin

Vol. 115. Trace and Ultratrace Analysis by HPLC. By Satinder Ahuja

Vol. 116. Radiochemistry and Nuclear Methods of Analysis. By William D. Ehmann and

Diane E. Vance

Vol. 117. Applications of Fluorescence in Immunoassays. By Ilkka Hemmila

Vol. 118. Principles and Practice of Spectroscopic Calibration. By Howard Mark

Vol. 119. Activation Spectrometry in Chemical Analysis. By S. J. Parry

Vol. 120. Remote Sensing by Fourier Transform Spectrometry. By Reinhard Beer

Vol. 121. Detectors for Capillary Chromatography. Edited by Herbert H. Hill and Dennis

McMinn

Vol. 122. Photochemical Vapor Deposition. By J. G. Eden

Vol. 123. Statistical Methods in Analytical Chemistry. By Peter C. Meier and RichardZund

Vol. 124. Laser Ionization Mass Analysis. Edited by Akos Vertes, Renaat Gijbels, and

Fred Adams

Vol. 125. Physics and Chemistry of Solid State Sensor Devices. By Andreas Mandelis

and Constantinos Christofides

Vol. 126. Electroanalytical Stripping Methods. By Khjena Z. Brainina and E. Neyman

Vol. 127. Air Monitoring by Spectroscopic Techniques. Edited by Markus W. Sigrist

Vol. 128. Information Theory in Analytical Chemistry. By Karel Eckschlager and Klaus

Danzer

Vol. 129. Flame Chemiluminescence Analysis by Molecular Emission Cavity Detection.

Edited by David Stiles, Anthony Calokerinos, and Alan Townshend

Vol. 130. Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. By Jiri Dedina and

Dimiter L. TsalevVol. 131. Selective Detectors: Enviromental, Industrial, and Biomedical Applications.

Edited by Robert E. Sievers

Vol. 132. High Speed Countercurrent Chromatography. Edited by Yoichiro Ito and

Walter D. Conway

Vol. 133. Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission Spectrometry. By Sven A. E. Johansson, John

L. Campbell, and Klas G. Malmqvist

Vol. 134. Photothermal Spectroscopy Methods for Chemical Analysis. By Stephen

E. Bialkowski



xxiv CUMULATIVE LISTING OF VOLUMES IN SERIES

Vol. 135. Element Speciation in Bioinorganic Chemistry. Edited by Sergio Caroli

Vol. 136. Laser-Enhanced Ionization Spectrometry. Edited by John C. Travis and Gregory

C. Turk

Vol. 137. Fluorescence Imaging Spectroscopy and Microscopy. Edited by Xue Feng Wang

and Brain Herman

Vol. 138. Introduction to X-Ray Powder Diffractometry. By Ron Jenkins and Robert

L. Snyder

Vol. 139. Modern Techinques in Electroanalysis. Edited by Petr Vanysek

Vol. 140. Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis. By Reinhold Klockenkamper

Vol. 141. Spot Test Analysis: Clinical, Enviromental, Forensic, and Geochemical

Applications, Second Edition. By Ervin JungreisVol. 142. The Impact of Stereochemistry on Drug Development and Use. Edited by

Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein and Irving W. Wainer

Vol. 143. Macrocyclic compounds in Analytical Chemistry. Edited by Yury A. Zolotov

Vol. 144. Surface-Launched Acoustic Wave Sensors: Chemical Sensing and Thin-Film

Characterization. By Michael Thompson and David Stone

Vol. 145. Modern Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry. Edited by T. J. Platzner

Vol. 146. High Performance Capillary Electrophoresis: Theory, Techinques, and

Applications. Edited by Morteza G. Khaledi

Vol. 147. Solid Phase Extraction: Principles and Practice. By E. M. Thurman

Vol. 148. Commercial Biosensors: Applications to Clinical, Bioprocess and Enviro-

mental Samples. Edited by Graham Ramsay

Vol. 149. A Practical Guide to Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. By

David J. Butcher and Joesph SneddonVol. 150. Principles of chemical and Biological Sensors. Edited by Dermot Diamond

Vol. 151. Pesticide Residue in Foods: Methods, Technologies, and Regulations. By

W. George Fong, H. Anson Moye, James N. Seiber, and John P. Toth

Vol. 152. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry. Second Edition. By Ron Jenkins

Vol. 153. Statistical Methods in Analytical Chemistry. Second Edition. By Peter C. Meier

and Richard E. Zund

Vol. 154. Modern Analytical Methodologies in Fat and Water Soluble Vitamins . Edited

by Won O. Song, Gary R. Beecher and Ronald R. Eitenmiller

Vol. 155. Modern Analytical Methods in Arts and Archaeology. Edited by Enrico

Ciliberto and Guiseppe Spoto

Vol. 156. Shpol’skii Spectroscopy and Others Site Selection Methods: Applications in

Enviromental Analysis, Bioanalytical Chemistry and Chemical Physics . Edited

by C. Goojier, F. Ariese and J. W. Hofstraat

Vol. 157. Raman Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis. By Richard L. McCreery

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