Richard III

AUTHOR BIOFull Name: William Shakespeare

Date of Birth: 1564

Place of Birth: Stratford upon Avon, England

Date of Death: 1616

Brief Life Story: Shakespeare's father was a glove-maker, and Shakespearereceived no more than a grammar school education. He married AnneHathaway in 1582, but left his family behind around 1590 and moved toLondon, where he became an actor and playwright. He was an immediatesuccess: Shakespeare soon became the most popular playwright of the day aswell as a part-owner of the Globe Theater. His theater troupe was adopted byKing James as the King's Men in 1603. Shakespeare retired as a rich andprominent man to Stratford-upon-Avon in 1613, and died three years later.

KEY FACTSFull Title: The Tragedy of King Richard the Third

Genre: History play

Setting: England

Climax: Richard pretending not to want the crown, then finally deferring toBuckingham and the Lord Mayor's entreaties to take it.

Protagonist: Richard

Antagonist: Richard

HISTORICAL AND LITERARY CONTEXTWhen Written: c. 1592

Where Written: London

When Published: 1597

Literary Period: The Renaissance

Related Literary Works: Richard III is related to the tetralogy of history playsincluding Richard II, Henry IV Part 1, Henry IV, Part 2 and Henry V that issometimes called the Henriad. Those plays track the reigns of King Richard II,King Henry IV, and Henry V, the father of Henry VI, Queen Margaret'shusband and Lady Anne's father-in-law, whom Richard murders right beforethe play Richard III opens.

Related Historical Events: The Wars of the Roses were a series of Englishwars fought between 1455 and 1485 among the House of Lancaster and theHouse of York, two rival lines of the royal House of Plantagenet who bothclaimed the right to rule England. The war got its name from the two houses'heraldic symbols: York was symbolized by a white rose and Lancaster by a redrose. Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond and a member of the House of Lancaster,ended the wars by defeating King Richard III (a York). He then marriedElizabeth of York, uniting the Yorks and the Lancasters. Henry Tudor foundedthe Tudor line of Kings and Queens that continued to Elizabeth I, who wasQueen when Shakespeare wrote Richard III.

EXTRA CREDITNot Really a Hunchback. Though Shakespeare chose to portray Richard witha serious hunchback, the historical king had scoliosis, not a hunchback, andwould not have appeared as severely deformed as he looks in the play. Sourcesavailable at Shakespeare's time described Richard's condition accurately, butthe playwright may have chosen to exaggerate Richard's outward deformity inorder to emphasize his inner crookedness.

Real Life Omens. The day the historical Lady Anne died was marked by a solareclipse – a threatening omen that would fit right in among the propheticdreams and ominous signs of the play Richard III. Some at the time thought theeclipse signaled King Richard III's fall from divine grace.

It is approximately 1485 in England and Richard of Gloucester is incensedthat his brother King Edward has taken the throne after numerous civil warsfought between their family (the House of York) and the House of Lancaster.Richard feels excluded from everyone's peacetime celebrations because hewas born unattractive, has a hunchback, and lacks love. Instead of frolicking,he has contrived a plot to make himself king. He's turned King Edward againsttheir brother George of Clarence (next in line for the throne) by leadingEdward to believe a prophesy that he'll be murdered by a family member witha ‘G' in his name. Yet, when Richard meets Clarence on his way to prison, hepretends to be outraged at Clarence's circumstance and promises to go pleadClarence's case to Edward. On the way Richard meets Lady Anne in mourningfor her father-in-law Henry VI and her husband Edward of Westminster, theking and heir to the throne before Richard killed them both. Richard isdetermined to marry her to advance his rise to the throne and, though Anneunderstandably detests him, he manages to sweet-talk her into accepting hisring. Alone, Richard gloats at his coup.

Meanwhile, Queen Elizabeth is worried because King Edward is sick and shefears Richard, who hates her and her allies, will take power. At the palace, sheand Richard bicker until Queen Margaret, the former Queen who wassupposed to be banished, steps out and begins cursing everyone for deprivingher of her husband Henry VI, son Edward of Westminster, and rightful placeon the throne. Everyone bands against her. She curses each person present,saving the worst for Richard. She prophesies that Richard will ruin everyone'slives.

Richard secretly arranges Clarence's murder and, when King Edward decidesto free Clarence, Richard pretends to be just as sad as everyone else at themix-up. King Edward dies soon after and his son Edward Prince of Wales isbrought to London to be crowned the new king. Meanwhile, Richard and hissidekick Buckingham plot to crown Richard instead. They capture QueenElizabeth's relatives, Earl Rivers, the Marquis of Dorset, and Lord Grey andplan to execute them. That night, Lord Stanley has a dream foreboding LordHastings' beheading by Richard, but fails to convince the trusting Hastings torun away. Sir William Catesby tries to win Hastings over to Richard's plot buthe refuses and, indeed, Richard soon finds an excuse to have Hastingsbeheaded. Richard and Buckingham spread the news of Richard's impendingcoronation with the help of the Lord Mayor, but receive a stunned lack ofenthusiasm from the public. To win favor, Richard and Buckingham stage ascene in which Richard acts humble and religious and repeatedly declines theoffer of the crown, accepting it only at Buckingham's insistence.

Richard is officially crowned. He imprisons King Edward's sons and ordersBuckingham to kill them. When Buckingham hesitates, Richard turns againsthim and finds another hit man. Fearing the he himself will be the next to bekilled by Richard, Buckingham flees and starts to raise an army againstRichard. Richard plans to imprison Anne and marry King Edward's daughter tosecure his throne. He intercepts Elizabeth in mourning for her sons and,though she loathes him, Richard eventually manages to convince her to coaxher daughter into marrying Richard (or so he thinks).

Reports arrive that the Earl of Richmond a member of the house of Lancaster,approaches England with troops, aiming to usurp Richard's throne. Richardsends Stanley off to raise troops for him, threatening to behead Stanley's son ifhe fails to return. Stanley secretly arranges to side with Richmond and notesthat Elizabeth is eager to give her daughter's hand to Richmond. A messengerreports that Buckingham's army has scattered and that Buckingham is

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captured. Before execution, Buckingham repents his sins, feeling his death tobe deserved. Richard marches off with troops to fight Richmond.

Richmond proves himself a generous and conscientious leader by treating hisarmy well. The night before the battle between Richard and Richmond, theghosts of all Richard's victims rise into the night and hurl curses at Richardwhile giving Richmond their blessing. The next day, Richard is defeated andkilled and Richmond takes the crown, resolving to end the Wars of the Rosesand establish peace by marrying young Elizabeth, the daughter of KingEdward, uniting the houses of York and Lancaster forever.

Richard, DukRichard, Duke of Gloucestere of Gloucester, King Richard III, King Richard III – Relentlessly power-hungry,Richard is not afraid to betray, lie, and murder to advance himself towards thethrone. He is a smooth talker, a skilled actor, and a fickle friend and all aroundhim come to fear his petty, bloody ways. The play tracks his swift ascent toKing of England and equally swift fall at Richmond's hand. He is a York and hisheraldic symbol is the boar.

Richmond, King Henry VIIRichmond, King Henry VII – A Lancaster and nephew to King Henry VI,Richmond is a kind, steady ruler whose gentle leadership stands in sharpcontrast to Richard's. Richmond raises an army against Richard and defeatshim, taking the throne of England and marrying King Edward's daughter tounite the houses of York and Lancaster.

DukDuke of Buckinghame of Buckingham – Richard's right-hand man who helps the Duke rise tothe throne, thinking he'll be rewarded once Richard is king. Instead, Richardspurns him. Buckingham realizes the error of his ways and tries unsuccessfullyto raise an army against Richard, only to be captured and beheaded. Herepents his sins before he dies.

Queen ElizabethQueen Elizabeth – Wife to King Edward and mother to Edward Prince ofWales, the Duke of York, and a daughter (also named Elizabeth) whomRichmond eventually marries, Elizabeth is progressively devastated byRichard's rise as he murders first her allies, Earl Rivers, Lord Grey, and SirVaughan, then her young sons, and then tries to marry her daughter.

Queen MargaretQueen Margaret – Widow of Henry VI and mother of Edward of Westminster(both murdered by Richard), Margaret is bitter, sharp-tongued, grief-addled,and determined to make the living pay for her lost husband, son, and throne.The curses she casts at the start of the play are successively fulfilled in latersubsequent scenes.

Lady Anne, Queen AnneLady Anne, Queen Anne – The widow of Edward of Westminster (the heir toHenry VI's throne before both were killed by Richard), Richard successfullywoos the grieving Anne. He speaks to her of love, but in fact wants to use herto legitimate his own claim to the throne. Anne quickly comes to regret themarriage and loathes Richard until her premature death.

King Edward IVKing Edward IV – Richard's oldest brother and Elizabeth's husband, Edwardis a York. He is sickly and dies early on in the play.

George, DukGeorge, Duke of Clarencee of Clarence – The middle brother between King Edward VI andRichard, Clarence stands ahead of Richard in the line of succession to thethrone. Richard, while pretending to be Clarence's ally, first turns Edwardagainst him and then has him murdered.

Duchess of YDuchess of Yorkork – Mother of Edward IV, Richard, and Clarence, who comesto despise Richard and eventually disowns him.

Edward, Prince of WEdward, Prince of Walesales – Son of Elizabeth and King Edward and rightful heirto the throne, he is young but witty. After Edward VI dies and Richard seizesthe throne, Richard continues to see Edward as a rival and therefore tries toportray him as illegitimate and eventually has him murdered.

DukDuke of Ye of Yorkork – Son of Elizabeth and King Edward and the younger brother toEdward Prince of Wales, Richard tries to portray him too as illegitimate andeventually has him murdered.

LLord Stanleord Stanleyy – Loyal stepfather to Richmond, who feigns loyalty to Richard toprotect his son George Stanley but stealthily assists Richmond.

LLord Hastingsord Hastings – Though Hastings' supports and trusts Richard, he will notsupport his rise to the throne and is thus eventually beheaded by Richard.

LLord Maord Mayyor of Lor of Londonondon – The mayor that Richard and Buckingham try tomanipulate into garnering public support for Richard's rise to the throne.

The Three CitizensThe Three Citizens – London citizens who worry about their state and fearRichard's rise.

ScrivScrivenerener – A scrivener hired by Catesby to transcribe Hastings' indictment,he fears the manipulative, wrongful rule of Richard.

The TThe Two Murdererswo Murderers – Murderers Richard hires to kill Clarence. One repentsand runs away in remorse.

Ghost of King Henry VIGhost of King Henry VI – Ghost of King Henry VI who was married to QueenMargaret and murdered by Richard.

Ghost of Edward of WGhost of Edward of Westminsterestminster – Ghost of Edward of Westminster whowas married to Lady Anne and murdered by Richard.

Sir William CatesbSir William Catesbyy – A loyal member of Richard's circle.

DukDuke of Norfolke of Norfolk – A loyal member of Richard's circle.

Earl of SurreEarl of Surreyy – A loyal member of Richard's circle.

Sir Richard RatcliffeSir Richard Ratcliffe – A loyal member of Richard's circle.

LLord Lord Loovvelel – A loyal member of Richard's circle.

Earl of OxfordEarl of Oxford – A loyal member of Richmond's party.

Sir WSir Walter Herbertalter Herbert – A loyal member of Richmond's party.

Sir James BluntSir James Blunt – A loyal member of Richmond's party.

Sir William BrSir William Brandonandon – A loyal member of Richmond's party.

Sir James TSir James Tyrrellyrrell – The assassin Richard hires to kill Edward Prince of Walesand the Duke of York.

Earl RivEarl Riversers – Elizabeth's brother and loyal ally, eventually executed byRichard.

Marquis of DorsetMarquis of Dorset – Elizabeth's son from a previous marriage and loyal ally.

LLord Richard Greord Richard Greyy – Elizabeth's son from a previous marriage and loyal ally,eventually executed by Richard.

Sir Thomas VSir Thomas Vaughanaughan – An ally of Rivers and Grey eventually murdered byRichard.

Sir Robert BrSir Robert Brackackenburyenbury – Lieutenant of the Tower.

The Sheriff of WiltshireThe Sheriff of Wiltshire – A sheriff who escorts Buckingham to his execution.

The Bishop of ElyThe Bishop of Ely – A bishop who abandons Richard for Richmond.

The Archbishop of YThe Archbishop of Yorkork – An archbishop who conducts Elizabeth and theDuke of York to sanctuary.

Cardinal BouchierCardinal Bouchier – A cardinal who helps extract the Duke of York fromsanctuary.

Sir Christopher UrswickSir Christopher Urswick – A messenger between Stanley and Richmond.

Margaret PlantagenetMargaret Plantagenet – Clarence's daughter whom Richard marries off to aman of low rank, thereby protecting his throne.

Edward PlantagenetEdward Plantagenet – Clarence's son, whom Richard imprisons.

The PriestThe Priest – A priest of Hastings' acquaintance.

The PursuivantThe Pursuivant – A pursuivant (a man who looks after matters of genealogicalimportance) of Hastings' acquaintance.

A PA Pageage – A page in Richard's court.

The AldermanThe Alderman – An alderman of London.

POWERPOWERRichard III tracks Richard's bloodthirsty ascent to power. The play is almost allaction – it contains less meditation and soliloquy than many of Shakespeare'splays – and nearly every action is orchestrated by Richard to facilitate his ownrise to the crown. The play begins right after King Henry VI's death vacatesthe throne and ends as soon as Richard is slain by Richmond at the end of ActV, its dramatic shape framing a zoomed-in view of Richard's violent power

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grab. The peacetime England presided over by King Edward at the start of theplay and Richmond at the end is a world apart and can't coexist with themurderous, terrified atmosphere that Richard thrives in. Indeed, Richardhimself admits at the play's start that he has no place in peacetime England:"Why, I, in this weak piping time of peace, have no delight to pass away thetime." Indeed, in creating Richard, Shakespeare creates an image ofunadulterated greed for personal power, a true Machiavellian leader wholacks all moral and emotional compunction. His own advancement is the onlything he pays attention to and, much to the other characters' chagrin, Richardremains deaf to people's grief and pleas for mercy no matter thecircumstances. Unfazed by the fact that he himself is to blame for Lady Anne'smourning (since he killed her husband and father-in-law), Richard woos thegrief-stricken lady just to make himself feel powerful. When his own mother,the Duchess of York, tries desperately to articulate her anger to him, heignores her. Likewise, Richard spurns his loyal friend Buckingham's entirelyjustified request for the reward Richard himself has promised. He is numbeven to the enraged misery of Queen Elizabeth, whose two sons Richard hasslain, and has the nerve to ask the devastated mother for her daughter's handin marriage.

Yet while most of the play's action focuses on Richard's ruthless self-empowerment, it opens with a glimpse into Richard's profounddisempowerment, which, though it doesn't excuse any of Richard's brutality,offers psychological insight into his behavior. In Act 1 scene 1, Richard walksinto the play with hideous features and a severe hunchback, the result of apremature birth. Alone on stage, all attention is focused on Richard's bodywhose deformity and weakness Shakespeare probably exaggerated fordramatic effect (the historical Richard suffered form scoliosis but had nohunchback). Those around him frolic and make love in celebration ofpeacetime, Richard says, but he, "curtailed of this fair proportion, cheated offeature by dissembling nature, deformed, unfinished…so lamely andunfashionable," cannot partake of their joy. "And therefore," he adds, "since Icannot prove a lover…I am determined to prove a villain." Implying thatRichard's physical disempowerment is the root cause of his blood-thirst forpolitical empowerment presents Richard's power grab as compensatory, aneffort to outweigh the disadvantages he was born with. From this perspective,Richard is still a villain and his violence is still horrifically unjustified, but it is,however perversely, more understandable.

THE THRTHE THRONE AND THE STONE AND THE STAATETEThe seat of power Richard so ruthlessly seeks is the English throne, whoserightful holder, the play suggests, will be worthy because of both blood andcharacter. The blood claim to the throne derives from England's tradition ofroyal lineage. At the time the play opens, this tradition is embroiled in dispute:Richard's brother King Edward has just taken the throne after the Wars of theRoses, a drawn-out series of civil wars between two families - the Yorks(Richard's family) and the Lancasters – who both claimed the right to ruleEngland through their bloodline. Even aside from the Lancastrian claim to thethrone (frequently articulated by Queen Margaret), Richard does not have alegitimate right to be king at play's start. His brother King Edward has twosons and Richard has another older brother, Clarence, all three of whom standahead of Richard in succession. Richard kills them all to claim the throne. Later,he wheedles Queen Elizabeth into giving him her daughter's hand in marriageas an attempt to solidify that claim. By marrying King Edward's daughter,Richard would deactivate any threat she might pose to his seat. Richard's briefrule is cut off by Richmond, a Lancaster, who kills Richard, ends the Wars ofthe Roses, and becomes King Henry VII, ushering in the Tudor dynasty ofwhich Queen Elizabeth I (ruler during Shakespeare's time) was arepresentative.

Yet apart from addressing the complex intricacies of the royal bloodlines, theplay also suggests that the rightful ruler of England will be a person of goodcharacter and strong ethics. The play frequently compares the state ofEngland to a human body or a natural landscape whose health and fertilitydepends on the moral rectitude of England's ruler. Richmond combines thefigures of body and landscape in describing Richard as, "The wretched, bloody,and usurping boar, that spoil'd your summer fields and fruitful vines, swillsyour warm blood like wash, and makes his trough in your embowell'd bosoms."Later, he says that England has "scarr'd herself" under Richard's brutalleadership and looks forward to "smooth'd-fac'd peace." Queen Margaret calls

Richard "the troubler of the poor world's peace," and compares him to an"elvish-mark'd, abortive, rooting hog" – an unnatural and deformed animal.Queen Elizabeth's retort to Richard implies that Richard is the opposite ofnature: "As long as heaven and nature," Richard says, and Elizabeth responds,"as long as hell and Richard." A London citizen likens the precautions peopleshould take against a dangerous ruler to the measures people prepare againstbad weather: "When clouds are seen, wise men put on their cloaks." In keepingwith the metaphor of the state as a human body or a landscape, the commonpeople are able to feel the onset of illness and blight even as Richard's circle ofsupporters publicly proclaims England's health. Early on, one of the Londoncitizens note, "By a divine instinct, men's minds mistrust ensuing danger, as byproof, we see the water swell before a boisterous storm." Later the scrivenerasks, "Who is so gross that cannot see this palpable device? Yet who so boldbut says he sees it not? Bad is the world, and all will come to naught…" And,when Buckingham gladly declares Richard's impending coronation to thepublic, his announcement is met with the unyielding, stony silence of deep fear.Try as he might, Buckingham can't elicit cheers from a public that knowsRichard's reign is not good news.

LANGULANGUAAGEGE"Why should calamity be full of words?" asks the Duchess of York. Indeed,though Richard III contains plenty of bloodshed, it's most insidious violenceoccurs in language. Orchestrating his rise to power with his tongue, Richardcan be seen as a kind of director: he describes his plot to gain power to theaudience in the first scene, then quickly begins to turn his words into reality.As the play goes on, Richard makes a pattern of this, privately articulating hisplots to the audience before he renders them onstage. In so doing, he seems tosimultaneously privilege and implicate the audience. By letting playgoers in oninformation the actors on stage are ignorant of, Richard entices the audienceand allows them to share his bird's eye view on the action. Still, this sharedvantage point often feels uncomfortable as it positions audience members onequal footing with the cruel, sadistic Richard. The language Richard usesamong his fellow characters proves equally two-faced and manipulative. Hedissembles, flatters, and feigns love without concern for truth or pity. He hiresassassins to do the dirty work of murder and lies prodigiously to distancehimself from the deaths. He makes promises he will not fulfill and sugarcoatsrequests for favors. His tactics work on many, who take Richard at his wordand think him a friend: Clarence believes Richard is on his side, even asRichard plots to kill him. Lady Anne is successfully wooed by Richard's sweet-talking, even though Richard has murdered her husband and father. Hastings'trusts Richard's show of gentleness and is eventually beheaded when he failsto perceive the true, ruthless Richard lurking behind the kind language. EvenBuckingham, who is wise to Richard's schemes, believes Richard's promise ofreward and doesn't realize that he himself is just another of Richard's victimsuntil too late. Queen Elizabeth's wittily furious rejoinders to Richard's coaxingin Act 4 are significant in showing her immune to Richard's tongue – her griefis more powerful than Richard's eloquence. Though Richard believes hiswords have convinced her to give him her daughter's hand in marriage,Stanley soon reveals that she has in fact offered that hand to Richmond.

The curse language spoken by women in the play counters Richard'smanipulative language and channels the powers of destiny, fate, and prophecythrough words. Though everyone initially ignores Queen Margaret's cursesand calls her crazy, the curses she casts against them end up coming true, andHastings, Rivers, Grey, and Vaughan all lament the fulfillment of Margaret'scurse as they are executed. The Duchess and Queen Elizabeth, too, regret nottaking Margaret more seriously after Richard murders the young princes andleaves the women in the devastated state Margaret's curse prophesied. "Othou well skilled in curses, stay awhile," Elizabeth begs Margaret, "And teachme how to curse mine enemies." Richard's downfall, too, fulfills Margaret'scurse while also fulfilling the curse cast on him by his mother the Duchess.Meanwhile, Margaret's own miserable banishment is the result of a curse castagainst her by Richard's father for killing his son Rutland. Cousin to curselanguage is prophetic language, which proves similarly powerful throughoutthe play. The futures described to Clarence and Stanley by their dreams arerealized soon after they dream them. Richard tries to brush off the prophecyhe heard from an Irish bard but it comes true anyway: "I should not live longafter I saw Richmond," he was told, and he doesn't.

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WOMENWOMENThe women in Richard III are, on the surface, as disempowered as they usuallywere in the historical 15th century society that the play depicts. Men presideover the nation and over their wives, as the crown passes from Edward toRichard to Richmond and as Anne follows her husband Richard's orders evenwhen it breaks her heart to do so and King Edward's daughter's wedding isarranged for her by Richmond and Queen Elizabeth.

Yet, while women in the play lack political influence and independence, theywield intense emotional force and speak a vigorous, powerful language. Thefuture-shaping curse language described in the "Language" theme is spokenexclusively by the female characters Queen Margaret, the Duchess, andQueen Elizabeth. Further, the play's female characters form the emotionalcore of the play. While male characters mostly negotiate political action, thewomen articulate the emotional tolls those actions take and thus bring theplay to life for the audience. "I had an Edward, till a Richard kill'd him; I had aHenry, till a Richard kill'd him; Thou hadst an Edward, till a Richard kill'd him;Thou hadst a Richard, till a Richard kill'd him" explains Queen Margaret toQueen Elizabeth, and her repetitions illuminate the parallels between eachwoman's grief, not only for Queen Elizabeth but for the Duchess and the play-goers watching. Likewise, nearly every moving lament in the play comes fromthe mouth of Anne, Queen Margaret, the Duchess, or Queen Elizabeth. Bycontrast, Richard tries to curtail the force of the women's speeches.Interrupting the Duchess and Queen Elizabeth's furious expressions of griefafter the princes' murder, Richard says: "Let not the heavens hear these tell-tale women rail on the Lord's anointed." When the Duchess cries in agony, "O,let me speak!" Richard responds, "Do, then; but I'll not hear." Yet whether ornot Richard listens, the women are heard and their words ring powerfullythrough the air of the play long after they are spoken.

TIMETIMERichard III compresses fourteen years of British history into a five-act playwhose action takes place over about a month. The effect of this compression ispalpable and the drama seems to race by, even though it is, line for line, one ofShakespeare's longest plays. The plot takes place at breakneck speed and theterrifying spectacle of Richard's behavior is made to feel more terrifyingbecause it happens so quickly, his violent scheme tearing onwards, gainingmomentum, seemingly unstoppable. Indeed, Richard at first uses this speed tohis advantage, successfully wooing Anne while her mind is still grief-addled bythe death of her husband and father-in-law and vulnerable to making aregrettable choice. Richard takes similar advantage of time by arranging forClarence to be killed before King Edward can pardon him, then pretending toeveryone in court that the death was the result of Edward's own order toohastily fulfilled. Time likewise serves Richard in the court of opinion: many ofthe nobles surrounding Richard – including Hastings, Edward Prince ofWales, the Duke of York, and Buckingham – don't realize how maliciousRichard is until it's too late for them to escape him.

However, as the play progresses, time no longer works so smoothly inRichard's favor. He seems to lose control of time and frequently asks whathour it is. Before the final battle, a clock strikes ominously, alerting Richard to adisturbing temporal phenomenon: though the time has come for the sun torise, the sky remains black. This disconnect between mechanical and naturaltime unsettles Richard and he reads it as a threatening sign. "A black day will itbe to somebody," he reflects, and tries to comfort himself by imagining that thesky must be just as black over his opponent's camp and that the omen mightthus be for Richmond. Yet Richmond's camp has in fact already spotted dawnand the sky's dark forecast is for Richard, whose death that day brings thehurtling play to a sudden halt.

THE BOARThe boar is Richard's heraldic symbol and represents him several times duringthe play: in Queen Margaret's speech (she calls him an "elvish-marked,abortive, rooting hog"); in Lord Stanley's dream (he sees the boar knocking offHastings' helmet); and in the Earl of Richmond's speech to his troops (he callsRichard a "foul swine"). However, the boar doesn't just symbolize Richard

because it happens to appear on his coat of arms. As an animal commonlyassociated with violent aggression in Elizabethan England, the boar is also afitting symbol for Richard's bloody and relentlessly antagonistic spirit.

THE CLOCKThe clock symbolizes time, which feels unpredictable and sped-up throughoutthe play. It feels that way for a reason: Shakespeare has in fact compressedfourteen years worth of history into the span of a month. At the start of theplay, Richard seems to work the sped-up time to his favor, successfully wooingAnne as soon as her husband has died and passing off his murder of Clarenceas the too-quick fulfillment of King Edward's own death-order. Yet, as the playgoes on, Richard seems to lose control of time and frequently asks what time itis. Before the final battle, a clock strikes, the sun fails to rise at its scheduledtime, and Richard fears the resultant black sky bodes ill for his fate on thebattlefield. Indeed, he is killed by Richmond, which brings the hurtling play to asudden halt.

ACT 1, SCENE 1Now is the winter of our discontentMade glorious summer by this sun of York (1)

—Richard

Why, I, in this weak piping time of peace,Have no delight to pass away the time,Unless to spy my shadow in the sun,And descant on mine own deformity;And therefore,--since I cannot prove a lover,To entertain these fair well-spoken days,--I am determined to prove a villain,And hate the idle pleasures of these days.Plots have I laid, inductions dangerous,By drunken prophecies, libels, and dreams… (24)

—Richard

ACT 1, SCENE 2Poor key-cold figure of a holy king,Pale ashes of the house of Lancaster,Thou bloodless remnant of that royal blood (5)

—Anne

ACT 1, SCENE 3Cannot a plain man live, and think no harm,But thus his simple truth must be abus'dWith silken, sly, insinuating Jacks? (51)

—Richard

Can curses pierce the clouds and enter heaven? –Why, then, give way, dull clouds, to my quick curses! (193)

—Margaret

Thou elvish-marked, abortive, rooting hog,Thou that wast sealed in thy nativityThe slave of nature and the son of hell. (226)

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—Margaret

And thus I clothe my naked villainyWith odd old ends stol'n forth of holy write;And seem a saint when most I play the devil. (336)

—Richard

ACT 2, SCENE 1But he, poor soul, by your first order died,And that a winged Mercury did bear:Some tardy cripple bore the countermand,That came too lag to see him buried. (7)

—Richard

ACT 2, SCENE 3By a divine instinct men's minds mistrustEnsuing danger; as by proof we seeThe water swell before a boist'rous storm. (44)

—Third Citizen

ACT 2, SCENE 4Ay me, I see the ruin of my house!The tiger now hath seiz'd the gentle hind;Insulting tyranny begins to jetUpon the innocent and aweless throne.Welcome, destruction, blood, and massacre!I see, as in a map, the end of all. (52)

—Elizabeth

ACT 3, SCENE 6Who is so grossThat cannot see this palpable device?Yet who's so bold but says he sees it not?Bad is the world; and all will come to nought,When such ill dealing must be seen in thought. (11)

—Scrivener

ACT 3, SCENE 7No, so God help me, they spake not a word;But, like dumb statues or breathing stones,Star'd each on other, and look'd deadly pale.Which when I saw, I reprehended them,And ask'd the mayor what meant this willful silence. (24)

—Buckingham

ACT 3, SCENE 1Your are too senseless-obstinate, my lord,Too ceremonious and traditional.Weigh it but with the grossness of this age,You break not sanctuary in seizing him.

The benefit thereof is always grantedTo those whose dealings have deserv'd the placeAnd those who have the wit to claim the place.The Prince hath neither claim'd it nor deserv'd it,And therefore, in mine opinion, cannot have it.Then, taking him from thence that is not there,You break no privilege nor charter there. (45)

—Buckingham

ACT 3, SCENE 2Indeed, I am no mourner for that news,Because they have been still my adversaries;But that I'll give my voice on Richard's sideTo bar my master's heirs in true descent,God knows I will not do it to the death. (51)

—Hastings

ACT 3, SCENE 5Tut, I can counterfeit the deep tragedian;Speak and look back, and pry on every side,Tremble and start at wagging of a straw,Intending deep suspicion. Ghastly looksAre at my service, like enforced smiles;And both are ready in their officesAt any time to grace my strategems. (5)

—Buckingham

What! think you we are Turks or Infidels?Or that we would, against the form of law,Proceed thus rashly in the villain's deathBut that the extreme peril of the case,The peace of England and our person's safety,Enforc'd us to this execution? (41)

—Richard

ACT 4, SCENE 2My woman's heartGrossly grew captive to his honey wordsAnd proved the subject of my own soul's curse,Which ever since hath kept my eyes from rest (79)

—Anne

ACT 4, SCENE 3I must be married to my brother's daughter,Or else my kingdom stands on brittle glass.Murder her brothers, and then marry her!Uncertain way of gain! But I am inSo far in blood that sin will pluck on sin:Tear-falling pity dwells not in this eye. (61)

—Richard

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ACT 4, SCENE 4Ah, my young princes! ah, my tender babes!My unblown flowers, new-appearing sweets!If yet your gentle souls fly in the airAnd be not fix'd in doom perpetual,Hover about me with your airy wingsAnd hear your mother's lamentation! (9)

—Elizabeth

I had an Edward, till a Richard kill'd him;I had a Harry, till a Richard kill'd him:Thou hadst an Edward, till a Richard kill'd him;Thou hadst a Richard, till a Richard kill'd him. (39)

—Margaret

Forbear to sleep the nights, and fast the days;Compare dead happiness with living woe;Think that thy babes were fairer than they were,And he that slew the fouler than he is:Bettering thy loss makes the bad causer worse:Revolving this will teach thee how to curse. (118)

—Margaret

Bear her my true love's kiss; and so, farewell.[Exit QUEEN ELIZABETH]Relenting fool, and shallow, changing woman! (435)

—Richard

ACT 5, SCENE 2The wretched, bloody, and usurping boar,That spoil'd your summer fields and fruitful vines,Swills your warm blood like wash, and makes his troughIn your mbowel'd bosoms—this foul swineIs now even in the centre of this isle (7)

—Richmond

ACT 5, SCENE 3What do I fear? Myself? There's none else by.Richard loves Richard; that is, I am I.Is there a murderer here? No-yes, I am.Then fly. What, from myself? Great reason why-Lest I revenge. What, myself upon myself!Alack, I love myself. Wherefore? For any goodThat I myself have done unto myself?O, no! Alas, I rather hate myselfFor hateful deed committed by myself!I am a villain; yet I lie, I am not.Fool, of thyself speak well. Fool, do not flatter. (182)

—Richard

ACT 5, SCENE 6The sun will not be seen to-day;The sky doth frown and lour upon our army.

I would these dewy tears were from the ground.Not shine to-day! Why, what is that to meMore than to Richmond? For the selfsame heavenThat frowns on me looks sadly upon him. (285)

—Richard

ACT 5, SCENE 8And then, as we have ta'en the sacrament,We will unite the white rose and the red:Smile heaven upon this fair conjunction,That long have frown'd upon their enmity!What traitor hears me, and says not amen?England hath long been mad, and scarr'd herself (18)

—Richmond

ACT 1, SCENE 1Richard of Gloucester enters aloneand sets the scene, opening with oneof Shakespeare's most famous lines:"Now is the winter of our discontent."Though it's technically summer, it iswinter from Richard's perspectivebecause he is unhappy. His family, theHouse of York, has emergedvictorious from the Wars of the Rosesand all around him people arecelebrating and enjoying peacetime.Richard paints an image of "grim-visag'd war" turned into a lover,chasing women, not enemies. Yet thesour-tempered, hunchback Richard,"not shap'd for sportive tricks, normade to court and amorous lookingglass," feels he cannot take part in thefrolicking. Angry, he feels cheated by"dissembling nature" which causedhim to be born premature, "deform'd,"and unattractive.

Richard is one unhappy guy. He's unableto enjoy the pleasures of summer andfeels alienated from the happy peoplecelebrating a long-awaited peacetimeafter the drawn-out Wars of the Roses.Though a big reason Richard may beexcluded from other people'scelebrations is his sour temper and desirefor power, Richard focuses on otherreasons: he has a hunchback and wasborn with unattractive features. Thesehandicaps, he feels, make him powerlessto hold his own in romantic courtship orother peacetime pursuits.

If he "cannot prove a lover," Richardthinks, he is "determined to prove avillain, and hate the idle pleasures ofthese days." He has already laid "plots,inductions dangerous," "drunkenprophecies, libels, and dreams" to sethis brothers, Clarence and KingEdward, against one another andexpects Clarence to be killed becauseof a prophecy (spread around byRichard) that Edward will bemurdered by an heir associated withthe letter ‘G.'

Because he feels excluded from romanceand peacetime pleasures, Richarddecides to ruin those experiences foreveryone else. He will empower himselfby contriving a plot, he confides to theaudience—setting himself up as a kind of"director" of the plot and the audience ashis confidante—and has made up liesand supernatural omens to manipulatehis brothers into hating each other.

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Clarence enters guarded by theTower's lieutenant Brackenbury inarmed escort to the Tower (the king'sprison). He explains to Richard that heis under arrest because his givenname is George and Edward has beenconvinced by a prophecy that he willbe murdered by a ‘G.' Richard explainsthat Edward's domineering wife,Queen Elizabeth, must be behind this,as she recently convinced herhusband to imprison Lord Hastings,who was just finally released that day.Hastings won his freedom byappealing to the queen. Clarence andRichard agree it's crucial to positionthemselves in the good graces of thequeen and of the king's mistress,Mistress Shore.

Richard's plot is already being put intoaction. Richard's manipulative way withwords – casting blame on others,pretending to be sympathetic, making upfake reasons for situations he himself hascaused – is al in evidence here. Clarenceis convinced by Richard and doesn'tsuspect Richard is actually the reasonhe's under arrest. More specifically, hereRichard is tricking his rival (Clarence)into complacency while also setting upthe Queen (another rival) to be blamedfor Clarence's death.

Brackenbury interrupts, saying thatKing Edward has forbidden anyone tospeak privately with Clarence.Richard replies that there's nothingprivate about their talk and welcomesBrackenbury into it – "we speak notreason," he says, he and Clarence arejust complimenting King Richard,Queen Elizabeth, and their relatives.Brackenbury apologizes. Richardpromises Clarence he will doeverything possible to free him. But assoon as Clarence and Brackenburyexit, Richard confides that he will send"simple, plain" Clarence to his death.

Richard is lying to Brackenbury – he hasjust been bad-mouthing Queen Elizabethto Clarence and calling her manipulative.Of course, it is Richard himself who'sdoing the manipulating here. Yet evenafter hearing his brother lie outright,Clarence seems to trust Richard'spromises to help. As soon as Clarence isout of earshot, Richard tells the audiencejust how hollow those promises are.

Hastings enters and Richardcongratulates him on his freedom.Hastings is dismayed to hear thatClarence is imprisoned. He tellsRichard that the king is in bed "sickly,weak, and melancholy" and Richardpretends to be upset. Hastings exitsand Richard notes to himself thatHastings should die, too, afterClarence. He recounts his plan tostoke King Edward's hatred ofClarence, wait for Edward to die ofsickness, and then marry Lady Anne,whose father (King Henry VI) andhusband (Edward of Westminster)Richard himself killed. He'll marry hernot out of love but "for another secretclose intent." Richard then chideshimself for thinking so far into thefuture while Clarence and Edward arestill alive, and exits.

Again, Richard proves what a good liar heis by pretending to be sympathetic toHastings' face, then changing his tune assoon as Hastings leaves. Richard's plotthickens. It now involves three deathsand a marriage. Like a good director,Richard keeps both the big and the smallpicture in view: he has a grand vision(which he is keeping secret fromeveryone but the audience for now) butis also mindful of the order in which aplot's individual events occur andreminds himself to approach his plotstep-by-step.

ACT 1, SCENE 2Lady Anne enters in mourningalongside the funerary processionbearing King Henry VI's coffin. Anne,distraught, furiously curses Richardfor killing Henry VI, her father-in-law,and Edward of Westminster, herhusband. She hopes that any ofRichard's future children will beaborted and any future wife of his willbe "made more miserable" by hisdeath than she is now.

Lady Anne is understandably devastatedby the double loss of husband andfather-in-law. But even in her grief-stricken state, she's able to articulate heranger and misery into an eloquent andmoving attack on Richard.

Richard enters and calls a halt to theprocession, incensing Anne. Sheberates Richard, calling him "fouldevil" and asking God and earth to killhim. Richard praises Anne's beauty,tries to reason with her gently, andclaims that he didn't kill her husband,his brother King Edward did. Annecontinues to curse and spite him,calling him a liar. Richard changestacks. He claims that, in fact, it wasAnne's beauty that caused Henry andEdward's deaths because he,hopelessly in love with her, killed herhusband in order to marry her. Annespits at him but Richard insists he is inlove with her and Anne eventuallycomes around, hesitantly taking hisring. He pleases Anne by promising hewill properly inter Henry VI's noblebody himself. Anne exits. Richardsends the funerary procession offwithout him.

Anne is as articulate as Richard but shelacks his manipulative tactics. Annespeaks eloquently and honestly, butRichard is willing to twist his eloquenceto suit whatever "truth" is mostconvenient – thus, he blames a murderhe committed on Edward to makehimself look better and, when thisdoesn't work, he admits he committedthe murder, but pretends the act wasmotivated by love for Anne. Richard getsthe upper hand over Anne by dishonestmeans.

Alone on stage, Richard gleefullymarvels at his success with Anne."Was ever woman in this humourwoo'd? Was ever woman in thishumour won? I'll have her; but I willnot keep her long" he gloats. "I domistake my person all this while," hereflects [for] "she finds, although Icannot, myself to be a marvelousproper man." He plans to buy newclothes. "I am crept in favour withmyself," he muses, then sets off to seeHenry VI into his grave beforereturning to "my love."

Richard's boasting once Anne is goneshows just how disingenuous his claimsabout being lovesick was – it's all just apower game to him. Yet, Richard is alsohere lying to himself – Anne may haverelented and taken the ring but shecertainly did not express admiration forRichard or call him anything close to a‘marvelous proper man.'

ACT 1, SCENE 3Queen Elizabeth, Elizabeth's brotherEarl Rivers, and Lord Grey worriedlydiscuss King Edward's health at thePalace. Rivers and Grey try to comfortElizabeth but she fears that, shouldEdward die, Richard—"a man thatloves not me, nor none of you"—willseize power because her sons, theheirs to Edward's throne, are still tooyoung to rule.

Queen Elizabeth's fears concern therules of succession to the throne –though her sons are first in line after KingEdward, Richard (who's technicallybehind her sons and his brotherClarence) might be able to wield his ownpower by manipulating her sons who arestill too young to rule alone.

The Duke of Buckingham and LordStanley enter, having just visited KingEdward. They report that the kingwants to make peace betweenRichard and Queen Elizabeth'sbrothers. Richard enters complainingthat Elizabeth and her friends haveslandered him to the king. He is, heclaims, a plain, peace-loving, honestman, slandered by "silken, sly,insinuating Jacks." Elizabeth deniesslandering him and claims thatRichard is just jealous of her and herfriends. Richard, pretending to bedisgusted, accuses her of imprisoningClarence. Elizabeth vehementlydenies the accusation. They argue.

It's evident that Richard and QueenElizabeth don't get along. Richard tries toget the members of the royal court toside with him against her by claiming tobe an honest man attacked by QueenElizabeth and her friends' slander.Richard is, of course, lying. In fact, he'sbeen the one slandering Queen Elizabethto Clarence and, now, to everyone incourt by blaming her for Clarence'sarrest.

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Queen Margaret, the wife of KingHenry VI and mother of Edward ofWestminster, enters unnoticed. Sheberates everyone under her breath,accusing Elizabeth of stealing thethrone that belongs to her, andaccusing Richard of killing herhusband (Henry VI) and son (Edwardof Westminster). Meanwhile, Richardaccuses Elizabeth and her friends oforiginally siding with the House ofLancaster, then switching over to sidewith the House of York later. Riversprotests that he and Elizabeth weren'ttraitors, they were just loyal towhomever was England's king at thetime, like good citizens.

Margaret's bitterness is tied up with thestruggles for the throne that played outin the Wars of the Roses. During thewars, Richard (a York) killed her husbandand son (Lancasters) to consolidatepower for the House of York. As aLancaster, she resents seeing a York(Edward) wear the crown. But Richard'sargument with Rivers shows howcomplicated house allegiances are: it'sunclear whether one's ultimate loyaltyshould be to one's house or to the currentking.

Queen Margaret's accusations growlouder and Richard notices her. Heasks why she is in England since shewas banished on pain of death.Margaret says she prefers death tobanishment. They owe her, she claims,a husband, a son, a kingdom, andhappiness. Richard reminds her thatshe has been forever cursed by hisfather for killing his baby brotherRutland and that her misery is God'swill. Everyone teams up to criticizeMargaret, calling her crazy.

Aside from suffering the pain of lostloved ones, Margaret is the victim ofsome powerful words: she's beenofficially banished and the penalty fordisobeying the terms of that order isdeath. Furthermore, Richard's fathercursed her with a curse that Richardsuggests God himself stands behind.

Queen Margaret starts hurlingcurses. She curses Elizabeth to"outlive [her] glory," her children, herhusband, and her throne, as Margarethas. She curses Rivers, Dorset, andHastings to die before they reach theage her son was when he was killed.She curses Richard to be "be-gnaw[ed] by "the worm of conscience,"to mistake his friends for traitors andvice versa, and to be unable to sleepwithout nightmares. She calls him an"elvish-marked, abortive, rooting hog,"calls Elizabeth a fool for takingRichard's side against Margaret, andsays the queen will one day wishMargaret were there to help hercurse him. She warns everybodyagainst Richard saying that they willlook back on this day "and say, poorMargaret was a prophetess!" Sheexits. Richard claims to forgiveMargaret and everyone is impressedby his gentleness.

Margaret's curses are articulated inpowerful, biting language, but it remainsto be seen whether they'll actually endup affecting the characters' reality.Margaret's insult to Richard twists hisheraldic symbol – the boar – fromsomething noble into somethinggrotesque and crude (and more fitting forRichard's true character). At this point,Richard thinks little of the power ofMargaret's curses, and uses his responseto those curses in order to cast a goodimpression of himself, pretending that heis so merciful and kind that he canforgive even an outburst as nasty asMargaret's.

Sir William Catesby enters with amessage from King Edward, who callsElizabeth, Rivers and the other lordsto his bedside. All exit but Richard,who recounts with satisfaction thesuccess of his plot: he has trickedClarence, Stanley, Hastings, andBuckingham into thinking Elizabethand her friends are to blame forClarence's imprisonment.Furthermore, he has convinced themof his own moral rectitude by quotingthe Bible and pretending to showChristian forgiveness towards her andher company.

Richard describes further developmentsof his plot to the audience: through lyingand verbally manipulating those aroundhim, he has shifted blame that shouldrest on his shoulders onto QueenElizabeth's. He has also polished his ownpublic image by quoting the Bible andparroting Christian values that he doesnot actually believe in.

Two murderers enter to report toRichard. Richard sends them off to killClarence, but warns them to do itquickly because Clarence is articulateand he doesn't want them swayed byhis pleas. The first murderer assuresRichard that "talkers are no gooddoers" and that they won't engage indiscussion. Richard approves.

As a savvy manipulator of language,Richard is well aware of the power ofwords and wants to make sure Clarence'sown eloquence doesn't get in the way ofhis plot.

ACT 1, SCENE 4In the Tower, Clarence tremblinglyrecounts a nightmare he's just had toBrackenbury. Clarence dreamt thathe and Richard were reminiscingabout the Wars of the Roses whilewalking along the hatches of a shipcrossing the Channel to France.Richard stumbled and hit Clarence,who fell overboard and slowlydrowned, seeing the wretched wealthof shipwrecks and skeletons on theseafloor. Dead, he crossed the RiverStyx and met his father-in-law (aLancaster supporter) and EdwardPrince of Wales, who reprimandedhim for treachery. Fiends surroundedhim and their howling woke him fromthe nightmare. Clarence laments thathis sins were committed for KingEdward, yet Edward has imprisonedhim. He begs God to spare his wifeand children from any punishments hemight face for those sins. He sleeps.Brackenbury reflects on theephemerality of glory.

Clarence may not be able to see throughRichard's lies in waking life, but hisdreaming self seems to know the truth.Indeed, Richard is trying to knockClarence out of the picture, just as hedoes in the dream. Clarence's dreamedconversations in the land of the deadillustrate his guilt and frustrationsurrounding the English throne. He feelsbad for betraying his father-in-law bysupporting the House of York, but alsofeels frustrated that his loyalty towardsthe House of York and his brotherEdward is not being duly rewarded.Brackenbury's thoughts, meanwhile,focus on how any quest—or evensuccess—in gaining power will never last.It is a meditation on time and, in a sense,the entire sequence of the Wars of theRoses.

The two murderers enter and presentBrackenbury a paper saying they areto take over his guard. Brackenburygoes off to report the switch to KingEdward. The murderers bicker abouthow to go about killing Clarence. Thesecond murderer worries he'll bedamned for killing Clarence and nolonger wants to murder. The firstmurderer reminds him of the paymentthey'll receive for killing and thesecond murderer is swayed,dismissing conscience as somethingthat "beggars any man that keeps it."

Though the first murderer seems to haveno trouble being the straightforward"doer" he promised Richard he'd be, thesecond murderer is much more of atalker. He thinks ahead to theconsequences of his actions and debateswith his conscience. Still, he thinks lifewould be easier if he didn't have aconscience.

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Clarence wakes and asks the twomurderers if they are here to kill him.When they say yes, he tries to reasonwith them, telling them he's innocentand that they'll be damned for killinghim by Christ, the King of kings whosewill overrides King Edward's. Whenthe murderers call him a traitor,Clarence protests that he switchedsides in the Wars of the Roses entirelyfor his brother's sake and thusEdward can't order him murdered forthat. When Clarence tells themurderers that Richard will rewardthem for sparing his life, they revealthat Richard himself has ordered thedeath, which Clarence can't believe."Relent, and save your souls," he cries.The first murderer stabs Clarencedead. The second murderer,distraught, wishes they had sparedClarence and tells the first murdererto take the full payment for the deedsince he himself repents. He exits. Thefirst murderer calls the second acoward and exits to hide the body.

As Richard feared, Clarence proveshimself a persuasive speaker. Hisargument, though, appeals to themurderers' consciences and thus only thesecond murderer (who was alreadywrestling with questions about thepotential consequences of murder beforeClarence woke up) is ultimatelypersuaded. The first murderer killsClarence as planned and is nottormented by the doubt and self-questioning plaguing his partner. Heconsiders such struggles of consciencecowardly. Even though the murderers tellClarence it's Richard who hasmasterminded his death, Clarence can'tshake his faith in Richard's promises. Hebelieves Richard's deceptions even to theend.

ACT 2, SCENE 1Back at the Palace, King Edwardannounces to Queen Elizabeth,Dorset, Rivers, Hastings,Buckingham, Grey, and others that,though he is near death, he feels muchmore at peace knowing that he hasorchestrated peace between hisfriends on earth. He calls on Riversand Hastings to shake hands andswear love, which they do. He calls onthe others to echo them, which theydo too. Edward notes that they nowonly need Richard to swear to keeppeace.

Edward is using his kingly power to thegeneral benefit of his people by trying toheal damaged relationships between hissubjects. He may not be physicallyhealthy, but he is serving the health ofthe state and proving himself a king whodeserves to sit on the throne because ofboth his blood and his character.

Richard enters and, at King Edward'sprompt, duly swears to keep friendlypeace and claims he has no enemies inall of England. Queen Elizabeth asksthe King to forgive Clarence and,when Richard interjects that Clarenceis dead, everyone is shocked. Edwardprotests that the original death orderwas reversed, but Richard says he waskilled by the first order. Stanley entersasking Edward to do him a favor andpardon his servant, who has just killeda man. Edward agrees but, deeplydistraught, laments that no one spokeup earlier to plead Clarence's pardon.He remembers all Clarence has donefor him and chastises those aroundhim for failing to remind Edward ofClarence's goodness when he wasangry. Edward fears God's vengeance.He exits along with Elizabeth,Hastings, Rivers, Dorset, and Grey.

For Richard, words can be thrownaround regardless of their truth and hewill say (or swear) anything as long as itserves his plot. His promise to Edward isutterly hollow but it helps bolster theimage he's trying to spread of himself asa peace-loving, gentle guy. Richard usestime to his advantage by pretending thatClarence's death was just the too-hastyfulfillment of Edward's own order.Edward wishes those around him hadtaken the time to articulate Clarence'sinnocence to him – their words mighthave saved his life.

Richard notes to Buckingham howpale "the guilty kindred" of QueenElizabeth looked upon hearingClarence was killed. "O, they did urgeit still unto the king!" he cries, "Godwill revenge it." They exit.

Richard is a shrewd director, making sureto manipulate every character in hisfavor – here he directs Buckingham'sopinion of Queen Elizabeth.

ACT 2, SCENE 2In another room in the Palace, theDuchess of York (mother of KingEdward, Richard, and Clarence)weeps beside Margaret and EdwardPlantagenet (Clarence's children).When they ask her to explain, she saystheir father is dead but that it is "lostsorrow to wail one that's lost" andthat her tears are for King Edward,sick but alive. Edward and MargaretPlantagenet blame King Edward fortheir father's death, based on whatRichard has lovingly told them. TheDuchess laments "that deceit shouldsteal such gentle shape" and tellsthem Richard killed Clarence.

Though Clarence's young children takeRichard at his loving word, the Duchessknows better – she sees throughRichard's façade of kindness to his cruel,dishonest interior. The Duchess' claimthat it's no use mourning the dead showshow hardened she's become fromwitnessing so much violence and tragedyin her life, a topic she'll expound on laterin the play.

Queen Elizabeth enters distraughtwith Rivers and Dorset, and reportsthat King Edward is dead. TheDuchess is devastated. Margaret andEdward Plantagenet at first questionhow they can partake of her grief aftershe neglected to cry for Clarence butthe women and children soon start tomourn together, echoing each other'slaments.

Queen Elizabeth's and the Duchess'laments here prove extremely moving. Asthey elicit empathy even from Clarence'sreluctant children, so the women's wordstouch audience members, inspiring pityand sympathy (and jarring the audiencefrom its status up until now of beingcomplicit and almost cheering onRichard the anti-hero's efforts).

Dorset and Rivers interrupt thewomen to urge Queen Elizabeth tohave her son, young Edward Prince ofWales, crowned immediately. Richard,Buckingham, Stanley, Hastings, andSir Ratcliffe enter and discuss howyoung Edward should travel to thePalace from his home in Ludlow.Richard asks the Duchess andElizabeth to go help negotiate thetransport and everyone exits exceptBuckingham and Richard.

Dorset and Rivers, like every other malecharacter in the play, are moreconcerned with politics and practicalitiesthan with emotion. Still, they're right tourge haste: crowning the young princequickly will secure his power and shortenthe period in which the throne is kingless– a dangerous condition for the state,especially when power-hungry Richard'saround.

Buckingham refers to some priorprivate conference between the twoof them, telling Richard they must bepresent in the party chaperoningyoung Edward Prince of Wales trip sothat they can be sure to keep theprince distant from the queen'sfriends. Richard praises Buckingham'sloyalty.

As usual, Richard's plot aims to grabpower by sneaky means. Here, he willfeign allegiance to the young prince whileactually trying to subvert him. Richard'swords of praise encourage Buckinghamto keep working for Richard.

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ACT 2, SCENE 3On a London street, three citizensdiscuss King Edward's death. Two areoptimistic about young EdwardPrince of Wales future reign, pointingto the example of King Henry VIcrowned at nine months old. Yet thethird protests that baby Henry had"virtuous uncles" to protect his gracewhereas young Edward's maternaland fraternal uncles are factious andinclude the dangerous Richard andhaughty relatives of Elizabeth."…were they to be rul'd, and not torule," the citizen speculates, "Thissickly land might solace as before."They exit.

The first of the play's scenes featuringcommon people's opinions on courtlypower struggles. The citizens'conversation shows that the generalpopulation knows what a dangerous, evilcharacter Richard is, and that theyconsider him a poisonous influence onthe health of the state. Calling the land"sickly" refers to the oft-used metaphorof political state as human body. Thecitizens here seem to believe that neitherElizabeth's inner circle nor Richard is fitto rule, and that only if all of them wereruled by someone else would the state be"healthy."

ACT 2, SCENE 4In a room at the Palace, theArchbishop of York, Queen Elizabeth,the Duchess, and the young Duke ofYork (young Edward Prince of Wales'younger brother) discuss theimpending arrival of the prince. Theyoung Duke of York hopes he has notgrown faster than his older brotherbecause Richard, his uncle, told himnice flowers grow slow and weedsgrow fast. The Duchess says that thatcan't be true as Richard himself grewslowly. She dismisses the young Dukeof York when he makes a joke aboutRichard.

The conversation the Duke of Yorkrecounts shows Richard using words tolower the boy's esteem, another ofRichard's manipulative tactics. Again,the Duchess is able to see the truthbehind Richard lies, perhaps because sheis a woman and perhaps because she is aspecial woman—his mother. Richard'swords imply that a person's worth andgoodness are directly related to theirexternal appearance – which to him islikely a good joke, as he is claiming thiseven as he is tricking everyone to thinkhe is good when he has such a deformedbody (and is in fact crooked morally aswell).

A messenger enters and announcesthat Rivers, Grey, and Sir ThomasVaughan have been imprisoned byRichard and Buckingham. He doesn'tknow for what offence. Elizabethlaments "the ruin of my house" andthe Duchess cries out that she'drather die than continue to see morebattling over the throne, of whichshe's already seen so much in herlifetime. Elizabeth seeks sanctuary(protection in a church) with the Dukeof York, and the Archbishop of Yorkoffers to conduct them. All exit.

Queen Elizabeth is upset because, byimprisoning her brother, her son, and herally, Richard is disempowering her family.She hurries to protect herself and her sonby seeking sanctuary, a practice of thetime by which people could seekprotection from all secular powers in achurch.

ACT 3, SCENE 1On a street in London, Edward Princeof Wales, Richard, Buckingham, andCardinal Bouchier (the Archbishop ofCanterbury) enter and Richardwelcomes the prince to London.Edward wishes that more of his uncleswere there to meet him, and dismissesRichard's claim that his other unclesare dangerous. The Lord Mayor ofLondon enters and welcomes Edward.Hastings enters and reports thatQueen Elizabeth and the Duke ofYork have taken sanctuary and thuscan't come to meet the prince.Buckingham orders the Cardinal to goretrieve the Duke of York, insistingthat the boy didn't request sanctuary,his mother did, and that theprohibition against extractingsomeone from sanctuary thus doesn'treally apply to him. He tells theCardinal to forcibly seize the boy fromhis mother if necessary, despite theCardinal's protestations to respectthe sacred right to sanctuary.Hastings accompanies the Cardinaland they exit.

Prince Edward does not know thatRichard has imprisoned his uncles, butknows that Richard isn't telling the truthwhen he calls them dangerous.Buckingham twists words to manipulateCardinal Bouchier into extracting theDuke of York from sanctuary. Sanctuarywas considered sacred and its protectionis supposed to be respected by everyone(especially members of the Church!) YetBuckingham's argument pretends to finda loophole in that protection by claimingthe protection is only sacred for thosewho have explicitly asked for it (the Dukeof York was brought into sanctuary by hismother and so he didn't ask for it himself– still, he should be protected by it).

Richard suggests that Edward Princeof Wales reside in the Tower(presumably so that Richard can moreeasily lock his nephew up and snatchthe prince's power for himself).Edward is unenthused aboutRichard's offer, but reflects on hisadmiration for Julius Caesar, whoreportedly built the Tower. In an aside,Richard alludes to young Edward'simminent death.

Richard's wish to put Edward up in theTower and his threatening aside implythat Richard plans to murder the youngprince shortly. Edward may prove tohave more in common with Julius Caesarthan he realizes: Caesar was murderedby men who pretended to be his friend.

The young Duke of York enters withHastings and the Cardinal. The youngDuke taunts Richard, beating him athis own game by trying to get Richardto call the fast-growing EdwardPrince of Wales an "idle weed" (asRichard once scared the young Dukeby saying that anyone who grew fastwas just a weed). Richard stifflyrefuses to insult the prince. The youngDuke then tries to get Richard to givehim his dagger for a present, butRichard won't. The young Dukeadvises the Prince not to sleep in theTower because it's haunted byClarence's "angry ghost." EdwardPrince of Wales asserts, "I fear nouncles dead." "Nor none that live, Ihope," adds Richard. The Prince sayshe hopes not and exits to the Towerwith the Duke, Hastings, the Cardinaland attendants.

The Duke of York's eloquence and witmake Richard uncomfortable as the boytwists Richard's words back against him.Edward Prince of Wales attempts toempower himself, asserting strength andcourage by claiming he's not afraid tostay in the Tower. Yet his show ofstrength backfires: by agreeing to stay inthe Tower, Edward is walking right intoRichard's power-hungry hands and isthus empowering his uncle, not himself.

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Alone, Richard, Buckingham, andCatesby confer about their secretplan to make Richard King of England.They discuss whether Hastings andStanley can be involved and, thoughCatesby doubts Hastings will supportthem (his love for the deceased KingEdward makes him love EdwardPrince of Wales), Buckingham tellsCatesby to go anyway and feelHastings out on the matter thefollowing day. Buckingham says they'llhold "divided councils" tomorrow (twocouncils instead of one) – the first onewill discuss the Prince's coronationand the second will presumablydiscuss how to crown Richard instead.Richard further tells Catesby toinform Hastings that QueenElizabeth's captive relatives(Hastings' enemies) will be killed thenext day at Pomfret Castle. Catesbyexits. Richard tells Buckingham that, ifHastings refuses to support their plot,they'll just "chop off his head." He alsopromises to reward Buckingham'sloyalty with the earldom of Herefordand other valuable goods. The twoexit.

Richard's plot grows more intricate andmore brutal. He plans to consolidate hisown power by diffusing the power ofEdward Prince of Wales – by breakingwhat should be one council on thecoronation into two separate councils,Richard gives himself and his supportersan opportunity to undercut Edward'ssupporters. His directions regardingHastings instruct Catesby to test outHastings' allegiances in conversation andto try and lure him over to Richard's sideby informing Hastings that Richard isgetting rid of Hastings' enemies (andtherefore, Richard suggests, deservesHastings' support). The blasé toneRichard uses to describe executingHastings' shows how heartless andunafraid of bloodshed he is.

ACT 3, SCENE 2At Lord Hasting's house, a messengerknocks at 4 a.m. with an urgentmessage from Lord Stanleyrecounting a dream in which "theboar" [Richard's heraldic symbol]knocked off Stanley's helmet anddecapitated him. That dream,combined with the ominous rumorhe's heard that one of tomorrow's twocouncils will yield threatening results,have convinced Stanley to escapenorthwards, away from potentialdanger. He urges Hastings to comewith him. Hastings pooh-poohsStanley's fears and tells themessenger to tell Stanley not tobelieve nightmares, to abandon hisescape plan, and to meet Hastings atthe Tower where "the boar will use uskindly." The councils will be safe,Hastings insists, for he and Stanleywill attend one and "my good friendCatesby" the other. The messengerexits to deliver Hastings' message.

Stanley's dream speaks in symbols,implying that Richard is a deadly threatby showing his heraldic symbol (theboar) killing Stanley. Trusting the dreamas a legitimate warning, Stanley wants totake measures to respond to thatwarning in waking life. Hastings, though,insists that dreams can't affect wakinglife, that they have no prophetic powerand should be ignored. He thinks Richardis kind and doesn't see any threat.Previous scenes have showed thatCatesby, the friend Hastings thinks hecan trust, is involved in Richard'sscheme. Hastings' trust is misplaced.

Catesby then enters and floats theidea of Richard taking the throne toHastings. Hastings is appalled.Catesby says Richard hopes forHastings support and sends along the"good news" that Hastings' enemieswill be killed today at Pomfret Castle.Hastings is glad to hear the news butstill firmly opposes Richard's plot totake the crown. In an aside, Catesbyalludes to Hastings' imminent death.Stanley enters, still worried about thedivided councils. Hastings, cheerful,assures him "I know our state secure."

Richard intended for Hastings tointerpret the news of the Pomfretexecutions as a reason to supportRichard's rise to the throne, but Hastingsdoesn't. He's glad that his enemies will bekilled, but remains loyal to PrinceEdward—loyal to the normal order ofsecession to the throne. Though Hastingsdoesn't realize it, the words he hasexchanged with Catesby have alreadysealed his fate: he will soon be killed, asCatesby says in his aside.

A Pursuivant (a low-ranking heraldicofficer), whom Hastings met backwhen he was imprisoned, enters justas Stanley and Catesby exit. Hastingsbrags that those who once imprisonedhim will now be killed and "I in betterstate than e'er." He gives thePursuivant money for a drink. A Priestenters and Hastings discusses a pastfavor. Buckingham enters and jokesthat Hastings doesn't need a priestlike those who are about to be killed atPomfret Castle do. Buckingham andHastings go off to the Tower fordinner. In an aside, Buckinghamsuggests that, unbeknownst to him,Hastings will be killed there.

Hastings boasting shows how confidenthe feels about his situation: he doesn'tperceive any impending threat to hisperson, even though the audience knows(from Catesby's and Buckingham'sasides) that Hastings will soon bemurdered for refusing to supportRichard's rise to the throne.

ACT 3, SCENE 3At Pomfret Castle, Ratcliffe (one ofRichard's minions) enters with aGuard conducting Rivers, Grey, andVaughan to execution. Rivers tellsRatcliffe he is about to watch threeinnocent, loyal men die. Riverslaments "the guilty closure" ofPomfret Castle in which King RichardII was murdered. Grey notes thatQueen Margaret's curse on them hascome true. Rivers responds by hopingthat God will fulfill her curse onRichard, Buckingham, and Hastings,but hopes that his own shed blood willexempt his sister Queen Elizabethand her sons from any misfortune.They exit to be executed.

Richard has arranged for Rivers, Grey,and Vaughan to be executed simply toclear his own rise to power – they havecommitted no crime. Pomfret castlewhere they are about to be executed haswitnessed another murder in a previouspower struggle for the throne: KingRichard II was killed there too, but theman who became Henry IV (thegrandfather of the Henry VI whomRichard killed just before the action ofthis play). All three of the men regret nottaking Margaret's curses and propheciesmore seriously, that such curses do seemto have a power that they had earliermocked or disregarded.

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ACT 3, SCENE 4In a room at the Tower, Buckingham,Stanley, Hastings, the Bishop of Ely,Ratcliffe, Lord Lovel (another ofRichard's minions) and others sitaround a table while Officers of theCouncil stand attendant. The men aregathered to discuss the coronationdate for Edward Prince of Wales, anddecide on the next day, though theyagree to wait for Richard (the lordprotector to the Prince) to approve.Buckingham says he doesn't knowwhat Richard's feelings will be as he isnot as close to Richard as Hastings is.Hastings offers to endorse the dateon Richard's behalf, as he assumesRichard will approve it. Just then,Richard enters.

Though everyone claims to agree on acoronation date, they must wait forRichard (who, as lord protector of theyoung prince, is the designated decision-maker for Edward Prince of Wales whileEdward is still too young to rule Englandon his own) to give the final OK.Buckingham is, of course, lying when hesays that Hastings knows Richard betterthan he does – Hastings' notion ofRichard as a kind, peace-loving guy istotally mistaken, and Buckingham knowsthat Richard is actually about to haveHastings executed.

Richard sends the Bishop of Ely off toget strawberries for everyone, thentakes Buckingham aside and recountsCatesby's report of Hastings'resistance to Richard's coronation.Richard and Buckingham exit. Elyreturns. Hastings observes thatRichard looked cheerful and that youcan always tell how Richard is feelingbased on his appearance – he neverhides anything.

Hastings continues to be a deeplymistaken reader of Richard's character –Richard, masterminding liar, faker, anddissembler, is nothing like thetransparent, honest man that Hastings'thinks he is.

Richard and Buckingham return andRichard asks everyone what should bedone to those who "conspire my deathwith devilish plots of damnedwitchcraft." Hastings pipes up thatsuch conspirators should be killed.Richard extends a withered arm asevidence of witchcraft worked againsthim by Queen Elizabeth and MistressShore. When Hastings' hesitates toagree the women are guilty, Richardorders Hastings to be decapitated. Allexit except for Hastings, Lovel, andRatcliffe.

Ever the calculating director, Richardlays a trap for Hastings in language – bymaking a ridiculous accusation, Richardtricks Hastings' into expressing doubt,then uses that doubt to accuse Hastingsof disloyalty towards him. Richard thusswiftly disposes of Hastings.

In despair, Hastings regretsneglecting the signs given by Stanley'snightmare and his own horse'sstrange unwillingness to approach theTower that day. He cries out thatQueen Margaret's curse on him hasbeen fulfilled. Ratcliffe and Lovelshush Hastings and hurry him along."O bloody Richard!—miserableEngland!" Hastings cries, "I prophesythe fearfull'st time to thee…" All exit.

Too late, Hastings realizes how mistakenhe was to ignore the warnings uttered byStanley's dream and Margaret's curses.His exclamation links the misery of thestate in the face of Richard's cruelty.

ACT 3, SCENE 5At the walls of the Tower, Richardcoaches Buckingham in actingdistraught. Buckingham assures him"ghastly looks are at my service, likeenforced smiles." Catesby enters withthe Lord Mayor followed by Ratcliffeand Lovel with Hastings' head.Richard affects despair that hisbeloved Hastings turned out to be avillain. Buckingham backs Richard up.The two convince the Mayor thatHastings deserved death, that it's toobad the Mayor couldn't hear "thetraitor speak" before he wasbeheaded, and that the Mayor mustspread word of Hastings' treacheryand rightful execution to his citizensso that no one mourns his death. Themayor exits.

Here Richard's directorial role is moreexplicit than ever – he openly treatsBuckingham as an actor and coacheshim on how to act convincingly. AsRichard's trusty sidekick, Buckingham isas comfortable faking emotions asRichard is. They put on a show of grief infront of the mayor in order to manipulatethe mayor into getting the generalpopulation on Richard's side. Richardwants to make sure the power of thecommon people stands behind him, notHastings.

Richard sends Buckingham after theLord Mayor to spread rumorsamongst the citizenry that youngEdward Prince of Wales and theDuke of York are illegitimate, that thelate King Edward was a relentlesslecher, and that the late King washimself also illegitimate, unrelated tohis and Clarence's father. Buckinghamexits and Richard sends Lovel andCatesby off too. Alone, Richard sayshe's going to hide Clarence's children,Edward and Margaret Plantagenet,and isolate Edward Prince of Walesand the Duke of York so no one canaccess them.

Not trusting the mayor alone to winpublic support for Richard, Richard plansa slander campaign to influence thepublic in his favor by spreading lies abouthis brother Edward. If King Edward andhis sons really were illegitimate, theywould have no real right to rule England.Richard hopes to convince everyone thatthat's indeed the case, allowing him notjust to take the throne but for the publicto think that his doing so is perfectlylegitimate.

ACT 3, SCENE 6On a London street, a Scrivenerenters with the written indictment ofHastings that is set to be read to thepublic that day. He began transcribingit after Catesby sent it over last nightbefore and, mid-transcription,Hastings was executed. "Who is sogross that cannot see this palpabledevice!" the scrivener cries, "Yet whoso bold but says he sees it not! Bad isthe world; and all will come to naught,when such ill dealing must be seen inthought."

If Hastings' execution were actuallyabove board, his indictment should havebeen finished and read aloud before hisexecution. Like the citizens earlier, thescrivener's comments indicate that thegeneral public is wise to Richard'scrookedness (unlike the nobles). Still,though everyone may know thatHastings did not deserve to die, no one isbrave enough to articulate that thoughtaloud, fearing Richard's punishment.

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ACT 3, SCENE 7At Baynard's Castle in London,Buckingham reports to Richard thatthe citizens reacted to the rumorsBuckingham spread with completesilence, and that they remained mute"like dumb statues or breathingstones" even when Buckingham calledon them to cry "'God save Richard,England's royal king!'" Buckinghamthen made the Mayor recount hismessage for him but rather thandelivering the message as his own, theMayor introduced it as what "theduke" said. The people stayed silentexcept for a few of Buckingham'ssupporters in the far back who criedapproval. Buckingham thanked thecrowd for "this general applause andcheerful shout" indicating theirsupport for Richard.

The citizens' silence speaks volumes –though they are too scared of what mighthappen to them if they articulateresistance to Richard, their refusal tocheer for Richard expresses thatresistance as audibly as booing would. Itdoesn't matter whose mouth the news ofRichard's rise comes from –Buckingham's or the mayor's – the publicwill not celebrate it. The mayor's carefulchoice of words distances him from themessage Buckingham makes himannounce and implies he, too, inwardly,resists Richard. This is an example of thecommoners wishes rising up to effectthose in power, and these are the firstrumblings of resistance to Richard's riseand a signal that he can lie his way topower, but perhaps not lie his way tokeeping it.

In light of the public's reaction,Richard and Buckingham contrive tomake it seem to the public thatRichard does not want to be king andonly accepts the crown at others'urging. As the Lord Mayor, Aldermen,and Citizens enter looking forRichard, he departs, leavingBuckingham to greet them.Buckingham pretends he, too, hascome to visit Richard.

Determined to empower himself with thepublic's support, Richard changes tacks(as he does whenever he's not winning anargument). Instead of proclaiming histriumphant rise to the throne, he willinstead pretend to be a modest, humbleman lacking all personal hunger forpower.

While Buckingham talks with theLord Mayor and others, Catesbyenters with a message forBuckingham from Richard stating thatBuckingham should visit on anotherday because Richard is currently deepin holy prayer. Buckingham sendsCatesby off to press Richard to meetwith them. Buckingham observes tothe visitors that Richard is holy andvirtuous, not lazy and hedonistic likeKing Edward was. Catesby returnsreporting that Richard is still hesitantto meet them. Buckingham insists.

Ever the director, Richard has staged amini-play within the play: he andBuckingham will proceed to act out a(false) version of reality in which Richardis a god-fearing, self-effacing manwhereas King Edward (and, by extension,his son and contender for Richard'sthrone, Edward Prince of Wales) wassinful and self-indulgent.

Richard enters in a gallery above,flanked by two Bishops. Catesbyreturns. Buckingham points out to theother visitors how religious Richard is.He then entreats Richard to take thethrone, "your due of birth" which willotherwise be given "to the corruptionof a blemish'd stock." He paintsEngland as a sick body that onlyRichard can heal. Richard defers,claiming to be too modest andunworthy to take the throne and that,besides, there is Edward Prince ofWales to take it. Buckingham proteststhat the Prince is illegitimate and that,though Richard is kind to him, thepeople will never stand for him to rule.The Mayor and Catesby joinBuckingham's entreaty. Richard finallyrelents, though he insists "God dothknow, and you may partly see, how farI am from the desire of this." All cheera blessing, set the coronation date fortomorrow, and exit.

The climax of the mini-play is also theclimax of the play: Richard claims thecrown while lying spectacularly. He, thegodless, bloody murderer, affects thepersona of a saintly man of virtue whosespiritual elevation is echoed by hisphysical elevation in the gallery. He, whoruthlessly chases power, pretends towant nothing to do with the throne andto accept it, grudgingly, as a favor to thepublic. The mayor and his party, theaudience for Richard's play, seem, bytheir cheered blessing, to be convincedby Richard's performance.

ACT 4, SCENE 1At the Tower, Queen Elizabeth enterson one side with the Duchess andDorset while Anne, now Richard'swife, and Margaret Plantagenet enteron the other side. All are on their wayto see Edward Prince of Wales andthe Duke of York, but they arestopped by Brackenbury, who says"the king…I mean the lord protector"Richard has forbidden them to visit.The women protest in indignation butBrackenbury will not relent. He exits.

Brackenbury's slip of the tongue showsjust how quickly Richard's plot is playingout –one minute he was the lordprotector, but the next minute he'll beking. Richard has ordered the princes'seclusion in order to prepare to makethat transition unimpeded by EdwardPrince of Wales.

Stanley enters and summons Anne toWestminster to be crowned Richard'squeen. Elizabeth wails in grief at thenews of Richard becoming king. Anne,too, is distraught and goes unwillingly,recounting that Richard snared herinto marrying him with "honey words."The curse she laid on Richard's futuremarriage thus ended up falling on herown head. Elizabeth pities Anne. TheDuchess plans to die, as the grave isthe only place to find peace. All exit.

Indeed, Brackenbury was right to callRichard king – he will be shortly. AsRichard's wife, Anne is forced to obey hiscommands. But she movingly expresseshow much she loathes obeying him. Yetthough she is eloquent, Anne is also avictim of language: she fell prey toRichard's lies and ended up suffering herown curse.

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ACT 4, SCENE 2At the Palace, Richard is now King andis surrounded by Buckingham,Catesby, Ratcliffe, Lovel, a Page, andothers. Richard, pleased to be king butworried that his power might beusurped by Edward Prince of Wales,tells Buckingham to have the youngprince and his little brother killed.Buckingham hesitates, infuriatingRichard, but exits to think over thematter, promising to return shortly.Richard asks the Page if he knows anyman who will kill for money and thePage recommends Sir James Tyrrel,whom Richard asks the Page to fetch.Richard resolves to spurnBuckingham from now on.

Richard has finally gotten the power hewanted – the English throne – but he'sdissatisfied because he feels his powerwill not be secure until all threats to it areeliminated. Ferociously power-hungry,Richard thinks nothing of murdering twochildren (the young princes). WhenBuckingham expresses some humanereservations about such a murder,Richard immediately turns against him.He drops Buckingham in a flash.

Stanley enters and reports thatDorset has run off to the Earl ofRichmond (a Lancaster). Richard tellsCatesby to spread a rumor that Anneis deathly ill and to find some man oflow rank to marry MargaretPlantagenet. Richard will lock Anneup (so no one can see the real state ofher health). Catesby exits, and Richarddeclares that he must murder KingEdward's sons and marry hisdaughter, Elizabeth, to secure hiskingdom by eliminating any threat shemight pose to his seat. "Uncertain wayof gain!," Richard admits, "But I am inso far in blood that sin will luck on sin."

Furiously determined to protect histhrone, Richard decides to discard Anneby locking her up and spreading rumorsthat she is ill, then marrying KingEdward's daughter. By doing so, he'llextinguish any threat the daughter of theformer king—and his own brother—couldpose to his throne by bearing a childsomeone could one day claim, throughits direct line to Edward, was thelegitimate ruler of England. Still, evenRichard admits that his plot is getting outof control.

The Page enters with Tyrrel, whogladly agrees to kill at Richard'sbidding. Richard sends Tyrrel off to killthe princes. Buckingham enters readyto share his decision about theprinces, but Richard dismisses thematter before he can speak andfocuses on the news about Dorsetand Richmond. Buckingham asks toclaim the earl of Hereford andvaluables that Richard promised himas reward for his loyal service. Richardignores him and continues musing onRichmond, despite Buckingham'srepeated requests. Richard recollectsthat King Henry VI prophesied thatRichmond would be king, but thinksthe prophecy must have mistakenlyexcluded the fact that Richard wouldkill Richmond. Then he recalls meetingan Irish bard who once told him "Ishould not live long after I sawRichmond."

Richard's muttered reflections are in parta strategic use of language to deflectBuckingham's pleas. Yet these reflectionsalso convey crucial information: Richardis disturbed by the news aboutRichmond as it reminds him of an oldprophesy that said he would be killed byRichmond, though Richard is pompousenough to assume the prophesier musthave made a mistake. Buckingham isclearly having a crisis of faith in the wakeof Richard's request that he murder theprinces – he wants to make sure thatRichard's promises of reward wereactually true.

Richard finally acknowledgesBuckingham by asking him for thetime, saying that "like a Jack, thoukeep'st the stroke betwixt thy beggingand my meditation." He informsBuckingham that he's not in a givingmood today and exits. Buckingham,dumbfounded by Richard's ficklenessand disloyalty, decides to run awaybefore he is beheaded as Hastingswas.

Richard's lightening-fast betrayal of hislong-loyal friend shows just how fickleand selfish Richard is, unwilling torespect even the man who's done mostfor him. In this way, Richard can liehimself into power but cannot maintainthe relationships that allow him toactually rule or remain on the throne.

ACT 4, SCENE 3At another room in the Palace, Tyrrelenters having just overseen themurder of Edward Prince of Walesand the Duke of York, which he calls"the most arch deed of piteousmassacre that ever yet this land wasguilty of." His hit men were reluctantto murder such innocent children, butwent through with it. Richard entersand is pleased to hear the princeshave been killed. He promises toreward Tyrrel, who exits. Richardconfides that he has imprisonedEdward Plantagenet, married offMargaret Plantagenet in a lowmarriage, killed King Edward's sons,and that Anne has died. Now he aimsto beat Richmond to marrying KingEdward's daughter.

Even the grizzliest assassins are appalledby Richard's tactics, but Richard remainsunfazed by the blood on his hands,focused only on consolidating his power.By locking up and marrying offClarence's children, Richard hasdeactivated any threat they might poseto him. Now all of his brothers' children(his contenders for the crown) areeliminated. Anne's death is, mysteriously,unexplained – it's unclear whether shedied or whether Richard killed her. Bothoptions seem plausible.

Ratcliffe enters and reports that theBishop of Ely has fled to Richmondand that Buckingham, who also fled, isgathering Welsh forces to fightRichard. Richard pooh-poohsBuckingham, though he fears thethreat of Ely. Declaring there's no timeto lose, he orders Ratcliffe to startassembling men for battle. They exit.

Even as Richard manically consolidateshis power, that power is quickly eroding –the Bishop of Ely and Buckingham wereboth loyal to Richard in the past but theyhave now turned against him as they,who were insiders, can more easily seethat he wasn't just lying to hisenemies—he was lying to his supposed"friends", too!

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ACT 4, SCENE 4At the Palace, Queen Margaretenters alone, saying that she's beenhiding in the Palace all along, watching"the waning of mine enemies" beforeshe heads off to France. She stepsback into hiding when QueenElizabeth and the Duchess enter. Thetwo of them are crazed with grief atthe murder of Edward Prince ofWales and the Duke of York.Meanwhile, in unheard asides,Margaret describes the women'slosses as fair since they match herown. Margaret then comes forward,asking them to privilege her grief as itis older than theirs. She comparestheirs to her own: "I had an Edward,till a Richard kill'd him…Thou hadst anEdward, till a Richard kill'd him" etc.The Duchess and Margaret bicker,blaming one another for their losses.Margaret reminds Elizabeth of hercurse on her, now fulfilled. Elizabethbegs Margaret to teach her how tocurse. Margaret tells Elizabeth tofocus bitterly and single-mindedly onher losses (as Margaret does) to learnto curse. Margaret exits. Elizabeth andthe Duchess resolve to curse Richard.

The women's drawn-out, wrenchingexpressions of grief form the emotionalheart of the play – even as Margaretexpresses hostility towards the others,her extreme bitterness is itself expressiveand registers the immensity of hersorrow. Indeed, in trying to belittleElizabeth and the Duchess' grief,Margaret's sentences inspire empathy bydrawing parallels amongst the women'slives: just as the others have lost lovedones, so has Margaret. Now, Elizabethand the Duchess regret having scoffed atMargaret's curse and prophesy andElizabeth begs Margaret to teach her toharness the power of curse language. Shesees it as her sole way of harmingRichard. Curses, Margaret reveals, arefueled by the bitterness of grief.

Richard enters and the Duchessvenomously berates him, saying shewishes she'd never borne him. Richardrefuses to listen to her unless shespeaks calmly. The Duchess tells himto listen because she'll never speak tohim again: she then curses him withher "most grievous curse" which shesays will assist Richard's enemies andlead him to death in battle. She exits.

Richard may choose to ignore hismother's words, but his chilly attitude isno match for the hot intensity of herrage.

Elizabeth dittoes the Duchess' curseand starts to leave but Richard stopsher and says he wants her daughter.Elizabeth hotly declares she will doanything possible to protect herdaughter from the man that brutallymurdered her sons. "You speak as if Ihad slain my cousins," Richardresponds, which he says is false andthat in actuality he wants only thebest for Elizabeth and her kin.Because he desires young Elizabeth tobe his queen, he wants Elizabeth toadvise him how best to woo herdaughter. Elizabeth is appalled soRichard changes tacks, tellingElizabeth to act reasonably: her sonsare dead for good and, if he did aregrettable thing in killing them, hecan make it up to her by marrying herdaughter and giving Elizabethgrandchildren. Elizabeth is stillhorrified. Richard tells Elizabeth to tellher daughter that England's peace willbe won by their marriage, that he asKing commands it, that she will be amighty queen, that he will love herforever and defer to her, but none ofthese arguments convince Elizabeth.

Richard, incapable of empathy andfixated single-mindedly on his ownpursuit of power even in the face ofElizabeth's profound grief, doesn'thesitate to try and manipulate her withhis words. As usual, Richard has noqualms about lying and is quick toreinvent his version of ‘the truth' eachtime his argument meets resistance. Thisscene recollects Richard's exchange withthe mourning Anne at play's start. LikeAnne, Elizabeth proves an articulatematch for Richard's eloquence, butElizabeth holds her own against Richardlonger than Anne did and their argumentdraws out to great length.

Elizabeth rebuts all Richard'sattempts to coax her into taking hisside, calling him an evil liar, a godlessmurderer, and a dishonorable disgraceto his ancestors and to the Englishthrone, which he has no right to. Butafter a very long argument, Elizabethfinally starts to show signs ofbreaking. She agrees to go confer withher daughter and says she'll writeRichard with her verdict. Richardkisses her goodbye. As soon as sheexits, he calls her "relenting fool, andshallow, changing woman!"

In the end, Elizabeth seems to fall victimto Richard's verbal manipulation, just asAnne did. As soon as she consents toplead his case to her daughter andleaves, Richard gloats at his victory,sneering at what he misogynisticallyconsiders Elizabeth's female weakness.Yet future events will indicate thatElizabeth may have actually bestedRichard here; by giving in, she may havetricked Richard into thinking she wouldsupport him when in fact she would not.

Ratcliffe and Catesby enter andreport that a navy thought to be leadby Richmond is approaching from thewest where he is welcomed byRichard's half-hearted soldiers (theydon't like Richard and would ratherRichmond take power) and will behelped ashore by Buckingham.Richard sends Ratcliffe and Catesbyoff. Stanley enters and confirms thenavy belongs to Richmond, who aimsto claim the throne from Richard.Furious, Richard criticizes Stanley fortreacherously failing to rouse troopsfor Richard's side. Stanley promises togo assemble forces but Richard,fearing Stanley will run off to joinRichmond, orders Stanley to leave hisson George Stanley behind asassurance. Stanley exits.

The erosion of Richard's power continuesas Buckingham's opposition against himgains strength and his own soldiers proveunwilling to defend his cause. Richardfrantically tries to preserve his positionon the throne, demanding Stanley raisetroops to match Richmond's. Knowingthat Richmond is Stanley's son-in-lawand fearing Stanley might defect toRichmond's side, Richard tries to securehis loyalty the only way he knows how:by making more death threats. But it isinteresting that as Richard's power isthreatened, his tactics for keeping powershift from lies and trickery to moreblatant language.

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Three Messengers enter insuccession to report that differentfamilies around England are raisingarmies against Richard and thatBuckingham's army has beenscattered by flooding. AnotherMessenger enters and reports thatLovel and Dorset are raising armiesagainst Richard. Catesby enters andreports that Buckingham has beencaptured but that Richmond haslanded at Salisbury. Richard ordersBuckingham to be brought toSalisbury and sets off for Salisburyhimself.

As quickly as Richard rose to power, henow as quickly watches his power wane.But now, time is not on Richard's sideand forces are being raised against himbefore he can ready an army of his own.Buckingham's capture marks a victoryfor Richard, but Richard's throne is stillfar from safe.

ACT 4, SCENE 5In a room of Lord Stanley's house,Stanley asks Sir Christopher Urswickto tell Richmond that, though hewholeheartedly supports Richmond,he cannot yet send aid becauseRichard has his son, George Stanley,and will behead him if he finds outabout Stanley's betrayal. Stanley alsotells Urswick that Elizabeth has gladlyagreed to give Richmond herdaughter's hand in marriage. Urswicklists the many nobles that have takenRichmond's side. They exit.

As Richard feared, Stanley is loyal toRichmond, not Richard, though Stanleyis forced to conceal that loyalty toprotect his son (note also the distinctionhere: Richard would never protectanyone, even his own children probably,had he had any). The news that Elizabethwill give her daughter's hand toRichmond shows that she was not avictim of Richard's speech after all andwas only pretending to be won over byhim. Richard's powers of persuasion, soall-powerful earlier in the play, have losttheir potency now.

ACT 5, SCENE 1At Salisbury, the Sheriff and a Guardlead a repentant Buckingham toexecution. His request to speak withRichard is denied. He calls on thesouls of Richard's other victims to getrevenge on him by laughing at hisexecution. The day is All-Souls' Dayand Buckingham declares it is fitting,considering all of the souls ofRichard's victims. Buckingham wisheshe had repented for his sins duringKing Edward's reign when hewronged the princes and Elizabeth'srelatives and when he placed so muchfaith in the false Richard. QueenMargaret's curse, he reflects, hascome true. He goes willingly to death,feeling his own wrongs are fairlypunished by execution.

Though, as Richard's right-hand man,Buckingham committed brutal crimesand sins, he expresses repentance as hefaces death, and regrets not havingturned penitent sooner. He, too, likeHastings', Rivers, Gray, Vaughan,Elizabeth, and the Duchess, regretshaving taken Margaret's curses so lightlynow that her curse against him has cometrue.

ACT 5, SCENE 2On a plain near Tamworth, Richmondmarches with the Earl of Oxford, SirJames Blunt, Sir Walter Herbert, andhis troops. He announces that Richardhas been located near Leicester, atown only one day's march away. Heurges everyone to march on in orderto attain peace by killing Richard, the"foul swine" who "swills your warmblood like wash, and makes his troughin your embowell'd bosoms." Everyoneheartily agrees that Richard will bedefeated. They march onwards.

Richmond's troops are quicklyapproaching Richard and Richard'sthrone is thus growing less stable by theminute. Richmond's grotesquedescription transforms Richard's heraldicsymbol, the boar, into a disgusting beast.Richmond makes use of the metaphor ofstate-as-human-body – here the evilruler (Richard) ravages the bodies of hissubjects.

ACT 5, SCENE 3On Bosworth Field outside Leicester,Richard feels optimistic about thenext day's battle and orders histroops, the Duke of Norfolk, Earl ofSurrey, and others, to pitch their tentsfor the night. Richard declares that"the king's name is a tower ofstrength" which their opponents lackand want.

Richard, who has won so much power bymanipulating language, seems to assumethat a word alone – the title ‘king' – willbe powerful enough to defeat hisenemies. Yet Richard never respected theword in his rise to power.

ACT 5, SCENE 4Meanwhile on the other side of thefield, Richmond, Sir William Brandon,Oxford, and others pitch their tents.Richmond announces he willdistribute power on the battlefieldtomorrow between several of hislords. He gives Sir James Blunt asecret note to give Stanley, andretires with the others to strategizethe next day's battle.

As a leader, Richmond is Richard'sopposite: Richmond distributes poweramong those around him (rather thanattempting to consolidate all of it in hisown greedy hand, as Richard does).

ACT 5, SCENE 5At Richard's tent, Richard, Norfolk,Ratcliffe, and Catesby gather. Richardasks the time (six in the evening). Heasks after his own armor and horseand is told they're both in order. Hetells Ratcliffe to summon Stanley'spromised forces and threaten GeorgeStanley's death should they not arrive.He asks for a clock and declareshimself cheerless. He retires to histent. Ratcliffe and Catesby exit.

In contrast to Richmond (who has beendivvying his power among his lords andmaking speeches to rally his troops),Richard is focused entirely on himself: heis concerned only with his own horse andarmor and doesn't even ask how histroops or lords are doing.

Back at Richmond's tent, Stanley iswarmly welcomed and assuresRichmond that he will do all he can forhim on the battlefield tomorrow,though he must do so subtly asGeorge Stanley will be killed if Richarddetects him fighting for Richmond. Allexit with Stanley. Richmond prays toGod that his forces be protected andvictorious on the field. He sleeps.

Again, Richmond shows himself to be akind and compassionate leader: warmtowards Stanley and generous towardshis troops, whose wellbeing he prays for.He wishes not just for victory but that hismen are protected.

Richard III

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Between the two camps, the ghosts ofPrince Edward, King Henry VI,Clarence, Rivers, Grey, Vaughan,Hastings, Edward Prince of Wales,the Duke of York, Anne, andBuckingham rise in succession. Eachghost speaks to Richard and then toRichmond. Each calls on Richard toremember him and to think on theghost's with shame and guilt. Eachcalls for Richard's death the next day.To Richmond, each ghost gives a kindblessing and prays for his imminentvictory. The ghosts vanish.

Each of the ghosts speak aloud theformerly implicit contrast the play hasdrawn between Richard and Richmond:where Richard is violent, cruel, andundeserving of the throne, Richmond isgentle, kind, and worthy.

Starting from sleep, Richard cries for"another horse" and for someone totend his wounds. He realizes it was alla dream but remains rattled,vacillating between self-love and self-loathing. The latter starts to win outand he fears that, should he die, noone will pity him for he cannot evenpity himself. Ratcliffe enters andannounces it's time to get ready forbattle. Richard declares that"shadows" (ghosts) have scared himmore than thousands of Richmond'ssoldiers could. Richard and Ratcliffeexit.

Though he tries to ignore the message ofhis dream, the ghosts' language provestoo powerful for Richard to dismiss andleaves him deeply disturbed. Sick withself-loathing, Richard seems even moredisempowered than he did when he firststepped on stage a bitter, outcasthunchback.

At the other camp, Richmond wakesand reports to his lords the "fairest-boding dreams" in which the souls ofall Richard's victims cheered him on. Itis four in the morning, and time to getgoing. Before they all set forth,Richmond delivers an inspiring speechto his troops, assuring them that God,goodness, saints, and wronged soulsare all on their side. He says evenRichard's soldiers would rather haveRichmond's side win. They set off forbattle.

Where Richard was disempowered bythe ghosts' words, Richmond isempowered by them and feels hissupporters swell to include God and thesaints themselves. He reads his dreamsas a good omen. For Richmond's camp,the day has begun.

ACT 5, SCENE 6At Richard's camp, Richard, Ratcliffe,attendants, and soldiers are gathered.A clock strikes and Richard askswhether anyone has seen the sun. Noone has, and Richard wonders if thesun "disdains to shine" as it shouldhave been up an hour ago. The blacksky is ominous, but he consoleshimself by thinking that "the selfsameheaven that frowns on me looks sadlyupon [Richmond]."

Time is playing tricks on Richard's camp– where Richmond's camp seemed to sailinto the day without a hitch, Richard isperturbed by a lingering darkness, out ofsync with the scheduled sunrise. Heknows the black sky is a bad omen, buthopes the omen bodes ill for Richmond,not himself. Of course, he is now usinglanguage to deceive himself.

Norfolk enters and tells Richard tocharge the field. Richard quicklyannounces his battle plan to his men.Norfolk shows Richard a note left onNorfolk's tent foreboding Richard'sdefeat. They agree it must be fromRichmond's camp. Richard delivers aspeech to his troops, calling on themto let "strong arms be our conscience,swords our law" and hurling insults atRichmond's side. A Messenger entersand announces that Stanley refuses tocome to Richard's aid. Richard ordersGeorge Stanley beheaded, whichNorfolk advises him to put off untilafter the day's battle as Richmond'stroops are fast approaching. Theycharge onto the field.

Where Richmond prepared his lords' fieldpositions a day ahead of time anddelivered a stately pre-fight speech to histroops, Richard is rushed anddisorganized before battle, havingprepared nothing ahead of time but hisown horse and armor. While Richmond'sspeech used praise to motivate his troopsby boosting their spirits, Richard tries tospur his troops on by insulting Richmond(when it's likely no one hates Richmondas much as Richard does) and byencouraging them to dehumanizethemselves by abandoning theirconsciences.

ACT 5, SCENE 7At another part of the field, Norfolkenters with his forces and Catesbycalls to him for help. He says thatRichard's horse has been killed butthat Richard fights madly on by foot,determined to kill Richmond. Richardenters shouting, "my kingdom for ahorse!" Catesby tries to assistRichard, who seethes that he haskilled five Richmonds so far but notthe right Richmond. Richard runs off.Norfolk and Catesby exit.

The words Richard screamed as he wokefrom his nightmare ("another horse") turnout to have been prophetic. Horseless,senseless with rage, unable to findRichmond, Richard is profoundlydisempowered on the field.

ACT 5, SCENE 8At another part of the field, Richardand Richmond enter, fighting eachother, and exit still fighting. Richmondthen reenters along with Stanley, whois bearing the crown. Richmonddeclares that Richard is dead. Stanleypraises Richmond, who immediatelyasks if George Stanley still lives.Stanley confirms he does, andrecounts the names of the dead.Richmond closes the play with aspeech pardoning all repentantsoldiers who fought for Richard andannouncing he will peacefully unitethe white rose and the red rose (theHouses of York and Lancaster) bymarrying Queen Elizabeth's daughter.He declares "smooth'd-fac'd peace"for England from now on and prays toGod for no more "civil wounds."

Richmond proves himself an entirelydifferent and much more worthy ruler ofEngland than Richard ever was –Richmond expresses compassion for hissubjects (asking after Stanley's son andpardoning any of Richard's repentantsoldiers) and wishes, above all, for apeaceful and healthy state. His marriageto King Edward's daughter will marry theHouses of York and Lancaster, soothingthe ills and injustices of war with loveand partnership, and establishing thestable Tudor dynasty that will result inthe eventual rise to the throne ofElizabeth I, who ruled when Shakespearewrote Richard III.

Richard III

Summary & Analysis www.LitCharts.com | @litcharts ©2014 | Page 17