SHAKTI IN ABHINAVAGUPTA'S CONCEPT OF MOKSHA

BY

RICHARD F. CSFALU

B.A. S t . F ra n c is C o lle g e , N .Y ., '63 M.A. Fordham U n iv e r s i ty , N .Y ., '70

DISSERTATIONSUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF THEOLOGY AT FORDHAM UNIVERSITY

NSW YORK 1973

r

F O R D H A M U N I V E R S I T Y

G raduate School o f Arts and Sciences

This dissertation prepared under my direction by

RICHARD F. CEFALU

entitled ........... SHAKTI_ _IN..ABHINAVAGUPTA S_. CONCEPT..0 F , MOKSHA

has been accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY i n T h e o lo g y

acuity Adviser) J o s e V. P e r e i r a , M en to r

L _J

P re fa c e

I would l i k e t o th an k my m en to r, P ro fe s s o r Jose ' P e r e i r a ,

f o r h ie h e lp in g u id in g th e S a n s k r i t t r a n s l a t i o n s which a p p e a r in

t h e appendioes t o t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . I wish to th an k a ls o

P ro fe s s o r Thomas Berry who gave u n s t i n t in g l y b o th o f h i s tim e

and books. I t was he who f i r B t in tro d u o e d me t o In d ian s t u d i e s .

L a s t l y , I w ish t o thank my w ife , J a n e , f o r h e r p a t ie n c e on many

lo n g n ig h ts which I sp e n t s tu d y in g away from home.

PagePROLOGUE ................................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER Iy /8a iv ism , K ashm iri Saivism and Abhinavagupta . . 5

CHAPTER I I /The R e la t io n o f D ivine Power ( S a k t i ) t o

L ib e r a t io n ( M o k s a ) ............................................k-J

CHAPTER I I I /The A e s th e t ic Aspect o f D ivine Power ( S a k t i ) . .82

CHAPTER IV /The S p e c if io R e la t io n o f Rasa to S a k t i . . . . lhO

CHAPTER V /A C on tras t w i th S a k t i in Tamil S iddhan ta . . . 163

RECAPITULATION ...................................................................................... 179

EPILOGUE;A Theology o f Kenosis .................................................. I 83

APPENDIX I ^ ,T r a n s la t io n o f Prabodhananoadasika ....................... i9S

APPENDIX I I /_T ra n s la t io n o f T a n t r a s a r a : S a k to p a v a ..................... 201

BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................. 210

GLOSSARY...................................................................................................... 215

TABLE OF CONTENTS

jk ri “rfr* ^ i:

w f u

qcjrcft 5i«i ad * i

T a n t r a s a r a . C hapter One te r m in a t in g v e rs e

/The S e lf whose form i s l i g h t , S iva , th e Independen t, in th e Impetuous sp o r t o f h i s l i b e r t y f i r s t o b sc u re s h i s e sse n c e , and th e n , i t s f u ln e s s r e v e a le d , i l lu m in e s i t again , in t r i p l e p h a s i s — g ra d u a l ly or o f a sudden.

PROLOGUE

A bhinavagupta i s one o f th e g re a t i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f th e/

Hindu r e l i g i o n and th e p reem inent th in k e r o f Saiv ism , one o f

t h a t r e l i g i o n ' s two im portan t b ran c h e s . In d eed , h i s work i s

th e consummate embodiment o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o d a l i t i e s t h a t /

th e Saiva d o c t r in e o o n fe rs on Hinduism — th e Godhead's awesome

v i t a l i t y (oonveyed th ro u g h th e imagery of unquenchable l i b i d -

in o u sn e ss ) and e s p e c i a l l y i t s power to d e s tro y (e x p re s se d th ro u g h

th e symbolB o f p o iso n , f i r e and d e a th ) , whioh i s p a ra d o x ic a l ly✓

i t s b e s to w a l o f l i b e r a t i n g p eace . No a sp ec t o f Saivism r e p r e ­

s e n ts t h i s power o f d e s t r u c t i o n more oo gen tly th a n t h a t o f

s a k t i o r D ivine Power, which i s th e main t o p ic o f t h i s e s s a y s

Abhinava d ev e lo p s t h i s id e a o f D ivine Power in i t s two/

p h a ses . F i r s t he e la b o r a t e s i t a s th e means whereby S iva v e i l s

h i s m a je s ty a s God to ex p erien ce h im se lf a s man and th e w orld ;

t h i s i s h i s descen t from Godhead. Seoond, he d is c u s s e s i t a s

th e way th ro u g h whioh t h i s o b s o u ra t io n i s d e s t ro y e d , r e t u r n i n g/Siva to p le n a ry c o n sc io u sn e ss ; t h i s i s h i s r e p o s s e s s io n o f

tran so en d en o e — l i b e r a t i o n — which i s a t t a i n e d bo th contem­

p l a t i v e l y and a e s t h e t i c a l l y . C o n tem p la tive ly , by th e m y s t io a l

appearance o f tw e lve sa k t i s . o o n o re te ly and o i r c u l a r l y p e r ­

ce iv ed ; a e s t h e t i c a l l y , th ro ug h th e d ram atic o r p o e t io e x p e r i ­

ence o f th e sen tim en t o f t r a n q u i l i t y ( s a n t a r a s a ) . th e p r im a l/

ground o f m an 's em o tio n s , whioh i s S iva h im s e l f .

S a k t i (D iv ine Power) th u s has two a s p e o t s : o b sc u r in g

(bondage) and r e v e a l in g ( l i b e r a t i o n ) . A fte r i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e

form er in th e t e x t s o f th e T rika (T h ree fo ld ) School, o f whioh

Abhinava i s th e o h ie f exponen t, t h i s essay e x p lo re s th e l a t ­

t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in A bh inava 's two works, th e Prabodhapanoada-

s lk a ( E nligh tenm ent in F i f t e e n V e rse s ) and th e f o u r th o h a p te r

o f h i s T a n t r a s a ra ( The Essence o f T a n tra ) . b o th o f whioh a r e

re n d e re d in to E n g lish f o r th e f i r s t tim e in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

These a r e th e major so u rc e s f o r e x p la in in g sa k t i 1s r o le in

1 i b e r a t io n .

We have been h e lp e d in t h i s study by two im portan t

s c h o la r s . F i r s t , R an ie ro G noli, whose t r a n s l a t i o n in to I t a l i a n

o f th e T a n t r a s a ra and whose d is o u s s io n o f A b h inava 's th e o ry o f

th e b e a u t i f u l in h i s The A e s th e t ic Experienoe A ccording t o

Abhinavagupta have been in d is p e n s a b le a id e . P ro fe s s o r G noli/

h a s a l s o w r i t t e n s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s on Kashmir Saivism , some o f

which have been p u b l is h e d in c e r t a i n numbers o f East and W est.

and two in p a r t i c u l a r , whioh app eared in R e v is ta d i S tu d i/

O r i e n t a l s . Roma, 1959: 11H secondo O apitu lo d e l l a S lv a d rs t 1 d im * m

Somananda", and " P a s s i s e l t i ae t r a d o t t i d e l P a ra t r lm s ik a

V iv arana11. pp. 55” 79 and 163-1S2 r e s p e c t iv e ly . He has a l s o

t r a n s l a t e d in to I t a l i a n th e com plete twelve volumes o f

A bh in av a 's T an tra lo k a which have y e t to be p u b l is h e d . Seoond,

K. 0. Pandey, whose b o oks, Abhinavagupta and In d ian A e s th e t io s .

and whose t r a n s l a t i o n o f A bhinava 's I s va ra P ra tyab h i.ln a Vimar-

8 i n i o a l l e d B h a sk a r l . I l l (Lucknow, 195^)> a r e o th e r im p o rtan t

works whioh have been c o n su l te d .

A t h i r d s o h o la r , L i l i a n S i lb u rn , whose w r i t in g s 1 have

no t been a b le to s tu dy (hav ing on ly very r e o e n t ly le a rn e d o f

them) h as t r a n s l a t e d in to French A bhinava 's P aram ârth a s a r a Vi.inana

B hairava ( P a r i e , 19&1) and th e M ahartha Man.1 a r i ( t o be pub­

l i s h e d ) . Miss S i lb u rn has a l s o p u b l is h e d two a r t i o l e s on th e

T rik a S choo l: "Le V ide , l e R ien e t 1 'abime" and "Les se p t

V a c u i t ie s d 'a p r è s l e Çjivaisme d.u Oaohemire"( Hermes. Volume VI,

Le V ide: E xperience s p i r i t u e l l e en O coidente e t en O r ie n t ,

pp . 15-62 and 213-221 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . In a d d i t i o n , L. D. B a r n e t t 's

e x p o s i t io n of A bh inava 's P a ram ârth asâ ra and J . L. M asson 's

t r a n s l a t i o n of th e Abhinava B h a ra tî . which i s A bh inava 's com­

m entary on B h a r a ta 's T r e a t i s e on Drama, have a l s o been h e lp f u l .

Hence we see t h a t th e T r ik a School o f Kashmir i s r e l a t i v e l y un­

ex p lo re d , whioh may w e l l be due t o th e d i f f i c u l t y o f th e t e x t s .

The o r i g i n a l i t y of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n l i e s in i t s t r e a t ­

ment o f t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y m y s t ic a l a s p e c ts o f A bh inava 's th o u g h t .

Our t a s k i s to d em onstra te t h a t , f o r Abhinava, b o th th e m y s t i -

o a l e x p e r ie n c e and th e a e s t h e t i o p e rc e p t io n o f t r a n q u i l i t y occa­

s io n l i b e r a t i o n . In so do ing , th e p r e o is e r e l a t i o n o f th e a e s ­

t h e t i o e x p erien ce to th e m y s t ic a l w i l l beoome c l e a r : th e a e s ­

t h e t i c ex p e r ien c e o f t j a n q u i l i t y e q u a te s w ith th e m y s t io a l ex -/

p e r ie n c e o f i d e n t i t y w ith S iva. A bhinava 's fo rm u la t io n s o f th e s e

two e x p e r ie n c e s a s two a s p e c ts o f D ivine Power i s o r i g i n a l .

This u n iq u en ess i s c r y s t a l l i z e d th ro u g h a c o n t r a s t w ith th e

concept o f s a k t i in Tamil S id d han ta , th e o th e r m ajor Saiva t r a ­

d i t i o n , in which D iv ine Power — th e way to l i b e r a t i o n — i s

aoh ieved by m e d i ta t io n a lo n e .

T h ere fo re , t h i s essay i s p r im a r i ly ooncerned w ith

l i b e r a t i o n th rough D iv ine Power whioh i s i t s e l f perm eated by

one o f th e e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i o s o f d i v i n i t y — peaoe .

CHAPTER I

SAIVISM, KASHMIRI SAIVISM AND ABHINAVAGUPTA

/In o rd e r to e v a lu a te th e oonoept o f s a k t i . we s h a l l

need to examine Saivism and i t s b e l i e f s in g e n e r a l , i t s main,

t h e o lo g ic a l t r a d i t i o n s — p r i n c i p a l l y th o se o f th e Tamil

coun try and o f Kashmir — and o f A b h in av ag u p ta 's own p la o e in/

Kashm iri Saivism .

(1) ANTIQUITY AND EARLY SEOTS OF SAIVISM

/Saivism o r a f a i t h very l i k e i t e x i s t e d in th e f i r s t

known c i v i l i z a t i o n o f th e In d ian s u b c o n t in e n t , t h a t o f th e

Indus V a l le y , whose p ro b ab lp d a te i s from 3250 to 2750 B. O.’*’

Im portan t among i t s o e n te r s were Harappa and M ohenjodaro, r e ­

m arkable f o r t h e i r town p la n n in g and f o r t h e i r s e a l s — th r e e

o f whioh b e a r th e image o f a tw o-horned and th r e e - f a c e d naked

god s e a te d in yogic p o s i t i o n on a s to o l w ith h i s h e e ls p re s s e dO

c lo s e ly t o g e t h e r . c For most s c h o la r s "no u n c e r ta in ty . . ./

a t t a c h e s t o th e d i v i n i t y o f th e s e a te d Siva o f th e s e a l s , a

^■John M a rsh a ll , Mohen.lodaro and th e Indus O i v i l i z a t i o n . London: P ro b s th a in , 1931» P» ïoé,

2E. Maokay, E a r ly Indus O i v i l i z a t i o n . London: Luzao, 19^ , p . 75.

f ig u r e which . . . i s r e p l e t e w i th th e b rood in g m inatory power

o f th e g r e a t god o f h i s t o r i c I n d i a . N o t e w o r t h y among h i s

p h y s io a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a re h i s fo reh ead p r o t r u s i o n , h i s two

h o rn s , t h r e e fa c e s and e re c t p e n is . The ho rn s fan out from

th e r i g h t and th e l e f t o f th e h ead , and, to g e th e r w ith t h e p ro ­

t r u s i o n , form a shape l i k e a t r i d e n t ( t r i s u l a ) . th e g o d 's

c h a r a c t s r i s t i c weapon, so prom inent in l a t e r ioonography. ^

The th r e e f a c e s , v i s i b l e in th e g re a t Mahesamurtl p a n e l a t/

E le p h a n ts , were l a t e r t o become p a r t o f S iv a 's p en tad o f

f a c e s , r e p r e s e n te d e s p e c i a l l y in th e f i v e - f a c e d p r i a p io o u l t

images ( t h e pancam ukhalIngas) o f whioh th e E lep h an ta s c u lp tu r e

i s a b a s - r e l i e f v e r s io n . As fo r th e g o d 's e r e o t p e n is , th e/

l l n g a . i t i s th e s o le o b je c t o f th e Saiva o u l t , w ith a p la o e/

o f honor in th e sanotums o f S a iv is m 's tem p les . The Indus

Valley s e a l s show t h i s god su rrounded by f i g u r e s o f v i r i l e and

pow erfu l an im a ls — l i k e t i g e r s , e le p h a n ts , rh in o o e ro se s and/

b u l l s — th u s r e f l e c t i n g S a iv ism 's o b se ss io n w ith th e th e o -

p h a n ie s o f p a s s io n and d e s t r u c t io n , and evoking a ls o S i v a 's

e p i th e t o f " lo r d o f b e a s t s " ( p asu p a t i ) . I t i s th u s o e r t a in/

t h a t t h i s r e l i g i o n , so d i s t i n c t i v e l y Saiva in c h a r a c te r , was

i n e x is te n c e tow ards th e end o f th e fo u r th m illen ium B. 0.

Archaeology i s no t th e on ly evidenoe o f th e r e l i g i o n ' s

a n t i q u i t y . The Rg Veda reo ou n te t h a t Rudra ( t r a d i t i o n a l l y

^M. W heeler, The Indus C i v i l i z a t i o n . Cambridge a t th e U n iv e rs i ty P re s s , 1§68, p* 109»

^G. M. Moraes, "A liohenjodaro F ig u re " , New Review (C a lc u t ta ) 10 ( July-D eoem ber, 1939)» P«

I d e n t i f i e d w ith Siva) d isc h a rg e s b r i l l i a n t s h a f t s a c ro s s heaven

and over th e e a r t h . 5 He p o s s e s se s weapons whioh s la y cows and

men, and when o a t t i e f a r e unharmed, due e i t h e r to s u p p l i c a t io n s

or chanoe, Rudra is Btyled "proteotor of the cattle" (pasupa).

In a d d i t io n , th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Rudra w ith th e " lo rd o f✓

b e a s ts " i s u n o o n te s te d , and P a s u p a t i , a s we saw, i s S iva . In/

th e Vedas a l s o Siva beoomes in c r e a s in g ly im p o r ta n t . From th e

p e r io d o f th e l a t e r Y alurveda he i s th e g re a t god ( M ahesvaral .7/

Consequently th e re i s no doubt t h a t Rudra and S iva a r e i d e n t i ­

c a l .

But th e key t e x t s fo r u n d e rs ta n d in g b o th th e o v e r t and/ / _ /

co v e r t a p o th e o s is o f S iva a s Supreme Lord a r e th e S v e ta s v a ta ra

U panisad I I I , B, I I I , 11 and I , 1$ . These a r e d i r e o t a s s e r -/

t i o n s a t t r i b u t i n g to S iva p e r s o n a l i t y and Godhead:

I know t h i s m ighty Person (Puru§a) o f th e c o lo r o f th e sun beyond d a rk n e ss . Only by knowing Him does one p a ss over d e a th . There i s no o th e r p a th f o r g o ing t h e r e .

Who i s th e f a c e , th e head , th e neck o f a l l , who d w e lls in th e h e a r t o f a l l t h in g s . A l l p e rv ad in g i s he and b o u n t i f u l . T h e re fo re om nipresen t and k in d ly .

What i s p e r i s h a b le i s p rim ary m a tte r ( p ra d h a n a ) .What i s immortal and im p erish ab le i s Hara ( th e B e a re r , th e s o u l ) . Over b o th th e p e r i s h a b le and

5Rg VedaVII. 4-6, 3 and I , 114, 10 in Ralph T. H. G r i f f i t h s ' Hymns o f th e Rg Veda. 4 volumes. B enares: £ . J . L azarus and Company, ISS9- I S 9 2 , I I I , 63 and I , 199 .

6 I b i d . . I , 114, 9 in I , 19a.

7k . M. P an n ik a r , A .Survey o f In d ian H is to ry . Bombay: A sia P u b l is h in g House, 1957» P* 5«

t h e sou l th e one God ( d e v a ) r u l e s . By m e d i ta t io n on Him, by u n io n w ith Him, by e n te r in g in to His b e in g more and more, J ;h e re i s f i n a l l y o e s s a t io n from every i l l u s i o n . 8

/The p e rs o n a l god Siva supp lan tB th e im personal A bso lu te

o f t r a d i t i o n a l Brahmanism. L a te r th e Upanisa d (IV, 21 i s one

in s ta n c e ) ev inoes a d e v o tio n a l a t t i t u d e tow ards th e god. More­

o v e r , in I , 5 aacL I , 6 a re th e f i r s t i n d ic a t io n s o f conoep ts/

l a t e r common in Sa iv ism , such a s t h a t o f th e r e c u r r in g number

" f iv e " (whioh i s a s s o o ia te d w ith S i v a 's f i v e m a n i f e s t a t io n s in

Puran io Saivism ) and o f th e t r i a d L o rd -o re a tu re -b o n d ( p a t1 -p a s u -

p a s a ) whioh i s prom inent in th e sc h o o ls b o th o f th e N orth and

th e South.✓

F u r th e r , in IV, 2 th e r e i s th e e q u a t io n o f S iva w ith

th e Lord o f c r e a t io n o r P r a j a p a t i . Ja n Gonda advances t h a t a

c a r e f u l r e a d in g o f t h e Upanisads shows th e o o n t in u a l r e i t e r a t i o n

o f th e number " f i v e . "9 For in s t a n c e , b o th in M a l t r l U panisad

I I , b , 6 and in P ra sn a Upanisad I I , 3 P r a j a p a t i e n te r s in to th e

c r e a tu r e s which he had produoed a s th e f iv e v i t a l b r e a th s .

Again, in th e K a u s i ta k l Upanisad II, 3, whioh d e s c r ib e s th e r i t e s* •

f o r th e a t ta in m e n t o f th e h ig h e s t t r e a s u r e , a f i v e f o l d method

and a f i v e f o l d o r a l ao c lam a tio n i s p r e s c r ib e d . Moreover, in

^Robert S. Hume, The T h ir te e n P r in o ip a l U pan isads.London: Oxford U n iv e rs i ty P re s s , 1931* _1K)0 , 401, and 3$8 * T ex t: g y e ta e v a ta ra U panisad , w ith th e commentary o f S ankaraoarya , a D ipika o f Sankarananda, a D ipika o f Narayana, and a V ivarana o f V ijnana Bhagavat. Poona: Anandasrama P re s s , 1690. 210 ppl c i t e din Hume, p . H$2.

9 j . Gonda, Vishnuism and Sha iv ism : A Comparison. U n iv e rs i ty o f London: A thlone P r e s s , 1970* P*

Brhadaranyaka Upaniead I , 4 , 17 m an 's com ple teness i s a s s e s s e d • •

a s th e f i v e a s p e c ts o f mind, sp eech , b r e a th , eye and e a r . This

v e rs e a l s o rem arks t h a t th e s a c r i f i c e , th e a n im a l, th e p e rso n

and th e w orld a re eaoh f i v e f o l d . S ince f u l l n e s s i s im p l i c i t in

t h r e e o f th e s e In s ta n c e s — m an 's co m ple ten ess , th e a tta in m en t,

o f th e h ig h e s t t r e a s u r e and th e s a c r i f i c e , Gouda su g g e s ts t h a t

th e number " f iv e " in th e U panisads h a s a nuance o f oonsumma-

t ion ./S iva sh a res th e concept o f p e r f e c t i o n which " f iv e " con­

n o te s on two co u n ts : he i s equ a ted w ith P r a j a p a t i , who p roduoes

m an 's f i v e v i t a l b r e a th s and in l a t e r mythology he has f i v e✓

f a c e s . A lso , s in c e S iva i s i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e Lord o f c r e a t i o n/

who d w e lls in mem, S iva h im se lf i s connected w ith m an's p e r f e c ­

t i o n ./S iva assumes th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e o ld e r god,

Visvakarm an, th e o r e a to r o f th e u n iv e r s e . Rg, Veda X, S i , 3m

d e s c r ib e s Visvakarman a s hav ing e y e s , and f a c e s , arms and f e e t11 * /everyw here, th e very words th e S v e ta s v a ta ra Upanisad I I I , 3

u se s to d e s c r ib e Rudra. In re p ro d u c in g th e words th e 7 /

S v e ta s v a ta ra au th o r a l s o wished t o reproduoe th e id ea , e z o e p t ,/

o f c o u rs e , f o r him th e c r e a to r o f th e u n iv e rs e i s S iva .

In th e M ahabh ira ta a l s o t h e r e a re t h r e e im portan t/

s t o r i e s a t t e s t i n g t o th e w orship o f Siva a s th e Supreme God./

The f i r s t i s t h a t o f S iv a 's d e s t r u c t io n o f th e t r i p l e o a s t l e

10I b l d .

^ R . T. H. G r i f f i t h s , op., p i t . , IV, 260.

o f th e a su ra a (dem ons). The sons o f th e a s u ra Taraka, se ek in g

revenge f o r a p re v io u s l o s s to th e gods, were now h a ra s s in g

them. They had, th ro u g h a u s t e r i t i e s , seoured a boon from Brahma

t h a t th e y were not to be overoome except by one who w ith a s in ­

g le a rrow oould d e s t ro y t h e i r t h r e e o i t i e s o r c a s t l e s ( t r i n u r a ) .

The h a r r i e d gods com plained t o Brahma who a d v is e d them t h a t/

only S iv a , o r Mahadeva, cou ld subdue th e demons. They approached / _Siva , p r e s e n te d him w ith a o h a r i o t , conduoted by Brahma and

c o n s t i t u t e d o f a l l t h e forms o f th e universe^ and p ro v id ed him

w ith a bow and arrow composed o f V isnu , Soma and Agni. D ie-/

ch arg ing th e arrow , S iva d e s tro y ed th e t r i p l e o a s t l e , th u s

e a rn in g th e loud p r a i s e s o f th e gods.

The second s to r y i s t h a t o f D aksa 's s a o r i f i c e . Daksa

i s b e g in n in g a s a o r i f i o e a t Gangadvara in th e Him alayas, to

whioh a l l th e gods, excep t Rudra, a r e in v i te d . A devotee o f

Rudra, D adh io i, inoensed by th e i n s u l t , t e l l s Daksa t h a t due

t o t h i s om ission h i s s a c r i f i o e w i l l r e s u l t on ly in c a la m ity .

Daksa, u n p e r tu rb e d , c o n tin u e s n o t to acknowledge Rudra.

Dadhioi r e p e a t s h i s ominous propheoy whioh Daksa igno res by/

o f f e r in g th e s a c r i f i o e to Visnu, whereupon S iva m a n ife s ts h i s

power by c r e a t i n g a demon who a n n i h i l a t e s D ak sa 's s a o r i f i o e .

Daksa, "o o n v e r te d " , s in g s S iv a 's p r a i s e s . ^m

l ^Karna P a rv an , vv. 1391“ 1572 in John M uir, O rig in a l S a n sk r i t T exts in th e O rig in and H is to ry o f th e People o f I n d i a . Thoir R e l ig io n and I n s t i t u t i o n s . London: Trubner and Company,1^ 72 , i v , pp. 223- 22^

13S a n t j P a rv an , vv. 10272-10332, i b i d . . pp. 37^—377•

11

The t h i r d s to r y i s t h a t o f th e v i s i t o f Arjuna/

and Krsna t o th e H im alayas, where in a v i s io n th ey see S iva

in h i s d w e ll in g . They bow t h e i r heads and s in g a h ipn in h i s

p r a i s e , invok ing him a s th e unborn and th e o r e a to r of th e l hu n iv e r s e .

Complex in i t s b e l i e f s and hoary w ith a n t i q u i t y , a /

r e l i g i o n l i k e Saivism co u ld not a v o id p r o l i f e r a t i n g in to

s e o t s . Of i t s e a r ly ones known t o u s , th r e e a re most impox-/ — — / / __

t a n t , th e P a su p a ta s , th e L a k u lisa P asupa tas and th e K a p a lik as .

The d o c t r in e o f th e P a su p a ta s , t h e most im portan t o f th e s e

s e c t s , i s f i v e f o l d . The e f f i c i e n t oause o f th e world i s th e

Lord ( p a t i ) and th e rope (pasam) ; th e e f f e o t i s man who i s

" th e b e a s t" (p a su ) f e t t e r e d by t h e ro p e . The means to l i b -

e r a t io n a r e m e d i ta t io n on th e symbol om (3 ^ ) and- th e r i t u a l/

a c t io n o f b a th in g in a sh e s (which r e p re s e n t S iva th e d e s t r o y e r ) .

L ib e r a t io n i t s e l f i s th e c e s s a t io n o f m isery o r r e le a s e from

sam sara . Moreover, t h e Lord (who i s only t h e e f f i c i e n t o a u se ) ,

th e m a te r i a l cause ( pradhana) and s o u ls a r e e t e r n a l and d i s -

t i n o t . Also th e Lord i s in f lu e n c e d by karma in c r e a t i o n .^5

The dua lism and th r e e c a te g o r ie s o f th e P asu p a tas ( th e p a t i -/ — / / —

pasu-pasam ) were t o become th e b a se s o f th e Saiva S iddhanta

sch o o l.

^ D r o n a Parvan . w . 2S3S-2906, i b i d . , pp. lSk-166,

^ B h a m a t i 2 : 2 ; 3 7 , a commentary on S a n k a ra 's Brahmasutrabhasyam. Ed. A. S. S a s t r i and V. L. P a n s ik a r .Bombay: 1917»

12.

The L a k u lisa (Lord o f th e Club) P asu p a tas d if fe re d ./

from th e P asu p a tas on ly in t h e i r ooncep ts o f th e means o f

l i b e r a t i o n and l i b e r a t i o n i t s e l f . They h e ld t h a t one sh o u ld

m e d ita te f o r a t l e a s t s i x months — d u rin g which th e devo tee/

was t o become de tach ed from o b je c t s and a t t a o h e d to S iva .

Not on ly d id they b a th e in a sh e s , bu t they a l s o grew lo n g

n a i l s and m atted t h e i r long h a i r . They f e ig n e d madness and

in du lged in loud s in g in g . For them l i b e r a t i o n was o o n s ta n t

and unbroken oon tao t w i th th e Lord, w ith h i s powers b e in g

communicated, not m a n ife s te d . In t h i s l i b e r a t i o n one a t t a i n e d/ _S iv a 's powers o f knowledge and a c t i o n . Madhava, th e h i s t o r i a n

✓o f th e d a r s a n a s . rem arks th a t t h e i r ooncept o f l i b e r a t i o n in ­

c luded two l e v e l s : th e lower c h a r a c te r i z e d by a c t i o n and th e

h ig h e r by c e s s a t io n o f a c t io n . The form er c o n s i s t s o f p io u s

p ra y e rs and m e d i ta t io n whereas th e l a t t e r i s u n i t i v e c o n eo i- 16

o u sn ess .

The K apalikas ( S k u l l - b e a r e r s ) , macabre and h e d o n is t io ,_ _ /

were a s o r t o f Oarvaka sohool w ith a Saiva o o lo r in g . They d i f ­

f e r e d from th e P asu p a tas only in t h e i r conoepts o f th e means

o f l i b e r a t i o n and o f l i b e r a t i o n i t s e l f . They m ed ita te d on th e

so u l s e a te d on th e v a g in a . R i t u a l l y , they in d u lg ed in s t ro n g

d r in k , se x u a l in te r c o u r s e and m e a t-e a t in g . They oonduoted

human s a c r i f i c e s to o b ta in magic powers and d rank l iq u o r from

s k u l l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Brahmin s k u l l s . C em eteries were t h e i r

Sarvadarsanasam graha . T rs . E. B. Cowell and A. E. Gough. London: Kegan P a u l , 1 9 o l, p . 107»

favo u red abode, and f o r them l i b e r a t i o n was to become S iva so

t h a t th ey might s e x u a l ly enjoy P a rv a t1 .^7/ / _

From th e P a su p a ta s a ro se th e Saiva S iddhanta sch o o l

which in c lu d e s bo th S a n sk r i t and Tamil so u rc e s , th e l a t t e r o f

which a re c e le b r a te d f o r t h e i r d e v o t io n a l m o t i f s . The form er

works, com pris ing a t l e a s t th o se o f S ad y o jy o ti (IX cen tu ry A.D. ) ,

Narayana Kantha (XI oen tu ry A.D.) and A ghorasivâoârya (X II c en ­

t u r y A .D .) , cu lm ina te in King Bhoja o f D h à ra 's T a t tv a P rak âsa

( c . A.D. 1050). Both S a n sk r i t and Tamil works o f t h i s system ,

b e s id e s t h e i r u s u a l ly d u a l i s t i o p r o c l i v i t y , m a in ta in t h r e e

c a t e g o r i e s : th e Lord, th e bond and so u l . These p e r s i s t even

when t h e r e i s u n iv e r s a l a n n i h i l a t i o n ; th ey a re th e c o n d i t io n s

o f a l l e x p e r ie n c e s , e m p ir ic a l and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l . ^/

The Saiva r e l i g i o n had a rem arkable d i f f u s i o n and v i t a l -/

i t y . I t s h o ld , a s a Saiva s c h o la r t e l l s u s , ex tended not on ly

over th e whole o f In d ia from th e Indus V alley to Bengal, but

s t r e tc h e d ou t a c ro s s th e sea t o G re a te r In d ia and th e A rch ipelago

and beyond th e n o r th e r n m ountains to c e n t r a l A s i a . ^ To i t s

J ^Bhamati 2 ; 2 :37- 8ome o f th e o l e a r e s t d e s c r ip t io n s o f th e K ap â lik as a re found in Ram anuja 's commentary on th eRrnhmftflutra 2; 2iJ$.

IS ' - fSrikum E ra 's commentary on B h o ja 's T a t tv a P rakasa 2 : 5 ,p . 74-. Trivandrum S a n s k r i t S e r i e s , a s c i t e d by J . V. P e r e i r ain h i s u n p u b lish ed d i s s e r t a t i o n , "The In f lu en c e o f Saivism outh e Rock Temples o f th e Deocan and th e Konkan." Bombay: S t .X a v ie r 's C o llege , 195*3.

, a . N ila k a n ta S a e t r i , "A H i s t o r i c a l Sketch o fSa iv ism ." The C u l tu ra l H eritage o f I n d ia . IV, Adapted. The Ramakrishna M ission I n s t i t u t e o f C u ltu re . C a lc u t ta , 195^» ^3«

v i t a l i t y th e g re a t numbers o f e x ta n t Saiva tem p le s o f immense

p r e s t i g e and s a n o t i t y , s i t u a t e d in I n d i a ' s h o l i e s t p l a o e s , b e a r

w i tn e s s . "We have th e most s a c re d tem ples o f S iv a ," o b se rv es

th e h i s t o r i a n D asgupta, " in th e n o r th in B adrikasram a, i n

Nepal ( P a s u p a t i - n a th a ) , in KaBmir, in P rab h asa , in K a th ia v a r

( th e tem ple o f Som anatha), in B enares ( th e tem ple o f V isv a n a th a ) ,— / _ /

t h e N a k u lisv a ra tem ple in C a lo u t ta , and th e tem ple o f Ramesvaram20i n extrem e South I n d i a . " A d o c t r in e o f such p r e s t i g e and an ­

t i q u i t y can be expec ted to have a th eo log y e q u a l ly a n c ie n t and

i l l u s t r i o u s , and to t h i s I now t u r n .

(2) GENERAL THEOLOGICAL SOURCES

/The l a t e r t h e o lo g ic a l r e f l e c t i o n o f Saivism i s em­

b od ied in th e T a n tra s , Agamas and P u ran as , and i s r e p o r te d by

th e commentators on th e BrahmRant.ran and by th e h i s t o r i a n s o f/

th e d a r s a n a a . A bh lnav a 's thou g h t p r o f e s s e s m ain ly to be an

e x p o s i t io n o f th e T a n t r a s , e s p e c i a l l y o f th o se o f th e T r ik a ,

none o f which I have been a b le t o c o n su l t — l i k e th e

N andislkhft- th e R aurava . th e Svaoohanda. th e T r i s i r o b h a i r a v a .

t h e M atanga. th e Rudrayamala and th e M a iin iv i . la y a . whioh f o r 0

Abhinava i s th e q u in te s se n c e o f th e s o r i p t u r e s . Of th e o th e r/

so u ro e s , I have ohosen f i v e a s a b a s i s f o r a n a ly z in g Sa iva

though t b e fo re i t s s y s te m a t iz a t io n by th e th e o lo g ia n s o f th e

Tamil and K ashm iri s o h o o ls ; th e Vayaviyegamh-ttR o f th e

20Surendrana th Dasgupta, A H is to ry o f In d ia n P h ilo sophy

V. Cambridge a t th e U n iv e rs i ty P r e s s , 1955» "p*

3ivam aha-purana o f unknown d a te , b u t p robab ly w i th in th e f i r s t

e ig h t c e n t u r i e s A. D .; th e P auskara Aaama and th e Mrgendram »

- / .Agama d a t in g from about th e t h i r d oen tu ry A. D .; S ank ara ' s

e ig h th c e n tu ry re f e re n c e in th e Brahma S u tra Oommentary I I , 2 ,/ _ _

37» S r ik a n th a 'a Brahma 8u t r a Oommentarg o f about th e e le v e n th (? )s

o en tu ry A. D .; and Madhava's f o u r t e e n th o en tu ry 8arva-D arsiana-

Samgraha. As we s h a l l s e e , th e s e t e z t s a re a lm ost e n t i r e l y

m o n is t .

The a u th o r o f th e Vayaviva-samh i t a e la b o r a te s on th e

t h r e e o a te g o r ie s o f th e P a su p a ta s . He f i r s t t r e a t s th e r e l a ­

t i o n betw een Qod and th e w orld. S iva i s pu re consciousness ,**!

Lord (p a t l ) and S p i r i t ( p u ru sa ) . The world i s N ature ( p r a k r t i ) .

I l l u s i o n ( maya) and th e so u l ( p a s u ) . I m p l ic i t in th e so u l i s

t h e f e t t e r ( p a s a ) . which i s an o r i g i n a l s t a t e o f ignorance /

(m ala ) . S iva i s b o th th e in s t ru m e n ta l and m a te r i a l cause o f

th e w orld . O rea tlo n i t s e l f e n t a i l s th e s o u l ' s l i n k to th e

i l l u s i o n o f th e w orld — a d i s t o r t i o n of th e s o u l ' s o r i g i n a l

r e a l i t y . For in th e second s e c t io n o f th e same sam hlta i t i s /

reo o un ted t h a t Siva h im se lf b in d s a l l b e in g s th ro ug h im p u r i t i e s

( m alaa) and i l l u s i o n ( maya) and t h a t only he oan l i b e r a t e them

a t h i s p le a s u r e whioh i s commensurate w ith th e d e v o tio n o f th e22

in d iv id u a l s o u l .

The s o u l ' s o r i g i n a l f e t t e r s a re t h r e e (an d t h i s i s/ _

s ta n d a rd d o o tr in e in th e Saiva S iddhan ta S c h o o l) : egoism

2^V ayavlya-Sam hita . V I I , 2 , 12 in i b i d . , 111 .

2^V ayaviya-sam hit a . V I I , 2 , 12 in i b i d . , 11S-119

( an av am ala ) . th ro ug h which th e a l l - p e r v a s i v e so u l u n d e rs ta n d s

i t s e l f a s l im i t e d ; a o t io n (karm^ffiala)» r e s u l t i n g from th e ex-

p e r ie n o e o f good and e v i l deeds; and th e body (mayivamala) .

formed th ro u g h i l l u s i o n . The means used in or e a t in g t h i s/ / \f e t t e r e d so u l i s d iv in e power ( s a k t i ) . From t h i s power a r i s e s

th e whole w orld th ro u g h th e i l l u s o r y p ro c e s s ./

While th e so u l i s in f a o t S iva in an e m p ir ic a l ly

d i s t o r t e d s t a t e , i t does not u n d e rs ta n d t h i s . Since p u re/

co nso iousnees (S iv a ) i s e n t i r e l y o th e r th an th e o r i g i n a l ig ­

norance (m ala) how can t h i s igno ranoe impugn th e p u r i ty o f/

c o n sc io u s n e s s , r e s u l t i n g in d i s t o r t i o n ? The S a iv a 's r e p ly i s

t h a t

a s pu re g o ld may be a s s o o ia te d w ith d ro ss w itho u t a f f e o t i n g i t s n a t u r e , / s o t h e pure co n sc io u sn ess t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s th e S iva w i th in us may rem ain p u re , even though i t may be covered w ith m ala from b e g in n in g le s s t im e . Ttys mala does n o t a f f e o t th e n a tu re o f th e s e l f a s S iv a .^3

Moreover, th e means to l i b e r a t i o n ( mokaa) in t h i sm

HRmhit«, a r e p u r i f i c a t i o n in aooordance w ith th e p r e c e p t o r 's/

i n s t r u c t i o n , th e p ro p e r w orship o f Siva and th e yogio m edi-/

t a t i o n a l e x e r c is e which shou ld develop th e id e a t h a t S iva i s

a l l - p e r v a s i v e .

Our seoond so u ro e , th e Pausk a ra and Mrgendra Apramas.• •

belong to a body of l i t e r a t u r e whose date and o r ig in s a r e

o b scu re . The word Agama means "a work in c u lc a t in g th e

^3Unknown a u th o r o f P a a u p a t i -p a s a -v io a ra -p ra k a ra n a Adyar L ib ra ry MS in i b i d . , 2 7 .

17.

7 7 oilm y s t ic a l w orship o f S iva and S a k ti ."* ^ ’’ In a d d i t i o n to t h i s

/d e f i n i t i o n and to th e f a o t t h a t m edieval Saiva works g e n e r a l ly

r e f e r t o th e Agamas, only 0. V. N. Ayyar g iv e s an e x p la n a t io n

o f t h e i r o r i g i n s . 2^ He su g g e s ts t h a t from ahout 400 B. 0. th e/

p r a c t io e began o f e n a b l in g anyone to b eg in w orsh ip of Siva

th rough i n i t i a t i o n . The a s p i r a n t s would be i n s t r u o te d in medi­

t a t i o n by a guru . As t h e i r number grew, r u l e s were fram ed f o r

i n i t i a t i o n . Handed down a s th ey were from one g e n e ra t io n to

th e n e x t , th e s e r u l e s oame to be e q u a lly esteem ed a s th e Vedas

whioh a l s o fo llow ed th e same t r a d i t i o n o f d e s c e n t . A- b e l i e f✓

a ro se t h a t th ey were re v e a le d by S iva h im s e l f . F u r th e r , beoause/ _

th e Saiva d evo tees th o u g h t t h a t th e r u l e s o f th e Agama were not

f o r a l l , th ey were c a r e f u l l y concealed*

S im i la r ly , much o f th e th e o lo g y o f t h e Agamas i s un­

known excep t f o r t h r e e new id eas p r o f f e r e d in th e Pauskaram

— /Agama. F i r s t , th e id ea t h a t when Siva i s r e f l e c t e d in h i s own

__ /w i l l , t h e c o n d it io n o a l l e d sa d a s iv a emerges. T his was l a t e r

t o be d e f in e d a s th e i n i t i a l e x p e r ien c e o f e m p ir ic a l b e in g .

Second, t h a t d iv in e power i s immediate i n t u i t i o n and a o t io n .

T h ird , t h a t th e e t e r n i t y of knowledge i s v e i l e d in time by th e

s o u l ' s i m p u r i t y . ^

" M . M onier-W illiam s, A S a n s k r i t - E n g l i s h D ip t io n a ry . p . 129 , column t h r e e . Oxford a t th e U n iv e rs i ty P re s s , I 8 99 .

, ^ 0 . V. N. Ayyar, The O r ig in and S a r ly H is to ry o fSaivism in 8ou th I n d ia . Madras U n iv e r s i ty , 193^> P*

2^S. Das Gupta, <2£ . c i t . . c i t i n g o h a p te r fou r o f th e Pauskara Agama. 33 31«

The t h i r d o f our f iv e eouroeB — a r e f e r e n c e in

S a h k a ra 's commentary on th e Brahma S u tra t o g e th e r w ith a b r i e f

description in Madhava's Sarva-Paraana-Samgraha — informs ust /

o f th e e x is te n c e o f a d u a l i s t Sa iv ism , th e sch o o l o f th e Pasu-

p a ta s , whose though t t r e n d d i f f e r s from t h a t of th e V ayaviya-

sam h ita , and o f o th e r m o n is t i c a l ly o r ie n te d Saiva so h o o ls .

The P a su p a ta s ( a s we saw) do no t acknowledge S iva a s th e m a te r i ­

a l cause o f th e w orld ./ _ /

S r ik a n th a , our f o u r th so u rc e , w rote a Saiva commentary

on th e Brahma S u t r a . He has t h r e e o u ts ta n d in g p o i n t s : t h e in - ✓

fe ren o e o f S iv a 's e x is te n c e from th e second s u t r a o f th e Brahma__ /

S u t r a : t h e c o -e x is te n c e o f S iv a 's tran soen d eno e and immanenoe;

t h e e v o lu t io n o f g raded c a te g o r ie s o f e x is te n c e in d e sc e n t from / _ _ _ S iv a 's Godhead. The second s u t r a o f B ad aray an a 's Brahma S u tra

d e s o r ib e s Brahman a s t h a t from whioh a l l t h in g s have come in to

b e in g , in whioh th ey a re m a in ta in e d and in to which th ey w i l l• .

u l t i m a t e ly r e tu r n . Sankara and th e subsequent Vedanta commenta­

t o r s do n o t accep t t h i s s u t r a a s advanoing an argument f o r

Brahman's e x is te n c e . They r e g a rd i t r a t h e r a s a mere summation

o f th e g e n e ra l i n t e n t io n of th e U panlsads. Moreover, th ey h o ld

t h a t i t i s only a s ta te m en t harmonddualjr r e c o n c i le d w ith th e/ __

s ta te m e n ts o f o th e r U panisadio t e x t s . S r ik a n th a , however, con­

s i d e r s t h i s s u t r a a s th e b a s i s from which th e e x is te n c e o f th e /

supreme Lord Siva may be I n f e r r e d ./ _

C ontinuing t h i s e x e g e s is , S r ik a n th a (propounding a

th eo lo g y o f bhedabheda. or i d e n t i t y - i n - d i f f e r e n o e ) m a in ta in s

' / ' Vt h a t S iva rem ains t ra n s c e n d e n t w h ile h i s power ( s a k t i ) beoomes

th e m a te r i a l u n iv e r s e . He f u r t h e r a s s e r t s t h a t t h i s power com-

p r i s e s b o th c o n sc io u sn ess and m a t te r . A lthough th e r e i s sep a -/

r a t i o n o f fu n c t io n , th e r e i s u n i ty o f e ssen ce . Thus S iva in/

h im se lf i s t r a n so e n d e n t whereas S iva as power i s Immanent:/

Brahman (S iv a ) e x i s t s in q u i te a t ra n s c e n d e n t manner, a p a r t from th e in d iv id u a l s o u ls and th e inan im ate w orld . But y e t , s in ce th e in d iv id u a l s o u ls and th e m a te r ia l u n iv e r s e a re em anations from h i s energy ( s a k t i ) , th e w orld o f s o u ls and m a t te r may be re g a rd e d a s p a r t s o f him. a lth o u g h th ey a re com ple te ly t r a n ­scended by h im .2 /

T h is i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y th e d o o t r in e propounded by th e V aisnava

V edantins l i k e B haskara , Nimbarka, Ramanuja, V a llab h a , and

C aitanya ./ _

L a s t ly , S r ik a n th a m a in ta in s t h a t th e r e i s a g ra d u a l✓

em anation from th e t r a n s c e n d e n t S iva when he i s a s s o c ia te d w ith

th e energy o f c o n sc io u sn ess in to th e c a te g o r ie s o f th e d iv in e

power ( . s a k t i ) , th e i n i t i a l ex p e rien ce of e m p ir io a l b e in g ( sad a-

s i v a ) . th e o r y s t a l l i x e d ex perien ce o f th e e m p ir ic a l w i th in

Siva (a ah e sv a ra ) and th e ba lanoe o f th e e m p ir io a l and th e t r a n -* / — Og

sc e n d e n ta l w ith in S iva ( fluddhavidya) . T his i s a sequence o f

c a te g o r ie s whioh aooords w ith th o se a co ep ted , a s we s h a l l s e e ,

by th e T r ik a School o f Kashmir._ /

Madhava's p r e s e n t a t io n o f Saiva th eo lo g y — our f i f t h

source — i s g e n e ra l ly based on th e Agamas, w ith p a r t i o u l a r

_ 27 l b ld . . £5 , o i t i n g S r ik a n th a 's commentary on BrahmaS u tra I I , 1 , 2. Volume I I , 31, second p a r e n th e s i s added.

2^ I b i d . . 9 0 , o i t i n g S r ik a n th a 's commentary on Brahma S u tra I I , 38. Volume I I , 109»

20.

c i t a t i o n s from M rgendra. P a u sk a ra . K irana and Karana Agamas.O O 0 O

He c i t e s th e t r i a d lo rd - s o u l-b o n d and th e fo u r s ta g e s o f s p i r ­

i t u a l l i f e ; p r a c t i c a l d u ty , cerem onia l a c t i o n , m e d i ta t io n and

r e a l i z a t i o n . He a l s o a s s e r t s t h a t , " the Supreme Being i s a

oause in dependence on our a c t i o n s . . . . "^9 Hence Siva i s

th e u n iv e r s a l a g e n t , bu t not w ith o u t reg a rd to th e a c t i o n s o f

men; p rim ary o a u s a l i ty ta k e s oognizanoe o f secondary c a u s a l i t y .

P re c lu d in g any o b je o t io n , th e Agama a u th o r p o s i t s t h a t i t does

no t v i o l a t e an agent *8 independence t o a s s e r t h i s a o t in g con-/

j o i n t l y w ith th e means. He g iv e s th e analogy t h a t S iv a 's

independence i s l i k e a k in g 's bounty showing I t s e l f in g i f t s

which, however, " a re not i r r e s p e c t i v e of h i s t r e a s u r e r . "3®i

Consequently S iv a 's independence i s no t flaw ed because he a l -/

lows man th e f r e e w i l l to co o p era te o r not w ith him. Siva

a ls o h as th e f iv e f u n c t io n s o f c r e a t i o n , p r e s e r v a t io n , , d e s t r u c ­

t i o n , o b s c u ra t io n and g rao e , and h i s body c o n s i s t s o f pu re

power.

Regarding th e n a tu re o f th e s o u l , t h e Saiva r e j e c t s

th e Saiikhya p o s i t i o n t h a t th e so u l i s devoid o f a o t io n . When

a l l th e im p u r i t ie s o f egoism, a o t io n and i t s f r u i t s , and ma-

t e r i a l i t y a re removed a s t a t e o f i d e n t i t y w i th S iva o b ta in s —

union in i n t e l l i g e n c e in th e form o f an i n f i n i t e v i s i o n . ^

The s o u l , th e n , oan h a rd ly be c a l l e d in a c t iv e s in c e i t i s

^M adh av a»a Garvadars'ansamgrapha. T rs . E. B. Cowell and A. E. Gough. Ohowkhamba S a n s k r i t S e r ie s O f f ic e , V a ra n a s i ,1961 , p . 113 .

3° I b i d . . p . 1 1 6 .

3 1 I b i d . , p . 1 2 0 .

/actively involved in the vision of Siva who is other than the

soul while remaining one with it. This state of identity is

attested in sruti, whioh in this case is the Mrgendragama.o

/ -For Saivism holds that the Agamas also are revelation, and not

just the Vedas, as Hindu tradition generally believes.

A threefold classification of souls is also proposed / _

in accordance with the Saiva Siddhanta doctrine of the three

fetters or impurities. The first are those who are only under

the influence of the inherent impurity of egoism which causes

the soul to understand itself as limited (anavamala). Their

actions are cancelled either by commensurate experience of the

fruits of these actions or by contemplation. The second are

those who are under both anava and karma malas: their fetterst

are destroyed only in the reabsorption of the universe (pralaya).

The third are those who are bound by anava. karma and maylya

malas. All three classes, whose impurities have matured, are/

subjeot to liberation by the graoe of Siva — who becomes a guru

to grant it. Madhava gives an anonymous quotation whioh I have

identified as being from King Bhoja:

Those creatures whose mala (impurity) is matured, by putting forth a healing power, He, assuming the form of a teacher, unites by initiation to the highestp r i n c i p l e . 32

This remark emphasizes that the degrees of impurity may be ex-/

punged by Siva's grace.

Ibid., p. 124-, Identified in Bhoja. Tattva Prakasa. E. P. Janvier, Tr. Indian Antiquary. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1 9 2 5 , p. 153» parenthesis added.

F i n a l l y , s in o e th e n a tu r e o f th e f e t t e r i s im p l i c i t in

th a t o f t h e s o u l , Madhava r e i t e r a t e s t h a t th e s o u l ' s im p u r i t i e s

c o n s t i t u t e t h e f e t t e r . In a d d i t i o n , he o i t e s th e Mrgendra Agama0

which l i s t s a f o u r th oomponent o f th e f e t t e r a s th e overpow ering

energy o f S iva whioh o b scu res th e so u l ( t l r o d h a n a s a k t l ) .33

How t h i s d i f f e r s from anavam ala . whose f u n c t io n seems i d e n t i c a l ,

i s not e x p la in e d ./

These g e n e ra l Saiva so u rc e s do not o f f e r th e s o p h i s t i ­

c a ted s p e c u la t io n o f a Sankara; no r do th ey have sem inal t e x t s

a s p ro fo u nd a s th e U panisads to comment on. For th e Agamas

a r e no t e q u a l in b re a d th o f th o u g h t t o th e U panisads nor a re/

th ey a s p r o f u s e ly c i t e d in th e Sa iva commentaries a s a re th e

U panisads in th e Brahma S u tra i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . They a re a l s o32*

g e n e ra l ly u n a v a i la b le . However, th e s e t h e o lo g ic a l so u ro es

do p r e s e n t a g e n e ra l consensus. They d e f i n i t e l y ag re e on th e

lo rd - s o u l - b o n d t r i a d ( p a t l - n a s u - p a s a ) , on S iva a s be in g a t

l e a s t t h e in s t ru m e n ta l cause o f th e w orld , t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n/

o f th e so u l and th e w o rld to S iva i s m ediated by h i s d iv in e

power, and t h a t f o r l i b e r a t i o n c e r t a i n r e l i g i o u s e x e r c is e s a re/

e n jo in e d — though dependent on S iva f o r t h e i r e f f io a o y . Also

33 i b i d . , p . 1 2 5 .3 ifJ M aria su aa i Dhavamony i s th e only one who inform s us

where some o f th e Agamas may be o o n su lted . The fo u r Agamas: Kamikan, Karanam, Suprapetam and Vatulam and th e two Upagamas, M irukantram and PaaBkaram were p u b l is h e d in Madras (b e fo re 192.5 ) ; e x c e p t in g th e Karanam, a l l a re a v a i l a b le in th e B r i t i s h Museum L ib ra ry . Love o f Qod Aooording to Shalva 8 id d h a n ta . Oxford, 1971» P« 117» n o te 3*

23

th e Sankhya o a te g o r ie s a re compounded w ith t h e f iv e t r a n s o e n -/ —

d e n ta l ones o f f e r e d by S r ik a n th a . F in a l ly th e r e i s aooord on

t h e I m p u r i t ie s o f a n a v a . karma and maylya. T here fo re th e s eO /

f iv e g e n e ra l souroes o f Saiva d e l i b e r a t i o n te n d e r some b a s io

id ea s b u t no e la b o r a t io n . This th e two sc h o o ls o f th e Tamil

coun try and o f Kashmir were to p ro v id e .

/ _( 3 ) THE TAMIL PHASE OF SAIVA SIDDHANTA

/But th e f i r s t s c h o o l , Tamil Saivism , d id not do so

u n t i l th e t h i r t e e n t h o e n tu ry . I t s e a r l i e r p h a se , however,

c o n t r ib u te d p o w e rfu lly to t h a t l a t e r developm ent. From th e

sev en th to th e n in th c e n tu r ie s th e Tamil c o u n try o f South

In d ia w itn e s se d a g r e a t upsurge o f p u p u la r r e l i g i o u s d e v o tio n/ /

( b h a k t i ) tow ards V isnu and S iva . I t s numerous Saiva hymns,

f ra u g h t w ith th e se n t im e n ts o f t h e s i n n e r 's u n w o rth iness and/

t h e g r e a tn e s s o f S i v a 's lo v e , s t r o n g ly in f lu e n c e d th e th e o lo g i -/ _

c a l s ta te m en t o f th e Saiva S iddhan ta whioh was made fo u r o e n tu -/

r i e s l a t e r . Tamil Saivism i s th e d e v o tio n a l h ig h p o in t o f th et

w orship o f Siva and i t s co n cep tu a l B treng th i s a ls o com pelling .

Since I w i l l focus on t h a t s t r e n g th th rough t h i s s c h o o l 's d i s -

ouBsion o f Divine Power in th e f i f t h c h ap te r o f t h i s s tu d y , I

s h a l l l i m i t m yself h e re to a b r i e f i n d ic a t i o n o f i t s d e v o tio n a l

o r i e n t a t i o n .

T i r u v a l lu v a r 's T iru k k u ra l i s one o f th e e a r l i e s t

D rav id ian works of th e Tamil o o u n try , p rob ab ly d a t in g from

b e fo re t h e sev en th c en tu ry A. D. In th e f i r s t c h ap te r

T iru v a l lu v a r c a l l s S iva " the g ra c io u s One who i s th e ocean o f

goodness. This a p p r a i s a l o f Siva might a l s o he re n d e re d "0od

i s lo v e " , f o r s u re ly th e id eas a r e ex trem ely s i m i la r , i f n o t

i d e n t i o a l . Sinoe i t i s only n a t u r a l f o r r e l i g i o u s man t o r e s ­

pond t o th e Good, t h i s e a r ly e s t im a t io n gave an impetus t o th e/

o o n t in u a l ly developed d ev o tio n o f th e Tamil S a iv as . At th e same/

t im e t h a t t h i s p i e ty to Siva became p rom inen t, th e d e v o te e 's

s e l f - d e p r e c a t i o n reao h ed a s im i la r l e v e l . T h is se lf -a b a se m e n t

was grounded in th e te a c h in g o f th e th r e e im p u r i t i e s found in

th e f iv e g e n e ra l t h e o l o g i c a l souroeB I a l lu d e d t o . Henoe th e/

a rd e n t fo l lo w e r o f S iva c h a s t i s e s h im se lf and b ew ails h i s c o r ­

r u p t io n . He i s e n s lav e d to a n av a . th e egoism sundering him fromI _

S iva . Karma and mayiya malaB in v o lv e him in th e e v i l o f e x i s -/

te n c e d iv o ro ed from th e Good — S iv a . He f e e l s a deep se n se d

p e rs o n a l g u i l t in t h e o o n d it io n o f h i s s e p a r a t io n and he lo n g s /

f o r S iv a 's u n i t i n g g ra c e ./

The s o u l ' s u n w orth in ess and th e l a r g e s s e o f S i v a 's love

a r e th e m ajor components o f Tamil, b h a k t1. These f e e l in g s o f/

se lf -a b a se m e n t and lo n g in g fo r S i v a 's grace a r i s e from th e/ /

f a i t h o f th e e a r ly Saiva s a in t s who sang o f S i v a 's s e l f - r e v e l a ­

t i o n to them th rough h i s g raoe . The most rem arkab le a s p e o ts o f /

Tamil Saiv ism a re i t s in te n se lo v e o f God, i t s b e l i e f t h a t no

s p i r i t u a l p ro g re s s i s a t t a i n a b l e w ithout t h i s lo v e , and i t s

p re o o c u p a tio n w ith p r a i s i n g God.

^ ^aEav a l l y a n ta n a n ) 1 . S. in li. Dhavamony, op. p i t . ,p . 1 15 .

These themes a r e amply documented, in th e Tamil works.

However, Appar and Manikkavaoakar so a r h ig h e s t in t h e i r s e n t i ­

m ents. Appar la m e n ts :

E v i l , a l l e v i l , my r a c e , e v i l my q u a l i t i e s a l l .G reat am I o n ly in s in , e v i l i s even my good.E v il my innerm ost s e l f , fo o l iB h , a v o id in g the p u re .B east am I n o t , y e t th e ways o f th e b e a s t I can

never f o r s a k e .. . . Ah.1 w re tch ed man t h a t I am, whereunto came I

to b ir th?3®

and Manikkavaoakar r e j o i c e s :*

P o o l 's f r i e n d was I , none such may know The way o f freedom ; y e t t o me He show 'd th e p a th o f lo v e , t h a t so F r u i t o f p a s t deeds might ended be.C leansin g my mind so f o u l , He made me l i k e a god.Ah.1 who co u ld win t h a t which th e F a th e r h a th bestowed?37

These two men, who d a te in th e se v en th and n in th c e n tu r ie s r e -/

s p e o t iv e ly , i l l u s t r a t e S a iv ism 's d e v o tio n a l o r i e n t a t i o n . Con­

sc io u s a s we a re o f t h i s d i r e c t i o n , i t i s now n ecessa ry f o r us

t o be aware o f th e m ajor co n tem p la tiv e dim ension o f Saivism .

That s c h o o l , which developed in th e North o f I n d ia , i s th e seo -

ond schoo l t o e la b o r a te th e g e n e ra l th e o lo g ic a l so u rces . Whilet /Saiva d e v o tio n began and f l o u r i s h e d in th e Tamil co u n try , Saiva

co n te m p la tio n was em erging in Kashmir. The th e o lo g ie s o f th e s e— /

two so ho o ls were to be fu se d in th e V irasa iv ism o f th e K anarese

country in th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry , whose th eo lo g y combines th e

S id d h a n ta 's d e v o t io n a l f e rv o r w ith th e K ashm iri S c h o o l 's i n t e l ­

l e c t u a l com plex ity .

z ^^F. K ingsbury and G. E. P h i l l i p s , Hymns o f th e TamilS a lv i te S a i n t s . London: Oxford U n iv e rs i ty P r e s s , 1921, p .

37I b i d . , 127 c i t i n g Tiruvaoakam. p . 37»

(14-) KASHMIRI SAIVI8M

/S a iv ism 's K ashm iri phase i s t h e o lo g io a l ly th e r i c h e s t

in th e Hindu t r a d i t i o n . Most o f i t s major t e x t s rem ain un­

t r a n s l a t e d , h u t one can s t i l l r e c o n s t r u c t i t s h i s to r y from

seoondary souroes (some o f which abound in t r a n s l a t i o n s o f se ­

l e c t e d t e x t s ) . We g a th e r th a t t h e T rik a Sohool waB founded in

t h e n i n th cen tu ry by Vasugupta ( c . S25-S 50 ) , who was fo llo w ed

by an i l l u s t r i o u s l i n e o f th e o lo g ia n s l i k e Somananda (mid

n in th o e n tu ry ) , fou n der o f th e R eco g n it io n Sohool, V asu g u p ta 's

p u p i l K a l l a t a ( e a r ly t e n t h c e n tu ry ) , and U tp a la ( a l s o e a r ly

t e n th o e n tu r y ) , d i s c i p l e o f Somananda and t e a c h e r of Abhinava^

and Ramakantha I (seoond and t h i r d q u a r te r s o f th e t e n t h oen-0 0

t u r y ) . The sohool ou lm inated in Abhinavagupta (A. D. 953“ 1015).

Among th e g r e a t a c a r y a *s d i s c i p l e s was th e p o e t Ksemendra (b o ra

a f t e r A. D. 990 and d ie d a f t e r 1069)1 one o f S a n sk r i t l i t e r a ­

t u r e ' s im portan t f i g u r e s and one o f i t s few s a t i r i s t s .

Ksemendra, however, was f i r s t a t t r a o t e d to Buddhism, and l a t e r0

in l i f e v e e re d tow ard th e d e v o tio n a l Vaisnavism o f h i s o th e r« 0

t e a c h e r , Soma Bhagavata. Abhinava was fo llo w ed by Bhattavam a-

deva ( e a r l y e le v en th oentury), Ksem araja (seoond q u a r te r o f th e

e le v e n th c e n tu ry ) , Y ogara ja (mid e le v e n th o en tu ry ) and J a y a ra th a

( t w e l f t h - t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s ) The t i d e o f Islam , which had

begun to overwhelm I n d ia a lre a d y in A bhinava 's tim e , bu t which

had been h e ld baok from Kashmir by i t s s t i l l pow erfu l k in g s ,

0. Pandey, A bhinavagupta: An H i s t o r i c a l and P h i lo s ­o p h ica l S tudy» Ohowkhamba S a n sk r i t S e r ie s O f f i c e , V a ran as i ,

1963, p . 9 .

f i n a l l y b u r s t in to t h a t p rov inoe in th e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu ry ,

in u n d a tin g i t in th e f o u r t e e n th . With I s l a m 's tr iu m ph , th e

g re a t T r ik a school came to an end.«

V/hy d id th e T r ik a System emerge? Aooording to/

Abhinava t o remind men o f a p re v io u s r e v e l a t i o n o f Siva*/

There had been s i x t y - f o u r s o r ip tu r e e re v e a le d by S iva , w hich ,

due to th e e v i l in f lu e n c e o f th e K a l i age and th e g rad u a l d i s -/

appearanoe o f th e s e e r s who knew them, came t o be l o s t . S iv a ,

v iew ing th e r e s u l t a n t s p i r i t u a l d a rk n e ss , f e l t compassion fo r

men. He t h e r e f o r e :

. ._ . ap p ea red on th e K a i la e a m ountain in th e form o f S r ik a n th a and oommanded th e sage Duprvasae to Bpread in th é w orld th e knowledge o f ,the s a s t r a s a g a in . . . . I t i s t h i s Advaya (n o n -d u a l) Saiva t e a c h in g . . . which i s spoken o f a s th e T r ik a .39

/T his p a ssa g e i s im po rtan t fo r two re a s o n s : many Saivas b e l i e v e

/ __ ✓t h a t Abhinava i s an in c a r n a t io n o f S r ik a n th a (S iv a h im s e l f ) ;

A/_ / -

and Somananda, th e a u th o r o f th e P ra tyabh i.ina S a s t r a . c la im ed

d escen t from t h i s same sage D urvasas. S im i la r ly many b e l i e v e d/ _

t h a t V asugupta, who w ro te th e S iva S u tra s and Soanda K a r ik a s ./

re c e iv e d them from S iva h im s e l f , an id ea whioh acco rd s w ith th e

c i t e d p a s sa g e . In a d d i t i o n to th e s e th r e e men — who, numerous

Saivas assum e, en joyed a s p e c ia l in tim acy w ith Siva — U tp a la ,

th e a u th o r o f th e IsV ara P ra ty b h i in a S u t r a s . Laksmanagupta and

Ksemaraja were a ls o prom inent exponents o f t h i s system .

T h e ir te a o h in g s may f i r s t be approached th rough

3^T an tra lo k a (¿10 page g iven ) a s t r a n s l a t e d by J . 0. C h a t t e r j i i n Kashmir Sa iv ism . Government o f Jammu and Kashm ir, 1962 , p . 6 , p a r e n th e s i s added.

M adhava's a sse ssm en t, fo rm u la ted In f iv e im portan t p o i n t s ./

F i r s t , S iva i s s im u lta n eo u s ly o th e r th an and th e same w ith th e

v a r io u s a c t s o f knowing and th e v a r io u s o b j e c t s o f knowledge.

Second, he i s th e t r a n s c e n d e n t S e l f p o s i te d by o n e 's own con­

sc io u sn e s s and he p o s s e s s e s independence, t h e power o f w i tn e s s in g

a l l th in g s in h im s e l f . T h ird , one can reo o g n ize o n e s e l f , th roughhr\

c e r t a i n e x e r c i s e s , a s i d e n t io a l w ith h in r v~ hence th e name

p ra ty a b h i . in a . " r e c o g n i t io n . 11 A scheme of transcendenoe-im m anence

and o f d iv in e un ion i s advanoed h e re . F o u r th , t h e so u l , sub­

j e c t to a cosmio i l l u s i o n , has o n ly p a r t i a l c o n sc io u sn ess o f

h im s e l f . The f u l l n e s s o f c o n sc io u sn ess — r e c o g n i t io n — i s

dependent on th e ex p an sio n o f th e c o g n i t iv e pow ers. F i f t h ,/

d ev o tio n to Siva a l lo w s one to r e c e iv e t h a t independence

( s v a t a n t r y a ) which i s th e eBsenoe o f th e d iv in e n a t u r e . ^ In ­

dependence i s i d e n t i o a l w ith D iv ine Power (s a k t i ) th e re b y in ­

d i c a t in g a m ed ia tin g fu n c t io n f o r i t .

Acoording to Madhava t h e r e f o r e th e R e co g n it io n o r T rika

School —- which t r e a t s o f God, D ivine Power, and th e so u l — i s/

s im i la r t o th e g e n e ra l th e o lo g io a l so u rces o f Saivism in i t s

two te a o h in g s — th e th r e e f e t t e r s b in d in g one to a cosmio i l ­

l u s io n , and th e transcendenoe-im m anenoe schema. I t i s d i s im i ­

l a r in i t s two te a o h in g s o f R e co g n it io n , whioh i s a m o n is t ic/

i d e n t i t y o f th e sou l w ith Siva and o f Divine Power, whioh i s

^ G u ru n a th a Param arsha o f Madhuraja Yogin, US, Sloka 23 a s t r a n s l a t e d by Pandey, op. p i t . , p . 20 and C h a t t e r j i , o p . o i t . , p . 2k-.

^ 3arvadarsanasam graha. T rs . Cowell and Cough, o p . o i t . , p . 123.

a r e c e p t io n o f g ra c e . F u r th e r , t h e s e two d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s a re

r e l a t e d t o eaoh o t h e r , s in c e D ivine Power i s n e ce ssa ry f o r th e

R e c o g n it io n .

In e x p la in in g b o th R e co g n it io n and D iv ine Power i t i s

n e c e ssa ry t o exp lo re th e m e tap h y s ica l framework o f th e T r ik a o r

T h re e fo ld System. K. 0. Pandey i s th e most p r o l i f i o t r a n s l a t o r

o f th e T r ik a t e x t s . He r e l a t e s , f i r s t o f a l l , t h a t th e Three­

f o ld ( T r i k a ) , th e R eco g n it io n ( P r a t y a b h i j n a ) , and th e Appearance

(Abhasavada) Systems a re e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i o a l . Hence a c i t a ­

t i o n from one i s e q u a l ly r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e o th e r two. The

Appearance School oon tends t h a t t h i s world i s a r e a l m a n i f e s ta -f - /

t i o n o f S iv a . I t i s no t an i l l u s i o n . A b h inavagup ta 's I s v a r aa/— / —

P ra ty ab h i.jn a V im ars in i r e a d s :

A ll t h a t a p p e a r s ; a l l t h a t forms th e o b je c t of p e r ­c e p t io n ; a l l t h a t i s w i th in th e rea o h _ o f_ th e e x te r n a l sen ses^ o r th e i n t e r n a l mind . . . i s Abhasa (a p p e a r ­an ce ) . 2

But t h i s appearance has a s i t s su b s tra tu m an A l l - I n o lu s iv e

U n iv e rsa l C onsc iousness , c a l l e d Complete Consciousness ( pu rn a

flamyid) . ^ What a p p ea rs i s r e a l because i t i s a m a n i f e s ta t io n

o f th e Complete ConsoiousnesB, S iv a . Sinoe S iva i s r e a l , h i s

m a n i f e s t a t i o n , t h i s w o rld , must be r e a l . However, t h i s w o rld

i s a l s o i d e a l :

. . . because i t i s n o th in g bu t an ex p e r ien c e o f th e S e l f (S iva) and has i t s b e in g in th e S e l f e x a o tly a s

4 2 I b i d . . p . 1 3 2 .

^ A b h in a v a g u p ta , Ie v a ra P ra ty abh i.jna V im arBinl 1_. 35~3^ a s t r a n s l a t e d by Pandey, i b i d . . p . 32!»

30.

iiil.ou r own id eas have t h e i r s w i th in u s .

Abhinava u n d e rs tan d s t h a t th e w o r ld 's e x is te n c e i s God's

ex p erien o e s in o e i t i s w i th in th e d iv in e f u l l n e s s . At th e

same t im e , he su b m its , th e world i s r e a l s in c e i t does enjoy

a c o n d i t io n a l ly s e p a r a te r e a l i t y o f i t s own. Hence b o th th e/

w orld and th e in d iv id u a l a re r e a l m a n i f e s ta t io n s of S iva whioh

a re i n e x t r io a b ly u n i t e d w ith him. They a re n o t , a s th e A dvaita

Vedanta h o ld s , mere appearanoe ( v i v a r t a ) whioh upon i n t u i t i o n

(anubhava) i s s u b la te d , l e a v in g on ly th e Brahman.

Furtherm ore , th e Appearance System m a in ta in s t h a t th e

U n iv e rsa l S e l f (Supreme Siv^) com prises th e s h in in g l i g h t o f

co n sc io u sn ess and th e power of w i l l ( prakaaavIm araam aya) . The

p rak asa a sp e c t i s s e l f - l u m i n o s i ty , th e su b s tra tu m o f a n y th in g/

whioh can be m a n ife s te d ; th e v im arsa aspeo t i s th e w i l l power

whioh g iv e s r i s e to s e l f - c o n s c io u s n e s s , s e l e c t i n g from w i th in

th e s e l f - lu m in o s i ty what i s to be m a n ife s te d a s a p p a re n t ly45

s e p a ra te from i t . Thus th e w i l l power i s t h a t energy o f /

Supreme S iva which d i r e c t s i t s e l f t o th e s t a t i o s e l f - lu m in o s i ty

so t h a t th e l a t t e r may be e x p re ssed in th e s e p a r a te ap pea ran ces

o f i t s e l f which i s th e e m p ir ic a l ly a p p re h e n s ib le w orld . The

R eco g n it io n School i s fond o f th e s im i le o f th e dreaming s e l f

and th e o b je c t s o f a d r e a m .^ J u s t a s th e in d iv id u a l p i c t u r e s

ftU _ . /^ A b h in a v a g u p ta , P a ra t r im s ik a V iv a ra n a . 21, a s t r a n s ­

l a t e d by Pandey, i b i d . , p . 321.

^5pandey, i b i d . , p . 320 .

I s v a ra P ra ty a b h l jn a V im a rs in i I . 10S. (Pandey, p . 33®)« emphasis added.

t o h im s e l f o b je o ts in a dream, so a l s o S iva o co ae io n s t h i s

w orld in h im s e l f . T h e re fo re , th e e m p ir ic a l w orld i s t r u l y an/

e x t e r i o r m a n i f e s ta t io n o f th e i n t e r i o r r e a l i t y , S iva. I t i s/S iv a 's p a r t i a l e x p re s s io n o f h i s e n t i r e s e l f - l u m i n o s i ty . The

/w orld i s r e a l l y one w ith Siva j u s t a s a word i s one w ith i t s

sp e a k e r .

There a re two o th e r im portan t s im i l e s . The waves e x i s t

in th e ocean b e fo re and a f t e r th e y a r i s e , a s app ea ran ces e x i s t/ U-7in Siva b e fo re and a f t e r they a r i s e . ' The r e f l e c t i o n o f an

e le p h an t i s a p p a re n tly s e p a ra te from th e m i r r o r , a lth o u g h i t

i s in f a c t one w ith th e m ir ro r , a s th e w orld i s a p p a re n t ly/

se p a ra te from Siva a lth o u g h in f a c t one w ith him./

Moreover, S iva m a n ife s ts h im se lf a s a p p a re n t ly s e p a r a te/

because i t i s hiB n a tu r e to do so . Man, th e o b je c t o f S i v a 's/

m a n i f e s ta t io n , i s h im s e l f S iva . Henoe th e e m p ir ic a l a p p e a r -/

ances c o n s t i t u t e S i v a 's f r e e ly a o c e p te d b e h a v io r tow ards him­

s e l f . He f o r g e t s h i s m a je s ty , a s s u b je o t , t o e x p erien ce

h im se lf a s o b je o t . We may ask, how does t h i s o b jeoh ive mani­

f e s t a t i o n a r i s e ? The answer i s th ro u g h th e t h i r t y s ix c a teg o ­

r i e s which i s our n e x t s u b je c t o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

4 7 I b i d . . p . 330

32.

(5) THE THIRTY-SIX TRIKA CATEGORIES

A ll o f A bh inava 's theo log y rev o lv e s around th e T rik a

c a te g o r i e s — a m isce l la n eo u s and complex mass o f concep ts o f

T a n t r ic , Agamio, P u ra n ic and Sinkhya o r ig in , whioh can be

o rd ered o r c o n ca te n a te d on ly w ith d i f f i c u l t y . I s h a l l t h e r e ­

fo re f i r s t enumerate them in an i n v e n to r i a l f a s h io n , and th e n

endeavor to deduce them in an a p r i o r i manner from th e T r i k a 's

fundam ental p o s t u l a t e s . Only th e f i r s t e le v e n c a te g o r ie s a r e /

p e c u l i a r to Saivlsm ; th e rem ain ing tw e n ty - f iv e a re th o se o f

th e Saiikhya School, t a k e n over w ith o u t m o d if ic a t io n .

/ /Siva 1. S i v a - t a t t v a - Pure Lum inosity

/2 . 8a k t i - t a t t v a - Pure C onsciousness

_ / —

3 - S adasiva or s a d a k h y a - ta t tv a - th e f i r s t ex p erien ce o f e m p ir ic a l be ing w ith emphasis on the " I . "

. — /4. I s v a r a - t a t t v a - Continued ex perien ce

o f e m p ir ic a l b e in g w ith emphasis on th e "T h is ."

_ / _

5 . Sadvidya o r suddhav idya-1a t t v a -b a la n ce o f th e "I" and th e "T h is" ; u n d e rs ta n d in g t h a t th e m a n ife s te d w orld i s i d e n t i c a l w ith S iv a ; Pure Wisdom

Man and th e world _ _6 . Maya - i l l u s i o n ; th e s e l f - v e i l i n g

o f d i v in i t y

7. k a la - L im ited Action

S. v idya - L im ited Knowledge

9 . fa g a - L im ited I n t e r e s t

10. k a la - Time

11. n ivaA l - Spaoe

Man and th e w orld (c o n tin u e d )

12. p u ru ea - Manm

13* p r a k r t i - The World, o b j e o t i v i t yo

14. buddhl - Im personal Judgementr e o a l l i n g "A ll-T h is" o f sad v id y a- t a t t v a

1 3 . ahamkara - P e rso n a l Sense d e s t r u c t iv e o f "A ll-T h is" o f s a d v id y a - t a t t va

16. manas - D esire i l l u s t r a t e d In pe rcep ­t i o n and a c t i o n

17-21« F ive P e ro e p tu a l C a p a c i t ie s( jn a n e n d r iy a s ) sm e ll in g , t a s t i n g , s e e in g , to u c h in g , h e a r in g

22-26. F ive A otive C a p a c it ie s (k arm end riy as) r e s t i n g , e z o r e t in g , locom otion , h a n d lin g , speak ing

27- 3 1 « Five S u b tle Elements ( tan m a tra s ) sm e ll , t a s t e , c o lo r , to u o h and sound

32- 3 6 . F ive Gross Elem ents ( m ahabhutas) w a te r , l i g h t , a i r , sky and e a r th

T his c a t e g o r i c a l m u l t i p l i c i t y stems from f iv e n o t io n s .

The f i r s t i s th e b a s i c p o s tu la t e o f th e T r ik a School, t h a t

th e r e i s on ly one R e a l i t y . which i s I n t e l l ig e n c e o r Conscious­

n e s s . T h is R e a l i ty

. . . i s indeed th e l i g h t t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a l l t h in g s , s in o e n o n - l ig h t can never become th e essenoe o f any­th in g . I t i s a l s o not more th an one , f o r i t i s inoon- o e iv a b le t h a t l i g h t (whioh i s one w ith i t s own essenoe) sho u ld a ls o i d e n t i f y i t s e l f w ith an essenoe not i t s own, fo r t h i s would le a d to a c o n t r a d ic t io n , and no essence can c o n t r a d ic t i t s e l f . N e i th e r can space and tim e b reak up i t s u n i ty , s in oe th e very same l i g h t i s t h e i r essenoe to o . There i s th e r e f o r e b u t one l i g h t , whioh i s c o n sc io u sn e ss ; and t h a t c o n sc io u sn ess e sse n ­t i a l l y c o n s t i t u t e s th e l i g h t of a l l t h in g s i s a p o in t

3^.

t h a t a l l concede w ithou t c o n tro v e rs y . °

Second, t h i s C onsciousness i s bo th i n e f f a b le and

c o n c e p tu a l iz a b le . In A bhinava 's words:

T h is l i g h t i s n o t dependen t, f o r dependence i s i l l u - m in a b i l i t y , and th e i l lu m in a b le oannot be l i t up u n le s s th e r e e x i s t s a l i g h t o th e r th a n i t s e l f . But no o th e r l i g h t e x i s t s . So th e re i s bu t one l i g h t , and i t i s an independent one — a l i g h t which, p r e c i s e ly because o f i t s independence and freedom from th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f sp a c e , tim e and form, I sm a il p e rv ad in g and e t e r n a l , omniformad and f o r m le s s .^9

and

The u n iv e rse i s in e ssen ce c o n sc io u sn e ss , and i s th e p la o e where th e I n t e l l i g e n c e m a n ife s ts i t s e l f . And s in c e th e u n iv e r s e i s what i s r e f l e c t e d , i t i s th e Lord who i s th e su p p o r te r o f th e r e f l e c t i o n . And th e

f a o t o f b e in g th e essenoe o f a l l t h in g s i s th e n a tu r e o f t h a t Supreme Lord, an essence t h a t i s not uncou- c ep tu a lize ^ ., i t b e in g im p o ss ib le fo r an y th in g t h a t has I n t e l l i g e n c e a s i t s n a tu re t o be w ith o u t r e f l e c t i o n on i t s own r e a l i t y . For i f such a r e f l e c t i o n were to be la c k in g , a l l t h a t e x i s t s would be n o th in g but i n s e n s i b i l i t y . 50

T his m u lt ifo rm c o n c e p tu a l iz a t io n produces th e w orld o f t h i n g s :

A ll t h a t c o n s t i t u t e s e x is te n c e i s n o th in g but r e f l e c ­t i o n on th e sky o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . 51

Henoe th e supreme a t t r i b u t e o f th e s o le R e a l i ty — Conscious­

n e ss — i s l i b e r t y , which p e rm its th e R e a l i ty to c o n s t r io t o r

t o expand; to c o n s t r i c t i t s e l f in l i m i t a t i o n s o r to f r e e i t s e l f

from them. As in e f f a b le and u n r e s t r i c t e d i t i s t r a n s c e n d e n t ,

u n d i f f e r e n t i a b l e and beyond m a n i f e s ta t io n s , and i s known a s th e

ii <*

T a n t r a s a r a . f i r s t A hpika, pp. 5- 6 .

I b i d . , p . 6 .

5° I b i d . . t h i r d Ahnika, pp . 11-12.

5 1 I b i d . . p . 1 0 .

35.

Supreme S iva (p a ra m as iv a ) . As s e l f - c o n c e p tu a l i z in g and s e l f -

r e s t r i o t i n g i t i s immanent, d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , and com prises a l l/

m a n i f e s ta t io n s o r c a t e g o r i e s ( t a t t v a s ) . from Siva down to th e

e a r th .

C onsciousness c o n c e p tu a l iz e s in o rd e r to u n d e rs tan d i t ­

s e l f , and t h i s b r in g s u s to th e t h i r d o f A bh inava 's p o s t u l a t e s ,

t h a t o f th e range o f t h i s s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d in g . which can be e i ­

t h e r macrocosmic o r m lorocosm ic. The maorooosmic s e l f - u n d e r ­

s ta n d in g i s i n t e g r a l and u n d i s t o r t e d ; i t r e p r e s e n t s S iv a 's

in n e r l i f e and h i s f e o u n d i ty ad i n t r a . and i t must be remembered

t h a t in an i d e a l i s t i c system l i k e th e T r ik a , f e c u n d i ty can be

e x p re ssed only th ro u g h id e a s . T h is macrocosmic u n d e rs ta n d in g

i s a ls o c a l l e d th e Pure Way, c o n s t i t u t e d o f S i v a 's w akeful a s ­

p e c t , whereby t h a t d e i t y knows h im s e lf a s u n i t i v e l y Qod and

th e w orld , and e x p re s s e s h i s knowledge in a sen ten ce l i k e , "1

am t h i s un m an ifes ted U n iv e rse . 11 On th e o th e r hand, miorocosmio

s e l f -u n d e r s ta n d in g i s a d i s t o r t e d one, and r e p r e s e n t s S i v a 's

l i f e and fe c u n d i ty ad e x t r a . I t c o n s t i t u t e s th e Impure Way,

and i s S i v a 's s le e p in g a s p e c t , 5^ in which he im agines h im s e l f

a s d i s j u n c t i v e l y man and th e w orld . This knowledge i s th e

r e s u l t o f s e l f - o b s c u r a t i o n ( maya) . th e o loud ing o f S iv a 's

g lo ry and th e emptying o f h ie p l e n i tu d e .

F o u r th , th e p o l a r i t y o f s u b je c t and o b je o t th a t i s th e

b a s i s o f a l l c o n c e p tu a l iz e d knowledge. Subjeo t and o b je o t a r e

found c o n ju n c t iv e ly o r u n i t i v e ly in th e maorocoemio s e l f -

^ ^ ( jh a t te r j i , ojj. o i t . . p . 2>£>.

36.

c o g n i t io n and d i s j u n c t i v e l y in th e micro odsmio. This know­

le d g e , however l im i t e d in one aspect* i s e s s e n t i a l l y p e r f e c t and

henoe i s e x p re s s ib le in term s o f th e number f i v e . This i s

A bh inava 's f i f t h p o s t u l a t e , and in accordance w ith i t , most o f

th e c a te g o r ie s ( t h i r t y , to be p re o iB e ) , a re assem bled in

groups o f f i v e . As I rem arked above, " f iv e " r e p r e s e n t s p e r ­

f e c t io n f o r th e U pan isads . I t i s a l s o th e number o f th e s y l ­

l a b l e s o f S a iv ism 's b a s i c m antra "A dora tion to S iva " (namah

s iv a y a ) .

The t h i r t y - s i x c a te g o r i e s ( t a t t v a s ) com prising th e/

m a n i f e s ta t io n s o f Consoiousness from Siva down to th e e a r t h ,

i l l u s t r a t e and am p lify th e above f iv e p r i n c i p l e s . Of th e

s e n te n c e , " I am t h i s u n m an ife s ted u n iv e r s e " , S i v a 's maoro-

oosmic s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d in g makes e x p l i c i t " I am t h i s " , and

h i s m icrocosm ic s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d in g ^ " ( th e h i t h e r t o ) unmani­

f e s t e d u n iv e r s e ." The e e l f - u n d e r s ta n d in g t h a t i s m acrocos-

mio oan be u n d e rs to o d under th r e e a s p e c ts — o f s u b je c t , ob­

j e c t , and o f bo th t o g e t h e r . As s u b je o t , i t com prises/ / . x _ /

C a te g o r ie s 1 to 3» S iv a , S a k t i (D iv in e Power) and Sadasiva

( I n c i p i e n t E m p ir ica l B e ing ). As o b je c t , i t i s I s v a ra (C rys ­

t a l l i z e d E m p irica l B e in g ) , and a s su b je c t and o b je o t , Sadvidya

(Pure wisdom). Of t h e s e , th e f i r s t two a re th e most p rom inen t,/ ! /

and Siva i s r e l a t e d to S a k t i a s a flame to i t s l i g h t . In Siva/

j u s t th e " I" o f " I am t h i s " becomes e x p l i c i t and in S a k t i , th e

" I am. S adasiv a , I s v a ra and Sadvidya e x p l i o i t a t e th e " I am

53pandey, op . o i t . . p . 3^3»

37.

_ / — / t h i s 11 — hu t Sadasiva w ith th e s t r e s s on th e " I " , Isvaxa on th e

' ' t h i s 11 and Sadvidya w ith an eq u a l emphasis on h o th th e " I" and

th e " t h i s . "

These f iv e c a te g o r i e s t o g e th e r c o n s t i t u t e th e f i v e

modes o f maorooosmio s e l f - c o g n i t i o n , by which a l s o th e w orld

i s made v i s i b l e and th e r e l a t i o n between macrooosm and m icro ­

cosm e s t a b l i s h e d . They a re to g e th e r g iven th e name s a k t i —

w ith th e word used in a t r a n s - o a t e g o r i o a l s e n s e , u n l ik e

s a k t i t a t t v a (C ategory 2 ) , where th e meaning o f s a k t i i s s t r i c t l y

c a t e g o r i c a l . These modes a re (1 ) c i t s a k t i , t h e power o f i n -/

t e l l i g e n c e o r S iva , t h e f i r s t Category — whioh i s s e l f - r e v e l a ­

t i o n o r s e l f - l u m i n o s i t y , th e pu re l i g h t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ._ / /

(2 ) ananda s a k t i . th e power o f b l i s s — o r S a k t i — th e seoond

C ategory , t h e power o f r e a l i z i n g a b s o lu te jo y , independence and

r e s t . (3 ) iccha s a k t i . th e power o f w i l l o r S adasiva , t h e

t h i r d C a tegory , th e power b o th o f supreme a b i l i t y and o f wonder

a t t h a t a b i l i t y . (4 ) .inana s a k t i . t h e power o f knowledge o r

Ie v a ra , th e f o u r th C a teg o ry , t h e power o f b r in g in g a l l o b j e c t s

in co n sc io u s r e l a t i o n w ith o n e s e l f . ( 5 ) k r iv a s a k t i o r

Sadvidya, th e f i f t h C ategory , th e power o f o r e a t i n g .5^

S e lf -u n d e r s ta n d in g i s a p ro c e s s t h a t p a ra d o x ic a l ly

le a d s t o s e l f - o b s c u r a t io n , and th e p ro o ess s t a r t s w ith th e/

very f i r s t C ategory , S iva . As p le n a ry co n sc io u sn ess , he i s

b le s s e d in h im s e l f , and needs to know n o th in g to oon tinue in

t h a t b e a t i t u d e , no t even th e w orld , whioh i s th e n in a s t a t e

5 ^ c h a t t e r j i , ojo. « ) p . ^ 71 c i t i n g T a n tra s a ra , c h a p te rs One and Two.

33.

o f l a t e n c y . However, he l e t s h im s e l f f e e l th e need to m a n ife s t

th e w orld , t o a c t u a l i z e i t s l a t e n t m u l t i p l i c i t y , and to sh a re

h i s b l i s s w ith a m u lt i tu d e of s e l f - e x p e r ie n o e r s .5 5 This can

on ly beoome p o s s ib le th rou g h an a c t of s e l f - n e g a t io n o r s e l f ­

em ptying, and th e l a t t e r oan i t s e l f be a c c e n tu a te d by b e in g/

c o n t r a s te d w ith th e b l i s s t h a t i s S iv a 's own s e l f .

T h is c o n t r a s t i s a c tu a l i z e d in th e seoond C ategory ,/ /Sakti, whioh at the Bame time embodies Siva's blissful self­

reflection as well a& the principle of negation that causes

the unmanifested world to disappear and thus to be experienced

as lacking.- /

Category 3» S ad as iv a , b e g in s to Bupply t h i s l a c k , fo r

i t i s th e Category o f In o ip ie n t E m p ir ica l B eing , and in i t/

S iva f e e l s t h a t he i s one w ith th e emerging w orld a s e x p re sse d

in th e p h ra s e "1 am t h i s 11; however, th e em phasis, a s I s a i d ,

i s on th e “I", not on " th i s " ( th e w o rld ) . What t h i s c a teg o ry/

makes e x p l i c i t i s S i v a 's w i l l to th e world m a n i f e s t a t io n , and

Abhinava oompares th e d e i ty to a p a in t e r a t th e moment when he

deo ides to p a in t a p i c t u r e .

55(jompare V a tic a n I on God th e o r e a to r and th e m otives o f o r e a t io n : Hie s o lu s verue deus b o n i t a t e sua e t "o m n ip o ten t! v i r t u t e " non ad augendam suam b e a t i tu d in e m neo ad acquirendeam , sed ad m anifestandam p e rfeo tio n em suam p e r bona, quae c re a - t u r i s im p e r t i t u r , l ib é r r im o o o n s i l io ("e im ul ab i n i t i o tem p o ris utramque de n i h i l o o o n d id i t c re a tu ra m , s p i r i tu a le m e t o o rp o ra - lem, angelicam v i d e l i c e t e t mundanam, ac de inde humanam q u a s i communem ex s p i r i t u e t co rpore o o n s t i tu ta m " ) . Henrious D enzinger. E n o h ir id io n Svmbolorum. F r ib u r g i B r isg o v iae MCMXLVII, Herder and Company, p . 491, N. 1733*

5&pandey, ofi,. c i t . . p . 3 6 6 .

However, i t ie in th e o b je o t and not in th e s u b je c t t h a t

m u l t i p l i c i t y i s ro o te d , and u n le s s a t t e n t i o n i s tu rn e d to th e

l a t t e r , m u l t i p l i c i t y w i l l never a r i s e . This exigency i s met— /

in Category 4 , I s v a r a , th e Category tf C r y s t a l l i z e d E m p ir ica l

Being, where " I am t h i s " i s b e t t e r exp ressed a s "This am I . " In

th e p re v io u s C ategory , 8e l f was r e a l i z e d as s e l f ; in t h i s one

i t i s r e a l i z e d a s b e in g . In th e p rev io u s C ategory , th in g s

e x is te d very much l i k e a sk e tch on a canvas; now they e x i s t57l i k e th e oompleted p a in t i n g . - "

Knowledge o f m u l t i p l i c i t y needs bo th su b je o t and o b je o t ,

henoe a r i g h t amount o f em phasis, an equal o o r r e l a t i o n betweetL

b o th . They must be b o th u n i te d and s e p a ra te d , and u n i ty must

be f e l t t o e x i s t in d i v e r s i t y . T h is balanoe i s ach ieved in

Category 5 , Sadvidya o r Pure Wisdom, where th e su b je o t i s th e

p o le o f u n i t y , and th e o b je c t , t h a t o f d i v e r s i t y . The l a t t e r

i s b e s t ex p ressed in th e dichotomy " A ll-T b is " , o r , b e t t e r

s t i l l in th e se n te n c e , "A ll-T h is p roceeds from me and i s c re a te d

by me — I am th e a u th o r o f a l l t h i e . " - ^

H ere , however, i t b eg in s to appear t h a t th e f u r t h e r t te

o b je c t i s from th e s u b j e c t , th e more tenuous th e o b j e c t ' s con­

n e c t io n s w ith i t , t h e more m u l t i p l i c i t y w i l l th e o b je c t be

a b le to g e n e ra te . I t a p p e a rs , in o th e r words, t h a t th e more

complete th e d i s ju n c t io n between su b je o t and o b je o t , th e more

u n in h ib i t e d m u l t i p l i c i t y w i l l be — and what d i s ju n c t io n can

57i b i d . . p. 3 6 5 .

5 ^ 0 h a t te r j i , oj). o i t ». p .

be more e f f e c t i v e th a n th e b l o t t i n g out o f th e su b je o t i t e e l f ?

A ll t h i s ie thought to be aoh ieved by Category 6 , Maya, I l l u s i o n/

o r S e lf -O b so u ra tio n , t h e power t h a t Siva has o f f o r g e t t i n g him­

s e l f . By i t th e s u b je c t i s reduced to b e in g an unconscious

th in g . But, o f c o u rse , m u l t i p l i c i t y can never e x i s t w ith o u t

w itn ess ( t h e su b je c t b l o t t e d out by Maya) who must be r e i n s t a t e d ,

a lth o u g h l im i t e d l y . T his p a r t i a l r e s t o r a t i o n i s e f f e c te d by th e

F ive S hea ths ( kanoukas) whioh oomprise C a te g o r ie s J t o 11 —

L im ited A ction ( k a l a ) . L im ited Knowledge ( v id v a ) . L im ited I n t e r ­

e s t ( r a g a ) . Time ( k a l a ) and Spaoe (n i y a t i ) . The su b je c t th u s

r e c o n s t i t u t e d i s Category 12, Man ( p u ru sa )« who however a p p e a rs

not a s one s e l f bu t a s many. The d i s t i n g u i s h in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

o f man i s ignorance o f h i s r e a l n a tu r e ; h i s " I" i s but th e " I"

o f th e Pure Wisdom Category c louded and dimmed.

S im ila r ly th e " th i s " o f th e Pure Wisdom Category i s

o louded in to th e ' • t h i s 11 o f th e o b je c t (C a te g o r ie s 13 to J 6 ) ,

c o n s t i t u t e d o f th e vaguely p e rc e iv e d world. From th e o b je c t

s ta g e , f i r s t a r r i v e d a t in n r a k r t i . a r i s e s judgement (b u d d h i)

Category 1^), whioh i s th e memory o f th e u n iv e r s a l "A ll-T h is"

o f th e Pure Wisdom C ategory. In a d d i t io n , th e th r e e q u a l i t i e s

( gunas) e x i s t in th e s u b je c t . Judgement r e f l e o t s th e q u a l i t y

o f goodnese ( s a t tv a guna) . I t i s an exp erien ce o f oalm jo y , anm

im personal conscious s t a t e in th e l im i te d e x p e r ie n c e r , man.

From judgement a r i s e s th e "I" sense ( aham kara. Category 15)»

th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a p e rs o n a l s e l f o f a l im i t e d p a r t i c u l a r

" th is " in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to th e u n l im ite d "A ll-T h is" o f th e

Pure Wisdom Category. In i t th e q u a l i ty o f p a s s io n ( ra g a s guna)

p red o m in a tes . The o a p ao ity o f fo c u s in g a t t e n t i o n (manas.

Category 16) p r im a r i ly m ed ia tes betw een th e " I" s&nse and th e

o th e r s e n s e s . I t i s t h e in s tru m en t o f th e " I" sense and i t

a l s o needs judgement t o i l lu m in e what i t p e r c e iv e s . Sinoe i t

a t t e n d s b o th upon th e "I" sense and upon judgement f o r e lu c i ­

d a t io n , i t embodies t h e q u a l i t y o f da rkness ( tamas guna) .5 9

From maya (C ategory 6 ) th ro u g h manas (C ategory 1 6 ) Siva under­

s ta n d s d i s t o r t e d l y t h a t he i s s e p a r a te from th e w orld , r e t a i n i n g

t h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g in th e f iv e p e ro e p tu a l and f i v e a c t iv e oar

p a c i t i e s (C a te g o r ie s 1 7 -2 6 ) .

How do th e p e ro e p tu a l c a p a c i t i e s ( jn a n e n d r iy a s . Catego­

r i e s 1 7 -2 1 ) , th e a o t iv e c a p a c i t i e s ( k a rm en driv as . C a te g o r ie s

22-26 ) , t h e s u b t le e lem en ts ( ta n m a tr a s . C a te g o r ie s 27- 3 1 ) , Ahd th e

g ro s s e lem en ts (m ahabhutas. C a te g o r ie s 3 2 -3 6 ) , o r ig in a te ? The

a t t e n t i v e c a p a c i ty a s th e in s tru m en t o f th e “ I" sense i s d e s ire .^ ®

This means th e wish t o p e rc e iv e o r t o a c t . I t fo l lo w s t h a t th e

a t t e n t i v e oap ao ity e v o lv e s a lo n g w ith th e means o f p e rc e p t io n

and o f n o t io n . For w ith o u t th e s e means, th e end o f d e s i r e i s

n o t a t t a i n a b l e . F u r th e r , in th e emergence o f a d e s i r e — f o r

in s ta n c e , th e I n c l i n a t i o n to see — th e re i s n e o e s s a r i ly im­

p l i e d an o b je c t o f t h a t i n c l i n a t i o n — f o r in s t a n c e , a t r e e .

But s in o e th e "I" sense and th e a t t e n t i v e o a p a o ity a re b o th

w ith in th e s u b je o t iv e e x p e r ien c e o f man, i t fo l lo w s t h a t th e

I b i d . . pp . 10*3-119, p a ss im .

kQl b l d . . p . 1 1 9 . I t sh o u ld be remembered t h a t ahamkara t r a c e s I t s e l f back to b u d d h l . and th e l a t t e r t o p u ru s a . th u s a t t r i b u t i n g th e e f f lo a o y to p u r u s a .

o b je c t i n p l i c i t In th e s e s u b je c t iv e c a te g o r i e s must a l s o a b id e

w ith in , man. For, i f an o b jeo t i s im plied w i th in man‘8 s u b je c t ­

iv e c a t e g o r i e s — in h i s c a p a c i t i e s o f hav ing a p e rs o n a l s e l f

and o f fo o u s in g a t t e n t i o n and d e s i r i n g — how oan i t be sea rch ed

f o r o u t s id e o f th e s e o a p a c i t i e s ? Thus a t r e e i s only an e x te ­

r i o r p ro . le o t io n o f th e i n t e r i o r " I" sen se :

. . . i f , in o rd e r s a t i s f a c t o r i l y to aooount f o r th e phenomena o f knowledge th e o b je c t s a r e to be a d m it te d t o e x i s t , a s th e y must b e , i f th e f a o t s o f e x p e r ien c e have not a l t o g e t h e r to be ig no red , th e y have n e ce s ­s a r i l y to be a d m it te d to be th e c r e a t i o n o f th e U n iv e rsa l S u b je o t .o l

S ince th e " I" sense i s on ly one a sp e o t of man, who i s h im s e l f

a d i s t o r t i o n o f th e U n iv e rsa l S u b jec t ( th e S iv a -O a teg o ry ) , i t

i s u l t i m a t e ly th e U n iv e rs a l Sub jeo t t h a t o r e a t e s th e o b je o t .

T here fo re th e T h ree fo ld System concludes t h a t w ith th e

e v o lu t io n o f th e f iv e p e rc e p tu a l c a p a c i t i e s th e o b je c t s o f

p e r c e p t io n , th e s u b t l e e lem ents ( ta n m a tra s ) a l s o evo lve .

These s u b t l e e lem ents in t u r n a re th e causes o f th e g ro s s e l e ­

ments ( m ahabhutas) . The T h ree fo ld School s u g g e s t s , in an a t ­

tem pted example, t h a t i f one a sk s what might aooompany o r

fo llo w th e p e ro e p t io n o f a v a r i e ty o f sounds in man, one might

advanoe an e n t i t y whioh goes in a l l d i r e c t i o n s , th e sky ( a k a s a ) .

S im i la r ly , what fo l lo w s th e p e rc e p t io n of a v a r i e ty o f oolorB

may be d e s ig n a te d th e fo rm -b u ild in g and fo rm -d e s tro y in g p r i n ­

c ip l e , which i s l i g h t . Thus sound oauses sky ; c o lo r oauses 62

l i g h t . Although th e p o in t i s obsou re , th e theme o f subsuming

K. 0. Pandey, op. c i t . . p . 400.62

O h a t t e r j i , oj). o i t . , pp . 133- 139 .

^3

a l l e m p ir ic a l o b j e c t i v i t y w i th in th e U n iv e rsa l S e lf i s su s ­

t a i n e d . In t h i s in s ta n c e th e a t te m p t i s t o subsume th e phys­

i c a l e le m en ts . On th e o th e r hand , i f one a rg u e s from th e em-

p i r i o a l p e r s p e c t iv e , th e n th ro ug h ou t th e s u b t l e and g ro s s/

e lem ents (C a te g o r ie s 27- 3 6 ) S iva u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t he i s sep­

a r a t e from man. T h e re fo re , th e C a te g o r ie s from mava to th e

e a r th c o n s t i t u t e S i v a ’s miorocosmio s e l f - c o g n i t i o n .

In o rd e r t o re p o s s e s s h i s maorooosmio s e l f - u n d e r s ta n d in g ,

S iva must obsoure h i s miorocosm ic one:

. . . when th e p u re co n sc io u sn ess l i m i t s i t s e l f , th e n i t m a n ife s ts i t s e l f in two ways; f i r s t l y , when i t s l i m i t i n g f u n c t io n i s in ascendanoy , i t ap p ea rs a s th e mind, and, se co n d ly , when i t s l i m i t i n g fu n o t io n i s su b o rd in a te d to i t s m a n i f e s t in g s id e , i t ap p ea rs a s th e r e v e a l in g c o n s c i o u s n e s s .^

A p p a ren tly , r e v e a l in g c o n sc io u sn ess i s l i b e r a t i o n . I s h a l l now

d is c u s s A bhinava 's l i f e and h i s p o s i t i o n in t h e T rik a sc h o o l .

( 6.) ABHINAVAGUPTA13 PLACE IN THE TRIKA SCHOOL

A tr ig u p ta , A bh inava 's e a r l i e s t known f o r e b e a r , l i v e d in

th e A n ta r-V ed i, th e la n d between th e Ganges and th e Jumna.

Like so many o th e r s c h o la r s , he was i n v i t e d to Kashmir by

King L a l i t a d i t y a Muktapida (A. D. 0 . , who h e lp e d him

t o s e t t l e a t S r in a g a r on th e bank o f th e V i t a s t a in f r o n t o f'- . /

t h e tem ple o f Siva under th e name o f S itam eum auli. From

^S uren d rana th Oas Gupta, In d ian I d e a l is m . Cambridge a t th e U n iv e rs i ty P r e s s , 1933» P» 19^»

Ah *B. N. P a n d i t , "A Comparative Study o f Kashmir Saiv ism ",

u n p u b lish ed d i s s e r t a t i o n , Pan jab U n iv e rs i ty , Chandigarh, 1969 ,79 , o it in g j P a ra tr im a ik a V iv a ra n a , 2£>0/, and T a n t r a lo k a . 37» 39and 32 . Sft&msumaulj means "one who has th e moon on h i s h ead ."

A. D. 740 when A tr ig u p ta f l o u r i s h e d , to Oukhul a ( o r N arasim ha-

g u p ta ) , A bh inava 's f a t h e r , about two hundred and te n y e a r s

i n t e r v e n e d . ^ This fa m ily , r i o h , l e a rn e d and in te n s e ly devo ted /

t o S iv a , p ro v id ed a conducive ambianoe f o r A bh inava 's s c h o la r ly

and d e v o t io n a l p r o c l i v i t y . The b o y 's m other, Vimala, d ie d

when Abhinava was very young. Not long a f t e r , t h e i n s t r u c t i o n

o f h e r b r i l l i a n t son was u n d e r ta k e n , and he was t o study under

no l e s s th a n tw enty t e a c h e r s , c h ie f among whom were th e f o l ­

low ing f i v e ; Laksmanagupta, h e i r and d i s o ip l e to U tp a la ,

A bh inava 's t e a c h e r o f th e d o c t r in e s o f th e R e co g n it io n Sohool;

Sambhunatha, a fo l lo w e r o f th e Suddenness Sohoo&<, under whom

th e boy l e a r n t th e s e o r e t s o f T jantrio r i t u a l and v a r io u s means

o f p r a c t i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n ; B h u t i r a j a , a p p a re n t ly a te a c h e r o f

th e G radualness Sohool; B haskara , o f th e V ib r a t io n Sohool —

whioh o r i g in a t e d w ith Vasugupta and K a l la ta — and t o whom

Abhinava d e d ic a te d one o f h i s books; and B h a tta T au ta . who

ta u g h t Abhinava p o e t i c s and a e s t h e t i c s .

His m o th e r 's e a r ly d e a th and h i s f a t h e r ' s consequent

ad o p tio n o f a s c e t ic i s m were im portan t f a o to r s in A bhinava 's

r e s o l u t i o n t o le a d a c e l ib a t e l i f e . Moreover, h i s a c h ie v e -/ _

ment &s an exponent o f th e Saiva Agamas g a in ed him r e c o g n i t i o n

a s th e s p i r i t u a l l e a d e r o f th e T h ree fo ld S y s tem 's d e v o te es .

His works a re volum inous. Pandey l i s t s f o r t y - f o u r o f

them, o f whioh tw e n ty - th re e a re known, fo u r te e n b e in g p u b l is h e d

44.

op,, o i t . . p . 6 .

and n in e u n p u b lish ed m a n u so r ip ts . The rem ain ing tw en ty -one

a re only found r e f e r r e d to in th e e x ta n t combined works.

A bh in ava 's fo u r te e n p u b l is h e d t e x t s comprise one oompendium

o f th e id e a s in th e B h ag av ad g ita . t h r e e a e s t h e t i o works and /

t e n Saiva t h e o lo g ic a l t r e a t i s e s . The l a t t e r works a r e :

1 . P rab o d h ao an cad as ik a : a summary o f b a s ic id e a s .

2 . P a ra m a r th a c a rc a : a b o o k le t t r e a t i n g o f fundam entalT rika p r i n o i p l e s .

3 . Mai i n i Vi.laya V art i k a : an e x p o s i t io n o f th e mored i f f i c u l t v e r s e s o f th e Mai i n i Vi.laya T a n t r a . whioh i s not e x ta n t .

i _ . /4. P a ra t r im s ik a V i v r t i : a_oommentary on th e Rudra

Yamala T an tra .

5. T a n t r a lo k a : an en cy c lo p ed ic tw elve-volum e workd is o u s s in g t h e m ajor themes o f th e T h re e fo ld School.

b . T a n t r a s a r a : a co n d en sa tio n o f th e T a n t r a lo k a .

7 . T a n t r a v a ta d h a n ik a : a b r i e f e r c o n d en sa tio n of th eT a n t r a lo k a .

g . P a ra m a r th a s a ra : a s ta te m en t o f th e e s s e n t i a l p r i n ­c ip l e s o f th e T h ree fo ld School.

— / A/«_ / —9 . I s v a r a P ra tvab h i.in a V i v r t i V im a rs in i : a long commen­

t a r y on U tp a la 's commentary on h i s own P ra tvabh i.ina S u t r a s .

— - / / — -

10. I s v a r a P ra ty ab h i.in a V im a rs in i : a s h o r t e r commentary onth e same.o»

I f we r e c a l l t h a t th e sem ina l t e x t s o f t h i s sohool a re/ _ — —

V a su g u p ta 's S iva S u tr a s and Span da Kar ik a s . U tp a la 's P ra t yabh U n a

^M uch of th e p rec e d in g e la b o r a t io n o f th e T h ree fo ld System 's te a c h in g in s e c t io n f iv e i s b u t t r e s s e d by o i t a t i o n s from th e I s v a r a P ra tv a b h ijf ta V im a rs in i . th u s in d ic a t in g i t s s ig n i f i c a n c e f o r th e system .

S u tra s and Somananda's P ra ty abh i.ina S a s t r a . i t la p l a i n t h a t

A b h inav a 's works su rp a ss th o se o f h i s p re d e c e s so r s in volume./

The p ro fu n d i ty o f h i s though t i s u n p a r a l l e l l e d in Saiva th eo lo g y

a s we s h a l l have o o o as io n to see when we come to a s s e s s h i s

P a ra m a r th a sa ra . and to examine th e t r a n s l a t i o n s o f h i s P rabod-^ / _

hananoadasika and t h a t o f th e f o u r t h ohap ter o f th e T a n t r a s a r a .

and a l s o th e comm entaries on h i s works. And i f we oompare th e

d ep th o f h i s r e f l e c t i o n and th e a r c h i t e c t o n i c s o f h i s system ­

a t i z a t i o n w ith th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e work o f th e o th e r g r e a t/ -

Saiva th e o lo g ic a l s c h o o l , Meykanta T e v a r 's Sivanananotam

( R e a l i z a t io n o f Siva-knowledge) o f o. A. D. 1221, th e p reem i- /

nen t Tamil Saiva t r e a t i s e , we s h a l l be a b le to a p p re c ia te th e

f a o t t h a t A bhinava 's works a n te d a te T e v a r 's book roughly by

two c e n t u r i e s . He i s th e r e f o r e th e f i r s t g r e a t sy s tem atic :/

t h e o lo g ia n o f Salv ism , and rem a in s , a s I s a i d , i t s g r e a t e s t .

CHAPTER I I

THE RELATION OF DIVINE POWER (SAKTI)TO LIBERATION (M0K8A)

Having e s t a b l i s h e d A bh inavagup ta 's p o s i t i o n in th e /

h i s to r y o f Saivism , l e t u s examine h i s concept o f l i b e r a t i o n

and th e p a r t t h a t D iv ine Power p la y s in i t .

L ib e ra t io n i s th e e x p erien ce o f d iv in e u n io n . The

o ld e s t t r a c e s o f t h i s conoept a r e in th e K a tha . Ohandogya and«

— f — / B rhadaranyaka U pan isads. I t i s a l s o found in th e S v e tasv a - 0 m "t a r a . These works s t a t e t h a t man i s r e a l l y one w ith th e t im e ­

l e s s r e a l i t y beh ind th e phenomenal u n iv e r s e , a t r u t h he does

n o t r e a l i z e due to a b e g in n in g le s s s p i r i t u a l b l in d n e s s o r

d a rk n e ss . With th e d e s t r u c t io n o f th e l a t t e r , he e x p e r ien c es

t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f h i s e s s e n t i a l t im e le s s n e s s .

The b e l i e f in th e p e r f e c t i o n o f m an 's t r u e s e l f p re ­

supposes t h a t i t s o onneo tion w ith mundane e lem en ts in a sub-

j e o t - o b j e o t dichotomy i s a r t i f i c i a l o r i l l u s o r y , and t h a t

c o n s t i t u t e s i t s bondage. A bh inava 's concept o f bondage can

b e s t be u n d e rs to o d in r e l a t i o n to th e f iv e th e o lo g ic a l s y s -t

terns o f Kashmir Saivism I a l lu d e d to in o h ap te r I .

D esp ite d i f f e r i n g names, th e s e system s axe e s s e n t i a l l y

th e same. (1) The T h re e fo ld o r T r ik a System r e f e r s to th e

t r i a d Gad-Divine pow er-8o u l ; (2) th e Appearance o r Abhasa

/System t r e a t s o f S i v a 's sem blanoes; (3) th e R eoo g n itio n ( P r a ty a -

b h i jn a ) System d is o u s s e s th e u n ex pec ted comprehension o f th e/

ap p ea rances a s i d e n t i c a l w ith S iv a ; (^) th e te a c h in g o f Sudden­

n e s s o r Kulavada co nce rn s God, t h e Divine Power and t h e i r

un io n ; ( 5 ) th e t e a c h in g o f G radualness o r Kramavada concerns

th e same to p i c s but under d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s . The form er system/ f__________

reoogniz .es th e Siva-Means ( Bambhavopaya) . th e co n tem p la tio n on

"I" (aham) a s th e on ly d i r e c t way to un ion w ith S iv a .^ The

l a t t e r acknowledges t h e Divine Power Means ( sa k to p ay a ) a s an

e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e way o f u n i t i n g w ith God. T h is Divine Power

Means i s th e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f d i s c u r s iv e knowledge ( v i k a lp a )

th ro ug h su c c e s s iv e s t a g e s so t h a t i t beoomes pure in d e te rm i-/

n a te knowledge, which i s S iv a -co n so io u sn ess .

These f iv e te a c h in g s , a l th o u g h e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i o a l ,

a re b e s t u n d ers to o d a s two: (a ) The T h ree fo ld Teaohing which

subsumes th e Appearance and R eo o g n it io n system s and (b) th e

d o o tr in e o f Suddenness which in c lu d e s th e e x p o s i t io n o f

G rad u a ln ess . These two i n s t r u c t i o n s d i f f e r in h i s t o r i c a l

o r ig in s and te a o h e rs and agree in t h e i r e sp o u sa l of th e 00m-/

mon Saiva b e l i e f in th e th r e e im p u r i t ie s o f egoism, a o t io n and

i t s f r u i t s , and m a t e r i a l i t y and a l s o in t h e i r o e n t r a l fo c u s in g

on iDivine Power a s in s t ru m e n ta l in a t t a i n i n g l i b e r a t i o n .

T h e re fo re , when Abhinava w r i te s in e i t h e r th e T h ree fo ld o r

Suddenness o o n tex t , th e s e rem arks may be a p p ro p r ia te d ,

I k. 0. Pandey, A bhinavagupta . 4 6 l . / In th e same p la o e i t a ls o t r e a t s s ix o th e r major a s p e c t s o f S i v a 's d i v i n i t y .

J+9.

m u ta t is m u tand is , t o b i s g e n e ra l conoept o f D iv ine Power and

l i b e r a t i o n . N o tw ith s tan d in g minor c o n te x tu a l nuanoes in eaoh

sy s te m 's oomprebension o f tb e l a t t e r co n ce p ts , t b e i r un d er­

l y in g b a se s a re s t ro n g enough to w arran t t h e i r in te rc h a n g e a b le

u se . W ith th e s e id e a s in mind l e t u s now examine A bhinava 'e

oonoept o f bondage, w ith o u t an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f which we s h a l l

no t be a b le to comprehend h i s d o o t r in e o f l i b e r a t i o n .

(1) BONDAGE

Bondage i s d u a l i t y . As we saw in th e l a s t o h a p te r , th e

im purity o f th e "I" sense (aharnkara) a r r o g a te s t o i t s e l f in o r ­

d in a te m eaning and r e a l i t y , l e a d s man to conce ive th e w orld and /S iva as b e in g d i s t i n o t from h im s e l f , and to view a s o b je c t what

i s t r u l y s u b je c t . The b e l i e f s t h a t th e re i s r e a l l y no d u a l i t y

and t h a t a d u a l i s t i o view o r i g i n a t e s from th e n o n re c o g n i t io n

o f Siva a r e s t a t e d c l e a r l y in A bh in av agu p ta 's Prabodhananoada-

s l k a :

These two — bondage and l i b e r a t i o n — a r i s e from th e e ssen ce o f th e Supreme Lord. In t r u t h n o th in g i s d i ­v id e d and th e r e i s no d i v i s i o n in th e Supreme Lord (v e r s e 14-).

Of t h a t (b e in g ) th e r e i s n o n - re c o g n i t io n and o f t h a t one (independence has been a ff i rm e d . That (no n -reo o g - n i t i o n ) i s in deed th e sam sara which s t r i k e s t e r r o r i n to fo o ls (v e r s e l l ) . 2

The samaara r e f e r r e d to in v e rse 11 i s t h a t d i s t o r t e d u n d e r ­

s ta n d in g o f d u a l i ty which a llow s th e t r a n s m ig r a t io n o f th e

2 . P rabodhanancadasika . w . 1^ and 11 , emphases added. See append ix .

ÇD-1*

s e l f to continue;^ and th e p h ra s e , . . o f t h a t one indepen ­

dence has been a f f i rm e d " , r e f e r s t o th e o p p o s i te o f bondage,✓

l i b e r a t i o n , and to t h e i r i n e x t r i c a b l e i n te r tw in in g . S iv a ,

th ro ug h th e assumed n o n - r e c o g n i t io n , i l lu m in e s only th e l im i t e d

r e a l i t y , man. Abhinava e x p la in s t h i s assumed n o n - re c o g n i t io n

in th e T a n t r a s a r a :

The im p ress io n o f d u a l i t y i s not any autonomously e x i s t e n t t h i n g , bu t on ly th e ignoranoe o f o n e 's own essence.^"

/ /Somananda, in h i s S iva D r s t i ( O o n s id e ra tio n s on S iv a ) . a l s o

ev id en ces t h i s t r u e p e r f e c t i o n o f man:

L ib e r a t io n . . . i s o n e 's b a s i c n a tu r e , and th e r e f o r e does no t r e q u i r e any means f o r i t s ach ievem en t, bu t i t s ( d e l i g h t s ) can not be t a s t e d by a p e rso n so lo n g a s he a p p e a rs to be a l im i t e d s o u l in bondage.5

/ /The male a s p e c t o f S iva ( o r th e S iva Category) i s q u i ­

e sce n t p r i o r to th e o r e a t io n o f th e world a s w e l l a s fo l lo w in g

upon i t s d e s t r u o t io n whereas th e fem ale a sp e o t ( th e D ivine/

Power o r S a k t i Category) i s th e a o t iv e p r i n c i p l e o f th e o rea ­

t i o n and m aintenance o f th e w orld . I t i s in th e l a t t e r t h a t

n o n - re o o g n i t io n d w e l ls ; b u t , i t w i l l be seen , i t i s a l s o ini

th e l a t t e r t h a t f u l l i n t u i t i o n ( r i g h t re a so n in g ) can be

r e a l i z e d .

•^Transm igration o f th e s e l f i s b a s ic to t h i s te a o h in g a s to a l l In d ia n p h i lo s o p h ic a l sys tem s.

See append ix , 14.

^ o i t e d in B. N. P a n d i t . The Saivism o f Kashmir : A Comparâtiv e S tudg . u n p u b lish e d d i s s e r t a t i o n , P an jab U n iv e r s i ty , C)handigarh, In d ia , 19&9» p . 2 5 5 p a re n th e s i s added. , Somananda's Siva D r s t i a lo n g w ith U tp a la 's I s v a ra P ra ty ab h i.ln a S a s t r a and Abhinavà^s T an tra lo k a a r e th e th r e e most im po rtan t T h re e fo ld works.

51.

(2) SIVA AND SAKTI

D iv ine Power ( S a k t i) from one p e r s p e c t iv e i s th e l i m i -/

t a t ion o f S iva a s man and th e w o rld , w hile from an o th e r p o in t/

o f view i t i s th e r e t u r n o f S iva t o h im se lf . The PrfthndhapATK-i _

c ad a s ik a r e a d s :

T h is f r i g h t f u l re s p le n d e n t god has th e very c h a rac ­t e r i s t i o o f su p p o r t in g t h e w orld , f o r th e ,world i s com ple te ly r e f l e o t e d th r o u g h .h i s energy (S a k t i ) which i s m ir ro re d in h i s own s e l f .®

D ivine Power e x e ro is e s a r e f l e c t i n g f u n c t io n , f o r l i k e a m ir­

r o r i t r e f l e c t s th e w o rld w ith whioh i t i s u n i t e d . From a

d i f f e r e n t a n g le , i f one r e o a l l s th e Appearanoe System 's d e s ig - /

n a t io n o f S iva — " c o n s i s t in g o f p u re lu m in o s ity and pu re

consciousness" — one seeB, as I said before, that Divine / /

Power i s S i v a 's c o n sc io u sn ess o f h i s pure lu m in o s i ty . S iva

r e f l e c t s h i s own pu re l i g h t in h i s conso iou sn ess which i s th e/

D ivine Power. This i s th e o r i g i n a l r e f l e o t i o n whereby S iva

becomes aware o f h i s own i l lu m in a t io n . Then S iva r e f l e c t s in

h i s power a secondary r e f l e c t i o n o f h i s own rad ia n o e whioh i s

th e w orld . Hence th ro u g h h i s r e f l e c t i o n in th e Divine Power,/

Siva d i s c e r n s f i r s t h i s own sp le n d o r and second th e b r ig h tn e s s

o f th e w orld which i s bu t a p a r t o f h ie sp le n d o r . This i s

c a l l e d t h e te a c h in g o f r e f le c t io n - s e c o n d a r y r e f l e o t i o n ( bim ba-

p ra t ib im b a v a d a ) . T h e re fo re th e w orld i s S i v a 's e x p erien ce

a p p e a r in g t o him th ro u g h h i s power. S im i la r ly , Abhinavagupta

w r i t e s :

^ P rabodhapanoadasika . v . 4 , see append ix .

Like images in th e m i r r o r , th e u n iv e r s e i s in essence v o id o f d i s t i n c t i o n and i s n o t d i s t i n c t from th e l i g h t in which i t i s r e v e a l e d .7

I t i s m a n ife s te d in th e l i g h t o f D iv ine Power. In a n o th e r

p la c e a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i s made between th e analogy o f an

o rd in a ry m ir ro r and o f th e d iv in e e x is te n c e m e ta p h o r ic a l ly

oonceived a s a m ir r o r :

While in th e case of an o rd in a ry m i r r o r , r e f l e c t i o n s a re c a s t by an e x te r n a l o b j e c t , in t h a t o f th e m ir ro r ^ f th e U n iv e rsa l S e l f th e y a re caused by i t s own e a k t i s which c o n s t i t u t e d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f i t s p e r ­f e c t w i l l power ( s a k t i ) ♦6

L a te r i t w i l l be shown t h a t t h e r e a re v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f t h i s

Divine Power. Here th e p o in t i s t h a t th e r e f l e c t i o n of th e

w orld i s e f f e o te d by i t s c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s .

I t shou ld a l s o be in d ic a te d t h a t no t only i s th e d iv in e

power n o t th e appearance ( v i v a r t a ) o f th e A d va ita Vedanta

sohool a s th e n o t io n o f r e f l e c t i o n might s u g g e s t , but a l s o

t h a t i t i s no t th e development ( parinam a) o f th e Sankhya.0

While a s s e r t i n g t h a t appearanoe i s co nce ivab le th rough th e

n o t io n o f r e a l i t y , th e A dvaita does n o t c o n s id e r i t f u l l y

r e a l . But th e Appearanoe System deems t h a t th e world phenom-/

enon i s r e a l , sinoe i t i s th e p r o j e c t i o n o f S iv a 's i n t e r i o r i t y ./

Divine Power a s phenomenal f a c t i s an e x te r n a l i z a t io n o f S iv a ,

th e noumenal r e a l i t y . The Sankhya h o ld s t h a t development i s

a r e a l expansion from one s t a t e to an o th e r r e s u l t i n g from th e

7Abhinavagupta. P a ra m a r th a sa ra . v . 12. Tr. L. D. B a rn e t t . Jo u rn a l o f th e Royal Abi a t i o S o o ie ty . 1910, p . 712.

^Pandey, op,, o i t . . p . ^39» c i t i n g Abhinava. T a n tra - lo k a I I , 72, p a r e n th e s i s added.

former s t a t e ' s d e s t r u c t i o n o r t o t a l t r a n s fo rm a t io n . For in ­

s ta n c e , a seed a t t a i n s t'he form o f a sp rou t and ceases t o be✓

a seed . But such a t r a n s fo r m a t io n would d e s tro y S iva, which

i s a b su rd . As one s c h o la r a s s e r t s :/

He (S iva) sim ply w i l l s to appear in d iv e r s e forms and does so w ith o u t undergo ing any ohange in h i s b a s i c n a tu re o f a b so lu te u n i t y .*

In t h i s n o t io n o f D ivine Power as t h a t energy in whichi

th e w orld i s r e f l e o t e d , th e r e a re two a s p e c t s , t ra n s c e n d e n t art.

e m p ir io a l . The D ivine Power a s v im a rs a . th e o r i g i n a l v i b r a - /

t i o n whereby Siva becomes conso ious o f h im se lf a s pure cons­

c io u sn ess ( " I " ) , in c lu d e s th e w orld ( " t h i s " ) w i th in i t . Because

t h i s idea d e s c r ib e s th e i n t e r i o r d iv in e l i f e , i t i s a s s e r t e d✓

t h a t a t th e o r i g in a l com ing -to -oo nso io usn ess o f Siva a s " I " ,

th e w orld e x i s t s a s th e innerm ost v i s i o n o f h i s f u l l n e s s .

Thus 8 i v a ' s s e l f -c o n s c io u s n e s s a s " I" b r in g s w i th Ath e v i s i o n of

th e w orld a s com ple te ly c o n ta in ed w i th in him. When, however,/

Siva spon taneous ly a c c e p t s n o n - re c o g n i t io n , denying h i s s e l f ­

n a tu re and becoming man, t h i s i n t e r i o r v i s io n i s o b fu sc a te d .

Somananda has a ls o e x p la in e d t h i s s e l f - v e i l i n g :✓

The Supreme Siva f o r g e t s , a s i t were, h i s n a tu re o f b e in g u n l im i te d power in th e p ro cess of e v o lu t io n , beoause i t becomes more and more obscu red a t every s te p . . . . H

Hence from th e ca teg o ry o f L im ited Aotion (C ategory 7) to t h a t

9ß. N. P a n d i t , o p . c i t . . emphasis added.

•^Arabiruia Basu, o p . c i t . . p . tSS.

H s i v a D r s t i , 1, in B. N. P a n d i t , op. o i t . . p . 23g,emphases a aded. ***

o f th e e a r t h (Category 36) man and th e world a r e s t i l l r e f ­

l e c t e d in th e Divine Power, a l th o u g h , o f c o u rs e , t h i s i s n o t/

r e a l i z e d . The ooncept t h a t th e w orld i s r e f l e c t e d in S i v a 's

power p r im a r i ly den o tes th e i n t e r i o r v i s io n o f th e w orld a s a/

c o n s t i tu e n t p a r t o f S iva . This i s , a s I s a id above, th e Pure

Way o f th e f i r s t f i v e C a teg o r ie s b e fo re th e u n fo ld in g o f th e

subsequent t h i r t y - o n e ( th e Impure Way). The w o r ld 's r e f l e c - /

t i o n in 3 i v a 's power s e c o n d a r i ly s i g n i f i e s man and th e e m p ir ic a l

w orld . But i t d e s ig n a te s th e se in t h e i r a s p e c t o f a s p i r i n g to/

r e a l i z e th e i n t e r i o r v i s i o n which i s S iv a 's and so u n i t e w ith

him.

T his d e s c r ip t io n o f th e w orld as r e f l e c t e d in th e

Divine Power i n d ic a te s i t s predom inant t r a n s c e n d e n ta l dimen­

s io n . I t b r in g s in to fo cu s th e s t r i v i n g o f th e e m p ir ic a l f o r

th e t r a n s c e n d e n ta l . Abhinava c o r ro b o ra te s t h i s in P rabodha-.•>/ / ^

p a n c a d a s lk a :

Indeed t h i s h ig h e s t goddess (s a k t i ) o f h i s y e a rn s f o r h i s essence . . .1 2

T h ere fo re , in one sense ,, the D iv ine Power i s d i s t i n c t from/ /

Siva s in o e one oan on ly long f o r what i s no t o n e 's own. S iva

i s more th a n h i s power; he i s p u re lu m in o s i ty . In a n o th e r

sen se , however, Divine Power i s one w ith him s in c e i t i s on ly

h i s h y p o s ta s i s :

12 a/ /P rabodhapancadasika . v . 5> 000 ap pen d ix . T his may

a ls o be r e a d a s th e re a so n f o r th e d iv in e f e c u n d i ty b o th inc r e a t io n which i s h i s l i m i t a t i o n and in d e s t r u c t i o n whioh i sh i s expansion . See a l s o on th e u n i ty o f S iva and Salcti,Siva D r s t i 3» 2 -3 , in B. N. P a n d i t , pp . p i t . , p . 177«■ *

And h i s s a k t l does no t d e s i r e s e p a r a t io n from th e n a tu re o f S iv a ; th e r e i s always i d e n t i t y between th e s e two j u s t a s between f i r e and f lam es . 3

S im i la r ly , t h e e m p ir io a l world — r e f l e o t e d in Divine Power —/

sh a re s t h i s d i a l e o t i o o f s e p a r a t io n from and un ion w ith S iv a ,

a lth o u g h th e l a t t e r p r e v a i l s .

(3 ) LIBERATION

T his t r a n s c e n d e n ta l - e m p i r i c a l d i a l e c t i c i s c o n o re te ly

d em o ns tra ted in m an 's c o g n i t iv e s t r u o t u r e . Here th e n o t io n of

disourBive knowledge (vikalna) f i r s t appears. In th e

T a n t r a s a ra Abhinava e x p la in s t h a t i t i s tw o fo ld , e m p ir ic a l

and t r a n s c e n d e n ta l , t h e f i r s t o au s in g sam sara and th e seoond.

e n l ig h te n m e n t :

Now i t i s by means o f t h i s d i s o u r s iv e knowledge a lo n e t h a t peop le presume t h a t t h e i r s e lv e s a re bound, and i t i s t h i s very p resum ption t h a t i s th e cause o f t r a n s m i g r a t i o n 's u n in te r r u p te d n e s s . Henoe th e r i s e o f an a d v e r s a t iv e d i s c u r s iv e knowledge d e s t ro y s th e d i s o u r s iv e knowledge from which t r a n s m ig r a t io n o r i g in a t e s — and th u s b r in g s about th e dawn of e n l ig h te n m e n t .

The seoond ty p e o f d i s c u r s iv e knowledge t h a t Abhinava r e f e r s

t o i s r i g h t re a so n in g ( t r u e i n t u i t i o n ) , whioh i s i l l i m i t a b l e

and i t s n a tu r e

i s a s f o l l o w s : ' i t i s f r e e from a l l t h e l im i te d p r i n ­c i p l e s — b e g in n in g w ith th e e a r th and s to p p in g b e fo re S iva — and i s c o n s t i t u t e d of pure u n l im i te d oon-so io u sn e ss . 5

■^ V erse 3 0f P rabodhananoadasika . see appendix .ill _

T a n t rg s a ra . see append ix .

^ ¿ b h in a v a g u p ta , i b i d .

56

I f one r e c a l l s t h a t t h e T h ree fo ld System p o s i t s f iv e t r a n s ­

c en d e n ta l c a t e g o r i e s , in a scen d in g o rd e r Pure Wisdom, Crys­

t a l l i z e d E m p ir ica l Being , I n c ip i e n t E m p irica l Being, D ivine /

Power and S iva , th e n th e im portan t t r a n s i t i o n a l p o in t f o r

th e a t ta in m e n t o f t r a n s c e n d e n ta l knowledge i s th e Pure Wisdom

C ategory. Here man i s e le v a te d to th e d iv in e dim ension o f /

S iv a 's i n t e r i o r i t y ; he e x p e r ien c es th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f l i m i t i n g

knowledge and th e in c e p t io n of i n f i n i t e knowledge th ro u g h /S iv a 's r e v e a l in g c o n sc io u sn e ss .

✓

T his i s l i b e r a t i o n , a r e a l i z a t i o n o f S iva whioh i s

d u a l i t y ' s d e s t r u c t io n and u n l im i te d e n lig h ten m e n t. The means

t o t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n in th e T h re e fo ld , Gradual and Suddenness

te a c h in g s a re f o u r f o ld , fo l lo w in g one upon a n o th e r : Ceremonial- _ /_ _ I

Means ( anav op aya). D ivine Power Means ( sa k to p a y a ) . Siva Means0

/ ^ "\ £%( sambhavopaya) and Means Without Means ( anupaya) .

Ceremonial-Means In c lu d es v a r io u s r i t u a l s as p ro p a e -

d e u tio t o e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n c e n tr a t io n on an e x te r n a l o b je c t

and to e x p e r ie n c in g i t s u n i ty w ith o n e 's s e l f by means o f

i m a g i n a t i o n . ^ D ivine Power-Means o o n s is t o f c o n tem p la tin g

pure, d i s c u r s iv e knowledge whioh n u l l i f i e s impure knowledge

and i t s deep im p ress io n s o f d i v e r s i t y . One im presses upon.

o n e 's mind th e r e a l t r u t h o f th e a b s o lu te u n i ty o f th e s e l f :

This i s th e Supreme R e a l i ty , the s t a b i l i t y of a l l th in g s and th e v i t a l p r i n c i p l e of th e u n iv e r s e .

• ^ T an tra lo k a a s c i t e d in Pandey, 0£ . o i t . . p . 312* vv. 1 , 7» 8 , and T a n tra lo k a I , 258.

l^ P a n d i t , op . o i t . . p. 2 7 5 «

By i t e v e ry th in g b r e a th e s , and i t i s what I m yse lf r e a l l y am. So I am t r u l y th e very s e l f o f th e u n iv e r s e , b u t in essence t r a n s c e n d in g i t . 1*!»

One m ustO repeated ly s e n s i t i z e o n e 's tinder s ta n d in g to th e f a o t

t h a t a l l phenomena a re mere r e f l e c t i o n s of o n e 's own s e l f ./

Siva-Means i s t h e d i r e c t exp e rien ce o f Oomplete Conscious­

n e s s , th e v iew ing o f pu re L u m inosity , in which no idea a p p e a rs

and in whioh th e u n d e rs ta n d in g i s a l s o in o p e r a t iv e . I t i s a

p r a c t io e o f keeping o n e 's mind a b s o lu te ly s t i l l and y e t a l e r t ,

th ro u g h s t r o n g w i l l power. In i t a p e rson f e e l s a sudden /

t h r u s t o f S iv a 's e n e rg y . A f te r c o n t in u a l perform ance o f t h i s/

m in d -c o n t ro l , S iv a 's power beoomes in c r e a s in g ly s t a b i l i z e d in

th e d e v o t e e . ^ However, th e em phasis on w i l l ( ioo ha) in a

sPnse b r in g s t h i s Means under Sakt i ( e ak to p ay a ) , f o r Abhinava

has i n t e r p r e t e d w i l l a s independence .

Means-Without-Means ( an un ay a) i s th e p r e o e p t o r 's

te a c h in g o f th e T h re e fo ld System ’s b a s ic t r u t h to a d i s o i p l e

who th e re b y g a in s immediate l i b e r a t i o n . The p re o e p to r c o u n se ls :/

You a re in f a o t th e H ighest S iva , th e a b s o lu te I l lu m in a t io n , whioh i s e v e r su rg in g w ith th e waves o f C onsc iousness . You a re ev e r s h in in g th ro u g h your own ( l i g h t ) and nevdr need any means f o r you r sh in in g whioh i s your own n a tu re .So wake up from ignoranoe and ex perieno e your n a t u r a l Godhead.

This e x p e r ie n c e i s a t t a i n e d w ith o u t Means inasmuch a s t h e r e i s

185 —T a n t r a s a r a . 21 , see ap p en d ix .

^ P a n d e y , op. c i t . . p . 2 7 0 .20 -

T a n t r a s a r a . 8-9» in B. N. P a n d i t , op. p i t . , p . 2 6 7 , p a r e n th e s i s added.

a sudden r e a l i z a t i o n p receded on ly by th e a s p i r a n t ' s e f f o r t o f

a t t e n t i o n . However, in s p i t e o f i t s name, t h e te a o h in g o f th e

p re o e p to r i s s t i l l a Means, whioh r e q u i r e s t h a t th e d i s c i p l e

in t h i s p a th be a t th e most advanoed l e v e l . These fo u r ways

a r e a l s o subsumed under Samavesa. A bhinava 's g e n e ra l te rm f o r21t h e m erging o f dependent e x p e r ien c e in to th e independent one.

F u r th e r , a s y n th e s i s o f t h i s sequence shows t h a t Means-/

Without-Means i s only th e h ig h e s t s ta g e o f Siva-M eans, i t s e l f

t h e c u lm in a t io n o f D ivine Power-Means. 22 Thus in p r a o t i o e ,

Divine Power-Means i s a d i r e o t way to l i b e r a t i o n ; i t i s i t s e l f

oapable o f e f f e o t in g l i b e r a t i o n i r r e s p e c t i v e o f i t s i n t e n s i f i -/

c a t io n view ed under th e d i f f e r e n t names o f Siva-Means and

M6an8-W ithout-M eans. Hence th e r e a l i z a t i o n whioh th e D ivine

Power Means accom plishes b r in g s a p e rso n in to th e permanent

.1 ivanmukt i s t a t e .

More s p e o i f i o a l l y , th e D ivine Power-Means r e q u i r e s

p e r s i s t e n t c o n tem p la tio n acoompanied by th e r i g h t r e a so n in g ,

t h e r i g h t s o r i p t u r e s and th e i n s t r u c t i o n of th e r i g h t t e a c h e r . 23

T h is w i l l cause th e t r a n s o e n d e n ta l u n i t i n g knowledge to a r i s e .

By th e i n s t r u c t i o n s in th e Agamas from th e r i g h t t e a c h e r , a

su c c e ss io n o f o b je o t iv e im p ress io ns o f th e same n a tu re a r i s e s .

These a re a s te p tow ard u n i ty . Through c o n t in u a l oontemplati<n

o f th e s e e q u a l ly l i m i t e d im press ion s a pure d ls o u r s iv e knowledge

2^ I b i d . , c i t i n g T an tra lo k a I , 173»

22Pandey, op. p i t . , pp. J12 and 284; P a n d i t , op. p i t . , pp . 270 and 2 7 5» c i t i n g MSI i n i . Vi.lay a T an tra 2 , 2 3 .

23T a n tra s a ra 21, see append ix .

5«.

whioh 1b un lim ited , o r i g i n a t e s . T his pure knowledge b r in g s th e

m e d i ta to r in to th e Pure Wisdom c a te g o ry , th e i n t e r i o r i t y o f

th e d iv in e l i f e . Pure knowledge, opposed to e m p ir ic a l oog-

n i t i o n , i s s a l v i f i o .

The a r i s i n g o f t h i s t r a n s o e n d e n ta l knowledge ( r i g h t/

re a so n in g ) oomes abou t th rough th e g race o f Lord S iva. T his

marks th e K ashm iri system s a s th e 1 s t io . The Prabodhapancftdaai.Tm

th e T a n t r a s a r a and th e P a ram arth asa ra t r e a t o f grace in th e s efj / _

words: P rabodhananoadasika*. v . 12—

. . . Has t h a t (u n d e rs ta n d in g ) come about from th e t a s t e o f g rac e i t s e l f , o r from th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f knowledge th ro u g h a t e a c h e r , or by th e i n s t r u c t i o n o f th e h ig h e s t Lord?

and T a n t r a s a r a . o h a p te r 4- —

C pnsequently , in anyone s m it te n by th e h u r l o f S i v a 's c o n c e n tra te d power, and who h as th u s a ch iev e d l i b e r a t i o n , th e r i g h t r e a so n in g spon­ta n e o u s ly a r i s e s , and suoh a one i s s a i d to be t h e i n i t i a t e o f th e g o d d esse s .

w h ile P a ra m a r th a sa ra . v . 9> re a d s —

As a faoe i s r e v e a le d in a m ir ro r f r e e o f im p u ri ty , so i t ( th e S e l f ) sh in es in i t s ra d ia n c e in th e e lem ent o f i n t e l l i g e n c e p u r i f i e d by th e v i s i t a t i o n o f S iv a 's power. ^

The q u e s t io n in th e f i r s t o i t a t i o n i s c o n te x tu a l ly

answered in th e fo l lo w in g v e rse (v e r s e 13 ) a s a l i b e r a t i o n

g ran te d from th e h ig h e s t Lord. The n o t io n o f S iv a 's "power"

in th e l a s t o i t a t i o n may be u n d e rs to o d a s h i s g ra c e . Thus

th e d iv in e g race and th e emerging o f r i g h t r e a so n in g a r e

Prabodhapanoadaslka . T a n t r a s a r a . P a ra m a r th a sa ra : v . 12 p . 2 3 , v . 9 r e s p e c t iv e l y . See appendix and B a r n e t t , o£. c i t . Emphases added.

6Q

su o o e ss iv e . Although t h i s I s m ostly im p l io i t In th e p reo ed in g

q u o ta t io n s , Abhinava a l s o a f f i r m s i t e x p l i c i t l y :

tsn ce , only th o se s t r u c k by th e r e l e n t l e s s h u r l o f i v a ' s power, and who have had t h e i r d i s c u r s iv e

knowledge p u r i f i e d in d e g re e s w ith th e a id o f th e r i g h t s o r i p t u r e s and such o th e r means, a re a b le to e n te r in to th e Supreme R e a l i t y . 25

I s t h i s g race com ple te ly g r a t u i t o u s o r does i t depend upon

s p e c i f io a c t i o n s t o evoke i t ? A p ro b ab le p o s i t i o n i s t h a t :

Only t h a t p e rs o n develops d evo tio n to God, on whom he c a s t s a g ra o io u s g la n o e . His g ra c e , on th e o th e r hand, depends on th e dev o tio n of a pe rson because he becomes g ra o io u s only to His d e v o te e s .

Although th e complete g r a t u i t y o f th e d iv in e in te r v e n t io n i s

im p lied in th e n o t io n o f S iv a 's independence, n e v e r th e le s s f o r

th e d evo tee seek in g l i b e r a t i o n a d i s c i p l i n e o f f i v e s p i r i t u a l

d u t ie s i s e n jo in e d . The g oa l and means o f t h i s p la n a re ex-

p la in e d in th e T a n t r a s a r a :

. . . r i g h t re a so n in g — th e d i r e c t means of r e a l i ­z a t i o n — i s none o th e r th a n th e ca teg o ry of Bure Wisdom, which i s i t s e l f r e a l i z e d in many ways: by s a o r i f i o e , l i b a t i o n , murmured p r a y e r s , vows and y o g a .2 7'

An i n i t i a l g race must be enhanced and completed th rough th e

u n d e r ta k in g o f t h i s p e n ta d o f works. In th e s e o p e ra t io n s

t h e r e i s a n a tu r a l g r a d a t io n from th e e a s i e s t to th e most d i f ­

f i c u l t . Ahhdiiava d e f in e s them t h u s :

S a o r i f io e i s th e o f f e r i n g o f a l l t h in g s t o th e Supreme Lord a lo n e w ith th e purpose o f s t r e n g th e n in g

2 ^T a n t r a s a r a . see append ix .

26B. N. P a n d i t . 0£ . o i t . . p . 230, o i t i n g s'iva S t o t r a v a l i o f U tp a la , 12, 36 and 4, 10; and Mai i n i Vi.lava V a r t lk a I , 697 of Abhinava.

27Tantrasara, see appendix.

t h e r e p r e s e n ta t io n t h a t t h e so le ground o f th e e x i s ­te n c e of a l l t h in g s i s none but t h i s very Lord, and t h a t n o th in g e x i s t s a p a r t from him. Hence th e e x t e r i ­o r use of d e l i g h t f u l t h in g s ( l i k e o f f e r e d f lo w ers and perfum es) i s recommended in view o f th e f a c t t h a t a l l suoh th in g s , th ro ug h t h e i r o ap ac ity to d e l i g h t , a r e a b le to e n te r th e oonso iousness sp o n ta n eo u s ly : th e o f f e r i n g o f th e s e to th e Supreme Lord i s th u s easy indeed .

L ib a t io n i s th e d i s s o l u t i o n of a l l t h in g s in th e b la z e o f d iv in e c o n sc io u sn e ss , b rough t about w ith th e purpose o f a r r i v i n g a t th e f i rm id e a t h a t a l l th in g s a re cons­t i t u t e d o f th e f i r e o f th e Supreme Lord. Conceived as though he were a d e s i r e f o r devouring a l l t h a t e x i s t s , t h i s Lord i s th e pure b la z e t h a t s u b s i s t s when a l l th e r e s t has been d e s tro y e d .

P ra y e r i s th e i n t e r i o r though t t h a t th e Supreme R e a l i ty e x i s t s in and o f i t s e l f , w ith no c o n n o ta t io n to th e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d e x te r n a l and i n t e r n a l knowable forms o f r e a l i t y . T h is though t i s u n d e rta k en w ith th e purpose o f b r in g in g about a knowledge c o n s t i t u t e d o f th e s e two form s.

A vow i s th e v iew ing o f a l l th in g s ( l i k e bod ies and p o t s ) , a t a l l p la c e s and t im e s , and th rou gh th e oon- o e p tio n o f e q u a l i ty w ith th e Supreme Lord fo r th e a t ­ta in m en t o f th e though t o f t h i s Lord who i s u n a t t a in ­a b le by any means a t a l l .

Yoga i s a d e f i n i t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n which in essenoe i s th e a t t e n t i v e r e f l e c t i o n o f th e very b e in g o f th e Supreme R e a l i ty , f o r c o r ro b o ra t in g th e o o n v io tio n t h a t a l l e x is te n o e i s none o th e r th a n th e U ltim a te R e a l i t y ' s e x te r n a l and a b s o lu te l i g h t . Though t h i s l i g h t i l lu m in a te s th rou gh m u lt ip le r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , them se lves e s s e n t i a l l y p a r t s o f Pure Wisdom, i t i s n o n e th e le s s w holly independent of th em .2®

I t i s c l e a r , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e s e f iv e p r a o t i c e s h e lp Au s

r e a l i z e th e ca tegory o f Pure Wisdom ( s a d v ld y a - t a t t v a ) . t h e

i n i t i a l t r a n s i t i o n to th e d iv in e l i f e .

2 gIb id .

62

(4) SAKTI'S ROLE IN LIBERATION

Let us r e c a l l t h a t fox th e R ecog n itio n System, a sud­

den a p p reh en s io n i s th e means o f l i b e r a t i o n and t h a t th e im­

mediacy o f t h i s i n t u i t i o n need n o t c o n f l i c t w ith th e measured

s te p s to th e r e a l i z a t i o n which th e te a c h in g o f G radualness en­

jo in s . For th e R e co g n it io n System i n t u i t i o n i s :

. . . an a c t by whioh we endeavour to r e c a l l and r e u n i t e th e form er s t a t e s o f co n sc io u sn ess and i s a k in d o f r e a so n in g by whioh we asoend from a p re s e n t co n sc io u sn ess to a former one. . . . in r e c o g n i t io n , though th e m enta l im p ress io n i s an im portan t f a c t o r y e t i t i s no t th e on ly fa o to r . . . ; i t i s n e o e s s a r i ly always ooupled w ith d i r e o t p e ro e p - t i o n o f th e o b je c t which se rv es as an o p e ra t in g c a u s e .29

This o p e ra t in g or r e c a l l i n g o f th e former s t a t e o f co n sc io u s ­

n ess b e fo re i t s c o n t r a c t io n from God to man, jo in e d w ith th e

appearanoe in co n tem p la tio n of t h i s same o o nso io usness , i s th e

v i s i o n a t t a i n e d in yoga. We s h a l l see t h a t t h i s m ed ita t io n ,

p ro v id e s an im portan t oon tex t in which th e in s t r u m e n ta l i ty o f

Divine Power fo r a c h ie v in g l i b e r a t i o n i s dem onstra ted .

S iv a 's power moreover a f f e c t s l i b e r a t i o n because i t i s

th e d iv in e p le n i tu d e pleromaffipurnatvam) by which man comes to

consummate consc io u sness o f h im s e l f . In two p la c e s Abhinava

m a in ta in s t h a t D ivine Power i s t h e p a th o f d e sce n t from God to

man and more im p o rtan tly o f th e a so en t o f man to God.

^ P a n d e y , op . c i t . . p . 2 9 9 , emphases added.30 -Abhinavagupta. T a n t r a s a r a . See appendix .

^ B . N. P a n d i t , op. c i t . . p . 175> c i t i n g P a ra t r lm s ik a V ivarana . 7^> 30 and T an tra lo ka Viveka I I I , ^2 5 .

/

63

There ia a l s o th e d i a l e o t i c o f LuminoBity-Conaoiousneaa

(prakas 'av im araa) . The f i r a t p o in t ia lu m in o s i ty ; th e second ia

th e v i b r a t i o n of conaoiouaneaa; th e t h i r d i a th e r e t u r n o f l u -

m inoa ity th ro u g h conaoiouaneaa aa th e a l l -co m p re h en s iv e " I . "

In t h i a l o g i c a l p ro ceaa pure conac iouane88 ( a ak t i ) ia in v o lv ed

in th e r e a l i t y of p u re l i g h t (S iv a ) to th e e x te n t t h a t i t en -

a b le a th e l a t t e r to r e a l i z e i t a e l f aa oomplete a u b je c t , God.

One a o h o la r e lu o id a te a :/S iva comes, t o rec o g n ize Hie own Lordahip only when He knowa a a k t i aa Hia and n o t aomething o u ts id e o f Him. . . . How conaoiouaneaa o f f u l l e g o i ty ia th e n o,nly p o a a ib le when He ia a le o oonacioua o f p oaaeaa in g a a k t i who h o ld s w i th in Her th e e n t i r e phenomenal w o rld .3 2

Thus, D ivine Power ia th e in d is p e n s a b le in s tru m en t f o r th e r e ­

a l i z a t i o n o f th e d iv in e aa most f u l l y B e lf -c o n sc io u s . F u r th e r -_ /

more, even b l i s s (an an d a ) which ia p ro p e r ly S i v a 's may be in ­

t e l l i g i b l e w ith in t h i s d i a l e c t i c o f lu m in o s i ty -c o n s c io u a n e s a :

. . . th e e x p e r ie n c e of b l i s s . . . ia n o th in g b u tth e ex p erien ce o f i d e n t i t y w ith th e Supreme P r in c ip l eo f Conaoiouaneaa, th e S iv a , in in d is s o lu b le un ion w ith h i s v i b r a t i o n . - ^

/Hence b l i s s i s th e r e s t i n g o f D iv ine Power, S i v a 's i n i t i a l v i ­

b r a t i o n o f oo nao iouaneas , on h ia own lu m in o s i ty , th e h ig h e s tt /

p r i n c i p l e o f h i s b e in g . The d i a l e c t i c S iv a - s a k t i in i t s con-t

c e n t r a t i o n on S iv a 's s u b j e c t i v i t y emphasizes h i s b l i s a ./ /

The d i a l e o t i c o f S iv a - a a k t i moat im p o r ta n tly r e l a t e s t>

th e human c o n d i t io n in co n te m p la t io n . The 'f a n t r a a a ra r e f e r s

^ 2 8 . K. Dae. S h a k ti o r D ivine Power, U n iv e rs i ty o f C a lc u t ta , C a lc u t ta P r e s s , 193^> P* 7^*

33pandey, oja. c i t . . p . 6 SS.

t o s a k t i 1e v a r io u s d e s ig n a t io n s :/

. . . Fam ily , E f f ic a c y , U nd u la tio n , H e a r t , E ssen ce , Tremor, M agn if icen ce , Lady o f th e T r ia d s , K a l i , th e T em ptress , th e T e r r i f y in g Goddess, Speeoh, P le a s u r e , V is io n , th e E te r n a l and so on, meaning t o imply t h a t she oan e x i s t in th e h e a r t of th o se who m e d i ta te on h e r in one o r a n o th e r o f th e s e fo rm s .3^

t /Abhinava goes on to a s s e r t t h a t S i v a 's s a k t i s a re innum erab le ,

and a sk s r h e t o r i c a l l y how they can be e x p la in e d . A bh inav a 's

forem ost d i s o i p l e , K sem araja, r e f e r s to th e phenomenon o f th e

p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f s a k t i s :

s a k t i r e ig n s th roughou t t ^ e u n iv e rs e by means o f th e inn um erab le , su b o rd in a te sa k t i s w hich, a rran g ed in c i r c l e s , ^become j u s t a s many m a n i f e s ta t io n s o f th e h ig h e s t s a k t i . 35

But as Abhinava e x p la in s in h i s T a n t r a s a r a . th e i n f in i t u d e o f/s a k t i s oan be reduced to th re e o r fo u r b a s ic ty p e s :

TJie t o t a l i t y , however, i s comprehended in th r e e powers ( s a k t is ) th ro u g h which th e ,L o r d p e rv a d e s , sees and i l ­lum ines e v e ry th in g from S iva down to th e e a r t h : (&) th ro u g h p u re co n sc io u sn ess in cap ab le o f be in g r e p r e ­s e n te d , t h a t i s His H ighest Power; (b) th rou gh d i f ­f e r ence- in - i d e n t i t y , of which an e le p h a n t r e f l e o t e d in a m ir ro r i s an example, t h a t i s h i s H ighest-Low est Power; (o) th ro u g h d i f f e r e n c e t h a t i s in essenodbu- t u a l e x c lu s io n — t h a t one i s h i s Lowest Power.'

T his p assag e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h r e e g rades o f o o n sc io u sn e s s :

t h e f i r s t i s t h a t o f s a lv a t io n t o be r e a l i z e d ; th e second i s

r e f l e c t i o n — secondary r e f l e c t i o n , whose d iv e rg en ce from th e

f i r s t i s i t s i n s i s t e n c e on se e in g th e world b o th a s u n i te d

•^A bh inavagup ta , see ap pend ix ."55 - «-^ K s e m a r a ja 's P ra tyab h i.in a Hr day am. Tr. K arl F.

L e id ec k e r . ’ Madras: Adyar, 193&, p . 13»

-^See append ix .

65.

w ith y e t s e p a ra te from S iva ; th e t h i r d i s an en trench ed f a l s e

o o n sc io u sn ess which views th e w orld as q u i te d i f f e r e n t from

S iva . T h is i s th e S e l f -O b s c u ra t io n Oategory (m a y a - ta t tv a ) 1.

Even t h i s l a s t grade o f co n sc io u sn ess a r i s e s from a p a r t o f/S iv a 's power, i n d ic a t in g b o th th e in o lu s io n o f th e f a l s e w i th in

th e t r u e and su g g e s t in g th e d i a l e c t i c a l p ro c e s s in which f a l s i t y

i s overcome by t r u t h . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t th e s e

grades r e f l e o t th e t h r e e ty p e s o f V edantic o n to lo g y , n o n - d i f -

fe ren o e (ab h ed a ) , i d e n t i t y - i n - d i f f e r e n c e (bhedabheda) and

d i f f e r e n c e (bheda). However, th ey a re a l l p r o j e c t i o n s o f /

S iv a 's v i s io n a r y and i l lu m in a t iv e power, which i s a t onoe

capable o f n o n -d i f fe r e n c e and o f d i f f e re n o e o f one s o r t o r/

a n o th e r . There i s , however, a f o u r th s a k t i b ased on S i v a 's

c a p a c i ty f o r d e s t r u c t i o n which a t t a i n s to t h e s t a t e o f non­

d i f f e r e n c e a lo n e :

There i s alBO th e power by which th e Lord devours in h im s e lf th e t r ip le -m o d e d t o t a l i t y a s though in an em­b rac e and th ro u g h a p ro c e s s of u n i f i c a t i o n ; t h i s i s h i s B lessed H ighest Power, i d e n t i f i e d by such names7 a s th e Essence of th e Mother and Devourer o f Time.^'''

In o th e r w ords, t h e r e a re two powers ( i l l u m in a t iv e and d e s t r u c ­

t i v e ) t h a t a t t a i n t o t h r e e s t a t e s (n o n - d i f f e r e n o e , d i f f e r e n o e -

i n - i d e n t i t y , and d i f f e r e n c e ) ; b u t n o n -d if fe re n o e (a) can be

a t t a i n e d by b o th c r e a t i v e and d e s t r u c t i v e pow ers, w hile th e

o th e r two s t a t e s (b and o) oan be a t t a i n e d by th e i l lu m in a t iv e

power a lo n e . The n o n -d i f fe re n o e a t t a i n i n g powers a re th e

/

37 Ib id .

H ighest and th e B lessed H ig h e s t , w hile th e H ighest-Low est a t ­

t a i n s on ly i d e n t i t y - i n - d i f f e r e n c e , and th e Lowest, only

d i f f e r e n c e .

These fo u r powers each spo n taneously t r i p l e d (a c c o rd in g

a s they a r e d i r e o te d tow ards th e c r e a t io n , p r e s e r v a t io n and

d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e u n iv e r s e ) become t w e l v e . I t i s d i f f i o u l t/

t o see how t h i s can ap p ly to th e Twelve S a k t is d e sc r ib e d by

Abhinava, and which I s h a l l examine below in s e c t io n 5 . For

th e n fo u r s a k t i s would have t o p o s s e s s c r e a t i v e f u n c t io n s , fo u r ,

p r e s e r v a t iv e and f o u r , d e s t r u c t i v e . I t w i l l be found t h a t th e

K a l i s ' a c t i v i t i e s a r e m ostly d e s t r u c t i v e ; h en ce , a s we s h a l l

s e e , Abhinava h im se lf u s e s a d i f f e r e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n when he/

a o tu a l ly oomes to t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s a k t i s in d e t a i l .

N e v e r th e le s s , th e t r i p l i n g o f th e fo u r powers i s im portan t in

two connect io n s : (1 ) th e c o n ce p tio n o f Twelve g a k t i s i s com­

mon b o th t o th e te a o h in g s o f G radualness and Suddenness: (2)

Abhinava in t im a te s t h a t th e T h reefo ld -S ystem , eq u a t in g w ith

th e te a o h in g o f Suddenness, a l s o h o ld s t h i s b e l i e f in Twelve

S a k t i s . S ince th e t e a c h in g o f Suddenness espouses Means-

W ithout-M eans, whioh i s only an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f th e Three­

f o ld S y s tem 's Siva— Means, 9 th e two can no t be adjudged a s

s e p a r a te , and th e t h r e e system s emerge more oonnected th a n

d i s j o i n t e d .

The purpose o f th e Twelve S a k t i s in th e Divine Power

5gI b i d . ,

39pandey, op. o i t . . p . ^ o i t i n g T an tra lo k a I , 1812*

67

Means i s th e p u r i f i c a t i o n o f th e l im ited , ego in i t s dichotomous

s u b je c t - o b je c t p e rc e p t io n , and th e r e v e l a t i o n o f th e t r u e ego

a s u n iv e r s a l s e l f - c o n s o io u s n e s s . A ccord ing ly , th e s e Twelve

S a k tis a r e th e p ro g re s s iv e unmasking o f S iva . One so h o la r p u ts

i t :

. . . th e U l t im a te , th e f r e e , s e l f - lu m in o u s and con- eo ious energy m a n ife s ts i t s e l f p rep o n d e ra n tly in su c ce ss io n in th e forms o f tw elve k a l i s ( s a k t i s ) in th e e x p er ien ce o f th e l i m i t e d eub jeo t in consequence o f which th e in d iv id u a l r e a l i z e s i t s e l f a s th e u n i ­v e r s a l s u b je c t and a t t a i n s l i b e r a t i o n . ™

/This su c c e s s iv e co n tem p la tiv e m a n i f e s ta t io n o f Siva th rou gh

tw elve s a k t i s i s c i r c u l a r ;

These tw elve b le s s e d pow ers, i d e n t i f i e d by th e name K a l i , a r i s e in dyads, t r i a d s o r in more complex com­b i n a t io n s , s im u lta n eo u s ly o r in su c c e ss io n w ith r e ­g a rd to many knowing s u b j e c t s , o r to one such s u b je c t o n ly . They unwind in wheel form, e i t h e r e x t e r io r l y ( th ro u g h th e d i g i t s o f th e moon, th e z o d ia c a l con­s t e l l a t i o n s and so f o r t h ) , o r i n t e r i o r l y ( th ro ug h o b je o ts l i k e j a r s o r o l o t h s ) , so in c r e a s in g th e Lord o f th e W heel's l i b e r t y .

This moving c i r c l e i s l i k e a c i r c l e o f l i g h t , produced by aii2

f i r e b r a n d w h ir led w ith g re a t speed . I t i s th e appearance o f/

Divine Power in co n sc io u sn ess , S iva 'B p lay w ith h i s power, th e

s p i r i t u a l i n t e g r a t i o n f o r whioh th e devotee y e a rn s . The P ra -

bodhanancadasika a t t e s t s one a s p e c t o f S iv a 's p r e d i s p o s i t i o n

t o t h i s s p o r t ;

I b i d . , a d ap ted from T an tra lo k a I I I , 2 9 6 , emphasis and p a r e n th e s i s added. K a lis o r s a k t ip a re goddesses. See Prabodhapaiida^ika v. 5> dev i u sed f o r s a k t i . Also K sem araja, op. o i t . . p7 58.

^ A b h in av a g u p ta , T a n t r a s a r a , see app en d ix , emphasisadded.

^2Pandey, op., o i t . . p . 525> c i t i n g Maheevarananda 's Mahartha M an.larl. 112, a work o f th e te a o h in g of GradualneBS.

62

eagerT h is god, th e Lord, e t e r n a l l y ^ f o r th e t a s t e o f p la y w ith h ia in e x h a u s t ib le goddess, s im u ltan eo u s ly d i s - p o ses th e wondrous a c t s o f c r e a t io n and d e s t r u c t i o n . ^3

/The p lay o f Siva w ith h i s power in i t s c i r c l e o f tw elve sub­

s id i a r y powers ap p ea rs in o o n tem p la tio n in such ooncre te r e p r e ­

s e n t a t i o n s a s K a l i , th e Tem ptress and th e T e r r i f y in g Goddess.

This i s th e l i b e r a t i n g mandala.

(5 ) THE TWELVE SAKTIS

I t i s not easy to c l a s s i f y th e s e powers. In th e f i r s t

p la c e no t a l l th e Agamas ag ree t h a t they a re tw e lv e ; some de­

c la r e t h a t th ey a re t h i r t e e n . But tw e lv e , r e s u l t i n g a s i t does

from th e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f th e two sa c re d numbers 3 and- k —

i s g e n e r a l ly ag reed upon. The nex t s te p i s how to j u s t i f y th e

number on t h e b a s i s o f n o t io n s r e l e v a n t to th e problem o f l i b ­

e r a t i o n , and we saw how Abhinava t r i e d to do t h i s th rough th e

fo u r s a k t i s (H ig h es t , H ighest-L ow est, Lowest and B lessed H ighest)

and th e t h r e e f u n c t io n s o f th e Godhead ( c r e a t i o n , rnaintahamDe^

and d e s t r u c t i o n ) . We a l s o saw t h a t i t was no t easy to make/

A bh inava 's a o tu a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e Twelve S a k t is co rrespo nd

t o t h i s o l a s s i f i o a t i o n . Abhinava l e f t no oommentary on th e

T a n t r a s a r a . so we oannot imagine how he may have worked out

h i s co rrespo nd ence , bu t we p o s s e s s h i s i l l u s t r i o u s i n t e r p r e t e r

J a y a r a t h a 's oommentary on th e T an tra lo k a and th e r e J a y a ra th a

ad o p ts a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . "The Supreme

Oonsoiousness" he a s s e r t s , "assuming the f o u r f o ld form o f

^ P rabodhapancadasika . v . 6 , see append ix .

6 9 .

c r e a t i o n , m ain tenance , d e s t r u c t i o n and i n e f f a b i l i t y , s h in e s

always in th e knower, th e means o f knowledge and th e known. In

o th e r w ords, th rough d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and q u a d ru p l ic i ty i t sh in e s

tw e lv e f o ld ." The s a k t i s a re th u s d iv id e d in to th r e e g roups

o f f o u r : th e f i r s t , o f th e prameya o r th e known; th e second o f

th e pramana or means o f knowledge; and th e t h i r d o f th e p ram atr• m

or th e knower. The s a k t i s of th e prameya t h a t m an ifes t th e

s t a t e s o f o r e a t io n , c o n s e rv a t io n , d e s t r u c t io n and i n e f f a b i l i t y

a re r e s p e c t iv e ly th e K a l i of O re a t io n or S r s t i k a l i , th e K a l id o •

o f Blood o r R a k ta k a l i , th e K a li o f th e D e s t ru c t io n o f S t a b i l i t y

o r S t h i t i n a s a k a l i and th e K a li o f th e Gk>d o f Death or Yamakali.

The s a k t i s o f th e pramana m a n ife s t in g th o se very s t a t e s a r e , in

o rd e r , t h e K a l i of D e s t ru c t io n o r Sam haraka li , th e K a li o f

Death o r M rty u k a li , th e F e a r fu l K a li o r R u d ra k a l i and th e K a li_ _ /

o f th e sun o r M a rtan d a k a li . The s a k t i s of th e p ram atr a r e ,* m

a l s o r e s p e c t iv e l y , th e K a li o f th e Supreme Sun o r P a ram a rk ak a li ,

th e K a li o f th e F i r e o f Doom o r K a la n a la r u d r a k a l i , th e K a l i

o f th e Great Death God o r M ahakalakali and th e F u r io u s , V io len t

and F r i g h t f u l K a li o f th e Mighty, T e r r i f y in g God o r

Mahabha ira v a o a n d o g ra g h o ra k a l i ./

The tw elve s a k t i s a re d iv id e d in to t h r e e groups o f/

fo u r . The f i r s t group c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to S i v a 's s e l f - s u f f io i e n c y

and complete power over th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s e x is te n c e . A r i s in g

from th e d iv in e r e c e s s e s , th e fo u r goddesses o f t h i s group

44viveka on th e T a n t r a lo k a . 4 a h n ik a , 125-273* PP» 127“12g.

perform th e fu n o t io n s o f th e l i m i t a t i o n o f th e su b je c t a s w e ll

a s o f th e c r e a t io n , m ain tenance and d e s t r u c t i o n o f e m p ir ic a l

o b je c t s . The f i r s t s a k t i , th e K a l i o f C re a t io n o r S r s t i k a l i

i s c r e a t iv e power. The second, th e K a li o f Blood o r R a k ta k a l i

i s th e power o f assum ing th e means o f sensory knowledge, o f

judgement ( buddh i^ o f th e "I" se n se ( aham kara) and o f th e a t ­

t e n t i v e c a p a c i ty (m an as) , which however a re on ly th e e x te r n a l

forms o f th e s u b je c t . This i s t h e s u s te n a t io n o f th e e m p ir ic a l

i n d iv id u a l . The t h i r d , th e K a l i o f th e D e s t ru c t io n o f S t a b i l i t y ,

o r S t h i t i n a s a k a l i , i s th e power o f th e a n n i h i l a t i o n o f th e ob­

j e c t , which i s ab so rbed in to tn e s u b j e c t ' s c o n sc io u sn ess

th rou gh s e l f - c o n t r a o t i o n . Such a n o t io n p resu p p o ses t h a t a l l

a s p e c t s o f knowledge — s u b je c t , o b je c t and means — a re momen­

t a r y . C onsequently , a s soon a s t h e o b je c t i s known i t beoomes

th e c o n te n t o f s u b je o t iv e m ind .^5 The f o u r th , th e K a li o f th e

God o f Death o r Yamakâli a llow s f o r th e r i s e o f doubt tow ards

an o b je c t o f e x p e r ie n c e . I t i s a se lf -a ssu m e d l i m i t a t i o n o f✓

th e s u b j e c t , which i s th e n d e s t ro y e d . These fo u r s a k t i s p ro ­

duce th e p o t e n t i a l c r e a t i o n of th e in d iv id u a l and th e w o rld ,

t h e i r a o tu a l o r e a t io n and m ain tenance , th e r e a b s o r p t io n o f th e

o b j e c t i v i t y in to th e in d iv id u a l^ s u b je c t iv e doubt w ith r e s p e c t

t o th e o b j e o t i v i t y , and f i n a l l y , th e a b s o rp t io n o f t h i s doub t./

The second group o f fo u r s a k t i s a c o e n tu a te s th e d es ­

t r u c t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s means o f knowledge. The f i f t h

s a k t i , t h e K a li of D e s t ru c t io n o r Samharak a l i t e rm in a te s th e

^ p aa c le y , oj>. c i t . , p . 515*

a p p reh en s io n o f o b j e c t i v i t y as dependent on th e means o f know­

led g e . The r e s u l t a n t u n d e rs ta n d in g views th e o b je c t a s i n t e r i ­

o r ly g ra sp e d w i th in th e su b jeo t ( p u r u s a ) . and i s ex p re ssed in

th e n o t io n "The o b je o t s o f ex p e r ien c e a re n o n - d i f f e r e n t from

The s ix th s a k t i , th e K a li o f Death o r M rty u k a li , i s an

even s t r o n g e r power th a n the f i f t h . She goes beyond th e non­

dual r e l a t i o n o f th e o b je c t to th e su b je c t and makes th e ob-

j e o t merge in to th e s u b je o t . The sev en th à a k t i , th e F e a r fu l

K a li o r R u d ra k â l l , g e n e ra te s th e su b je o t w ith a r e l a t i o n

tow ards a m ental o b j e c t . She i s d i s c u r s iv e , and s t i l l on th e

l e v e l o f d u a l i t y , a l th o u g h th e group to which she b e lo n g s i s

in p ro c e s s tow ards u n i t y . The T a n tra s a ra r e a d s :

Can th e Supreme R e a l i ty , you might a s k , be th e sub­j e o t o f d i s o u r s iv e r e p r e s e n ta t io n ? The answer i s no : th e work o f suoh a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ends when th e im­p r e s s io n o f d u a l i t y i s d e s t ro y e d . As f o r th e Supreme R e a l i ty i t s e l f — in a l l p la c e s s e l f - lu m in o u s by i t s ve ry essenoe — r e p r e s e n t a t i o n se rv e s no purpose a t a l l , h e lp f u l o r h a rm fu l .^7

/Consequently th e se v en th s a k t i , embodying a s she does a d i s ­

c u rs iv e r e l a t i o n , l e s s e n s the t ran so en d en ta l i n t e g r i t y o f he r

group. The e ig h th s a k t i , the K a l i o f th e Sun o r M artën d ak à li ,

e f f e c t s th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of th e f i v e p e r c e p tu a l o a p a o i t i e s

( In a n e n d r iy a s ) . th e f i v e a c t iv e c a p a c i t i e s ( k a rm en d riy as) . th e

a t t e n t i v e c a p a c i ty ( manas) . and judgement ( b u d d h i) w ith th e

" I" sense ( ahamkara) . so th a t on ly a c o n c e n tr a t io n in th e "I"

sense rem a in s . Now th e p e rc e p t io n a s "I" e x i s t s n e i th e r in

•6 I b i d . . p . 51k> c i t i n g T an trâ lo k a l ï l , 167.

^ T a n t r a s à r a . see appendix .

t h e e m p ir io a l nor in th e t r a n s o e n d e n ta l s e n se , hu t in a r e ­

o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e f i r s t tow ards th e second. Through th e

F e a r fu l K a l i ' s achievem ent o f th e p a r t i a l i n v o lu t io n o f c a te g o ­

r i e s , th e s e l f becomes p o ise d f o r t h e i r com plete in v o lu t io n .

T his i s a p re p a ra to ry s ta g e f o r th e f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n accomp-/

l i s h e d by th e fo l lo w in g group o f s a k t i s .

T h is l a s t o r t h i r d and most t r a n s c e n d e n ta l group o f

fo u r s a k t i s engenders l i b e r a t i o n th rough th e d e s t r u c t i o n of

th e l i m i t e d s u b je o t . The n in th s a k t i , th e K a l i o f th e Supreme

Sun o r P a ra m a rk a k a l i , causes th e m erging o f t h e " I 11 sen se in to/

th e l i m i t e d s u b je c t . The t e n t h s a k t i , th e T e r r i f y in g K a l i o f

th e F i r e o f Doom o r K a la n a la ru d ra k a l1 , p roduces th e i d e n t i f i ­

c a t io n o f th e l im i t e d s e l f and God a s ex p re ssed in th e sen ­

te n c e , " I am a l l t h i s . " ^ ® This i s th e Pure Wisdom Category o f /S i v a 's t r a n s o e n d e n ta l l i f e . The e le v e n th , th e K a li o f th e

Great Death God o r M a h ak a lak a ll , i s th e e x p e r ie n c e o f " I am

a l l t h i s " , w ith th e o b je o t hav ing so fused w i th th e s u b je c t

t h a t th e " I" i s a lm ost com ple te ly s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t . T his i s

th e t r a n s c e n d e n ta l Category o f I n c ip ie n t E m p ir ic a l Being.

F in a l ly , th e tw e l f t h , th e F u r io u s , V io len t and F r ig h t f u l K a l i

o f th e Mighty T e r r i f y in g God or H ahabha iravacandograghorakS lI ,/

i s th e i n e f f a b le v i b r a t i o n o f S iv a , th e l i b e r a t i n g v i s io n o f

o n e 's own d i v i n i t y , th rou gh which th e Category o f D ivine Power

i s a t t a i n e d ./

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , th e th r e e groups o f s a k t i s beg in w ith

^ P a n d e y , op. p i t . , p . 519 c i t i n g T a n tra lo k a I I I , 117«

a p repo nd eran t emphasis on th e d iv in e , p rooeed to th e d e s t r u c ­

t i o n o f t h e meanB o f e m p ir ic a l knowledge and r e t u r n to th e

o r i g i n a l em phasis. Thus th e wheel o f th e Twelve (Ja k t is , in

a d d i t io n t o r e v o lv in g c i r o u l a r l y in co n tem p la tiv e v i s io n , a l s o

t h e o r e t i c a l l y oomes " f u l l c i r c l e . "

Ksemaraja a l s o speaks o f how th e se goddesses

in u n i ty . . . u n fo ld th e g re a t sp here o f a v ik a lp a which c o n s i s t s in th e in g r e s s in to th e b l i s s f u l . ^9

/I f one remembers t h a t " i n anyone sm it te n by th e h u r l of S iv a 's

c o n c e n tra te d power . . . th e r i g h t re a so n in g spon taneously

a r i s e s and such a one i s s a id to be th e i n i t i a t e o f th e goddes­

s e s , " ^ th en i t i s o l e a r t h a t t h i s c i r c u l a r m a n i f e s ta t io n o f/

Twelve s a k t i s i s S i v a 's descen t o f g ra c e .

T h is p r o f e s s e d ly s p i r i t u a l i n t e g r a t i o n reminds one o f, / _ /

a s im i la r p s y c h o lo g ic a l p a t t e r n w i th in Saivism . The S v e tasv a -

t a r a Upanisad r e l a t e s t h a t " the g r e a tn e s s o f th e s e l f - 1 vuninous

Lord oauses th e wheel o f Brahman to r e v o l v e . "51 This shows

t h a t t h e c i r c u l a r s u c c e s s io n of Twelve S a k t is in th e T a n tra s a ra/

i s not th e f i r s t t im e t h a t Siva has been connec ted w ith a c i r o l s .

In C arl G. Jung th e r e a r e f i v e i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l s 1d

t h e above d o c t r in e . F i r s t , t h e r e a re th e

. . . m y th o lo g io a l m o ti f s . . . t h a t form in them se lves a m u l t i p l i c i t y bu t t h i s ou lm ina tes in a o o n o e n tr ic o r r a d i a l o rd e r which c o n s t i t u t e s th e t r u e c e n te r o r

^ O p . o i t . . p . 5S; a v ik a lp a i s n o n -d is c u r s iv e n e s s .

50T a n t r a s a r a . see appendix .

^ S v e ta s v a ta ra Upanisad VI, 1 . T r. S a r v e p a l l i Radha- k r ish n a n . The P r in o ip a l Upariisads. London: A llen and Unwin, 196S, p . 7^3 .

7^

e ssen ce o f th e c o l l e c t i v e unoonso ious. On aocount o f th e rem arkable agreement between th e i n s ig h t s o f yoga and th e r e s u l t s o f p sy c h o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h (says J u n g ) ,I have chosen th e S a n sk r i t term mandala fo r t h i s oen- t r a l sym bol.5^

This r e c a l l s th e wheel o f the Twelve S a k t is . Second, i s th e

c o l l e c t i v e unconscious t h a t i s th e womb o f a l l psychio p ro ­

c e s s e s , which c o n s ta n t ly s t r i v e s t o r e d i r e c t th e s e fu n c t io n s

in to t h e i r former w a y s . I t s e x is te n c e means t h a t in d iv id u a l

co n sc io u sn ess i s s u s o e p t ib le to p re d e te rm in in g in f lu e n c e s .

81noe th e c o l l e c t i v e unconscious i s both th e o r i g i n o f i n d i ­

v id u a l co n sc io u sn ess and a l a s t i n g va lu e in i t s f u n c t io n in g ,

th e form er must e x c e l th e l a t t e r . I t i s t h e r e f o r e a p sy c h io

dim ension "above" in d iv id u a l c o n sc io u sn ess , a h ig h e r co n sc io u s ­

n e s s .

S im i la r ly , t h e f i r s t Category of th e T h ree fo ld System —

Sivar—i s th e m a tr ix of th e tw e l f th Category, o f th e L im ited

In d iv id u a l o r p u ru s a . Moreover, s in c e Siva th ro u g h h i s D ivine

Power c a te g o ry i s th e g iv e r o f g ra c e , he i s a l s o a p e rd u r in g

in f lu e n c e in m an's l i f e . In t h i s connec tion a l s o th e Recog­

n i t i o n System te a c h e s th e a sce n t from a p r e s e n t t o a form er

co n sc io u sn ess whioh i s s im i la r to th e r e d i r e c t i o n of c o n sc io u s

p ro o e s se s by th e c o l l e o t i v e un consc ious .

T h ird , i s th e ego which can be no more th an the c e n te r

o f th e f i e l d o f co n so io u sn e ss , and

^ C o l l e c t e d Works. XI Psychology and R e lig io n E as t and West. B o ll in g e n , P r in c e to n , 196 9 , p . 573*

5 3 o o l le c te d Works V III The S tru c tu re and Dynamics o f th e Psyche. P r in c e to n , i 9 6 0 , P* 57?»

. . . j u s t a s co n sc io u sn ess a r i s e s from th e u n co n sc io u s , th e e g o -c e n te r , to o , c r y s t a l l i z e s out o f a dark dep th in whioh i t was somehow c o n ta in ed _in p o te n t l a . 5^

This approx im ates th e s e l f - v e i l i n g o f d i v i n i t y whereby S iva be­

comes man, f o r in t h a t a o t io n th e l a t e n t l im i t e d s e l f becomes

a c tu a l .

F o u r th , i s th e i n t u i t i o n which comes from th e a o t i v i t y

of th e unco nsc io us . I t i s a p ro o e s s whioh r e s u l t s in th e

b reak in g in to co n sc io u sn ess of an unoonscious c o n te n t .55

A bhinava 's concept o f r i g h t r e a so n in g ( t r u e i n t u i t i o n ) i s a l s o

a spontaneous i r r u p t i o n in to c o n sc io u sn e ss : i t i s th e Pure

Wisdom Category which had beoome unconscious th ro ug h may a 1 s

ob scu rin g power, but th e n suddenly f l a s h e s in to con sc io usness/

in th e c i r c l e of Twelve S a k t i s . T herefo re A b h inava 's " r i g h t

reason in g" i s s im i la r t o J u n g 's " i n t u i t i o n . "

F i f t h , a re th e symbols o f p sy o h o lo g io a l s e l f - r e a l i z a ­

t i o n o f which th e most im portan t a r e :

. . . g e o m e tr io a l f i g u r e s c o n ta in in g e lem ents o f th e c i r c l e and q u a te r n i ty . (The c i r c l e h a s th e o h a ra o te r o f wholeness because of i t s "p e r fe o t" form; th e qua­t e r n i t y , because fo u r i s th e minimum number fijf p a r t s in to whioh th e c i r c l e may n a tu r a l l y be d iv id e d . ) . . .A s p e c ia l v a r i a n t o f th e q u a te rn i ty m o ti f i s th e dilemma o f 3 and 1 . Twelve (3x4-) seems to be long h e re as a s o l u t i o n o f th e dilemma and a s a symbol o f wholeness ( z o d ia c , y e a r ) . . . . The complement o f th e q u a te r n i ty i s u n i t y . 5®

/May t h i s not be a p p l ie d to th e Twelve S a k t is o f th e D ivine

5^ C o lleo ted Works XI. p . 281.

550 o l le o te d Works V I I I . p . 132.

5^0 o l le o te d Works IX. 2 A ion: R esearches in to th e Phe­nomenology o f th e S e l f . P r in o e to n , 1970» P* 224-.

76

Power Means? They a re c i r c u l a r ; they a re i n i t i a l l y th r e e —

H ig h e s t , H ighest-Low est and Lowest — to which a f o u r th , th e

B lessed H ig h e s t , i s added, g iv in g th e p r e c i s e v a r ia n t o f 3 and

1 ; they become tw elve — a ls o an ex ac t p a r a l l e l . A ccord ing ly ,/

we can ta k e th e Twelve S a k t is as c o n s t i t u t i n g a symbol o f psy­

c h o lo g ic a l s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n .

Three f u r t h e r s i m i l a r i t i e s e x i s t . F i r s t , Jung w r i t e s

t h a t one t o p i c o f h i s work i s " th e sequence o f f a n t a s i e s p ro ­

duced by d e l i b e r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . "57 in A b h in ava 's D ivine

Power Means a s p e c i f i c d i s c i p l i n e o f such m e d i ta t io n i s en­

jo in e d . Second, Jung rem arks;

The " sq u a r in g o f th e c i r c l e " i s one o f th e many a rc h e ­t y p a l m o tifs which form th e b a s ic p a t t e r n s o f our dreams and f a n t a s i e s . . . . i t co u ld even be o a l l e d th e a rc h e ty p e o f w holeness . Beoause o f t h i s s i g n i f i ­cance , th e " q u a te rn i ty o o f th e One" i s th e schema f o r a l l th e images of God. . . . 5 °

/In A bhinava 's p o s t u l a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c a l l y fo u r s a k t i s o f th e

Lord t h i s " q u a te r n i ty o f th e One" a b id e s . T h ird , th e w h i r l in g

o f mandalas a s Jung u n d e rs ta n d s i t , i s s im i la r to th e r o t a t i o n/

o f th e sa k t i s ; bo th a re o i r c u l a r and s u c c e s s iv e . This use o f

p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e s e a r c h i s im portan t in d e m o n s tra t in g th e a t ­

ta inm en t o f th e s e l f ' s i n t e g r i t y . A bh inava 's te rm f o r t h i s i s

" i l lu m in a t io n " , J u n g 's i s " in d iv id u a t io n ." Both dea l w ith

s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , though A bhinava 's t re a tm e n t i s more p a t e n t ly

t h e o l o g i c a l .

5? I b l d . , IX, Arohetypes and th e C o l le c t iv e Unoonsoious. 49. P r in c e to n , 1959» P» ^9*

5gl b i d . . p . 3 3S.

A bhinava 's D ivine Power Means i s th e o lo g io a l ly p ro ­

found, and th e cogent re so n an ces found in J u n g 's work i l l u s ­

t r a t e i t s p s y c h o lo g ic a l s id e .

(6 ) INTUITION ( PRATIBHA)

Another a sp e c t o f th e a t ta in m e n t o f l i b e r a t i o n i s in ­

t u i t i o n ( p r a t i b h a ) . I n t u i t i o n com prises two p o le s of co n sc io u s ­

n e s s , n o n - im a g in a t iv e and im a g in a t iv e . In th e T an tra lo k a

Abhinava has th e p h ra se sambhavft p r a t lbba tm an j59— n-to S iva

whose e sse n ce i s i n t u i t i o n . " He d e f in e s i n t u i t i o n in i t s non-

im aginat iv e s id e a s th e power o f knowing th e unsensed and un­

tau g h t which i s no t a c q u ire d th ro u g h any e x te r n a l means , ^0 bu t

i s s e l f - e v i d e n t . I t b e lo n g s in a dormant sen se to judgement

(btaddhi) and in an a c t i v e sense t o man (p u ru e a ) . The form er

c h a r a c te r i z e d by i t s n o n -s u b je o t iv e app reh ens ion o f e x te r n a l

o b je c t s beoomes th e l a t t e r when o b je c t s a re d is c e rn e d su b je c ­

t i v e l y . In o th e r w ords, i n t u i t i o n has two a s p e c t s , ap p a ren t

and r e a l . As th e f i r s t i t i s con sc io usness a f f e o t e d by a

v a r i e ty o f o b je o ts in a t e m p o r a l - s p a t ia l o r d e r , j u s t a s a m ir­

r o r i s a f f e c t e d by th e o b je c t s r e f l e o t e d in i t . As th e seoond

i t i s co n sc io u sn ess w itho u t a t e m p o r a l - s p a t ia l su c ce ss io n o f

o b j e c t s , j u s t as a m ir ro r p ro p e r ly la c k s such a sequenoe des ­

p i t e tn e many o b je c t s r e f l e o t e d on i t . A ooordingly , i n t u i t i o n ,

5 9 (j i ted in Pandey, op . c i t . . p . 692 , q u o tin g Commentary o f J a y a ra th a on T a n t r a lo k a . a h n ik a 1 3 , 100 .

k ® Ib id . , c i t i n g T an tra lo k a 13,37*

beoause it is this understanding of the objectivity as merged

with the subject, is a transcendental dimension of man.

Abhlnava elaborates intuition's spiritual nature; he

asserts that the individual in whom intuition has arisen, as­

cends to the level of the Pure Wisdom Category, although still

possessed of both external and internal senses.61 Abhlnava

also states that Pure Wisdom allows an individual a non-dual

under standing of objectivity.^2 Sinoe both intuition and

Pure Wisdom accomplish the fusing of objectivity with the sub-

jeot, they are identical.

Intuition is also discussed in its imaginative form.

It is maintained that in free imagination, suoh as the poetio,

the images which arise are due neither to external stimuli,

to remembrance, nor to revived past ideas; rather they are

due to the manifestation of free w i l l . imagination is thus

a self-evident funotion of free will whioh is, it will be /

recalled, Siva's independence. It unites the individual and /Siva in three ways: (1) By partioipfttion of man's imagination,

in Siva's. (2) By imagination's power to create new images

and to objectify them. Just as Intelligence has furnished

through its self-veiling something new within itself, and then

^ Ibid.. p. 6 9 9» oiting Tantraloka. 13, 120-121.LO__________________________ _ _

-/ Ibid.. p. 700, citing Bhaskari (Abhinava's commentary on Isvara Pratyabhi.fna Vlmar^inT) II, 230.

6?ibid.. citing Bhaskari I, 3 3 8.

6^Ibid.

o b je c t i f i e d , i t ( f o r i n s t a n c e , man), so a l s o t h e in d iv id u a l

th rou gh Im ag in a tion has fu rn is h e d in h i s mind som ething new

and th e n o b j e c t i f i e d i t ( f o r i n s t a n c e , a poem). (3) By iraagi-/

n a t i o n ' s power to u n d e rs ta n d th e u n i ty o f S iva and man th ro u g h

th e e l im in a t io n o f d u a l i t y . Sinoe man u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t h i s

own im ag in a tio n can c o n c r e t iz e e x t e r i o r l y som ething which i s/

r e a l l y i n t e r i o r , he a l s o r e a l i z e s t h a t Siva can o p e ra te in a/

s im i la r f a s h io n . In S i v a 's a c t i o n however, t h e c o n o re t io n i s

man and th e w orld , whioh a re r e a l l y one w ith S iv a . T h e re fo re ,

th rou gh th e endowment o f th e im a g in a t io n man h as th e c a p a c i ty

f o r n on -d ua l knowledge.

Furtherm ore , i n t u i t i o n i s synonymous w ith pure con­

sc io u sn e ss ( v im a rsa ) . ^ whioh m a n i f e s t s e x t e r n a l l y what e x i s t s /

in Siva i n t e r n a l l y . Tbus I n t u i t i o n a ls o un cov ers e x te r n a l ly

t h e s e l f - e v i d e n t im a g in a t io n which i s m an's i n t e r n a l p o in t o f/

un ion w ith S iva , th u s p o ss e s s in g th e i n t e g r a t i n g , l i b e r a t i n g

fu n o t io n which i s p e c u l i a r l y th e D ivine P o w er 's . Indeed , in

th e t e a c h in g o f G rad u a ln ess , i n t u i t i o n r e v e a l s i t s e l f in th e

forms o f tw e lve g o d d esse s . T his b r in g s i t d e c i s iv e ly in to/

t h e D ivine Power Means whose Twelve S a k t is c o n s t i t u t e S i v a 's

power. In a d d i t i o n , one s c h o la r s t a t e s t h a t th e mandala, in

which th e s e goddesses ap pea r has

. . . th e o r e a t iv e purpose o f g iv in g e x p re s s io n

b5 i b i d . . p . 700, c i t i n g T an tra lo k a X, 143.

k^I h i d . . p . 703» c i t i n g T an tra lo k a I , 157-15*$»

and form to som ething t h a t does not e x i s t , som ething new and u n iq u e .° 7

T his i s p r e o i s e ly what has heen p r e d ic a te d o f th e im ag in a tiv e

p o le o f i n t u i t i o n . Henoe from A bhinava 's own pen and from

p a r a l l e l p s y c h o lo g ic a l i n s i g h t , one may conclude t h a t i n t u i ­

t i o n i s th e Divine Power whioh i s most e v id e n t , a s I s a i d , in

th e Pure Wisdom C ategory . L a s t ly , i n t u i t i o n has a s e l f - p r e -/

s e n t a t i v e o h a ra c te r which r e v e a l s bo th th e n a tu r e of S iva and

o f man.

T h is m a n i f e s t a t io n of m an 's t r u e s e l f i s th e s p i r i t u a l/

m arriage o f Siva to h i s power, whioh i s th e v i s i o n of S iva me­

d ia te d th ro u g h h i s power In co n te m p la t io n . I t i s th e joy o f

u t t e r i n a c t i v i t y and d e s i r e l e s s n e s s , th e S e lf-o o n ta in m en t whioh

i s b l i s s . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , i t i s only th rough th e embrace o f» th e

Divine Power t h a t l i b e r a t i o n i s a t t a i n e d . Such an idea i s w e ll*/_ /

e x p re ssed in th e Vi.lnana B h a ira v a . a Saiva Agama known to

Abhinava, whioh c a l l s th e Divine Power, " th e fa c e o f S iv a ."

For Abhinava, th en y .Divine Power i s t h e v i b r a t i o n o f/S iva whereby he beoomes f u l ly co n sc io u s to h im s e l f . I t i s h i s

r e f l e c t i o n and m ir ro r s man and th e world w i th in i t s e l f . I t i s

th e m ed ia to r between S iv a 's d i s t o r t e d co n sc io u sn ess — p u ru sa —/

and h i s o r i g i n a l oonso iousness — Siva — th ro u g h whioh man

reo o g n iz as h i s f u l l r e a l i t y a s th e d iv in e . I t i s f i n a l l y th e

v i s io n o f b l i s s g iv en in co n tem p la tiv e d i s o i p l i n e . T h ere fo re

b7 j . Freeman, dd. Man and His Symbols. N. Y . , D e l l , 1970, p . 2^7.

6 ^20- 2 1 , o i t e d in B. N. P a n d i t , 0£ . c i t . . p . 2 3 9 .

Divine Power exercises a double function — it shatters the

se lf -a ssu m e d l i m i t a t i o n o f n o n - i n tu i t ion and th u s le a d s man to/

rec o g n ize h im se lf a s th e d iv in e , and i t b r in g s Siva to th e

p le n i tu d e o f c o n sc io u sn ess th ro u g h t h i s f r u i t i o n o f h i s own

d i v i n i t y .

CHAPTER III

THE AESTHETIC ASPECT OF DIVINE POWER ( SAKTI)

ff lf c5i§ ¿rag 'rig3}f-i' iigw|i=

^wijfg c sg ’fl iiAbhlnava .Bharat 1 J; madgala sloka

/Hay the noble Siva, the three-eyed. God, Pure Sentiment Incarnate, the Permanent Emotion beoome Transient Feeling to the awakened heart, the Great Consequent to those confused by desire and the object of the Inner Determinant, be propitious towards me.

It is Abhinavagupta*s further insight that man can at-/

tain Siva's Divine Power — and hence, liberation — through the

aesthetic experience of peaoe ( santarasa). Before considering

Abhinava's remarks on the aesthetic path to liberation, it is/

first neoessary to understand Siva's traditional aesthetio con-/

nections. For unless Siva is prominent in India's artistic

beginnings, Abhinava's elaboration of the aesthetic aspeot of

his Divine Power is futile.

(1) SIVA'S TRADITIONAL ASSOCIATION WITH THE DRAMA

The c l a s s i c a l account o f th e dram a 's o r i g i n i s th e

fo u r th c h a p te r o f B h a r a ta 's T r e a t i s e on Drama (N a ty a s a s t r a ) .

which d a te s between 100 B. C. and A. D. 2 0 0 .^ S ig n i f io a n t ly

th e f i r s t c h a p te r o f t h i s work d i s c u s s e s th e dance. But th e/

god of th e danoe i s S iv a . T h ere fo re th e p r i o r i t y o f th e danoe/

le n d s eq u a l supremacy t o S iva. B h a r a ta 's f o u r th ch ap te r a l s o/ _

t r e a t s o f S iv a 's prom inenoe, f o r i t p r e s e n ts th e god Brahma/

im p lo rin g Siva to ado rn th e f o r m e r 's new c r e a t i o n , th e drama.f

Thus, S i v a 's o r e a t io n o f th e danoe p reoedes th e c r e a t io n of

th e drama. Moreover, Brahma's a t te m p t to in c o rp o ra te th e /

q u a l i t i e s o f S iv a 's p ro d u c t io n in to h i s own com position demon-/ _

s t r a t e s th e s u p e r i o r i t y b o th of S iva to Brahma and a ls o o f th e

dance to th e drama in t h e i r o r i g i n a l form s.

In th e same o h a p te r B h a ra ta w ith h i s one hundred sons

and d i s c i p l e s a d d re ss Brahma:

Lord , oommand qu ick ly what perform ance should be en- a o te d . Perform The Churning o f th e Ocean (Amrta M anthana). . . . Let t h i s drama, my com position , be e n ac te d . B o m e t im e la te r Brahma s a id : We s h a l l p r o -

fuce t h i s dance ( N atya) b e fo re th e th re e -e y e d God, i v a . 2

In t h i s v e rs e th e re a r e two im portan t f a c t s which, we s h a l l see , / _

s u s ta in S i v a 's p r i o r i t y : ( 1 ) th e com position which Brahma

■M. V. Kane. H is to ry o f S a n sk r i t P o e t i c s . T h ird Re­v is e d E d i t io n . D e lh i: M o ti la l B a n a rs id a s s , 1 9 6 1 , p . *4-7.

2 - /_ _N a ty a s a s t r a . v e rs e 5* Tandava Laksanam: The Funda­

m enta ls o f i n d e n t Hindu Dancing. 'T r . , V. li. Naidu. M adras: G. S. P r e s s , 1936, p . 17» emended.

wishes enacted is The Churning of the Ooean; (2) the perfor­

mance itself is termed natya. To take the first fact in the• o

Ramayana version of The Churning of the Ocean, Siva is the

hero of the episode. The rival sons of Diti and Aditi, who

wish to obtain an immortal potion produce nectar from the

ohurning of the ocean of milk. However the serpent Vasuki,

who is used as the rope in the course of this ohurning, vomits/

a fiery poison. Then the gods implore Siva to save them from

this portent:

The deities, seeking as their refuge the great god, went to Rudra and praised him (calling out) "deliver us, deliver us." Then, being urged by the gods,Visnu . . . said to Rudra, the wielder of the trident; "Wiat has first appeared when the ocean was churned by the gods belongs to you, most eminent one, because you are our Lord. . . . "After Siva perceived the alarm of the deities and heard Vism's words, he took the deadly poison as if it had been nectar. Then he dismissed the gods and departed.3

This episode has two significant points: Visnu acknowledges/ /

that Siva is the supreme god and Siva saves the (as yet not im­

mortal) gods from death. In another interpretation of this

chapter Brahma presents a second drama whioh is associated/

with Siva:

. . . this Samavakara named The Churning of the Ocean as well as a Dima named The Burning of the Triple Town (Tripuradaha) will be performed in the Himalaya region . 7*

Bala Kanda. vv. 21-25 in John liuir. Original Sanskrit Texts in the Origin and History of the People of India. Their Religion;'.and Institutions. London: Trubner and Company, 1872, IV, pp. 365-366, parentheses added (from Ramayana).

^Natyasastra, vv. 9-10. M. Ghosh, Tr., seoond edition. Calcutta: Manisha Granthalaya, 1967» PP« ^5"^, emended. Sama­vakara is one of the ten types of Sanskrit drama. A Dima is a - ■ ■ •

play of the major type.

85

This r e f e r s to S iv a 's d e s t r u c t io n o f the t r i p l e c i t y r e f e r r e d

t o in C hapter 1.5 Both dramas g l o r i f y S iva.

Second, n a ty a means e i t h e r "dance in i t s p e r f e c t io n " o r0"drama in i t s t o t a l i t y . " ^ Since th e s e a re i d e n t i c a l , drama i s

a c t u a l l y th e f r u i t i o n o f th e danoe, i t s o r i g i n . C onsequently ,/

because S iva i s th e god o f dance , he i s a l s o i n d i r e c t l y th e god

o f drama.

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , th e th r e e S a n sk r i t words f o r "danoe"

show a marked e v o lu t io n from sim ple to oomplex. Thus, n r t t ao

means " j u s t dance"; n r t y a . g e s tu re and danoe; and n a ty a . g e s -

t u r e , dance and m usio .7 Another d e f i n i t i o n i s a "com bination

o f b o th dancing and a c t i n g . " In a d d i t i o n th e Vienu P arvan o f

th e M nhabharata has th e p h ra s e , natakam n a n r tu h (" th e y dancedo •

a p l a y " ) . 9 A ccord ing ly i t i s c l e a r t h a t Brahm a's use o f n a ty aa

i t s e l f d em on s tra tes th e in d is p e n s a b le oonneotion o f drama w ith/

th e dance . I t a ls o a c c e n tu a te s S i v a 's p re-em inenoe in th e

c r e a t io n o f th e drama. Although Brahma i s th e t e c h n ic a l o r i g i -/

n a to r o f th e drama, i t s r e a l b a s i s , th e dance , has Siva a s i t s

god.

5see c h a p te r jo n e o f t h i s t h e s i s , n o te 13; from Karna Parvan o f th e M ahabharata .

^D. R. Mankhad. The Types of Sanskrit Drama. Karaoh.i,1936 , p . 2 2 .

7 'Ib id .

^Knakehi B hav jpan i. The Dance in I n d i a . Bombay: T a ra p o rev a la , 1925» P« 21.

9ji, Ghosh, 0£ . o i t . . x x v i , c i t i n g c h a p te r 9 3 , p . 2S, th e Harivam sa.

A gain, th e T r e a t i s e on Drama. o hap te r f o u r , n a r r a t e s_ /

Brahma's obe isan ce to S iv a :

A f te r Brahma, accompanied, by th e r e t i n u e o f gods, p ro ­ceeded to S i v a 's home, he worshipped him and s a id ; 0 Best o f Gods'. P le a se h e a r and see t h i s Samavakara which I have p roduced .

_ /I t a ls o t e l l s o f B rahm a's r e q u e s t t h a t Siva te a c h him a p a r -

/t i c u l a r b o d i ly g e s tu r e and S i v a 's g rao io u s acced in g to t h a t

p e t i t i o n :/ _

. . . On h e a r in g S iv a , Brahma r e p l i e d , "0 Chief o f gods, te a c h u s th e perform ance o f Angaharas ( th e move­ment o f th e whole body from one p la c e to a n o th e r ) . T h e re fo re S iva c a l l e d Tandu and s a id , " I n i t i a t e B h a ra ta in th e perform ance o f th e Angaharas.

/I t was Tandu who gave h i s name t o S iv a 's v io le n t dance, th e

Tandava. ---

Because th e o r i g i n o f th e drama l i e s in th e danoe which/

i s S iv a 's b a i l iw ic k , i t i s h e lp f u l to d e s c r ib e a t l e a s t one o f

h i s d an ces . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , S iva has a v io le n t dance ( Tandava) .

a yog ic dance and a g i f t - g i v i n g d an ce. ^ One o p in io n i s t h a t

a l l t h r e e sy m b o lica lly r e p r e s e n t th e m a n i f e s ta t io n o f p r im ev a l

energy and r e l e a s e from th e e g o 's i l l u s i o n s . ^ The Hymn to/ / /S iva a t Evening ( S iva P radosa S to t r a ) d e s c r ib e s S iv a 's g ra c e -

g iv in g dance perform ed on Mount K a i la s a . I t i s a dance o f oalm

and b e a u ty ; th e sun i s s e t t i n g w h ile a co n tem p la tiv e s t i l l n e s s

l i e s on th e w orld :

N. Naidu, T r . , op. o i t . . vv. 6-7» P» 17» emended.

• ^ I b i d . . w . 16-17» p . 1 7 » emended.12E. Bhavnani, oq. o i t . . p . 5 »

^ c i t e d in Ananda Ooomaraswamy. The Dance o f S iv a .Bombay: A sia P u b l is h in g House, 19^-S, p . S^.

S a r a s v a t i p la y s th e Vina, In d ra , th e f l u t e , Brahma h o ld s th e tim e-m ark ing cymbals, Laksmi b eg in s a song, y isn u b e a ts a drum and a l l th e g o d s 's t a n d a b o u t.S iva dances w ith d iv in e a lm ost e x p re s s io n le s s f a o e , c a l l i n g to h i s fo l lo w e rs t o worship Him w ith peace in t h e i r h e a r t s . At His f e e t . . . . on ly peace and th e b eau ty of c o n te m p la t io n .14'

This dance sym bolizes th e g r a n t in g o f s p i r i t u a l b l i s s to th o se/

dev o tees who a ttem pt to r e a l i z e S iva in m e d i ta t io n . T h ere fo re/

th e r e i s a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l co n tem p la tiv e b a s i s in S iv a 's dan­

ces f o r a co n tem p la tiv e a sp ec t o f drama.

The h i s t o r i c a l fo rm a tio n o f th e drama a s w e ll a s th e

e a r l i e s t p la y s a ls o a t t e s t d ram a 's g e n e s is in th e danoe. The

a o to r was o r i g i n a l l y a dancer ( in th e sense o f n r t v a ) , x a p re —

s e n t in g by h i s p o s tu r e s and g e s tu r e s v a r io u s em otions. In

s h o r t , he was a p a n to m in e .1^ a. B. K e ith h o ld s t h a t th e use

o f ep io r e c i t a t i o n s evoked th e l a t e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f drama

and c r y s t a l l i z e d i t a s a l i t e r a r y form. For him, i t was

t h i s com bina tion o f th e pantomine and ep io r e o i t a t i o n e whioh

c re a te d th e drama a s a te c h n iq u e . I t s in c e p t io n d a te s from

th e m iddle o f th e seoond to th e beg inn ing o f th e f i r s t c en tu ry

B. 0 .17 K e ith a ls o m a in ta in s t h a t th e leg e n d in which Krsna© * O

d e fe a ts th e w r e s t l e r s o f h i s u n c l e ' s cou rt and th e n s la y s h i s

u n c le (Kansa) was c r u c i a l to th e fo rm a tio n o f th e e a r ly drama.

I b i d . , emended.

^ E . Windisoh. G esohiote d e r S a n s k r i t i s o h e P h i lo lo g ie und Altert.ums Kunde. B tra s sb u rg : T rubner, 1917~1920. I , p . 39&ff

^ A . B. K e ith . The Sanskr i t Drama. London: Oxford U n iv e rs i ty P re s s , 192*1-, p . 57»

1 7 I b l d . . p . 4 5 .

A ccord ing ly , f o r him, t h i s fo rm a tiv e in f lu e n ce e x p la in s B h a sa 's

hymns (A. D. 350) to Krsna in h ie p re fa c e s whereas th e l a t e r• • o

c l a s s i c a l d r a m a t i s ts — K a l id a sa , Haraa and Bhavabhuti — adore

Siva in t h e i r s . Indeed K a l id a s a 's Malavikagnim i t rn. even i n t r o -/

duces a dance-m aster who a l lu d e s to S iv a 's c r e a t i o n o f th e1 &

dance and i t s in t im a te co n nec tion w ith drama. This h ea rk en in g/

baok to S i v a 's p reem inent a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e drama, a s a r t i c u ­

l a t e d in th e T r e a t i s e on Drama, may have been an a ttem pt to

minimize th e fo rm ative Vaisnava in f lu e n c e which Bhasa hada o

acknowledged.

F u r th e r , th e e a r l i e s t known In d ian dramas belong to

r e l i g i o u s Buddhist l i t e r a t u r e :

Among th e f rag m en ts d isc o v e re d a t T urfan p a r t o f th e l a s t a c t o f a p la y about th e convers ion o f S a r ip u t r a and Maudgalyayana, two of Buddha's f i r s t d i s c i p l e s , has been i d e n t i f i e d . The l a s t sh ee t of th e fragm ent b e a r s ttye t i t l e S a r ip u tra -p ra k a ra n a and th e a u t h o r ' s name, k s v a g h o s a .^

Or\These fragm en ts d a te from the second oentury A. D. w Hence th e

/drama o r i g i n a t e s in S i v a 's dance whioh has d e f i n i t e r e l i g i o u s

r a m i f io a t io n s and a l s o — as a p ro p e r ly a r t i s t i c form — i t

b eg in s w ith th e p o r t r a y a l of a r e l i g i o u s theme, a l b e i t

B u d d h is t .

1 £> /I b i d . . p . 42 . Aevaghosa a ls o w rote t h e _ f i r s t poem,th e B u d d h a o a r i ta . s in c e th e a s p r i p t i o n o f th e Ramayana toValmlki i s a r e v e re n t t r a d i t i o n and not h i s t o r i c a l f a c t .

^ P a u l M asson-Oursel and o th e r s . Anolent In d ia and In d ian C i v i l i z a t i o n . London: Kegan P au l, 193^ > P» 301*

2 0 E . W i n t e r n i t z . A H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n L i t e r a t u r e .H. Y. : R u s s e l l a n d R u s s e l l , 1933»

(2) THE PEACE EMPHASIS IN TWO SAIVA SCULPTURES

/S i v a 's a e s t h e t i c a s s o c i a t i o n and i t s emphasis on peace

( s a n ta ) appear in a second a r t form — s o u lp tu r e . This i s p a r ­

t i c u l a r l y ev iden t in th e South In d ia n bronze s o u lp tu re s o f th e

Lord o f th e Dance ( Natara..1a) and th e E lephan ta rock s c u lp tu r e

o f th e Great Lord ( M ahesam urti) .

The tw e l f th - c e n tu r y b ro n zes o f the Lord o f the Dance / _

d e s c r ib e S i v a 's t a n d a v a . In h i s upper r i g h t hand th e f o u r -m #

armed god c a r r i e s a l i t t l e drum, shaped l i k e an hour g l a s s .

In H e in r ic h Zimmer's o p in io n t h i s r e p r e s e n t s Speech (Vak) . th e21meanB o f r e v e l a t i o n . The upper l e f t hand b e a r s f i r e on i t s

palm, r e p r e s e n t in g th e d e s t r u c t io n o f th e w orld . The second

r i g h t hand i s p o is e d in th e " f e a r -n o t" g e s tu r e , su g g e s t iv e of

p r o t e c t i o n and peace w h ile th e seoond l e f t hand l i f t e d a c r o s s

th e c h e s t p o in ts downward to th e r a i s e d l e f t f o o t . This fo o t

s i g n i f i e s l i b e r a t i o n from th e oy c le of sam sara . The r i g h t

fo o t i s p la n te d f i rm ly on th e p r o s t r a t e body o f a demon whiohpp

sym bolizes m an's ig n o ran c e , b in d in g him to t r a n s m ig r a t io n ./

Hence S iva danoes a to p m an's ignorance and beckons him to seek/

r e l e a s e . T his i s a t t a i n e d by w orsh ipp ing S i v a 's f e e t which/

oan d e s tro y m an's s p i r i t u a l b l in d n e s s . The w orship of S i v a 's

f e e t means h u m il i ty and c o n s tan t p ra y e r f o r l i b e r a t i n g g ra c e .

^ H e i n r i o h Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Ind ian Art and O i v l l l z a t io n . N. Y . : Harper Torchbooks, 19^2» P« 151«

2^ I b i d . . pp . 152- 153« For a d i f f e r e n t view on Siva Natara.la see Job6 P e re ira :" T h e N a ta ra ja Theme: A New I n t e r p r e t a ­t i o n " , J o u rn a l of th e Royal A s ia t io Society o f Bombay. 1955«

Moreover, acco rd in g to Zimmer, th e p o s i t i o n in g o f th e hands/

and f e e t r e p r e s e n ts S iv a 's f i v e d iv in e a c t i v i t i e s . His upper

r ig h t hand in d ic a te s h i s s e l f - e x p r e s s io n which i s c r e a t i o n :

h i s lower r i g h t hand c o u n se ls f a i t h d u rin g th e p r e s e r v a t io n

o f c r e a t io n ; and h i s upper l e f t hand su g g e s ts d e s t r u c t i o n .

His r i g h t fo o t f i rm ly p lao e d on th e head of m an 's ignorance /

r e p r e s e n t s S iv a 's own concealment w hile h i s u p l i f t e d fo o t

p o in ts t o m an's l i b e r a t i o n from t h i s b l in d n e s s . In a d d i t i o n ,

h i s lower r i g h t hand which bo th be longs to th e complete con­

f i g u r a t i o n o f th e fo u r hands and p o in t s to th e u p l i f t e d l e f t /

fo o t conneo ts S iv a 's t h r e e oosmio fu n c t io n s w ith h i s two p e r ­

so na l o n e s .2-/

In th e a r ra n g in g o f S i v a 's lim bs th e p u l s a t i n g sense

o f m otion i s s t r i k i n g w h ile th e e x p re s s io n on h i s face sug-/

g e s t s th e complete c e s s a t i o n of m otion . The theme i s S iv a 's

t ra n s c e n d e n t peace which supercedes h i s f iv e immanent func ­

t i o n s . Zimmer a n a ly z e s t h i s c o n t r a s t of m otion and r e s t :

S teeped in q u ie tu d e , th e en igm atio mask r e s id e s aboveth e w h ir l o f th e fo u r r e s i l i e n t arms. . . . This head. . . . a b id e s in t r a n s c e n d e n ta l i s o l a t i o n , a s a s p e c ta to r unconcerned . I t s sm ile . . . . f i l l e d w ith th e b l i s s o f B e l f - a b s o rp t io n , su b tly r e f u t e s , w i th a s c a rc e ly h id d en iro n y , th e m eaningful g e s tu r e s o f th e hands and f e e t . A t e n s io n e x i s t s between th e m arvel o f th e danoe and th e se ren e t r a n q u i l l i t y o f t h i s e x p re s s iv e ly ine^qpressive countenance , t h e te n s io n . . . . o f E te r n i ty and Time. . . . 2^

D o u b t le s s , th e s o u lp to r i s im press ing h i s v iew er w ith God's peaoe.

23 l b i d . . p . 1 5 5 .

2^ I b i d . , p . 1 6 6 .

The c e le b ra te d rock s o u lp tu re of th e Great Lord of

E lep h an ta i s a s ix th c en tu ry work which r e p r e s e n t s a fo u r fac e d

l in g a w ith S iv a 's f i v e f a c e s l a t e r re a d in to i t by ta k in g th e

g lan s o f th e p h a l lu s which sh o o ts above th e crowns o f th e o th e r

fa c e s as th e f i f t h f a c e . These f i v e faoes a re named Ie a n a -

Sadasiva ( i d e n t i c a l w ith th e g l a n s ) . A ghora-Bhairava, T a tp u rusa -

Mahadeva, Vamadeva-Uma and Sadyojata -N andin , th e l a s t fo u r a f ­

f ix e d t o th e l i n g a ' s s i d e s . But in a b a s - r e l i e f l i k e E lephan ta

only th r e e heads can be r e p r e s e n te d , and th e s c u lp to r chose to

d e p io t A ghora-Bhairava ( t o th e s p e c t a t o r ' s l e f t in th e E lephan ta

p a n e l ) , Tatpurusa-M ahadeva ( c e n te r ) and Vamadeva-Uma ( r i g h t ) .

The Mahes'amurti (G reat Lord) theme i s be loved o f th o se a r t

c r i t i o s who a re g iven t o re a d in g a b s t r u s e th e o s o p h ic a l s i g n i f i ­

cance in works of In d ia n a r t ; one such i s H e in r ic h Zimmer,

whose i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e E le p h an ta pane l i s a s fo l lo w s . I t

supposedly i l l u s t r a t e s th e e v o lu t io n o f th e One in to phenomenal

m u l t i p l i c i t y whioh i s embodied in th e m ale-fem ale p o l a r i t y .

The s c u lp tu r e In c lu d e s th r e e h e a d s : th e o e n t r a l head i t s e l f

(s a y s Zimmer) p e r s o n i f i e s th e A bso lu te . I t i s m a je s t ic and

sub lim e, th e d iv in e b a s i s fo r th e n a tu r a l m a n i fe s ta t io n s o f

male and fem ale . To i t s r i g h t i s th e male v is a g e which has a

haughty c o n tra c te d fo reh e a d and c h in a s w e ll a s a tw i r le d

moustaohe. To i t s l e f t i s th e fem ale p r o f i l e whioh i s more

g e n t l e ; i t b o th a l l u r e s and e n ch a n ts . Regarding th e c e n t r a l

form, Zimmer's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s u s e f u l :

The middle head is self-enolosed in a sublime . . .aloofness. By its impassivity it silences the two

g e s tu r e s to r i g h t and t o l e f t , ig n o r in g com ple te ly th e d i s p la y of t h e i r a n ta g o n i s t i c f e a t u r e s . . . . As an immovable, m ass ive , c e n t r a l form, m a g n if ic e n t , s e l f - ab so rbed in l o f t y . . . s i l e n c e , i t overpow ers, d i s ­so lv e s and fu s e s In to i t s e l f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a ­t u r e s o f th e two l a t e r a l physiognom ies: Power and sw ee tness , a g g re s s iv e v ig o r and ex p ec ta n t r e c e p t i v i t y . G reat w ith t r a n s c e n d e n ta l q u ie tu d e , com prehensive, en ig m atio , i t subsumes them and a n n i h i l a t e s in e t e r n a l r e s t th e e f f e c t s of t h i s c r e a t iv e t e n s i o n . 25

The m as te r o f E lephan ta s u c c e s s f u l ly conveys s u p e rn a tu ra l s t i l l ­

n e s s ./

T h e re fo re , in b o th Saiva s c u lp tu r e s , th e e t e r n a l ab so rb s

th e t r a n s i e n t . The A bsolute i s shown as t o t a l l y o b l iv io u s oft

th e phenomenal, d e s p i te i t s c a su a l r e l a t i o n s h i p . Siva a b id e s

in t r a n q u i l s e l f - r e f l e c t i o n . T his peace emphasis w i l l a g a in

emerge in a d i f f e r e n t form in A bh inavagup ta 's commentary on

B h a r a ta 's T r e a t i s e on Drama ( th e Abhinava BharatA) .

(3) BHARATA'S RA3ASUTRA AND THREE INTERPRETATIONS

Having shown S iv a 's l i n k s w ith I n d i a ' s a r t i s t i c be­

g in n in g s and beyond, l e t ub now tu r n to th e o r i g in s o f a e s ­

t h e t i c r e f l e c t i o n . For A bhinava 's l a t e r re f in em en t in t h i s

a re a r e q u i r e s a s o ru t in y o f i t s rud im en ts .

B h a r a ta 's T r e a t i s e on Drama VI, 31» i s th e p o in t o f

d e p a r tu re f o r a e s t h e t i c s p e c u la t io n :

na h i ra sa d r t e kas'oid a r th a h p r a v a r t a t e . For w ith ­out r a s a ( se n t im e n t) t h e r e can be no t r u e meaning. (T hat i s no r e a l p o e t r y . )

23i b i d . . p . 1^9 .

vibhavanubhavavyabhioariBamyogadrasaniBpattlh. Rasa oomes from a combination of tbe determinantsj conse­quents and transient emotions.2»

The seoond l i n e , t r a d i t io n a l ly o a l le d th e r a s a s u t r a . g iv es t h r e e

t e c h n ic a l te rm s and im p lie s a f o u r th . This l a s t i s th e "p e r ­

manent emotion" ( s th a y ib h a v a ) . a s t a t e whioh a b id e s th roughou t

o n e 's l i f e . The "de te rm in an t" ( v ib h av a ) i s tw o fo ld ; th e "sub-

je o t" (alam bana) and th e " i l lu m in a n t" (u d d ip a n a ) . I t i s th e

p h y s ic a l cause evoking th e permanent emotion in th e s p e c t a to r .

I t a f f e o t s th e permanent emotion by imbuing i t w ith a p a r t io u - -

l a r o o lo r in g . For in s ta n c e , in K a l id a s a 's A bhijnana sak u n ta ia m rI _

p o p u la r ly known as th e S a jkun ita la . th e r e a re two su b je c t de-/ _

te rm in a n ts , th e lo v e r s Dusyanta and Sakun ta la . Two i l lu m in a n t

d e te rm in a n ts a re a ls o p r e s e n t : th e season o f s p r in g and th e/ _

glow o f m oonligh t. The mutual lo v e of Dusyanta and S aku n ta la0

a s w ell a s sp r in g and m oonlight de term ine th e s p e c t a t o r ' s fo ­

cusing on th e permanent emotion — love — a s i t i s dem onstra ted

in t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p . The "consequent" ' (anubhava)

i s th e a c t o r ' s g e s tu r e s whioh r e p r e s e n t h i s i n t e r i o r s t a t e .

For in s t a n c e , in th e same p lay two consequents a re th e trem -t _

b l in g and sw eating of S aku n ta la , e x p re ss iv e o f he r love f o r

Dusyanta. The " t r a n s i e n t emotion" (v y ab h ica r ib h av a ) accompanies

th e a o t o r ' s permanent emotion. In th e same p la y D usyan ta 's

lon g in g f o r Sakuntala i s a t r a n s i e n t em otion .27

J . L. Masson and M. V. Patwardhan, T rs . A e s th e t io Rapture I . Deooan C o llege , Poona, 1970, p. See a l s oJ a g a n h a th a 's Rasagangadhara. f i r s t anana . pp. 21—22.

27l b i d . . I I , p . 17 no te 1 1 5 , "B harata o f te n u se s th e word kavya when he r e f e r s to a dram a." A. B. K e ith , op. c jit» ,

B h ara ta l i s t 8 e ig h t permanent em otions; love ( r a t i ) ,

l a u g h te r ( h a s a ) , sorrow (soka) . an ger ( k rodha) . dynamic energy

( u t s a h a ) . f e a r ( b hay a) . d isg u s t (.iugupsa) and wonder ( v lsm ava) ,2

There a r e a l s o e ig h t c o rre sp o n d in g s e n t im e n ts : e r o t i c ( s r n g a r a ) .a

oomic ( h a^y a ) . com passionate ( k a ru n a ) . f u r io u s ( r a u d r a ) , h e ro ic

( v i r a ) . t e r r i f y i n g (bh ayan aka) . d i s g u s t in g ( b lb h a t s a ) and awe­

some ( a d b h u ta ) . ^ L a te r a e s t h e t i c i a n s s t a t e t h a t th e sen tim en t

which a r i s e s from i t s p a r a l l e l permanent em otion i s not a p e r ­

sona l em otional ex p e r ien c e but r a t h e r an im personal i n t u i t i o n

o f th e ground o f o n e 's c o n sc io u sn ess . A ccord ing ly , th e d e te r ­

m in an ts , consequents and t r a n s i e n t emotions r e l a t i n g to th e

permanent emotions which a re p e r s o n a l , merge to produce th e

im personal s e n t im e n ts . S ince, however, Bharata. himBelf d id

no t e x p la in th e s t a t e o f se n t im e n t, bu t only a llow ed t h a t i t

is s u e s from th e a f o r s a i d com bination , t h i s ex perience rem ained

open to e lu c id a t io n .

Three im portan t r a s a - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s sub sequen tly a ro s e .

They a re found bo th in A bh inavagup ta 's Commentary on th e T r e a t i s e

on Drama ( Abhinava B h a ra t l ) and in Mammata's e le v e n th c en tu ry

L ight o f P o e try (K avyaprakasa) . F i r s t , i s th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

p . 29^ : The development o f a th e o ry o f drama p ro g re s se d in th e c lo s e s t r e l a t i o n to th e g e n e ra l th e o ry of p o e t i c s , f o r th e In d ian th e o ry o f p o e t ry does no t admit any d i s t i n c t i o n in e s ­sence betw een th e a e s t h e t i o p le a s u r e produced by th e drama and any o th e r form o f p o e t r y .

po| —I b i d . , p . 44, a u t h o r s 1 t r a n s l a t i o n : N a ty a sa s t ra VI,

29 ib ld .

o f B h a tta L o l l a t a , a n in th - c e n tu r y K ashm iri, who ho lds t h a t• a o

sen tim en t i s p r im a r i ly g e n e ra te d in th e im personated o h a ra o te r

and s e c o n d a r i ly re c o g n iz e d in th e im persona ting a c t o r . 3® Rasa

i s simply th e s p e c t a t o r ' s p e rc e p t io n of th e c h a r a c t e r ' s p e r ­

manent em otion , a s p o r t r a y e d by th e a c to r . T his p e rc e p t io n

need not be i n t e n s i f i e d by th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequents and

t r a n s i e n t em otions, a l th o u g h i t may be so h e ig h te n e d .

Second, t h a t o f Sankuka, a l s o a n in th - c e n tu r y K ashm iri,

who o r i t i c i z e s B h a tta L o l l a t a and o f f e r s a n o th e r view. S e n t i -a o o

ment oannot merely be th e p e rc e p t io n o f th e permanent emotion

i r r e s p e c t i v e o f th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequents and t r a n s i e n t

em otions, beoause i t i s p r e c i s e ly th rough th e s e th r e e modes

t h a t a permanent emotion comes to be known. Sentiment i s de­

pendent on th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts and t r a n s i e n t em otions

but th e permanent em otion i s o lo s e ly connected w ith se n t im e n t.

T here fo re th e permanent emotion must a ls o be c lo s e ly connec ted

w ith th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts and t r a n s i e n t em o tio ns .31 / .Sankuka o b je o t s t h a t i f L o l l a t a ' s assessm ent o f sen tim ent a s

th e p e r c e p t io n o f th e permanent emotion i s c o r r e c t , th en

B harata shou ld f i r s t have e x p la in e d th e permanent emotions and

th e se n t im e n ts a f te r w a rd s . But B h a ra ta d e f in e s th e se n t im e n ts

in c h a p te r s i x o f h i s t r e a t i s e and th en only in ohap ter seven

does he expound th e permanent em otions. T h ere fo re th e o rd e r of

3QKavyaprakaea. Tr. G. Jh a . B h a ra t iy a Vidya PrakaBhan V aran as i , no d a te , p . 55»

■^ R an ie ro G n o li . The A e s th e t io E xperience According to A bhinavagupta. Chowkhamba S a n s k r i t S e r ie s O f f ic e , Volume LXII, 196S, V a ra n a s i , p . 26+

h i 8 c o n s id e ra t io n s — bo th in d ic a te s th e a n c i l l a r y p la c e o f th e

permanent emotions and th e p r i o r i t y o f th e s e n t im e n ts , and em­

p h a s iz e s t h e i r s e p a ra te r e a l i t i e s .

Sankuka 's own view i s t h a t sen tim ent i s th e p e rc e p t io n

o f th e a c t o r ' s r e p ro d u c t io n ( an u k ara n a ) o f th e c h a r a c t e r ' s p e r -a

manent emotion h e ig h te n ed by th e th r e e a e s t h e t i o m o des? The

s p e c ta to r oan d i r e c t l y r e a l i z e th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts

and t r a n s i e n t emotions bu t he may only in f e r th e permanent emo-

t i o n . Sankuka th u s g iv e s a r a t i o n a l i s t i c t u r n to s e n t im e n t,

f o r in f e re n c e , u n l ik e p e rc e p t io n , i s not an immediate e x p e r i -/ #

ence but a d e l i b e r a t i v e and g rad u a l one. A gainst Sankuka 's

th eo ry th e fo l lo w in g o b je c t io n i s made which, to my knowledge,

has not been answered. The con sc iou sn ess o f a re p ro d u c t io n p re ­

supposes a p e rc e p t io n b o th o f th e o r i g in a l and of th e copy. But

a s th e a o to r can n ever have p e rc e iv e d th e o r i g i n a l c h a r a c t e r ' s

permanent emotion he w i l l be in ca p ab le o f rep ro d u c in g i t in a ■33

drama. For in s ta n c e , in d ram a tiz in g th e f o u r t h ao t o f th e/ _Sakun ta la — in which Kanva b id s f a r e w e l l to h ie adopted daugh-

1t e r S aku n ta la — th e a c t o r , not h av ing seen Kanva, oannot r e ­

produce h i s sorrow.

B h a tta Nayaka p r e s e n t s a t h i r d view: th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n• o

o f th e s p e c ta to r w ith th e a o to r , which i s o a l l e d " g e n e r a l iz a t io n "

Rasa i s r e v e a le d by a s p e c i a l power assumed by words in p o e try and drama, th e power of r e v e l a t i o n . . . o o n s i s t in g o f th e a c t io n o f g e n e r a l i z in g th e d e t e r -

32ibid.. p. 27.

33 I b i d . . p . 3^ .

m inan te , e t c . . . . This enjoyment ie c h a r a c te r i z e d by a r e s t i n g in o n e 's own c o n sc io u sn e ss , which due to th e emergent s t a t e o f s a t tv a i s pervaded by b e a t i tu d e andl i g h t , and i s s im i la r to th e t a s t i n g o f th e supremebrahman,

This m otion o f th e d e - in d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n o r im p e rs o n a l iz a t io n o f

th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts and t r a n s i e n t em otions and of

r e s t i n g in o n e 's own s e l f i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r i t bo th e o l ip s e s

th e f i r s t two views and s e t s th e s ta g e fo r a s u s ta in e d t r e a t ­

ment o f th e sub jec t 's a e s t h e t i o s e n s i b i l i t y . Consequently i t

i s an im portan t in f lu e n c e on A bh inavagup ta 's r a s a - th e o r y . The

o th e r m ajor fo rc e t h a t shaped th e a c a ry a t s a e s t h e t i o sp e c u la ­

t i o n i s Anandavardhana' s th eo ry o f su g g e s t io n (d h v a n i) .

(4 ) ANANDAVARDHANA'3 DHVANI THEORY

Anandavardhana' s d o o tr in e o f dhvani expounded in h i s

c e le b ra te d Dhvanyaloka ( T r e a t i s e on th e Theory o f S u g g e s t io n )

ie an im portan t c o n t r ib u t io n b o th to a e s t h e t i c s g e n e ra l ly and

to A bhinavagupta 's th o u g h t in p a r t i c u l a r . N a tu ra l ly i t a t ­

t r a c t e d b o th a d h e re n ts and opponents . The form er in c lu de

among o th e r s Mammata, V isvanatha and Jag an n a th a . The l a t t e ro

number a t l e a s t th e N aiyay ikas l o g i c i a n s , Kuntaka and Idahima-

b h a t t a .0 «

Anandavardhana d i s t i n g u i s h e s th r e e powers o f w ords;

d e n o ta t io n , in d io a t ion o r th e secondary power, and s u g g e s t io n .

The f i r s t , d e n o ta t io n , a ro u ses a c o n v en tio n a l image in th e

^ i b l d . . pp. 45-48.

h e a r e r ' s mind, due to th e t r a d i t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n of a s p e o i f i a

word w ith i t s co rresp on d ing image. Only th e d e f i n i t e conven­

t i o n a l sense i s re n d e re d "by d e n o ta t io n . For example, th e word

kusuma d en o te s a f lo w e r . The second, i n d ic a t i o n , removes th e

d e fe c t o f a p p a re n tly c o n tr a d ic to r y meanings by evoking a d d i ­

t i o n a l id e a s to c l a r i f y th e ap p aren t in c o n s i s te n c ie s . For

example, in th e se n te n c e , " the v i l l a g e on th e Ganges", ( gangavam

ghosah) i n d ic a t io n evokes th e a d d i t i o n a l id ea o f th e bank on0

which th e v i l l a g e i s s i t u a t e d . The t h i r d , su g g e s t io n , i s th e

im plied sense o f w o rd s .35 in Anandavardhana1 s words:

That k ind o f p o e t r y , w herein e i t h e r th e (co n v e n tio n a l) meaning or th e (c o n v e n t io n a l) word re n d e rs i t s e l f or i t s meaning secondary ( r e s p e c t iv e ly ) and su g g es ts th e Im plied meaning i s d e s ig n a te d by th e l e a rn e d a s Dhvani o r Suggestive P o e t r y .3°

In th e example, " th e v i l l a g e on th e Ganges" su g g e s t io n uncovers

th e s p e a k e r 's purpose a s conveying th e idea o f th e o oo lness

and h o l in e s s of the v i l l a g e . ^

Suggestion i s c l e a r ly d i s t i n c t from in d ic a t io n . For

example, in th e example, " the v i l l a g e on th e Ganges", sh ou ld

i t be o b je c te d t h a t i n d i c a t i o n 's power of evoking the o l a r i f y i n g

35a . B. G ajendragadkar, a modern commentator on a e s ­t h e t i c s , l i s t s two o o n d i t io n s o th e r th an th e a p p a re n tly c o n tra ­d ic to r y meaning o f d e n o ta t io n : ( 1 ) th e r e must be a co nn ec tion ( tadyoga) between d e n o ta t io n and in d ic a t io n ^ ( 2 ) the co n n ec tio n must fo llo w e s ta b l i s h e d usage o r purpose ( ru d h ip ra y o e a n a n y a ta ra t ) . Notes on th e Kavyapraka^a of Mammata. Poona: Aryabhushan P re s s ,1939» p p .“ 2% - 252 .

3&K. K rishnam oorthy, Tr. Dhvanyaloka. Poona: O r ie n ta l Book Agency, 1955» P* 9 •

37k . 0. Pandey. In d ian A e s th e t io s . V a ran a s i: Chowkhamba S a n sk r i t S e r ie s O f f ic e , 1959» second e d i t i o n , p . 267»

id ea o f t h e bank i s i t s e l f su g g e s t io n , Anandavardhana would

c o u n te r ;

When ano th e r sense i s oonveyed th ro ug h in d ic a t io n ( la k s a n a ) th e f i r s t sense merges i t s e l f w ith th e seco n d ‘and becomes one w ith i t as in th e sen ten o e ,"'The v i l l a g e on th e Ganges." But when one sense conveys a n o th e r th rough su g g e s t io n , th e f i r s t sense r e t a i n s i t s i n d iv i d u a l i t y w hile oonveying th e o th e r j u s t l i k e a lamp (rem ains a lamp w hile i l lu m in in g a d a rk a r e a ) . 3°

Hence, whereas i n d i c a t i o n 's o l a r i f y i n g idea o f th e bank merges

w ith th e id ea o f th e se n te n c e , " th e v i l l a g e on th e Ganges",

th e su g g e s t io n of th e co o ln ess and h o l in e s s o f th e v i l l a g e

does n o t . However th e r e s u l t i n g se n ten c e , " th e v i l l a g e on

th e bank o f th e Ganges" b o th r e t a i n s i t s d e n o ta t io n and a l s o

i l lu m in e s i t s f u r t h e r sen se . T h is i s the su g g e s t io n of th e

co o ln ess and h o l in e s s of th e v i l l a g e .

There a re t h r e e f u r th e r d i s t i n c t i o n s between in d ic a ­

t i o n and su g g e s t io n . F i r s t , i n d ic a t io n r e q u i r e s anu. a p p a re n t

c o n t r a d ic t io n in th e d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a se n te n c e ,

w h ile s u g g e s t io n does n o t , but r a t h e r p resupposes th e h e a r e r ' s

a b i l i t y t o u n d e rs tan d th e im p l ic a t io n of th e sen teno e . Second,

in i n d ic a t i o n only th e c l a r i f y i n g id ea i s added to d e n o ta t io n ,

whereas in su g g es tio n b o th meanings — the c l a r i f y i n g and th e

im p lied — may occur c o n c o m ita n t ly .39 T h ird , even th e t o p io s

o f i n d i c a t i o n and s u g g e s t io n d i f f e r : i n d ic a t i o n i s in v a r ia b ly

connected w ith id e a s ; su g g e s t io n e i t h e r w ith id e a s , p o e t io

3^K rishnam oorthy, og. c i t . , pp. 104—105» p a re n th e s isadded.

39Anandavardhana. Dhvanyaloka I I I , 33» P» 99 of K rishnam oorthy , 0£ . c i t .

e m b illish m en ts o r s e n t i m e n t s . ^ I f one should, o b je c t , a s th e

N aiyayika m i g h t , ^ t h a t su g g e s t io n f a l l s under lo g io a l connec­

t i o n , Anandavardhana would p ro bab ly r e t o r t t h a t such a f u n c t io n

e x h a u s t8 i t s e l f in e x p la in in g th e v e rb a l comprehension o f th e

se n ten c e ; i t does no t suggest a n y th in g beyond t h a t . I t i s syn­

t h e t i c a l , whereas su g g e s t io n superoedes s y n th e s i s and u s u a l ly

occurs im m ediately a f t e r l o g ic a l oonnection i s un d e rs to o d .

S uggestion i s a l s o c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t from d e n o ta t io n :

As th e d iv in e sage sa id t h i s , P a r v a t i , gazing down by h e r f a t h e r ' s s id e , counted th e p e t a l s o f the l o t u s she h e ld in h e r h a n d . 42

Here we see th e sim ple d e n o ta t io n o f P a r v a t i ' s ao tio n 6 a s w e ll

a s th e su g g e s t io n o f modesty in h e r demeanor. I n d ic a t io n does

no t o b ta in because i t s p r e r e q u i s i t e — an a d d i t i o n a l id ea c la i i-

fy in g th e d e n o ta t io n and merging w ith i t — i s la c k in g . R ather

a c le a r d e n o ta t io n and a su gg ested meaning over and above t h a t

d e n o ta t io n i s shown.

Anandavardhana a l s o a llo w s t h a t th e im p lied a sp e c t of

words has an a t t r a c t i v e q u a l i t y , th e im press ion o f which i s

b o th t o t a l and beaut i f u l :

J u s t as charm in (women) exoeeds th e beau ty of a l l th e in d iv id u a l p a r t s observed s e p a r a te ly and d e l ig h t s th e eye o f th e p a s s io n a te on looker in a most unique fa s h io n

^ ° I b i d .

^•S . K. De. S tu d ie s in th e H is to ry o f S a n sk r i t P o e t ic s I I . London: Luzac, 1 9 2 5» P* 194.

lip , -K rishnam oorthy , op. c i t . , p . 43, c i t i n g Kumara-

sambhava VI, 84, emended.

l i k e th e v e r i t a b l e n e c ta r o f th e gods, so a ls o does t h i s im plied m eaning .^3

He g iv e s an example o f th e p ro g re s s iv e m a n i f e s t a t io n o f t h i s

im p lied meaning:

Though by i t s own power th e w ord-im port oonveys th e se n ten c e - im p o rt j u s t a s i t escapes n o t i c e once i t s purpose i s s e rv e d , so a l s o t h a t Suggested meaning f l a s h e s suddenly a c ro s s th e t r u th - p e r o e iv in g minds o f c u l tu re d c r i t i c s when they a re i n d i f f e r e n t tow ards th e c o n v en tio n a l m e a n in g .^

Suggestion i s a r r i v e d a t when th e c o n v en tio n a l i s su b o rd in a te d

t o th e im p lied . This i s th e p u rp o r t o f Anandavardhana1s use

o f " i n d i f f e r e n t . " Perhaps we can pu t t h i s b e t t e r by say in g

t h a t s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r s have tra n so e n d e d th e co n v en tio n a l

meaning (d e n o ta t io n ) . They have u nd ers to o d b o th d e n o ta t io n

and i t 8 im p l ic a t io n . An example has a lre a d y been fu rn i s h e d

in P a r v a t i ' s coun ting th e p e t a l s o f h e r l o t u s .

D esp ite t h i s e lu c id a t io n , Anandavardhana faced two

im portan t o h a l le n g e s : th e f i r s t from an o b je o to r not i d e n t i ­

f i e d , and th e seoond a p p a re n t ly from a l o g i c i a n . One may

g ran t t h a t a suggested element d i f f e r e n t from th e denoted

e x i s t s — so runs th e f i r s t o b je c t io n . But t h i s may be sub­

sumed under d e n o ta t io n inasmuoh a s i t i s conveyed by th e sen­

te n c e a s a whole and th e fu n c t io n o f th e sen teno e i s den o ta ­

t i o n . Consequently t h i s su g g e s t io n i s only one sense l e a d in g

to th e tinder s ta n d in g o f d e n o ta t io n * "<Just a s th e a p p reh en s io n

o f word-meaning i s only a means to th e knowledge o f s e n te n c e -

^ I b i d . . p . v e rse 2 , emended.Ilh

Ibid.. p. 9, vv. 11-12, emphasis added.

p u r p o r t . "45 Anandavardhana r e t o r t s t h a t th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

word-meaning to sen tenoe-m eaning d i f f e r s from t h a t o f th e sug­

g e s te d sen se to th e d eno ted se n se . The form er i s l i k e th e r e ­

l a t i o n s h i p o f m a te r ia l cause to a p o t ; th e l a t t e r , once f u l l y

shaped, cannot be re c o g n iz e d s e p a r a te ly from th e c lay from

which i t has been shaped . S im i la r ly , a f t e r th e meaning o f a

sen ten ce has been u n d e rs to o d , th e meanings o f th e in d iv id u a l

words a re n o t s e p a r a te ly reo o g n ized . In t n i s case th e r e i s a

m erging o f th e in d iv id u a l word-meanings t o c r e a te th e sentence-

meaning. On th e o th e r hand, he rem arks, th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

su g g e s t io n to d e n o ta t io n i s l i k e t h a t o f a lamp and a p o t :

J u s t a s th e l i g h t o f th e lamp w i l l no t reoede a s soon a s th e p e rc e p t io n o f th e pot i s b rou gh t home to th e o b se rv e r , so a l s o , th e (deno ted) sense w i l l con tin u e to sh in e out even a f t e r th e apprehen sio n of th e sug­g e s te d sense h as been a c h i e v e d . ^

Here th e sugg ested sen se and th e denoted sense a re d e a r l y

d i s t i n c t , th u s e s t a b l i s h i n g a s p e c i f i c f u n c t io n f o r sugges­

t i o n .

The second o b je c t io n i s t h a t su g g e s t io n may be im p li ­

c a t io n which a r i s e s from th e m iddle term o f a sy llo g ism

le a d in g t o an in fe re n c e . A Nyaya sy llog ism i s : th e m ountain

(minor term ) i s f i e r y (m ajor term ) because o f smoke (m iddle

te rm ) . C onsequently , what i s su g g es ted ( th e m ountain i s f i e r y )

i s i n f e r r e d from th e m iddle term (because o f smoke). A lso ,

s in c e Anandavardhana e x p la in s t h a t words p o s s e s s in g S ug gestion

4 5 I b i d . , p . 101 .hCIbid., p. 103, parenthesis added.

1 0 3 .

r e f e r to th e s p e a k e r 's i n t e n t io n , th e s p e a k e r 's meaning must

he i n f e r a b l e . Anandavardhana r e j o i n s :

I t i s only th e a sp e c t o f i n t e n t io n on th e p a r t o f th espeaker to employ words. . . . t h a t i s in f e r a b le and no t th e meaning i t s e l f conveyed by h i s words. I f i t were t r u e t h a t th e meaning i t s e l f oou ld form th e probandum (c o n c lu s io n ) o f an in fe re n c e hav ing words fo r i t s p robans ( r e a s o n ) , t h e r e shou ld be no scope f o r doubts a t a l l whether any meaning i s r ig h t o r wrong. For in s t a n c e , when th e probandum. f i r e , i s i n f e r r e d from th e p ro b a n s . smoke, t h e r e i s indeed no room f o r any doubt about th e e x is te n c e o f f i r e . •

But s in c e smoke may a r i s e from wet f u e l , f o r in s ta n c e , t h e r e i s

no i n v a r i a b le concom itance ( v v a p t i ) between smoke and f i r e .

T herefo re in th e s e n te n c e , " I saw smoke", doubt may a r i s e as t o

what meaning smoke i n d ic a t e s . The meaning o f th e i n t e n t io n

comes under d e n o ta t io n , not in f e r e n c e , and may be f o r th e r i l ­

l u s t r a t e d by su g g e s t io n , which i s an independent power based

on d e n o ta t io n . And w hatever a r i s e s from d e n o ta t io n i s no t in ­

f e re n c e ; bu t su g g e s t io n so a r i s e s ; hence i t i s no t in f e re n c e .

Also, s in c e in fe re n c e p o s i t s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the minor

term to th e major te rm th rough th e middle te rm , th e re i s mediacy

o f u n d e rs ta n d in g ; su g g e s t io n , however, i s immediate. I t i s a

sudden re sp o n se to a whole and no t a d e l ib e r a t e d a n a l y s i s .

A th r e e f o ld d i s t i n c t i o n e x i s t s w i th in su g g e s t io n : th e

su g g e s t io n o f an idea ( v a s tu d h v a n i) . o f a p o e t i c em bellishm ent:

( a la n k a ra d h v a n i) . and o f a sen tim en t ( r a s a d h v a n i ) . The f i r s t

and second ty p es o f su g g e s t io n a r e s e l f - e x p la n a to r y and w i l l be

i l l u s t r a t e d l a t e r . The t h i r d , r e l a t i n g to th e d e te rm in a n ts ,

consequen ts and t r a n s i e n t em otions, i s th e cause of a e s t h e t i c

^7lbid.. p. 113, emphases and parentheses added.

e x p er ien ce i t s e l f . I t su g g e s ts id ea s n ecessa ry f o r th e in ­

t e n s i f i c a t i o n of th e permanent emotion and e f f e c t s th e u n i ­

v e r s a l i z a t i o n of th e in d iv id u a l r e a d e r .

The p o s s ib le o r i g in of t h i s theo ry o f su g g e s t io n is

th e p a t t e r n ( sp h o ta ) th eo ry of th e grammarians. According to#B h a r t r h a r i , a prom inent grammarian and p h i lo s o p h e r of lan g u ag e ,

th e in d iv id u a l sounds of a word s u c c e s s iv e ly pronounced tokg

evoke a whole suggest th e w ord 's p a t t e r n . A sen tence i s a

s in g le u n d iv id e d u t t e r a n c e whose meaning i s , "an in s ta n ta n e o u sk q

f l a s h o f i n s i g h t . " 7 F u r th e r , th e term " p a t te rn " b e s id e s in ­

d i c a t in g p a r t i c u l a r e t e r n a l words a l s o s i g n i f i e s u l t im a te r e ­

a l i t y . In Anandavardhana th r e e p a r a l l e l s — two c le § r and one

p ro b ab le — a re p o s tu l a t e d . The f i r s t i s th e id ea o f sugges­

t i o n which e n t a i l s a m a n i f e s ta t io n over and above i t s c o n s t i t u ­

ent p a r t s . The second i s th e t e n e t t h a t p o e t r y 's meaning i s

g iven to a f l a s h of u n d e rs ta n d in g a s even th e t i t l e of Ananda­

vardhana ' s c h a p te rs — u d d v o ta . " f la sh in g " — i n d i c a t e s . - ^

The t h i r d i s Anandavardhana' s re s h a p in g of th e gram m arians '

ooncept o f su g g e s t io n , d e f l e c t i n g i t s prim ary emphasis on

kgI b i d . , p . 110. For f u r t h e r d i s c u s s io n of th e Sphota

th e o ry see Vakyapadfya w ith th e commentary o f Vrsabhedeva on* th e f i r s t c h a p te r and t h a t o f P unyara ja on th e second. B enares , 1887 in K. Kunjunni R a ja . In d ian T heories o f Meaning. Madras: Adyar, 1 9 6 3 » PP* 124—126 and M. M. Sharma. The Dhvani Theory in S a n sk r i t Poet i c e . V a ren a s i : Chowkhamba S a n sk r i t S e r ie s O f f ic e , 1968, p . 35-

Kunjunni R a ja . In d ian T heories of Meaning.Madras: Adyar, 1963 , P* 98.

5®Krishnamoorthy, op. c i t . . p . 1.

seco eae iv e sounds in a word to h i s own s t r e s s on su c c e ss iv e

words in a se n ten c e . I t i s not improbable t h e r e f o r e t h a t he

has a l s o used th e o b je o t o f su g g e s t io n s p e c i f i e d in th e gram­

m arians — u l t im a te r e a l i t y . For i t i s i l l o g i c a l to a p p ro p r i ­

a t e to o n e s e l f only one h a l f of th e co in , th e means, w itho u t

a l s o t a k in g over th e o th e r , th e end. Consequently im p l i c i t in

A nandavardhana 's th e o ry o f su g g e s t io n , th e means, i s th e goal

o f s u g g e s t io n , th e im ag ina tive rea lm o f id e a , o f p o e t ic embel­

l ish m en t and of s e n t im e n t , which i s i t s e l f p a r t i c i p a n t in u l ­

t im a te r e a l i t y . S u g g e s t io n 's tran scen d en ce i s b u t t r e s s e d by

A nandavardhana 's c o n ce p tio n o f th e o b je o t o f p o e t ry . A lthough

t h i s pu rpose i s nowhere s t a t e d in h i s T rea t i s e on th e Theory

o f S u g g e s t io n , i t i s n e v e r th e le s s im plied th ro u g h o u t. For

Anandavardhana p o e try i s a means to se e in g th e image o f e f ­

fu lg e n t r e a l i t y . ^ Suggestion p o in t s tow ards th e Real in

i t s e l f . This means to th e t ra n sc e n d e n t — su g g e s t io n — must

i t s e l f p a r t i c i p a t e in th e supranorm al ambiance o f i t s end.

The s ig n i f ic a n c e o f t h i s th eo ry becomes d e a r ; i t e s t a b l i s h e s

t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a s p e c t o f p o e t ry , co nn ec ting th e a e s t h e t i o

w ith th e s p i r i t u a l .

Anandavardhana a ls o e x p la in s t h i s tran scen d en ce w ith

r e s p e c t t o th e th r e e ty p e s o f su g g e s t io n . Beoause each o f

th e s e evokes a re sp o n se in th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r , a m utual men­

t a l e x p e r ien ce of b o th p o e t and s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r a r i s e s . T his

51 l b i d . , p . x.

i o 6

im ag in a tive p la y in which th e s e n s i t i v e re a d e r overoomes h i s

l i m i t a t i o n as an in d iv id u a l , and p a r t i c i p a t e s in th e r e a l i t y

o u ts id e h im s e l f — th e poem — 1b in a sen se , e s t a t i c . The

c u l tu re d resp on se on th e r e a d e r ' s p a r t t r a n s p o r t s him out o f

h i s tem pora l c a re s in to a non-tem poral e x p e r ie n c e , in which

th e r e i s an a b s o rp t io n in th e su g g es ted m o t i f . This e x p e r i ­

ence embodies an i n i t i a l l e v e l o f tran scen d en o e . Let examples

convey th e f l a v o r of Anandavardhana1s t h r e e f o ld th e o ry :

Suggestion o f idea (v a s tu d h v a n i)

Ramble f r e e l y , p io u s man.'That dog today i s k i l l e d By t h e f i e r c e l i o n t h a t dw e lls In Gfoda r i v e r d e l l s . >2

The su g g es ted idea h e re i s th e o p p o s i te o f th e ex p ressed ex­

h o r t a t i o n . The r e a l i n t e n t io n o f th e ve rse i s th e idea t h a t

th e man shou ld not be walking in t h a t v a l le y s in c e h is l i f e

would be je o p a rd iz e d by th e l i o n p re se n t t h e r e .

S uggestion o f p o e t ic em bellishm ent ( A lankaradhvan i)

F i l l i n g ; a l l space w ith l i g h t o f beau tyAnd sm ilin g when your f a c e do th rem ain0 sw eet-eyed one, s in c e th e sea doesn ' t sw ell1 am sure i t i s only a mass o f w a te r .53

The su g g es ted p o e t ic em bellishm ent h e re 1b a metaphor l i n k i n g

th e sm ile on th e l a d y ' s faoe to th e b e a u t i f u l l i g h t o f day.

I t a ls o im p lie s t h a t th e s e a 's l a c k o f resp on se in d ic a te s i t s

l i f e l e s s c h a r a c te r . In s h o r t , th e l a d y 's sm ile i s d e sc r ib e d

52 I b l d . . p. 4.

53I b i d . , p. 48.

a s i f i t were th e sun i l lu m in in g th e e a r th .

Suggestion of sentiment (Rasadhvani)

The deer f l e e s , c a s t in g ever and a g a in h i s glanoe w ith g ra c e fu l cu rv ing o f h i s neck a t th e p u rsu in g o h a r io t , h i s t e r r o r o f th e a r ro w 's f l i g h t so g r e a t h i s h in d p a r t seems to p e n e t r a t e h i s b r e a s t .He drops upon th e way th e ha lf-ch ew ed g ra s s from h i s mouth t h a t p a n ts w ith w e a r in e ss .See, a s he l e a p s he seems t o f ly . more in th e a i r than on th e g r o u n d . '5^

The su g g e s te d element h e re i s f e a r . In in v o lv in g h im se lf imag­

in a t i v e l y in eaoh o f th e s e examples th e s e n s i t i v e re a d e r e x e rc is e s

h i s co n tem p la tiv e f a c u l t y , th ro ug h an a b s o r p t io n th a t a f f o r d s

him e n try in to th e new realm o f th e n on -tem p o ra l . This a b s o rp t io n

i s th e c r u c i a l rea so n fo r a s s e r t i n g t h a t th e p o e t io ex p er ien c e

i s i n c i p i e n t l y t r a n s c e n d e n ta l .

Although Anandavardhana l i s t s th e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t a s ­

p e c t s o f su g g e s t io n he i m p l i c i t l y p r e f e r s th e su g g e s t io n o f

se n t im e n t. In f a c t , in one v e r s e , s i t u a t e d in th e co n tex t o f

th e t h i r d c la s s o f su g g e s t io n , he e x p l i c i t l y shows t h i s p r e f e r ­

ence :

That meaning a lone i s th e so u l o f p o e t r y ; and so i twas t h a t o f yore th e sorrow of th e F i r s t Poet ( i . e .Valm iki) a t th e s e p a r a t io n of the ourlew oouple took th e form o f a d i s t i o h .5 5

This refers to the first chapter of the Ramayana in which

Valmiki w itn e s se s th e s la u g h te r o f a male ourlew (k rau n ca )

b i r d who i s having se x u a l in te r c o u r s e w ith h i s mate. The

c r i e s o f th e dying b i r d and th e w a i l in g of i t s mate s t i r r e d

5^D aniel H. H. I n g a l l s . An Anthology o f S a n sk r i t Court P o e t r y . Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rs i ty P r e s s , 1 9 6 5» P« 32#.

55K rishnam oorthy, op. c i t . , p. 6 . ( Dhvanyaloka I , 5 ) .

a deep s t r a i n of p a th o s in Valmlki to th e p o in t th a t h i s p e r ­

s o n a l i t y was l o s t in i t . I t was no t an emotion o f sympathy

t h a t was ex p erien ced but a sen tim en t o f sorrow . Whereas an

emotion because o f i t s p e rs o n a l involvement may be p a i n f u l , a

sen tim en t beoause o f i t s detachment i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y p l e a s u r a b le .

The sen tim en t o f sorrow issu e d f o r t h in th e v e r s e :

No fame be t h in e fo r e n d le s s time Because, b ase o u tc a s te , o f thy crime Whose c ru e l hand was f a i n to s lay^One o f t h i s g e n t l e p a i r a t p l a y . 5°

The p o e t i c e x p re s s io n of sorrow in t h i s v e rse convinced Ananda­

vardhana t h a t th e su g g e s t io n of sen tim ent i s th e soul o f p o e t r y ,

and t h a t

th e main t a s k o f a m a s te r -p o e t l i e s in a p roper mar­s h a l l i n g o f a l l th e c o n te n ts and th e e x p re s s io n s in th e d i r e o t i o n o f s e n t im e n ts . . . .57

And a s he rem arks in a n o th e r p l a c e :

T his c la s s o f p o e try — w ith su b o rd in a te su g g e s t io n — w i l l a ls o assume th e form o f Dhvani o r t h a t w ith p r i n ­c ip a l su g g e s t io n , i f one views i t from th e s ta n d p o in t o f e x c lu s iv e p u rp o r t o f se n t im e n ts . . . .5®

and f u r t h e r on:

Though s e v e r a l v a r i e t i e s o f th e su g g e s te d -s u g g e s te r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s p o s s ib l e , th e poet sh o u ld be most in ­t e n t upon one o f them in p a r t i c u l a r — fcfeat r e l a t i n g to th e d e l i m i t a t i o n o f se n t im e n t. . . .59

In a l l t h e s e remarks th e r e i s a d ec id ed p re fe re n c e f o r th e

56I, 2, 1 5 . Pandit. May 1, 1869 , Benares.

^Krishnamoorthy, op. cit.. p. 97 (Dhvanyaloka III, 32).

5gIbid.. p . 122 (Dhvanyaloka III, 4 0 ) .

39i b i d . , p . 14-0 ( Dhvanyaloka IV, 5)*

suggestion of sentiment.

(5) ABHINAVAGUPTA' S RASA-THEORY

Abhinavagupta a s s e r t s t h a t r a s a may be ex p erien ced b o th

in p o e try and in drama. The c lo s e connec tion o f p o e t ic s and

drama, assumed by B h a ra ta , was p a sse d over by Anandavardhana;

i t was l e f t to fVbhinava to examine i t s im p l ic a t io n s . By speo-

i f i o a l l y in c lu d in g drama in h i s d iso u s s io n s o f r a s a . Abhinava

s t r e s s e s th e f a o t t h a t r a s a may be enjoyed in drama to o . Never­

t h e l e s s , in h i s a e s t h e t i o c o n s id e ra t io n s he i s indeb ted b o th to

B h a tta Nayaka whose th e o ry of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n he a p p ro p r ia te s

and t o Anandavardhana whose th e o ry o f su g g e s t io n he u s e s . In

h i s e x p l i c i t exam ination o f r a s a w i th in th e drama Abhinava i s

o r i g i n a l , bu t not in h i s a p p r o p r ia t io n o f p re v io u s t h e o r i e s ,

and h i s d i s t i n c t i v e c o n t r ib u t io n l i e s p r im a r i ly in th e t r a n s ­

cendence and s u b j e c t i v i t y of th e r a s a - e x p e r ie n c e .

For Abhinava th e drama i s

a m a t te r t h a t i s to be s t e a d i l y cognized by a p ro fo u n d ly c o n c e n tra te d mind which i s undergoing a d i r e o t ex p e r ien c e ( o f th e in c id e n t s p o r t ra y e d ) due to th e power o f th e ac­t o r ' s a o t in g .k 0

The p e rs o n who views th e drama must be r e f i n e d :

Those people who a re c ap ab le o f id e n t i f y in g w ith th e s u b je o t m a t t e r , a s th e m ir r o r s o f t h e i r h e a r t s have been p o l is h e d th ro ug h c o n s ta n t r e p e t i t i o n and s tudy o f p o e try ( o r dram a), and who sy m p a th e t ic a l ly resp on d in t h e i r h e a r t s — th o se (peop le ) a re what a re known

60Mas8on and Patwardhan. A esthet io R apture I I . 60, n o te p . 353»

as s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r s (o r s p e c ta to r s )

I t i s in t h i s c u l tu r e d re a d e r or s p e c ta to r t h a t th e g e n e r a l i ­

z a t io n o f th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts and t r a n s i e n t em otions

o c cu rs . Suoh a r e a d e r con tem pla tes images in p o e try o r in

drama indepen den tly o f h i s own l i f e , th e c h a r a o t e r ' s l i f e o r

t h e a c t o r ' s p o r t r a y a l . Consequently , th e se images a re d e - i n d i ­

v id u a l i z e d or g e n e r a l i z e d . R an iero Gnoli, A bh inavagup ta 's most

s k i l l f u l t r a n s l a t o r , s t a t e s t h a t :

G e n e ra l i ty i s . . . a s t a t e o f s e l f - i d e n t i f i o a t i o n w ith th e imagined s i t u a t i o n , devoid of any p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t and from t h i s p o in t o f view, o f any r e l a t i o n whatsoever w ith th e l im i t e d s e l f , and as i t were im­p e r s o n a l . The d e te rm in a n ts and oonsequentB d i f f e r from o rd in a ry causes and e f f e c t s j u s t on acoount o f t h i s B tate o f g e n e r a l i ty .® 2

Thus g e n e r a l i z a t i o n unmasks th e i n f in i t u d e o f th e l im i t e d S e l f ,

because i t b r in g s about i t s t r a n s f e r from th e p r a o t i c a l t o th e

i d e a l i z e d rea lm . The s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r has a d i r e c t e x p e r ien ce

o f a s o r t whioh i s com plete ly d i f f e r e n t from p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i ­

ence. T h is experience i s r a s a . Abhinava, commenting on th e

v e rse o f K a lid a sa quo ted above, w r i t e s :

In ( th e s e n s i t i v e re a d e r ) h e a r in g th e p h ra se . . . "There he ( t h e deer) i s now, g r a c e f u l ly by th e bend ing of h i s neck, o a s t in g a g lance ev e r and anon.'.at th e c h a r io t which p u rsues him, by th e c o n t r a c t i o n o f th e h inder h a l f o f h i s body re p e a te d ly drawing him­s e l f in to th e f o r e p a r t o f h i s body th ro u g h f e a r o f th e d escen t o f th e arrow; s tre w in g th e ro ad w ith g ra s s ha lf-chew ed whioh drops from h is mouth kept open from

^ A b h in a v a g u p ta . Dhvanyalokalooana JB, c i t e d in Masson and Patwardhan. S a n ta ra sa and A bhinavagupta ' a Philosophy of A e s th e t io s . Poona: Bhandarkar O r i e n t a l R esearch I n s t i t u t e , 1969 , p . 7*5, p a re n th e s e s added.

^2Gnoli, op. pit.. p. xxii.

exhaustion" . . . , th e r e appears immediately a f t e r th e p e ro e p t io n o f th e l i t e r a l sen se , a p e rc e p t io n o f a d i f ­f e r e n t o rd e r which com plete ly e l im in a te s th e tem pora l d i s t i n c t i o n assumed hy th e s e se n ten o es . . . . what t h e r e a p p ea rs i s sim ply and s o l e ly f e a r — f e a r in i t s e l f , u n c iroum sc r ibed by t im e , spaoe, e t c . . . . ( I t ) i s th e m a t te r o f o o g n i t io n devoid of o b s t a c l e s , and may be s a id t o e n te r d i r e o t l y in to our h e a r t s , t o dance b e fo re our ey es ; t h i s i s th e t e r r i b l e r a s a . b3

Abhinava a c c e n tu a te s he re th a t r a s a i s a p e rc e p t io n , though o f

a p e c u l i a r n a tu r e . I f i t be o b je c te d t h a t B h a r a t a ' s p h ra s e ,

r a s a - n i s p a t t i h . deno tes th e p ro d u c t io n of r a s a a s an o b je c t o f9 O

p e rc e p t io n , Abhinava r e j o i n s t h a t th e p u rp o r t o f th a t p h ra se

i s th e p ro d u c t io n o f th e t a s t i n g of r a s a . ^ A ccord ing ly , r a s a

i s a p e ro e p t io n whioh i s a ls o a t a s t i n g .

Sentiment a l s o h as a supranorm al o h a ra c te r . What in

o rd in a ry l i f e i s emotion becomes — through g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ~

in d ram atio perform ance , se n t im e n t. T herefo re th e i d e n t i f i ­

c a t io n o f th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r and th e predom inant sen tim en t

i s not on th e l e v e l o f o n e 's e m p ir ic a l Belf bu t o f o n e 's t r a n s ­

c en d e n ta l s e l f . This i d e n t i f i c a t i o n invo lves th e t r a n s c e n d e n t

because i t s c o r ro la ry i s th e i d e a l i z a t i o n o f th e permanent emo­

t i o n , which in tu r n in vo lv es i t s own l a t e n t im press ions (vasan as)

Aocording to Abhinava th e r e a re two k in d s o f th e s e

l a t e n t im p re ss io n s : in n a te and a c q u ire d . R egarding th e form er

th e Abhinava B h a ra t i r e a d s :

Indeed every c re a tu re from i t s b i r t h p o sse s se s th e s e n in e forms o f c o n sc io u sn ess . In f a c t everyone i s by

b 3 lb i d . . pp . 54-56.

b^ I b i d . , pp. #5-36, c i t i n g Abhinava B h a ra t i I , 2fi>6.

n a tu re pervaded by sexua l d e s i r e s ( d e l i g h t ) ; b e l i e v e s h im s e l f t o be s u p e r io r to o th e r s , whom he i s th u s l e d to d e r id e ( l a u g h t e r ) ; g r ie v e s when he i s fo rced to p a r t from what he lo v e s ( so rro w ); g e ts angry a t th e oauses o f suoh s e p a r a t io n ( a n g e r ) ; g e ts f r i g h te n e d when he f i n d s h im se lf pow erless ( f e a r ) ; — bu t s t i l l i s d e s i r ­ous o f overcoming the danger which th r e a te n s him (h e ro ism ); h as a sense of r e v u ls io n d i r e o te d tow ard an ug ly o b je c t ( d i s g u s t ) ; wonders a t th e s ig h t o f e x t r a ­o rd in a ry deeds done by h im s e lf or o th e r s (a s to n is h m e n t) ; and l a s t l y , i s d e s i ro u s o f abandoning c e r t a i n th in g s ( s e r e n i t y ) . No l i v i n g c re a tu r e e x i s t s w ithout th e l a t e n t im press ions of th e s e (permanent em otions) .

The l a t t e r type of l a t e n t im press ions in c lu d es bo th th e know­

ledge of o n e *8 own em otional e x p e r ie n c e s and th e o b se rv a t io n s

o f th e em otional e x p e r ie n c e s o f o th e r s . These t h r e e forms —

one in n a te and two a c q u ire d — c o n s t i t u t e th e l a t e n t im press ions

o f th e permanent em otions. When th e s e l a t e n t em pressions be­

come a c t i v e th rough th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequents and t r a n s i e n t

em otions, th e i d e a l i z a t i o n of th e permanent emotions r e s u l t s .

Thus i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f th e d e te rm in a n ts ,

consequen ts and t r a n s i e n t emotions and th e im p e rs o n a l iz a t io n

o f th e permanent em otions a re th e two n ecessa ry components o f

th e r e s u l t i n g ex p erience of r a s a .

T h is experience i s not one o f o rd in a ry emotion, bu t of

se n t im e n t , which i s th e p e o u l ia r t a s t i n g o f th e t r a n s c e n d e n ta l

u rg ru n d :

Acoording t o us th a t whioh i s t a s t e d i s consc iousness a lo n e which i s s a tu r a t e d w ith b e a t i t u d e . . . . This oonso iousness which i s s i n g l e in i t s e l f , i s n e v e r th e ­l e s s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d by th e o p e ra t io n o f th e l a t e n t t r a c e s o f d e l i g h t , sorrow , e t c . , which a re awakened by th e o p e ra t io n o f th e Consequents, e to . °

65l b i d . . p . 74. c i t i n g Abhinava B hara tT .

66Ibid., p. 72, oiting Abhinava BharatI I, 292.

1 1 3 .

Consonant w ith th e u n i ty to which Abhinava h e re r e f e r s i s th e

r a d i c a l wholeness o f r a s a . This com pleteness e x e r c is e s i t s

raw power on th e s p e c t a t o r :

. . . when i t ( r a s a ) i s r e l i s h e d ( s a y s Mammata), i t a p p ea rs as i f v i b r a t i n g b e fo re the e y es , e n te r in g th e inmost r e o e s s e s o f th e h e a r t , i n s p i r i t i n g th e e n t i r e body, and e c l i p s i n g e v e ry th in g e l8 e .° 7

Since Abhinava in h i s t h e o lo g ic a l works — th e Tantr a s a r a fo r/

one — c o n s id e r s t h a t u n i ty and power a re p ro p e r ly S i v a ' s , th e

u n i ty and power o f r a s a must a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e t r a n s ­

cendent .

Abhinava u se s f iv e term s whioh confirm t h i s supranormal

dimension o f r a s a . The f i r s t i s d e l ig h t ( an and a) . Abhinava

e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s t h a t p o e t r y 's purpose i s not only p le a s u re

bu t d e l i g h t . Whereas most e a r l i e r w r i t e r s use th e term "p lea ­

sure" (p r i t i ) o r " e n te r ta in m e n t" ( v in oda) when d e s c r ib in g th e

ob jeo t o f p o e t ry , Abhinava u ses th e r e l i g i o u s term " b l i s s " or

" d e l i g h t " :

Although knowledge and p le a s u r e (p r i t i ) f o r th e r e a d e r a re b o th p r e s e n t , a s Bhamaha has s a id : "Study o f good p o e try con fe rs fame and p l e a s u r e , a s w e l l a s s k i l l in dharma. a r t h a . kama and moksa. and h k i l l to o in th e f i n e a r t s " , n e v e r th e l e s s , p le a s u re (p r i t i ) i s th e main t h in g . O therw ise how would p o e try , a sou rce o f knowledge oomparable to a ( lo v in g ) w if e , d i f f e r from th e Vedas, e t c . , which a re a l s o so u rces o f i n s t r u c t i o n comparable to a m as te r , o r from sou roes o f i n s t r u c t i o n suoh a s th e i t i h a s a s . e t c . w h i c h a re comparable t o a f r ie n d ? And so d e l ig h t ( ananda) has been m entioned (h e re ) p r im a r i ly (a s th e purpose o f

k7(j. jh a , oj>. c i t . , p . 5^.

p o e t r y ) . Even_of i n s t r u c t i o n in th e fo u r go a ls o f ca l i f e d e l ig h t ( ananda) i s th e f i n a l and major r e s u l t .

Abhinava a l s o h i n t s in t h i s passage t h a t b l i s s ( ananda) oan be

r e a l i z e d th rough su g g e s t io n . Whereas s o r ip tu r e i s g iv en from

s u p e r io r t o i n f e r i o r , and t r a d i t i o n from equ a l to e q u a l , p o e t ry

and drama a re given from lo v e r t o be loved . In t h i s in tim acy

p o e try su g g e s ts d e l i g h t t o th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r .

The seoond term d e s c r ib in g th e supranorm al d im ension

o f r a s a i s " e x t ra o rd in a ry " ( a la u k ik a ) . In a drama th e e v o c a t io n

o f th e l a t e n t im p ress ions of th e permanent emotions th ro u g h th e

d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts and t r a n s i e n t emotions r e s u l t s in "a

s t a t e o f a e s t h e t i c r e l i s h which i s a form o f consc iousness f r e e

from w orld ly o b s t a c l e s . This t a s t i n g i s e x t r a o r d in a r y : i t

i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from a l l normal means of knowledge;

Now t h i s su g g e s te d sense such as r a s a d i i s no t p ro ­duced th e way joy i s produced when ( a man h e a rs th e words) 'A son has been born to y o u ', n o r does i t oome about th rough lak san a ( i n d i c a t i o n ) . No, r a t h e r t h i s ( su g g e s te d s e n s e ) ^ a r i s e s in th e f u l l y re sp o n s iv e r e a d e r as b e in g r e l i s h e d by him th rough h i s aw areness o f th e v ibh avas and anubhavas . from th e fo rc e of h i s sym pathe tic response and th rough h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . . . . (T h is ) a e s t h e t i c enjoyment of r a s a c o n s i s t s in a completely^ e x tr a o rd in a ry (a l a u k i k a ) sense o f wonder ( cam atka ra ) and i s t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t from o r ­d in a ry f e e l i n g s l i k e memory o r i n f e r e n c e . 70

For Abhinava, r a s a ' s e x t r a o r d in a r in e s s i s p roved by two consid ­

e r a t i o n s . F i r s t , th e use of a new v o cab u la ry , fo r were r a s a

b% asso n and Patwardhan, S an ta rasa . . . , pp. 54-55» c i t i n g Locana. 40; S a n s k r i t t e x t in n o te 4 . P a ttabh iram a S h a s t r i , ed .H ar id a s S a n sk r i t S e r i e s , #135» Benares, 1940.

k^Masson and Patwardhan. A e s th e t io Rapture I , pp . 26-27, c i t i n g Abhinava B hara tT I , 2S4.

7 0Ibid.. p. 2 7 , citing Looana. 79»

w orld ly t h e r e would be no need f o r words l i k e v ib h av a ; th e o ld

term k a ran a (cause) would s u f f i o e . In s te a d o f say ing anubhava .

one cou ld have s a id k a rya ( e f f e c t ) in s te a d . B h a r a ta 's c o in in g

o f new words i s th u s th e f i r s t i n d ic a t i o n t h a t th e a e s t h e t i o

dimension i s d i s t i n c t from th e o rd in a ry . Seoond, r a s a ' s non­

s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to th e a n a ly s i s o f o rd in a ry c a u s a l i t y , f o r were

i t o th e rw ise^ i t would have to f u l f i l l c a u s a t i o n ' s two r e q u i ­

s i t e s : (a ) A cause whioh p roduces an e f f e c t can be d e s t ro y e d

a f t e r th e e f f e c t ' s p ro d u c t io n , a l th o u g h th e e f f e c t c o n tin u e s

to e x i s t . 71 For i n s t a n c e , a f t e r th e p ro d u c t io n o f a p o t , one

o f th e t o o l s used to make i t may be d e s tro y ed w ithout th e p o t ' s

b e in g a f f e c t e d . I t i s o th e rw ise in th e case of r a s a : i t s sup­

posed cause comprises th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts and t r a n ­

s i e n t em otions. Once th ey a re withdrawn, th e e f f e c t , th e r e l ­

i s h in g o f r a s a , t e r m in a t e s , (b) A cause which re v e a l6 an o b je c t

uncovers a p re v io u s ly e x i s t e n t one, a s a lamp which i l lu m in e s a

t a b l e t h a t had been in th e d a rk .7 g This c o n d i t io n a g a in i s net

complied w ith in r a s a , a s th e l a t t e r does no t e x i s t p r i o r to

th e su g g e s t io n of th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequents and t r a n s i e n t

em otions. So, when an o b je c to r remarks t h a t n o th in g in th e

whole w orld co rresponds to what Abhinava s t a t e s about r a s a ,

th e l a t t e r r e p l i e s , "Ah, a t l a s t you have u n d e r s to o d ."73

71a. Sankaran. The T h eo r ie s o f Rasa and Dhvani.Madras, 1 9 2 9 , p . 1 0 9 .

72I b i d .

73Masson and Patwardhan. A e s th e t io R apture I , p . 3 2 , c i t i n g Looana. 158 .

The t h i r d te rm which c h a r a c t e r i z e s r a s a 'a supranorm al

dim ension i s c am atk a ra :

T h is (form o f ) co n sc io u sn ess w ithou t o b s ta c le s i s c a l l e d cam a tk a ra : . . . ( i t ) may be l ik e w is e d e f in e d a s an immersion in an enjoyment which oan n e v e r _ s a t i - a t e and i s th u s u n in te r r u p te d . The word cam atkara indeed p ro p e r ly means th e a c t io n b e in g done by a t a s t i n g s u b j e c t ; in o th e r words, by th e en jo y in g sub- j e o t , he who i s immersed in th e v i b r a t i o n of a m arvel­l o u s en joym ent, 7^

I contend t h a t A bhinava 's t e c h n i o a l u n d e rs ta n d in g of t h i s word

i s an im p ortan t c o n s t i t u e n t of h i s r a s a - t h e o r v . I t i s p r e ­

c i s e l y in t h i s word t h a t th e t ran sce n d en c e ( a l a u k ik a tv a ) o f/

r a s a i s a c o e n tu a te d . In V asu g u p ta 's 3 i v a d r s t i 1 , 12, t h e r e i s

th e e x p re s s io n , vismayo yogabhumitea— "the y o g ic s ta g e s a r e

as ton ishm en t or w o n d e r . T h i s i s s im i la r t o what Abhinava

means by cam atkara — a s we s h a l l have o c ca s io n to see in

g r e a t e r d e t a i l in c h a p te r IV. Both e x p re s s io n s connote th e

s u r p r i s e evoked by th e m a n i f e s t a t io n o f a new dimension o f

r e a l i t y . Since camat k a ra sh a re s th e q u a l i ty o f s u r p r i s e w ith

a m e d i ta t iv e e x p e r ie n c e , i t i s p ro b ab lp t h a t i t a ls o sh a re s

t h a t e x p e r i e n c e ’s con tem p la t iv e f l a v o r . This i s ev iden t in

th e Abhinava B h a r a t i :

In th e drama th e a c to r becomes th e o b je c t of th e s p e c t a t o r ' s con tem p la t io n in much th e same way a s (does an id o l ) in th e case o f a w orsh ipper who i s m e d i ta t in g (on h i s f a v o r i t e d e i t y ) .

Thus, r a s a i s th e r e s u l t o f a c on tem p la t ive experience —

^ G n o l i , op. o i t . , p . x x i i .

^ ^ I b i d . , pp. 59- 6 0 , c i t i n g Abhinava B h a r a t i .

7^I b i d . , p . x l v i , note 3> c i t i n g Abhinava BharatX I , 237.

view ing th e drama — a s w e ll a s b e in g i t s e l f c o n te m p la t iv e ly

nuanced ( cam atkara) .

The f o u r th term whioh d e s c r ib e s r a s a ' s supranormal d i ­

mension i s oa rvana . an i n t e r i o r g u e t a t i o n . 7 7 T his i s im p l i c i to

in th e id ea o f th e l a t e n t im press ions beoause th e r e s u l t a n t

i d e a l i z a t i o n of th e permanent em otions i s a l s o an i n t e r i o r

t a s t e . Abhinava e x p la in s t h i s in th e con tex t o f a d i s c u s s io n

on th e sen tim en t o f t r a n q u i l l i t y . Speaking o f th e s e n s i t i v e

r e a d e r ' s h e a r t , he rem arks t h a t th e t a s t i n g o f t h i s sen tim en t

. . . makes such a h e a r t . . . th e r e o e p ta c le o f an o th e r w orld ly b l i s s by indu c ing a p e c u l i a r k ind o f i n t ro speot i o n .<°

This i s th e i n t e r i o r r e l i s h of th e sentim ent which i s a l s o i t s

d i r e c t i r r u p t i o n . A sen tim en t can not a r i s e in o n e 's consc ious ­

n e ss w ithou t b e ing s im u lta n eo u s ly r e l i s h e d . I f i t be o b je c te d

t h a t Abhinava*s r e f e r e n c e i s p e c u l i a r to th e sen tim ent o f

t r a n q u i l l i t y , th e answer i s t h a t t h i s s e n t im e n t , as I w i l l

show l a t e r , i s th e b a s i s o f a l l th e o th e r s , which consequen tly

sh a re t h i s same k in d o f i n t r o s p e c t io n . Again in A bhinava 's

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of V a lm ik i 's w r i t in g o f th e f i r s t poem, th e

p o e t , a s we have seen , a f t e r f i r s t f e e l in g th e emotion o f so r ­

row e x p e r ie n c e s an i n t e r i o r moment o f r e f l e c t i o n th rough which

he r e a l i z e s th e sen tim en t o f sorrow . Also an independent.

77l b l d . . p . $5» c i t i n g Abhinava B h a r a t i .

7^Masson and Patwardhan. S a n ta ra sa . . . , p . 14-2, o i t i n g san ta ra sap rak a ran am o f th e Abhinava B h a r a t I . a s emended by V. Raghavan in h i s The Number o f R asa-s . 19&7. p . l O ^ f f . , emphasis added.

t r e a t i s e s t a t e s :

At th e moment o f r a s a - en.i oyment th e v ib h a v a s , anubhavas and v y ab h lca r lb h av as h e lp th e mind t u r n back from th e o u t s id e w o r l d . (9

Consequently th e t a s t i n g o f r a s a a l s o dem onstra tes an i n t e r i o r

r e l i s h which r a t i f i e s i t s t r a n s c e n d e n ta l c h a r a c t e r . Whereas

o rd in a ry a c t i v i t i e s engage us e x t e r n a l l y , r a s a - r e a l i z a t i o n b o th

engages and d e l ig h t s u s i n t e r n a l l y .

The f i f t h te rm d e s c r ib in g r a s a ' s supranormal dimension

i s p r a t i b h a . i n t u i t i o n o r v i s u a l i z a t i o n . Abhinava views t h i s

from th e p e r s p e c t iv e s o f th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r and o f th e poet

o r p la y w rig h t . On th e one hand, from th e p o in t o f view of th e

r e a d e r i t i s th e power t o v i s u a l i z e tn e su g g es ted sen t im en t.

Since th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequents and t r a n s i e n t emotions

only suggest an o b j e c t , th e re must be a c a p a c i ty in th e sen­

s i t i v e r e a d e r to resp o n d to t h i s h i n t i n g , and to see what i t

i s th e poe t in te n d s . Pandey e x p la in s :

The suggested e lem ents . . . a re su p p l ie d by t h i s power of v i s u a l i z a t i o n whioh p a r t l y removes the s h i f t i n g opaque b a r r i e r which d iv id e s th e unconsoious from th e c o n sc io u s , and b r in g s about th e union of th e suggested e lem en ts which comes from th e unconso ious, w ith th e g iven and th u s completes th e image.

Hence p r a t ibha from th e s e n s i t iv e r e a d e r ' s end i s a response

which i s s u e s in a v i s u a l i z a t i o n drawing on th e unconsc ious . On

th e o th e r hand, from th e p o e t ' s o r p l a y w r ig h t 's p o in t of view

p r a t ibha i s th e i n t u i t i o n o r i n s p i r a t i o n th ro u g h which he

79r . k . Sen. A e s th e t ic Enjoyment. , emphasis added.

^ In d ian A e s t h e t i c s . p . 1 6 3 , c i t i n g Looana. 29 and I s v a ra P ra ty ab h ijf la V i v r t i VimarsinT I I I , 197»

conveys th e b e a u t i f u l — in se n t im e n t . S ince sen tim ent i s

t ra n so e n d e n t ( a l a u k ik a ) . th e p o e t ' s i n s p i r a t i o n must be so to o .

But p r a t ib h a i s more th a n th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r ' s power

o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n and th e p o e t ' s i n s p i r a t i o n :

( i t i s ) in a b roader se n se , th e same c o n sc io u sn ess , t h e same S e l f . . . . in th e p o e t , i t bu rns w ith a p u r i f i e d l i g h t — to sh in e out f u l l y in a l l i t s com pleteness in th e i n t u i t i o n of th e s a i n t s .

A ccord ing ly , p r a t ibha i s a d iv in e impulse m a n i f e s ta t iv e o f/S iva ; i t i s t h e b e g in n in g of complete app reh en s io n which i s

1 ib e r a t io n .

Abhinava a ls o enumerates seven o b s t a c l e s to r a s a -

r e a l i z a t io n , which supply a n e g a t iv e approach c l a r i f y i n g what­

ever la o k s in the p o s i t i v e :

(1) th e u n s u i t a b i l i t y o f the p o r t r a y a l — i t s l a c k of s i m i l a r i t y

t o o rd in a ry even ts and th e consequent f a i l u r e to immerse o n e 's

consc io u sn ess in i t ;

(2) th e a r i s i n g of tem pora l and s p a t i a l d e te rm in a t io n s a s c r ib e d

t o o n e s e l f o r to a n o th e r in a p e r s o n a l manner;

(3) th e emergence o f p e rs o n a l t a s t e s of p le a s u r e and p a in ;

(^ ) th e p h y s ic a l i n a b i l i t y to p e rc e iv e th e drama or poem;

(5 ) th e l a c k of c l a r i t y due t o v e rb a l t e s t im o n ie s and i n f e r ­

ence r a t h e r th a n d i r e c t p e rc e p t io n o f th e drama;

(6 ) th e s u b o rd in a t io n o f th e p r i n c i p a l r a s a t o th e d e te rm in a n ts ,

consequents and t r a n s i e n t em otions; i f th e permanent em otion i s

not d e l in e a t e d , t h e r e can be no con tem p la tio n o f i t and oonse-

ft! —G noli, op. c i t . . p. L I , c i t i n g T a n t r a lo k a . XI, pp . 60- 6 2 , emended.

(7) th e a s s o c i a t i o n o f doubt u n le s s a l l th e d e te rm in a n ts , conse­

quent e and permanent emotions a re c o n s id e red t o g e th e r . For

in s ta n c e , t e a r s may a r i s e , from a d is e a s e d eye or from jo y .

But where th e death of a c lo se r e l a t i v e i s th e d e te rm in a n t ,

c ry in g th e consequent emotion, and d e p re s s io n th e t r a n s i e n t ,

t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t th e permanent emotion i s so r ro w .82

In sum, t h i s l i s t o f o b s ta c le s u n d e rsco re s th e f a c t t h a t r a s a

must a r i s e from th e d e p ic t io n o f o rd in a ry em otion, t h a t i t i s

im persona l , t h a t i t i s p e rc e iv e d and t h a t i t c e n te r s upon th e

permanent emotion. A ll o f th e s e p o s i t th e immersion o f con­

sc io u sn e ss in r a s a .

R asa -r e a l i z a t i o n i s th e b l i s s f u l e x p er ien ce sugges ted

in p o e try and drama. Concerning Anandavardhana1s t h r e e f o ld

th eo ry o f su g g e s t io n , Abhinava w r i t e s :

Although th e suggested sense in g e n e ra l i s th e p o in t a t i s s u e , on ly th e t h i r d ( ty p e of th e suggested sense) known as r a s a - d h v a n i . shou ld be c o n s id e re d as ( th e so u l of poetryJT 7 . T herefo re r e a l l y Bpeaking, r a s a a lone i s th e sou l ( o f p o e t r y ) . V astudhvani and a la n k a ra d h v an i f i n a l l y end up in rasa^ ^3

Abhinava h e re i n t e n s i f i e s Anandavardhana' s predom inant s t r e s s

on th e su g g e s t io n o f sen tim ent — th e so le o b je c t of p o e t ry

whioh b r in g s b l i s s . For Anandavardhana, th e su g g e s t io n o f

idea (v a s tu d h v a n i) and o f p o e t i c embellishm ent ( a la n k a ra d h v a n i)

aRS im portan t p o e t ic d e v ic e s ; f o r Abhinava, s inoe they a re

82I b i d . . pp. 62-73, p a ss im .

^ M asso n and Fatwardhan S a n ta ra sa . . . , pp. S l -3 2 , c i t ing L ocana. 3^.

quently no evooation of rasa;

in cap ab le of b r in g in g d e l i g h t , they become merely a n c i l l a r y to

th e s u g g e s t io n of se n t im e n t , which can ach iev e t h i s b l i s s .

Im portant t o t h i s e x a l t a t i o n o f r a sa d h v a n i i s A bh inava 's

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e Valmiki ep isode o f th e Ramayana. Therea

th e p o e t ’s w i tn e s s in g o f th e s l a y in g o f th e curlew and o f i t s

m a te 's c r i e s i s su e s in a spontaneous o u tb u rs t in v e rse - fo rm ;ah

sorrow t ran s fo rm ed i t s e l f in to p o e t r y . Abhinava rem arks t h a t

th e v e rse i l l u s t r a t e s no t sorrow b u t th e sen tim en t o f sorrow .

F i r s t V alm iki f e e l s r e a l sorrow; th e n i t i s a s i f he were

w atching a p la y . The d e te rm in a n ts a re th e f o r e s t s e t t i n g and

th e a c t o f in te r c o u r s e ; th e consequen ts a re th e male b i r d ' s

w r i th in g on th e ground and th e f e m a le 's c r i e s . Valmiki sym­

p a th iz e s and i d e n t i f i e s w ith th e s i t u a t i o n th rough which th e

sen tim en t o f sorrow i s evoked in him. D is ta n t from th e r e a l

sorrow t h a t he had p re v io u s ly f e l t , he r e c i t e s th e v e r s e . When

t h e r e f o r e he s t a t e s a t Ramayana 1 , 2. l 6 , ^ ^ "What i s t h i s t h a t

I have u t t e r e d ? " he i s th en th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r , fo r he i s

con tem p la t in g t h a t sen tim en t embodied in h i s v e r s e , "Ho fame be

t h in e f o r e n d le ss t im e . . . . "

But i f th e v e rse a rose from th e a e s t h e t i c enjoyment o f

th e emotion o f sorrow, how i s i t t h a t th e so u l o f p o e try i s

t h e sen tim en t and no t th e emotion o f sorrow, s in c e th e r e i s no

sen tim en t mentioned in th e Ramayana verse? Abhinava c o u n te r s :

^ s o k a s lokatvam agatah

^ P a n d i t , oji. c i t . . p . 2 6 7 »

Since th e s t a t e o f mind a p p ro p r ia te t o th e v ibhavaa ( d e te rm in a n ts )_ a n d anubhavas (con sequ en ts) ip r e l a ­t i o n to th e a t ay ibha va p e rm a n e n t emotion) soka ( so r ro w ) , when a e s t h e t i o a l l y enjoyed_becomes r a s a , i t i s but p ro p e r to say t h a t th e a th a y in (permanent emotion) i t s e l f a t t a i n s th e s t a tu s o f r a s a .

Hence Abhinava by u s in g th e t e c h n i c a l term s o f th e r a s a a u t r a

shows th e a r t i s t i o d i s t a n c e of Valraiki from th e s la y in g o f th e

curlew ; th ro ugh t h i s rem oteness th e sen tim ent i s ex p erienced

and t ra n s fo rm e d in to v e r s e .

The su g g e s t io n of r a s a now becomes th e c e n t r a l fo o u s .

S ubsequen tly , a f t e r a rg u in g t h a t sen tim en t i s p e rc e iv e d ,

Abhinava w r i t e s :

In b r in g in g about t h i s p e rc e p t io n _ th e fu n c t io n i s th e su g g e s t iv e n e s s , i . e . , t h e vyan.iana ( su g g e s t io n ) o f th e l i t e r a l sense and d e n o ta t iv e words, whioh i s a f u n c t io n d i f f e r e n t from abh idha ( d e n o t a t i o n ) . °7

He s t r o n g ly r e i t e r a t e s t h i s p o in t adding t h a t s e n t im e n t 's en - i t s

joyment is^ v e ry r e a l i t y :

Rasas a re su g g e s te d ( a b h iv y a .jy an te ) . They a re a e s ­t h e t i c a l l y en joyed by t h e i r very p e rc e p t ion. °8

Abhinava goes on to s a y :

. . . i t ( r a s a ) has a form which i s capab le of b e in g r e l i s h e d th ro u g h th e f u n c t io n o f p e r s o n a l a e s t h e t i c r e l i s h , which i s b l i s s ( ananda) t h a t a r i s e s in th e s a h r d a y a 's ( s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r ' s ) d e l i c a t e mind t h a t h a s ‘been c o lo re d by th e a p p ro p r ia te l a t e n t im press ions t h a t a re deep ly embedded from long b e fo r e ; a p p r o p r i a t e , t h a t i s , t o th e b e a u t i f u l v ibhavas and anubhavas. and

86 / _liasson and Patwardhan, 3 a n ta ra sa . . . , p. 38, c i t i n g

Locana. 8 9 , p a re n th e s e s added.

^ I b i d . . p . 75, o i t i n g L ocana. 186.

^Ibid.. citing Locana. 51» parenthesis added.

b e a u t i f u l a g a in , because o f t h e i r a p p ea l to the h e a r t . . . . s9

The l a t e n t im press ions a r e b e a u t i f u l ; th e p e ro e p t io n o f sen ­

t im en t i s b l i s s . T his im p lies t h a t th e p e ro e p t io n o f th e beau­

t i f u l g iv e s r i s e to th e ex per ien ce o f b l i s s . Whatever v e s t i g e

o f p e r s o n a l emotion in h e re s in t h e p e rc e p t io n o f th e b e a u t i f u l

i s e l im in a te d and th e p e ro e p t io n i t s e l f i s r a i s e d to th e l e v e l

o f se n t im e n t . Consequently when, th rough su g g e s t io n , one d i s ­

ce rn s th e b e a u t i f u l a t i t s c lim ax , b l i s s e n su es .

/_(6 ) 8ANTARASA

Abhinava*s u n d e rs ta n d in g o f sentim ent (raBa) a l s o

in c lu d e s h i s a p p r a i s a l o f th e sen tim en t o f t r a n q u i l l i t y

( s a n t a r a s a ) . This i s b o th in n o v a t iv e and p ro found . As we

w i l l s e e , i t len d s su pp o rt to th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f a la u k ik a

a s "supranorm al" r a t h e r th a n " e x t r a o r d in a ry ."

We have a l r e a d y seen t h a t f o r Abhinava th e purpose o f

p o e try and drama i s d e l i g h t ( ananda) . This i s equa l ly th e/

goa l o f r e l i g i o u s l i f e . In the T h ree fo ld System Siva w i th h i s

s a k t i p e r s o n i fy d e l i g h t ; t h e r e f o r e , man's d iv in e r e a l i z a t i o n ,

th e goa l of th e r e l i g i o u s l i f e , i s a l s o d e l i g h t . Abhinava

b e l i e v e s t h a t p o e try and drama a r e e x p re ss io n s o f an i n e f f a b l e/

t ra n so e n d e n t e x p e r ie n c e . He s t a t e s t h a t Siva i s th e d e i ty o f

t h e drama because th e dance he perfo rm s a t sundown i s an

s9lbid.. citing Locana. 51» parenthesis added.

e c s t a t i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n , w ith no purpose exoept t o r e v e a l joy.

/T his spontaneous b l i s s o f S i v a 's i s p o r t r a y e d in th e dance and

a l s o r e p r e s e n te d in p o e t ry and drama. T as ted by th e s e n s i t i v e

re a d e r t h i s joy i s th e .e x p e r i e n c e o f r a s a . Thus Abhinava main­

t a i n s th e b a s i c a f f i n i t y of th e r e l i g i o u s ex per ien ce w ith th e

a e s t h e t i c . To put i t p r e o i s e l y , he a s s e r tb t h a t th e a e s t h e t i o

ex p er ien ce o f t r a n q u i l l i t y (s a n t a r a s a ) — r a s a in i t s genuine

sense — may o c cas io n l i b e r a t i o n .

In th e Abhinava B h a ra t i Abhinava s t a t e s t h a t l i t e r a ­

t u r e , p o e try and drama cannot c o n f in e them se lves to th e f i r s t

t h r e e g o a ls o f l i f e bu t must ex tend a ls o to th e fo u r th and

g r e a t e s t o f l i f e ' s ends — l i b e r a t i o n . The p a r t i o u l a r poem

o r drama must e x h ib i t peace and must evoke t r a n q u i l l i t y a s i t s

se n t im e n t. ^ When t h e sen tim ent o f t r a n q u i l l i t y i s su g ges ted

and th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r re sp o n d s :

The p u r i ty o f our emotion and th e i n t e n s i t y of i t t a k e s us to a h ig h e r l e v e l o f p le a s u re than we cou ld know b e fo re — we e x p er ien ce sheer and u n d i f f e r e n t i - a t e d b l i s s f o r we have come in to d i r e c t oon tac t w i th th e deepest r e c e s s e s o f our own consc iousness where th e memory o f a p rim eval u n i ty between man and th e u n iv e r s e i s s t i l l s t r o n g .9^

As e x p la in e d in th e p re c e d in g c h a p te r , man's l i b e r a t i o n i s th e/

t r u e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f h im se lf a s S iva , who i s u n i te d w ith a l l

^ M asso n and Patwardhan. A e s th e t ic Rapture I , p . 20, c i t i n g Abhinava B h a r a t i . I , 2.

Abhinava B harat i I , 31^* C ited in V. Raghavan.The Number o f R asa-s . Madras: k d y a r , 19^7» P* 30»

9 2 /-' Masson and Patwardhan, S a n ta ra sa . . . , v i i - v i i i .

1 2 5 .

t h in g s . Thus i f s a n t a r a s a e f f e c t s an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f man a s

in t im a te ly u n i te d w ith a l l t h in g s , i t e f f e c t s l i b e r a t i o n ./_

But from where does t h i s s a n ta r a s a a r i s e ? B hara ta only

m entions e ig h t r a s a s in th e T r e a t i s e on Drama. I t i s s t i l l

t r u e , Abhinava p o in t s o u t , th a t in B h a r a ta 's words:

When a sen tence (o r poem) has been h e a rd o f te n b e fo r e , o r i f i t i s r e c i t e d a g a in and aga in and y e t does no t bore ( th e r e a d e r ) , th en i t i s a case o f th e q u a l i t y known as ' s w e e t n e s s . '93

Abhinava deduces from t h i s t h a t i f we wish t o t a s t e th e de­

l i g h t o f a poem, we must take a lo ng slow walk a long th e p a th s

o f p o e t r y . The r e p e t i t i o n o f which Bharata speaks su g g e s ts a

slow p o r in g over a poem or drama and fo r Abhinava t h i s i s a

m e d i ta t iv e p ro c e ss . Indeed, B h a ra ta even oompares th e ap p re ­

hen s io n o f th e su g g e s t io n o f sen tim en t t o a y o g i n 's m e d i ta t iv e

p e r o e p t i o n . ^ He a l s o rem arks:

th o s e w ithout p a ss io n a re i n t e r e s t e d in ( s p e o ta o le sd e a l in g w ith ) moksa.95#

and

(dkama) sometimes shows (m ystic ) p e a c e . ^

There a re a l s o t e x t s of th e T r e a t i s e on Drama in which

a s e c t io n on s a n ta r a s a p recedes th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the o th e r

93N a tv a sa s t ra XVI, 104, c i t e d in Hasson and Patwardhan. A e s th e t ic Rapt lire I I , p . 26, n o te 1 6 9 : Qaekward O r ie n ta l S e r i e s , Baroda, I I , 193^« (K. S. Ramaswami S h a s t r i , e d . )

^ I b i d . . p. 2 7 , no te 17S (M. RamakriBhna Kayi, ed . Qaekward O r ie n ta l S e r i e s , Baroda, I , 1956.) N a ty a ^ a s tra V II , 3 0 .

0

/ ^ H a t y a a ' a s t r a XXXVII, 5^. Masson and Patwardhan.S a n ta r a s a , p.° 137» n o te 6 .

9^N a ty a sa s t ra I , 109-110. Masson and Patwatedhan, i b i d . , p. 2 3 , n o te 152: kvac'cio chamah.

126

rasas;

Now santa. which haB sama for its Bthayibhava. and which leads to moksa. arises from the igibhavas such as knowledge of the truth, detachment, purity of mind, etc. It should be acted out by means of the anubhavas. suoh as . . . concentration of the mind on the Self, devotion, compassion towards all creatures. . . . The emotions arise out of santa depending on their par­ticular respective causes. And when the specific causes cease to function, they all merge back into santa.97

Abhinava may have seen this version of Bharata's text. This_

finds corroboration on the Abhinava Bharati. 3^ and in the

Locana. 391» where the last two lines of this version are as­

cribed to Bharata.^ Crediting, as Abhinava does, part of the

passage to Bharata, it is not unreasonable to assume that he

may also have credited the whole of it to the same author.

However, it is probably true, as will be shown later, that

Abhinava. actually thought that the passage was a later inter­

polation. Y/hat therefore prompted his advancing of santarasa?

Bharata had given some indications of the unity of rasa and

its meditative orientation. Nevertheless it was Abhinava who

saw clearly that every occasion evokes in man a desire for

spiritual peace, and hiB religious propensity demanded that

his rasa theory be truly transcendent.

However, Abhinava could also point to Anandavardhana as

an exponent of santarasa:

97yatyaa/aatra. G^ekward Oriental Series ed., I: 332- 335, in ibid:, pp. 92-93*

9glbid.. note 5.

We state emphatically (says Anandavardhana) that there is a sentiment of Quietude and its nature is delinea- tionodf the joy due to the weakening of desire. . . .Even granting that this joy is above the experience of all individual men, one will not be justified at all in dissenting to its constituting the unique experience of extraordinary persons.99

Can the sentiment of quietude be subsumed under heroic sentiment

(virarasa)7 No, says Anandavardhana, beoause the latter displays

egoism whereas the former does not. Might compassionate heroism

(dharmavira) be a form of this sentiment? Yes, providing it is

understood that if egoism supervenes, it can no longer be a

form of the sentiment.

Again, Anandavardhana refers to the preeminence of

quietude in the Mahâbhàrata:

In the Mahâbhàrata too, which combines the elements of instruction and poetry in one, it will be seen that its conolusion in a note of despair consequent to (the) miserable deaths of Vrsnis as well as Pandavas, as constructed by the gréai sage, . . . throws light upon the fact that he meant final emancipation as the fore­most of human values and Quietude as the most predomi­nant sentiment in the whole work.101

But since Vyasa's introduction to the great epic claims that

it illumines all sentiments and yet the sentiment of quietude

is not disoussed there, Anandavardhana holds that this senti­

ment has been rendered through suggestion in the sentence:

"Herein, truly, will be glorified Lord Vàsudeva, the Eternal.

^^Krishnamoorthy, op. oit.. p. 9 > emended.

100I b i d .

101 Ibid.. p. llfl.

IPgMahàbhàrata I, i, 256 in ibid.. p. 1 2.

The suggested meaning is that all the topics of the epic —

the tragio exploits of the Pandavas, for one — arise from

ignorance, thus leading one to seek the highest truth. This

is the eternal Lord Vasudeva who is realized in liberation and

suggested in the sentiment of quietude.

Moreover, Anandavardhana remarks, by appending a des-„ / .

oription of Krsna'e genealogy (Harivamsa) to the end of the0 0 0

epic, the poet has given this suggested idea more strength.

This notion — to seek liberation — impels one to be devoted

to God and to eschew the world. It fructifies in the adoration

of Lord Vasudeva. Thus what is initially suggested in the in­

troductory sentence — "Herein truly will be glorified Lord

Vasudeva, the Eternal." — is symmetrically reiterated in the

genealogy of Krsna, since its solemnity suggests divine glory.

Thus for Anandavardhana the Mahabharata as a scripture

evinces liberation; as a poem, the sentiment of tranquillity.

These important aspects have been suggested rather than des­

cribed. In this interpretation Anandavardhana implements his

own Dhvani-theory. It is clear that Anandavardhana had some

thoughts on santarasa in poetry; it remained to Abhinavagupta

to develop them further, and to eclipse Anandavardhana * s in­

sights with his penetrative originality. I shall now estimate

the three reasons whioh led Abhinavagupta to recognize santa­

rasa as the ninth rasa.

First Abhinava knew certain old manuscripts of the

Treatise on Drama which enumerated nine rasas. It is not

completely clear whether he accepted this reading as the

genuine one. There are conflicting illuetrations in Abhinava's

works. In one place he asserts that "nine" is the correct

reading, stating that those who deny the sentiment of quietude

read "eight. in another place he cites the text with only

eight rasas. Again, he speaks of those who "read santa" im-

104-plying thereby that this reading is not original. Since the

chapter on the sentiment of tranquillity in the Abhinava Bharati

discusses the topio "aooording to those who read nine rasas".105

it is very probable that Abhinava recognized "eight" as the cor­

rect reading. It is significant, consequently, that notwith-/_

standing some incipient traces of santarasa in Bharata, this

theory is preponderantly Abhinava's. The first reason therefore/_

for Abhinava's acknowledgement of santarasa is that his relig­

ious proclivity desired its existence.

Second detachment can be seen in daily life. As the

Dhvanyalokalocana reads:

The complete extinction of desires, that is, love for sense-objeots, in the form of the withdrawal (of the mind from every object of the sense, also called) de­tachment, that alone is happiness. The developing of this, which arises from the aesthetic enjoyment of this detachment, when it turns into ai}_abiding mental state, constitutes the definition of santarasa.

^•^Hasson and Patwardhan, Aesthetio Rapture II. p. 60, note 35 »

10^Masson and Patwardhan, Santarasa and Abh1navagupta 's Philosophy of Aesthetics . p. 35«

105ibid.

I06ibid.. p. 120. Text of emended edition of Raghavan's The Number of Rasa-s. Madras: Adyar, 19&7*

130

Abhinava remarks that this sentiment can be understood through

the analogy of someone's being sated after a large meal.-^7

Just as then food loses its attraction, so also worldly pleasures

beoome insipid after we have had our fill of them. Hence, the

ordinary man has at least a basis for understanding detachment

He remarks further that the apprehension of aahtaraea must be

allowed because yogic stages are similarly perceived. Conse­

quently this sentiment's permanent emotion is detachment which

the yogin exhibits; its determinants — acquaintance with pas­

sionless people and with spiritual teaohing — must be presumed,

as also must be its transient emotions. Since santarasa is an

interior experience, the consequents too must be presupposed.

The third reason is Anandavardhana1s assessment of the

Mahabharata with which Abhinava (in the Locana) is in agreement.

Although the first three goals of life can be found in other

contexts, the fact that they ultimately end in pathos is pecu­

liar to Vyasa's epic"^^— which consequently makes obvious the

importance of liberation. This is particularly suggested

through the sentiment of tranquillity when the work is poetically

understood.

1Q7lbid.. p. 9S.

1QgIbid.

109Ibid.. p. 100.

131.

( 7 ) the ABHINAVA BHARATI»8 DISCUSSION OF SANTARASA

It is however in the chapter on the sentiment of tran­

quillity (s'antarasanrakaranam) of the Abhlnava BharatI that/_

Abhinava incisively discusses santarasa. Presuming the reading

of this ninth rasa to be correct he gives a systematic esti­

mation of the five possibilities proposed as its permanent

emotion. The first theory is that peace (sama) has ascetic

practices and Vedic recitations as its determinants, that it

is representable on the stage by the consequent of the absence

of lust and that it has firmness as its transient emotion. It

is objected that whereas the determinants of the seasons and

flowers immediately give rise to love, the determinants of

asoetio praotices and Vedic recitations do not immediately oc­

casion santarasa. If the peaoe advocate rejoins that the de­

terminants — ascetic practices and Vedic recitations —

immediately effect the knowledge of truth, the answer is that

sinoe knowledge of the truth precedes santarasa. these deter­

minants which precede knowledge of the truth are once removed

from santarasa and do not therefore immediately occasion it.

Since the determinants by definition must be immediate, the

mediacy to s'antaraaa of the supposed determinants — ascetic

practices and Vedio recitations — fails to meet the defini­

tional requisite. Moreover, it is not possible to display

absence of lust on the stage. Finally, firmness of mind is

attended by a desire for acquisition of objects, a desire

132.

incompatible with santa.Abhinava evidently acoepts this

refutation for he nowhere alludes to peace again as santarasa*s

permanent emot ion.

The second candidate for this permanent emotion is

disgust for the world (nirveda) that arises from knowledge of

the truth. This theory maintains that Bharata strongly be­

lieved that a new topic should be begun with an auspicious

(mangala) word. But nirveda. with which he begins the Treatise

on Drama section on transient emotions is not an auspicious

word. So he must have had another intention, unless he erred

— which he could not easily have done, since he was a sage.

So his purpose must have been to show that disgust for the

world (nirveda) is both a permanent and transient emotion.

Because Bharata situates nirveda at the end of the permanent

emotions and at the beginning of the transient emotions, it

is the hidden permanent emotion corresponding to the covert

sentiment of quietude; consequently nirveda is santarasa1s

permanent emotion.

However, if suoh a disgust is proffered as santarasa 'a

permanent emotion, what becomes of detachment and meditation

which are supposed to be that disgust's very determinants?

Knowledge of the truth is its determinant (vibhava). But then

detachment and meditation are also advanced as its determinants.

So detachment and meditation supposedly cause knowledge of the

truth which itself supposedly causes disgust for the world.

110Ibid.. p. 106.

11^Ibid.. pp. 120-121.

Consequently, detachment and meditation — onoe removed from

disgust for the world — are mediate. Since, as previously in­

dicated, determinants must enjoy immediate causality, detach­

ment and meditation are not nirveda'a determinants. Again, it

is more sensible to posit that disgust for the world leads to

knowledge of the truth rather than knowledge of the truth tends

toward that disgust, beoause the latter emotion oonnotes behavior

conducive to spiritual realization. Even in that case, however,

nirveda would be the immediate cause of santarasa1 s permanent

emotion (knowledge of the truth), but not of sahtarasa.

If it is said that right perception is a determinant of

disgust for the world, the objector responds that right percep­

tion refers only to a worldly detachment as in sadness, which

is itself believed to be a mode of detaohment.112 The propo­

nent also invokes the authority of Gautama, the author of the

Nyayasutra. who holds that false knowledge leads to true know­

ledge, itself leading to disgust for the world — whioh in turn

tends toward liberation. Sinoe worldly disgust and a'antaraaa'a

permanent emotion are both conducive to liberation, they are

identical. But even granting that, Abhinava retorts, disgust

for the world is plaoed in the sutra not as the direct cause of

liberation, but as a remote cause. Since sahtarasa must have

a direct nexus to liberation, a remote cause — laoking the

necessary immediqoy — does not qualify as its permanent

112Ibid.. p. 124.

H3lbid., p. 126, citing Natyasastra VII, 28.~L a

A third possibility is love (rati), having for its ob­

ject one's own transcendent and blissful Self; when it depends

on study of the 3oriptures, it becomes santarasa's permanent

emotion. For support, the proponents cite the Bhagavadgita 111

17, to the effect that for the man whose love is centered in

the Self nothing remains to be accomplished — he is liberated.

Here the ordinary understanding of love is interpreted spiritu­

ally. However, the corrolary of love is the erotic sentiment

(srngararasa) which indicates that this position either con- 0

strues the Treatise on Drama incorrectly or consciously misrep­

resents it.

The fourth possibility is multiple. Any of the eight

permanent emotions from love to wonder may be the permanent

emotion of santarasa. This presumes the belief that Bharata

admits such a power for each permanent emotion when it is

elevated to the level of a sentiment through the determinants,

consequents and transient emotions. In this chapter of the

Abhinava Bharatl.. however, Abhinava does not indicate where

Bharata addresses himself to this point. Hence the basis of

this position is not even referred to, making it completely

suspect. Notwithstanding this difficulty, Abhinava gives two

objections to this theory that any of the permanent emotions

may become santarasa1s permanent emotion. First, that the

theory's indefiniteness is its weakness. For if one of the

emot ion.

H ^Ibid . . p. 127*

1 3 5 .

/_permanent emotionB may become santarasa's permanent emotion,

another of them may do so too — without there being a specific

requirement for attaining this status. Hence the permanent

emotion of love or of disgust may indifferently occasion santa-

rasa. But contradictory emotions can not give rise to the

same effect. The second objection is that if there are eight

permanent emotions eligible to become s'ahtarasa 'a permanent

emotion, then there would be at least eight s'kntarasas. If it/_

be said that only one santarasa would obtain because it has

only one result, Abhinava replies that:

then even vira (heroic) and raudra (furious) would have to be regarded as one rasa because both lead to one single result, namely destruction (of one's enemy).115

However, according to Bharata, the heroic and furious senti­

ments are distinct. If the proponent starts his argument ac­

cepting Bharata'8 authority (in the statement that any of the/ _

permanent emotions can become santarasa's permanent emotion)

he can not support it by denying that same authority (in the

implication that the heroic and furious sentiments are the

same).

A fifth possibility is that all the permanent emotions

conjointly become santarasa's permanent emotion. But, as

Abhinava deftly notes, different states of mind can not simul­

taneously obtain. The mutual antagonism of some permanent

H ^ Ibid.. p. 129.

ll6Ibid.. p. 130.

136.

emotions — o f amusement (hasa) and sorrow ( so k a ) . f o r in s ­

tan ce — m i l i t a t e s a g a in s t such a c o a le s c in g .

A bhinava 's own p o s i t i o n i s t h a t

knowledge o f th e t r u t h a lo n e i s th e means o f a t t a i n i n g moksa and so i t_w ould be p ro p er to r e g a rd t h a t a lo n e a s th e s th a y ib h a v a of moksa. Knowledge o f th e t r u t h i s j u s t another_name f o r knowledge o f th e S e l f . . . . T h e re fo re , th e Atman a lo n e p o ssessed o f such pu re q u a l i t i e s a s knowledge, b l i s s , e t o . , and devoid o f th e enjoyment o f imagined sense o b je c t s , i s th e s th a y ib h a v a o f s a n t a . 117

E x p l i c i t in t h i s p a ssa g e i s th e pe rv ad in g r e l i g i o u s t e n o r o f

A bhinava 's a e s t h e t i c th o u g h t , f o r he p o s i t s th e t r a n s c e n d e n ta l

S e l f a s t h e ground o f th e sen tim en t o f t r a n q u i l l i t y . He a s ­

s e r t s , m oreover, t h a t s a n t a r a s a 1s permanent emotion i s u n iq u e .

I t i s l i k e th e oanvas o f a p a i n t e r , a s c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e

o th e r perm anent em otions , which a re only in d iv id u a l p a i n t s a f ­

f ix e d t o th e canvas t e m p o ra r i ly . Whereas t h e p a in t s a re a l t e r ­

n a t iv e ly a p p l i e d , th e canvas rem ains unchanged .11** Knowledge

o f th e t r u t h i s th u s th e e t e r n a l b a s i s o f th e em otions. By

im p l i c a t io n s a n t a r a s a . th e f r u i t i o n o f knowledge o f th e t r u t h ,

must a l s o have an e t e r n a l im pulse. Hence as th e e ig h t perma­

nent em otions a re t r a n s i t o r y , so a re t h e i r s e n t im e n ts ; a s th e

n in th permanent emotion i s e t e r n a l , so i s i t s sen tim en t —/ -s a n t a .

F u r th e r , Abhinava defends th e om ission o f knowledge o f

th e t r u t h a s s a n t a r a s a 's permanent emotion in b o th t e x t s o f

th e T r e a t i s e on Drama. He a s s e r t s t h a t s in c e i t i s th e b a s i s

117l b l d .

llgIbid.. pp. 130-131.

o f a l l th e o th e r perm anent emotions i t i s i m p l i c i t in them;

( J u s t a s ) between a lame b u l l and a dehorned b u l l , b u l l n e s s (which i s th e g e n e r ic p ro p e r ty p re s e n t in b o th of th e b u l l s ) i s not c o n s id e red as a t h i r d t h in g . . . . 11°

so a l s o , he im p l ie s , knowledge o f th e t r u t h , th e g e n e r ic r e f e r ­

en t o f th e e ig h t permanent em otions , may not be u n de rs tood a s

a s e p a r a te emotion. On th e o th e r hand th e moot s e c t io n o f th e. / .

T r e a t i s e on Drama d e s ig n a te s peace ( samaj as th e n a tu re o f th e

S e l f . Abhinava e q u a te s th e n a tu re o f S e lf w i th knowledge o f

th e t r u t h . C o n s e q u e n t l y , knowledge of th e t r u t h i s peace

which i s a l s o a s e p a r a te permanent emotion. This can be d i s ­

t i n c t l y en joyed a s t h e sen tim en t o f t r a n q u i l l i t y . The e ig h t

permanent emotions can be r e l i s h e d a s s u b s id ia ry moments o f

s a n t a r a s a ‘whioh pe rv ades a l l th e sen t im en ts a s t h e i r b a s i s

and y e t i s i t s e l f t h e i r a e n i th . Abhinava a l s o i n s i s t s on

s a n t a r a s a 1s primacy f o r he ob se rv es t h a t in th e t e x t o f th e/_

T r e a t i s e on Drama hav ing n ine r a s a s . sa n ta i s th e f i i s t s e n t i ­

ment l i s t e d . He c o n c re te ly shows, in a d d i t i o n , th e a d e q u a t io n

o f s a n ta r a s a to th e t e c h n i c a l te rm s o f th e r a s a s u t r a : i t s

d e te rm in a n ts a re r e n u n c ia t io n and f e a r of Bamsara: i t s conse ­

quen ts a re ru m in a t io n s over t e x t s on l i b e r a t i o n , and i t s

t r a n s i e n t emotions a r e complete detachment and peaoe of mind.^-^-

However, Abhinava cou ld not adduce any drama in whioh th e s e

119 ib id .

120 I b i d . . p . 13 2 .

12:1 I b i d . . p . 1 3 9 .

a e s t h e t i c modes were e x e m p l if ie d . Even in h i s passage on th e

Buddhist p la y Nagananda (Joy o f Serpen ts ) he remarks t h a t

a l thoug h s a n ta r a s a i s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e , i t i s no t th e m ajor

sen t im ent. ^22 A ccordingly he d id no t give ev idence o f how /-

s a n ta ra s a 1b t e c h n i c a l l y su g g es ted in a p a r t i c u l a r drama, a l ­

though he i n s i s t e d t h a t i t i s c apab le of d ram a tic suggest ion .

The want o f sa n ta p la y s was sought to be rem edied d u ring and

a f t e r A bh in ava 's t im e by w r i t e r s l i k e K rsnam isra ( Prabodha-

candrodaya) and th e V i s ^ s ta d v a i t a th e o lo g ia n and p o e t ,

Venkatanatha ( Sankalpasuryodaya) ./_

The argument f o r A bhinava 's s a n ta r a s a th eo ry rem ains

s t ro n g . He i n t e g r a t e s s a n ta r a s a w ith h i s g e n e ra l th eo ry o f

r a s a . He dem ons tra tes t h a t th e t ra n sc e n d e n t r e f e r e n t o f

a e s t h e t i c experience i s th e a tm an :/ _S a n ta ra sa i s l i k e a very w hite t h r e a d t h a t sh in es th ro u g h th e i n t e r s t i c e s o f sp a r se ly threaded, je w e ls . I t assumes th e forms o f a l l th e v a r io u s f e e l in g s l i k e lo v e , e t c . (whioh a r e superimposed on i t ) , be ­cause a l l t h e s e f e e l in g s a re capable of im parting t h e i r t i n g e s t o i t . Even th e n i t sh in e s o u t_ ( th ro u g h th e m ) , a c c o rd in g to th e maxim t h a t once th e Atman s h in e s ( i t s h in e s f o r e v e r ) . . . . I t i s i d e n t i c a l w ith th e c o n sc io u sn ess o f th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f th e h ig h e s t b l i s s . 123

T here fo re s a n ta r a s a i s th e t r a n s c e n d e n t and b l i s s f u l ground/

o f th e em otions, which i s Siva h im s e l f .

For Abhinava s a n ta r a s a a l s o e x e m p lif ie s th e u n i ty o f

r a s a . What makes s a n t a r a s a th e essenoe of r a s a ? I t i s t h e

122I b i d . . p . 13 5 .

123 i b i d . , p . 1^2, emphasis added.

one fundam ental r a s a o f which th e o th e r e ig h t a re m o d if ic a t io n s

and i s m an 's s p i r i t u a l essence in i t s a e s t h e t i c h y p o s ta s i s ./

Henoe as Siva i s one, i t must a ls o be one and in c lu d e

th e e ig h t r a s a s w i th in i t :

. . . th e r e a l i z a t i o n of a l l r a s a s , b e in g f re e from ^en su a l enjoym ents , i s ^ e s s e n t i a l l y o f th e n a tu re o f s a n t a : and when t h i s s a n ta i s c o n d it io n ed by c e r t a i n o th e r im press ions o r em otional moods, i t appears in th e forms o f o th e r r a s a s and i t i s to b r in g out t h i s a sp eo t — v i z . , t h a t i t i s th e source of a l l th e o th e r r a s a s — t h a t i t i s mentioned by B harata a tth e head of a l l th e r a s a s . 124

F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s th e com ple te ly o th e r -w o r ld ly sense

o f t h i s s e n t im e n t . Should th e s a n ta r a s a experienoe occur

during a drama, i t must e f f e o t a profound change in o n e 's l i f e :

I t i s not l i k e th e o th e r r a s a s , which simply e n r ic h u s , p rov ide g r e a t scope f o r our im a g in a t io n , r e f i n e our s e n s i b i l i t i e s . . . . I t means a complete r e v e r ­s a l o f our p e r s o n a l i t y . . . .125

C onsequently , i t i s r e l i g i o u s and s a l v i f i c , th e apex of

A bhinava 's r a s a - t h e o r y . th e d eep es t plummeting o f th e a e s t h e t i c

a p r i o r i , where man c o n fro n ts th e s t i l l n e s s o f Qod.

^ ^ A . Sankaran, op . c i t . , p . 116. Sankaran r e f e r s to th e "n ine r a s a " r e a d in g o f th e N atyas 'as tra a fo rem en tioned .

o

^ ^ u a a s o n and Patwardhan. S an ta rasa . . . , p . 123,no te 1 .

CHAPTER IV

/THE SPECIFIC RELATION OF RASA TO 8AKTI

Of th e two t r a n s c e n d e n ta l e x p e r ie n c e s , one contempla­

t i v e (s a k t i ) and th e o th e r a e s t h e t i c ( r a s a ) , we have seen how

Abhinava u n d e rs tan d s th e former a s th e e x p e r ien ce o f l i b e r a t i o n

and th e l a t t e r a s one o f b l i s s . A bhinava 's thought w ith re g a rd

to th e s e ex p e r ien c es i s a p t ly ex p re ssed in a t l e a s t th re e

te rm s: s u r p r i s e ( cam atk a ra ) , im a g in a t io n ( p r a t i b h a ) and repose

(v _ is ra n t i ) . Let us b e g in w ith cam atkara where th e con tem pla tive

a sp e c t p redom ina tes .

(1) COMMON GROUND OF THE TWO EXPERIENCES

Vasugupta w r i t e s , vismayo yogabhumika. " th e yogic

s ta g e s a r e a s to n is h m e n t ." ^ This p h ra se com prises two a s p e c t s ,

t h e c on tem p la t iv e and th e s u r p r i s i n g . There i s no doubt t h a t

Vasugupta, a s th e founder o f th e T h ree fo ld School, e x e r c is e d

c o n s id e ra b le in f lu e n c e on A bh inava 's th o u g h t. Hence two

p r o b a b i l i t i e s fo l lo w : ( 1 ) A bh inava 's term cam atkara c a r r i e s

t h e same con tem p la t iv e o o n n o ta t io n a s V asugupta ' s ; (2 ) Abhinava'

c o r r e l a t i v e term p ra ty a b h i. in a ( r e c o g n i t io n ) embodies th e iden ­

t i c a l f a c e t o f amazement as V asu g u p ta 's cam atka ra . This

1R. G noli, 0£ . c i t . , XLVI

1*KL.

c o l l a t e r a l term p ra tv a b h i . in a i t s e l f r e f e r s t o th e con tem p la t iv e

a u ra o f cam atk a ra . f o r , in the T h ree fo ld System, r e c o g n i t i o n

means beooming aware o f o n e 's d iv in e n a tu r e ; a c o n sc io u sn ess

which i s a ch ieved th ro u g h th e fo u r means to l i b e r a t i o n —/

Means-Without-Means, Siva-Means, D ivine Power-Means and Ceremo-

nia l-M eans — th r e e o f which a re c o n te m p la t iv e . Let ub examine

c a m a tk a ra 13 co n tem p la t ive asp eo t in g r e a te r d e t a i l , and i t s

i d e n t i t y w ith v im arsa ( c o n s c io u s n e s s ) , s a k t i and r a s a ( s e n t i ­

ment ) .

Both U tpala and Abhinava suggest t h i s a sp e c t in t h e i r— I —

commentaries on Utpala's own Isvara Pratyabhirlna Sutras. In/

th e co n tex t o f th e two p o le s o f S i v a 's n a tu re — lu m in o s ity

( p ra k a s a ) and c o n sc iousness ( v im a rsa ) —■ U tp a la equates oamat-

k r t i (se l f -w o n d e rm en t) , a d e r iv e d form o f c am atk a ra . w i th/ O —

v im arsa . For Abhinava oamatkara i s

. . . n o th in g bu t p e r f e c t s e l f - c o n s c io u s n e s s , i . e . , c o n sc iou sness o f th e Sel,f f r e e from a l l l i m i t a t i o n s ; i t i s n o th in g bu t Vimarsa in i t s u n i v e r s a l im p lica ­t i o n , which i s th e most e s s e n t i a l a sp e o t o f P ra k a s a . . . . As such i t i s c a l l e d Ananda.3

But, a s I have p re v io u s ly shown, t h i s d iv in e con sc io u sn ess may

be ex p er ien c ed th rough th e con tem p la t iv e d i s c i p l i n e o f th e

Divine Power-Means. A ccord ing ly , camatkara i s subsumed under

t h i s p a r t i c u l a r con tem p la t iv e p a th . Abhinava s t r e s s e s t h a t

2 — /K. 0. Pandey, In d ian A e s t h e t i c s . 10b, c i t i n g I s v a r a

P ra ty a b h i jn a K arikas 1 , 5» H»

3 i b i d . . pp. 10b-107. P an d e y 's summary, not A bh inava 's own words; emphasis added.

t h e con tem p la t iv e a s p e c t of cam atkara i s b l i s s f u l and e t e r n a l

when he w r i t e s t h a t i t i s , "a s e i z u r e by jo y , unbroken and con­

t in u o u s s a t i s f a c t i o n . " ^ Pandey remarks t h a t t h i s co n tem p la t iv e

e x p e r ien ce o f cam atkara i s a r e a l i z a t i o n w ith o u t impediment.^

T h e re fo re , a l tho ugh t h e r e i s no e la b o r a t i o n o f t h i s contempla­

t i v e a s p e c t in A bh inava 's works, th e r e i s ev idence in h i s com­

mentary on U tp a la 's t e x t t h a t he does equate cam atkara w ith

v im a rsa . But, as I have shown, th e r e a l i z a t i o n of d iv in e

co n sc io u sn ess ( v im a rsa ) i s a l s o c a l l e d s a k t i . Consequently— M

cam atkara and s a k t i a r e i d e n t i c a l .

Abhinava h o ld s t h a t cam atkara a ls o i d e n t i f i e s a e s t h e t i ­

c a l l y . In th e Abhinava B h a ra t i he w r i te s t o th e e f f e c t t h a t

raBa i s cam atkara:

. . . cam atkara may be l ik e w is e d e f in e d a s an immersion in an enjoyment which can never s a t i a t e and i s th u s un­i n t e r r u p t e d . The word cam atka ra . in d eed , p ro p e r ly means th e a c t i o n be ing done by a t a s t i n g su b je c t . . . by th e e n jo y in g s u b je c t , he who i s immersed in th e v i b r a t i o n o f a m arve llo us enjoyment.®

In th e same work he e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e s t h a t oamatkara i s t a n t a ­

mount t o r a s a :

. . . th e t a s t i n g of Rasa (which c o n s i s t s in a cam atkara d i f f e r e n t from any o th e r k ind of o rd in a ry c o g n i t io n ) d i f f e r s from b o th memory, in fe re n c e , and any form of o rd in a ry s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s .7

/_ ^Abhinava B harat i I , 2 7 9 , in Masson and Patwardhan,S a n ta r a s a . p . 46.

^Pandey, In d ia n A e s t h e t i c s , p . 108.

^ In R. G noli, o£. c i t . . pp . 6 l -6 2 .

^In ibid., p. 81.

14-3.

In th e o o n tex t o f r a s a - enjoyment in th e Dhvanyalokalocana

( In v es t ig a t ion in to th e T reat ise on Suggest io n ) , he r e a f f i r m s

t h i s p o i n t :

The enjoyment, indeed , i s i d e n t i c a l w ith th e c am atk a ra . a r i s i n g from th e R asa-experien ce i t s e l f . ^

Abhinava e x p la in s t h a t t h i s r e l i s h i n g of r a s a — cam atkara —

i s th e very r a s a - e x p e r i e n c e :

r a s a iB th e p ro c e s s of p e rc e p t io n i t s e l f . ^/ _

Now, we have a lre a d y seen t h a t sak t i and cam atkara a re th e

same. But cam atkara i d e n t i f i e s w ith r a s a . T here fo re s a k t i and

r a s a a re one.

A bhinava 's second term i s p r a t i b h a . p o e t i c im a g in a t io n— 1 /

which i d e n t i f i e s w ith sa d v id y a . s a k t i and v im a r s a : i t i n d ic a te s

g e n e ra l ly th e c o a le s c in g o f th e con tem p la tive and a e s t h e t i c

e x p e r ie n c e s , and s p e c i f i c a l l y , i t s own a f f i n i t y fo r th e form er

p e rc e p t io n . G e n e ra l ly , in th e con tem pla tive a s c e s i s p r a t ibha

d e s ig n a te s th e m y s t ic a l s tag e of Pure Wisdom ( s a d v i d y a t a t t v a )

which i s th e i n i t i a l t r a n s i t i o n to th e d iv in e l i f e ; in th e

a e s t h e t i c experien ce i t d e f in e s b o th p o e t io im ag ina t ion and a/ _

d iv in e impulse m a n i f e s ta t iv e of S iva . A ccord ing ly , p r a t ibha

i d e n t i f i e s th e con tem p la tive w ith th e a e s t h e t i c . S p e c i f i c a l l y ,

Abhinava tw ice su g g e s ts t h a t p r a t ibha is very o lose to sa k t i .

i f not s a k t i i t s e l f ; (a) p r a t ibha i s i d e n t i c a l w ith consc io u sn ess

^ In i b i d . , c i t i n g Locana I I , p. 4.

Spra tlyam ana eva h i r a s a h , Locana. a s c i t e d in Masson and Patwardhan. S g h ta ra s a , 73*

a s c r e a t i v e e m i s s i o n ; ^ a d e s c r i p t i o n equal t o th e d iv in e s e l f -

c o n sc io u sn ess (v im a rsa ) which i s , a6 I have shown, s a k t i :

(b) p r a t ibha i s th e h ig h e s t knowledge whioh

. . . i s g ra n te d by th e ' d e i t i e s ' ( s a k t i s ) o f B ha irava who r e s id e in th e h e a r t and whose v i b r a t i n g and very s u b t l e a c t i v i t y c o n s i s t s in causing th e i n t e r i o r e s ­sence to expand,

a remark re m in isc e n t o f th e Divine Power-Means to l i b e r a t i o n .

I f we r e c a l l t h a t p r a t ib h a . a3 I have shown in ch ap te r two,

i d e n t i f i e s w ith s a k t i . th e n th e s e s ta te m en ts o f A bhinava 's may

be reg a rd ed a s c o r ro b o ra t iv e o f t h a t f a c t .

The l a s t o f th e s e concep ts i s a b s o rp t io n or r e s t in an

o b je c t ( v A a r a n t i ) . a term f i r s t u se d by B h a tta Nayaka and la te r

o f te n by Abhinava. In th e l a t t e r ' s commentary on Soraananda's- / v'_ /LIsv a ra P ra ty a b h i jn a S a s t r a . he d e s c r ib e s th e p le a s u re which

r a s a a f f o r d s ; l a c k in g th e p r a c t i c a l o b s ta o le s o f o rd in a ry ex­

p e r ie n c e , t h i s enjoyment i s p e c u l i a r . Abhinava d e s ig n a te s i t

bo th as " t a s t i n g " ( r a s a n a ) and a s " r e s t in th e Se lf" ( pram at.r-9

— 1 p / —t a v i s r a n t i ) . Thus v i s r a n t i i s an a sp ec t o f r a s a i n d i c a t i n g

repo se . Raniero Onoli s i m i la r ly d e f in e s t h i s term a s

th e f a c t o f ou r be ing abso rbed in som ething, to th e e x c lu s io n o f every o th e r t h in g , w ithou t . . . h a v ing any m ental movement, any ex traneo us d e s i r e . . . which comes to b reak in to t h a t s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 2

This sense o f r e s t , o f having rea c h ed th e g o a l , i s a l s o p re s e n t

• ^ T an tra lo k a 5> ^32 in Oonda, The V is io n of th e Vedic P o e t s . The Hague: Mouton, 1963 , p . 3 2 9 .

11” J v/_ / --I s v a ra P ra ty a b h i jn a V im ars in i 1 9 , 10 in i b i d . . p . 3 4 3 .

12 1 —I I , 17<3 in Masson and Patwardhan, S a n ta ra s a . 44.

13

/in m y s t io a l e x p e r ie n c e . I t i s i m p l i c i t in th e Saiva conoept

o f l i b e r a t i o n whioh d e n o te s p le n a ry co n sc io u sn ess . And what

oan one lo n g fo r when one has a c q u i r e d t h i s p le n i tu d e ? S in ce ,

a s I have shown, c o n sc iousn ess in i t s i n i t i a l t o t a l i t y i si / — ' f /

v im a rsa . v i s r a n t i . i f I d e n t i f i e d w ith vlm arsa o r s a k t i , i s

e x p l i c i t in l i b e r a t i o n . As P ro fe s s o r Gnoli p o in t s o u t , v i s -

r a n t i i s so i d e n t i f i e d ; i t i s

th e repose o f e v e ry th in g t h a t e x i s t s in th e ' I ' and . . . th e rep o se o f th e l im i t e d ' I ' in . . . c o nsc io us ­n e ss in i t s o r i g i n a l f u l l n e s s .

This r e c o g n i t io n o f t h e f i n i t e s e l f a s th e i n f i n i t e i s p r e c i s e l y/ / i -s a k t i 1s f u n c t io n . S a k t i . j u s t a s v i s r a n t i . causes r e s t in th e

p le n i tu d e of c o n sc io u sn ess . T h ere fo re v iB r a n t i i s a b r id g e

between th e a e s t h e t i c and th e m y s t i c a l . A ll th e s e term s a c ­

q u ire t h e i r f u l l s i g n i f i c a n c e in th e context o f th e a e s t h e t i c

exp er ien ce in i t s e l f , to which I now tu rn .

(2) THE AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE PROPER

Although Abhinava t r e a t s o f th e fo u r means t o l i b e r a t i o n and

l i b e r a t i o n ' s b l i s s in th e f o u r th c h ap te r of th e T a n t r a s a r a .

he does not d e so r ib e th e m y s t ic a l experience a t g re a t l e n g th .

But he does e x p la in th e a e s t h e t i o in some d e t a i l and u se s i t

a s th e c r i t e r i o n by which to a s s e s s th e m y s t ic a l ex p e r ien c e .

I t appears t h a t t h i s a e s t h e t i c experience has two

b l i s s f u l l e v e l s : th e low er, dependent on th e l a t e n t im press ions

o f p re v io u s o b je c t iv e e x p e r ie n c e s ; and th e h ig h e r where th e

l2fIb id .

1^5.

su b je c t and o b je c t merge. The f i r s t s tage Abhinava o f t e n

d e s ig n a te s " b e a u t i f u l " (c a r u t v a p r a t i t i); a terra whioh he does

not apply t o th e second. Thus i t seems t h a t th e lower l e v e l

o f a e s t h e t i c experience i s bo th b e a u t i f u l and b l i s s f u l whereas

th e h ig h e r i s b l i s s f u l o n ly . A bh inava 's predom inant use o f

" b e a u t i f u l " f o r the a e s t h e t i c ex p e r ien c e i s no t a s t e l l i n g as

h i s use o f " b l i s s f u l " f o r th e same e x p e r ien c e . For th e graded

s t r u c tu r e o f r a s a im p l ie s t h a t t h e b l i s s e x p e r ien ced on th e

f i r s t l e v e l i s only p re p a ra to ry t o th e f u l l n e s s o f d e l ig h t

which i s a t t a i n e d on th e second. The b l i s s p ro p e r to th e

lower s ta g e because i t i s dependent on th e l a t e n t im press ions

i s t h e r e f o r e not f u l l y t r a n s c e n d e n t , a lth o u g h i t may in t im a te

tra n sc e n d e n c e .

In th e Abhinava B h a r a t i . w r i t in g o f s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r s ,

Abhinava remarks

With a . . . com plete ly c o n c e n tra te d mind, they enjoy l i t e r a t u r e because they a re com plete ly absorbed in th e t h r i l l o f im ag in a t iv e d e l i g h t ( r a s a ) t h a t i s devo id o f any thought o f ' I ' o r 'Y o u . ' This im ag in a t iv e d e l ig h t i s r e a l l y not d i f f e r e n t from th e in n e r experience o f o n e 's own consc iousn ess which i s ex trem ely b e a u t i f u l because i t i s pervaded by a g re a t v a r i e t y o f l a t e n t im press ions o f p re v io u s ly experienced h a p p in e ss , so r ­row, e to . T his im ag in a t iv e d e l ig h t i s very d i f f e r e n t from o rd in a ry p e rc e p t io n in whioh th e r e i s always

? r e s e n t th e d isa d v an tag e o f hoping t o a t t a i n th e o b jà e t o f o n e 's p l e a s u r e ) . I t i s a l s o d i f f e r e n t from th e

p e rc e p t io n o f th e yogins which i s a f t e r a l l r a t h e r d re a ry (p a r u s a ) c o n s id e r in g th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s no p le a s u re in o b j e c t s . ^5

Here i t seems t h a t Abhinava r a t h e r sha rp ly d i s t i n g u i s h e s a e s ­

t h e t i c from m y s t ic a l e x p e r ien c e , on th e b a s i s o f th e p re sen c e

15i£a8aon and. Patwardhan, A e s th e t io R ap tu re I I , pp . 69-70*

1^7*

o r absence o f a c q u ire d l a t e n t im press ions (v a s a n a s ) . A e s th e t ic

p e rc e p t io n i s b e a u t i f u l because one i d e a l i z e s a c q u ire d l a t e n t

im press ions o f s e n t im e n ts l i k e th e e r o t i c and th e comic. But

th e yogic o r m y s t io a l i s not because th e r e i s no p le a s u re in

o b je c t s p re v io u s ly ex p e r ien ced . R a ther th e s u b je c t merges in to

th e o b je c t o f h i s c o n tem p la t io n in such a manner t h a t a l th o u g h /Siva becomes an o b j e c t , he s t i l l rem ains a s u b j e c t . I t t h i s i s

what Abhinava means, he th u s s t i p u l a t e s t h a t th e i d e a l i z a t i o n

o f a c q u ire d l a t e n t im press ions of e m p ir ic a l e x p e r ie n c e s i s

necessa ry t o p e rc e iv e th e b e a u t i f u l . Since y o g ic exp er ien ce a t

b e s t i d e a l i z e s th e in n a te l a t e n t im press ions o f th e sen t im en t

o f q u ie tu d e , i t does not meet th e s t i p u l a t i o n , a n d a c c o rd in g ly

i s not b e a u t i f u l . In o th e r words, th e beauty o f a e s t h e t i o p e r ­

cep t io n c o n s i s t s in th e evo ca tio n o f the l a t e n t im press ions o f

e a r l i e r e x p e r ien c es by th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequents and t r a n ­

s i e n t em otions , a p ro c e s s f o re ig n t o yogic e x p e r ie n c e . However,

A bhinava 's remark t h a t yogio e x p e r ien ce i s "d rea ry" or "severe"

r e s u l t i n g from i t s i n a b i l i t y to enjoy o b je c t s i s p u z z l in g . I t

i s p o s s ib l e t h a t he means, as Masson and Fatwardhan b e l i e v e ,

t h a t m y s t ic a l experience i s d i f f i c u l t to r e a l i z e . ^

In th e Locana a l s o Abhinava, em phasizing th e n e c e s s i t y

o f l a t e n t im press ions f o r the emergence of se n t im e n t , im p lie s

t h a t m y s t io a l experience — la c k in g th e s e im p ress ions — i s not

b e a u t i f u l :

The t a s t i n g (o f r a s a ) i s p le a s a n t in t h a t th e c o n sc io u s ­n e ss i s co lo re d by th e l a t e n t t r a c e s of th e m ental

l6Ibid., II, p. 70.

states of delight, etc., pre-existing (in the minds of the spectators).17

Abhinava reserves the expression "beautiful" to the aesthetic

proper. Hence, applying the criterion of his use of this desig­

nation — itself inseparably linked with the existence of ac­

quired latent impressions — it seems that mystical experience

is distinct from the aesthetic.

However, the disjunction of the two perceptions is

weakened by Abhinava's use of the word ananda (bliss) to des­

cribe both of them. For instance, the Abhinava Bharati. des­

cribing sentiment, avers that whatever "is tasted is conscious-

ness alone which is saturated with beatitude." We have seen

that Abhinave holds the realization of bliss (ananda) in sen­

timent as the primary purpose of poetry and d r a m a B u t

mystical experience is similarly blissful. This point was

previously implied in our first chapter where it was affirmed

that the self-conscious creative principle (saktitattva) stands/

in such a relation to the self-luminous principle (Sivatattva)

that bliss obtains. I also remarked there that the second mode /

of Siva's immanent aspect is absolute joy, satisfied in itself,

independent and at rest — ananda. Now, Pandey characterizing

mystical experience, which unites with this divine creative

■'■^SJhinavagupta, D hvanyalokalocana. 51 G noli , 033.c i t . , p . 2>4.

Abhinava BharatT I, 292 — asmanmante tu samvedanam evanandaghanam Ssvadyate. — in Gnoli, ibid., p. ~?2..

.^ L o c a n a , 40, in Masson and Patwardhan, S a n ta r a s a , 54.

ihy.

p r i n c i p l e , s t a t e s t h a t

th e exp er ien ce of b l i s s . . . i s n o th in g but th e ex­p e r ie n c e o f i d e n t i ty , w ith th e Supreme P r in c ip le o f C onsc iousness , th e S iva*n in i n d i s s o lu b le union w ith th e luminous p r i n c i p l e .

M y s tica l ex perience i s t h e r e f o r e undoubtedly b l i s s f u l . Since

a e s t h e t i c p e rc e p t io n i s b o th b e a u t i f u l and b l i s s f u l whereas

yog ic i s only b l i s s f u l , i t i s p ro b a b le t h a t th e former p a s se s

in to th e l a t t e r .

(3) THE HIGHER LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS ACCORDING TO ABKINAVA

I t i s im portan t t o u n d e rs ta n d th e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f

co n sc io u sn ess t r a d i t i o n a l to Hindu theo logy in o rd e r to s i t u a t e

w i th in them th e s e two l e v e l s of a e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e . Abhinava

h o ld s th e t im e-honored view t h a t f iv e such l e v e l s e x i s t : wakeful

( i a g r a t ) . dream (svapna) . deep s le e p ( susupt i ) . t r a n s c e n d e n ta lo_ _ _ — pi

( t u r i y a ) and pure ( t u r i y a t i t a ) . I t i s th e l a s t t h r e e which

a re r e l e v a n t to t h i s d i s c u s s io n . Deep s le e p i s comparable w ith

t r a n s c e n d e n ta l c o n sc io u sn ess in t h r e e r e s p e c t s . F i r s t , in deep

s le e p th e p e r s o n a l i t y i s c o n s t i t u t e d by th e se l f - lu m in o u s a s -/ y

p e c t o f S iv a , but th e s e l f -o o n s c io u s a sp ec t (s a k t i ) i s v e i l e d

by th e power of o b s c u ra t io n (maya) . 22 on th e o th e r hand in

t r a n s c e n d e n ta l e x p e r ien c e th e S e l f , cogn izan t o f t h i s s e l f -

__ 0. Pandey, A bhinavagupta . p . 6SS, summarizingP a ra t r im s ik a V iv a ran a , J>W.

O

^ K . C. Pandey, Ind ian A e s th e t i c s , p . 12^.

22Ibid.. p. 132.

consc ious a s p e c t , s h in e s in i t s own l i g h t . Second, in deep

d leep a predominance o f o b j e c t i v i t y su b o rd in a te s s u b j e c t i v i t y ,

w hile in t r a n s c e n d e n ta l exp er ien ce s u b j e c t i v i t y ' s expansion

s u b je c t s o b j e c t i v i t y . ^ T h ird , in deep s le e p th e im purity of

l i m i t a t i o n ( anavamala) p e r s i s t s — bu t in t r a n s c e n d e n ta l ex-O

p e r ie n c e i t does n o t .

More im portan t i s pure o r m y s t ic a l e x p e r ien ce ( t u r i y a -

t i t a ) in which th e s u b j e c t i v i t y not only expands above th e ob­

j e c t i v i t y but where th e former a l s o g r e a t ly e c l i p s e s th e l a t t e r .

In pure ex p e r ien c e th e r e a re two g r a d a t io n s : in th e one o b je c ­

t i v i t y c o n tin u e s in th e subconsc ious ( v y a t i r e k a ) . and in th eph.

o th e r i t com plete ly d is a p p e a r s ( a w a t i r e k a ) . In th e f i r s t

th e S e lf i s a f f e c t e d by th e permanent emotion th rough i t s ac ­

q u ired l a t e n t im p re ss io n s , bu t no t in th e second . I t i s p rob ­

a b le t h a t th e two a fo rem en tioned l e v e l s of a e s t h e t i c e x p e r ien ce

co rrespond to th e s e two l e v e l s o f pu re e x p e r ie n c e : (a) a e s ­

t h e t i c p e rc e p t io n based on a c q u i re d l a t e n t im press ions ( r a s a )

to pure exp er ien ce in which o b j e c t i v i t y p e r s i s t s in th e sub­

conscious ( vyat i r e k a t u r l y a t i t a ) : (b) a e s t h e t i c exp er ien ce in ­

dependent o f th e se im press ions ( s a n t a r a s a ) t o pu re ex p e r ien ce

in which no o b j e c t i v i t y p e r s i s t s ( avyat i r e k a t u r i y a t i t a ) . This

i s th e f i r s t e x p la n a t io n o f a e s t h e t i o p e r c e p t i o n 's i d e n t i t y

w ith m y s t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e .

23 —/ o/-I b i d . . p . 1331 c i t i n g I s v a ra P ra tyabh i.ina V i v r t i

V im ars in i I I I , 327-S.

2^ I b i d . . p . 134.

The second explanation of aesthetic experience's

equation with pure experience is found in Pandey who explains

that Abhinava's rasa-understanding is characterized bpth by

the complete elimination of objective consciousness and the

preponderance of vimarsa (sakti). The latter is the continu­

ous realization of universalized consciousness or the tasting25 / '

of bliS3. But viraarsa itself involves prakasa ( Siva).

Therefore prakasa also describes aesthetic experience. The

implication is clear: aesthetic experience is the realization

of isiva through sakti with which it identifies. It may be

objected that Pandey does not give Abhinava's own words con­

cerning this identification, but as his treatment of Abhlnava

is otherwise continuously faithful to the texts there is no

reason to assume untruBtworthiness in this instance.

While Pandey's presentation of Abhinava's rasa-under­

standing is both truthful and acute, he does nevertheless ne­

glect to elaborate on the two levels of aesthetic experience.

Perhaps a clearer apprehension of these levels may be arrived

at if we understand the lower (involving latent impressions

and objectivity) as rasa and the higher (sublating both) as

santarasa. Does not the persistence of objeotivity in the

subconscious, characteristic of the lower level, itself point

to the transoendent? Yes, but it is only with the complete

sublation of objectivity that a truly transcendental experi-/ __

ence arises. This profound perception of santarasa. effeoting

25Ibid., p. 103.

r e l e a s e , a llow s a r e t u r n to th e w orld in th e new u n d e rs ta n d in g

t h a t th e S e l f and th e world a re one. But th e world does no t

p e r s i s t in th e subconsc ious , fo r th e subconsc ious , l i k e th e

co n sc io u s , i s t ran s fo rm ed by th e s a n ta r a s a e x p e r ie n c e . The

p e rc e p t io n o f th e w orld must be com ple te ly r e i n t e r p r e t e d in

th e l i g h t of th e new ex p e r ien c e . I f one a s s e r t s t h a t th e r e ­

i n t e r p r e t e d o b j e c t i v i t y p e r s i s t s in th e sub con sc iou s , i t may

be s a id in re p ly t h a t in th e s a n t a r a s a exp er ien ce o b j e c t i v i t y

i s com ple te ly su b la te d . In o th e r words, a l th o u g h l o g i c a l l y

ra s a may be subsumed under th e f i r s t l e v e l o f a e s t h e t i o e x -/_

p e r i e n c e , i t s deepest sense as e v id e n t in s a n t a r a s a demands

i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith the second l e v e l .

The t h i r d way of e x p la in in g th e p u r i t y o f a e s t h e t i c

e xperience i s th rough th e tw ofo ld c o g n i t iv e a c t i v i t y which the

T rika System p o s t u l a t e s . The f i r s t k ind o f knowledge p e r ­

c e iv e s d i s c r e t e phenomena and a l s o ex p e r ien c es a e s t h e t i c a l l y ;

i t i s d e tach ed from p r a c t i c a l e x p e r ien c e . The second k in d

o rg a n iz e s d a ta in l i n e w ith a u s e f u l o r i e n t a t i o n ; i t i s in ­

vo lved w ith mundane a c t i o n . In th e former c o g n i t iv e type th e

l im i t e d s e l f sees th e em p ir ica l o b j e c t , r e a c t s to i t , and f o r -

m u la tes an>. ex p re ss io n o f i t ; f o r in s ta n c e , t h a t t h i s lamp

i s o range . In th e l a t t e r , th e in d iv id u a l sy s te m a t iz e s d i s p a r a t e

f a c t s p u r p o s e f u l l y ; 2? fo r example, t h a t th e s e men a re f r i e n d s .

2 6 I b i d . . p . 1^ 5 .p —1 — / _ / —

' I b i d . , c i t i n g I sv a ra P ra tyabhi.jna V im ars in i I I , 72"3*

Hence, i f one i s f r e e o f th e second c o g n i t i o n 's p r a c t i c a l a t ­

t i t u d e , one p e rc e iv e s from th e f i r s t c o g n i t i o n 's a p p r e c ia t iv e

p e r s p e c t iv e . For Abhinava, we r e c a l l , sen tim ent _is knowledge,

though o f a p e c u l i a r k ind . May he not have had in mind t h i s

de tached c o g n i t iv e a c t i v i t y ? Assuming th a t he d id , a e s t h e t i c

p e rc e p t io n in th e T r ik a ep is tem ology corresponds to th e p r e ­

v io u s ly i n d ic a te d f i r s t l e v e l o f r a s a in A bhinava 's a e s t h e t i c s

— th e s u b je c t iv e r e l i s h i n g o f what one o b j e c t iv e ly a p p r e c ia t e s

in a poem o r drama. This f i r s t l e v e l of r a s a i s i t s e l f th e

lower l e v e l o f m y s t ic a l experience ( vyat i re k a t u r i y a t i t a ) .

The m y s t ic a l dimension o f r a s a ' s h ig h e r l e v e l (s a n ta -

r a s a ) a s w e ll a s i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith s a k t i 's t ran sce n d en c e ,

i s u n d e rs ta n d a b le th ro u g h th e c la im t h a t i t i s knowledge.

A. Sankaran su g g e s ts t h a t i f r a s a i s knowledge, i t must be

e i t h e r n o n - d i s t i n c t (n i r v i k a l n a ) o r d i s t i n c t ( s a v ik a lp a )

t h a t i s , e i t h e r t ra n s c e n d e n t or e m p ir ic a l , f o r th e se c a t e g o r i e s

o f knowledge denote u n i ty and d i v e r s i t y r e s p e c t iv e l y . But

Jag anna tha p o in t s out t h a t r a s a i s b o th t r a n s c e n d e n ta l and

e m p ir ic a l c o g n i t io n :

From i t s a sp e c t as i n t e l l i g e n c e ( c i d ) a re e s t a b l i s h e d th e q u a l i t i e s o f e t e r n i t y and se l f - lu m in o u sn e ss ; from i t s a sp ec t o f th e permanent emotion, such as love ( r a t 1) . th o se of n o n - e t e r n i ty and i l lu m in a t io n from a n o th e r s o u r c e .29

2£Op. c i t . , pp. IO9-H O .

' 29 jag an n â th a P a n d i t a r â j a : e d i te d w ith th e commentary of Nagesa B h a tta by P and it *Durgaprasad and K. P. Parab , Kâvyamàka 12, Nirnaya*Sagar P r e s s , Bombay, 1939 > P* 23*

15^.

The f i r e t manner of t a s t i n g th e d iv in e (parabrahm asvada) i s

u n i t i v e whereas th e second i s n o t . For Abhinava, s a n ta r a s a

i s en joyed a s both k in d of g u s t a t i o n s : th e form er when i t i s

th e n i n th sen tim ent and th e l a t t e r when i t i s th e s u b s t r a t e

o f th e o th e r e ig h t se n t im e n ts .

S im i la r ly , a s th e knowledge o f r a s a i s bo th t r a n s c e n ­

d e n ta l and e m p ir ic a l , so s a k t i i s tw ofo ld : i t i s supranormal /

a s S iv a 's s e l f - c o n s c io u s n e s s and e m p ir ic a l a s i t lead s man to

r e c o g n i t io n in th e v i s i o n of d i v a ' s s e l f - l u m in o s i ty . T h ere fo re

r a s a and s a k t i a re e q u iv a le n t . N e v e r th e le s s , t h i s r e l a t i o n

r a i s e s c e r t a i n problem s which makes i t p e r t i n e n t to pe ru se

t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s .

(4) SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Masson and Patwardhan l i s t s e v e ra l o f each, in whioh

th e former f a r outweigh th e l a t t e r . The m ajor s i m i l a r i t i e s

a r e :

1_. Both e x p e r ie n c e s a re s h e e r , u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b l i s s ( anandaikaghana) .

2 . In b o th e x p e r ie n c e s , th e d is ta n c e between th e sub­j e c t and o b je c t i s e l im in a te d .

3- In b o th e x p e r ie n c e s , s p e c i a l p r e p a r a t i o n i s n e ce s ­s a r y : th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequents and t r a n s i e n t emotions in a poem or drama; th e m enta l d i s c i p l i n e of im press ing upon o n e se l f th e t r u t h o f th e a b so lu te u n i ty of th e s e l f in th e con tem p la tiv e d i s c i p l i n e .

4 . In bo th c a s e s , what f l a s h e s in to co nsc io u sn ess i s not something new in th e sense of i t s be ing c r e a te d th rough th e e x p e r ien c e . R a th e r , in th e con tem p la tive in s ta n c e ignorance i s removed and in th e a e s th e t ic in s ta n c e th e experience o f th e b e a u t i f u l i s su g g e s te d .

155.

Thus in b o th no new dim ension a r i s e s bu t a d im ension h i t h e r t o unknown is r e v e a l e d . The im portan t p o in t i s t h a t a lth o u g h i t i s man who invo lv es h im s e lf in a m en ta l d i s c i p l i n e or in a t te n d a n c e a t a drama, i t i s n e v e r th e le s s Siva who m a n i fe s t s th e new dim ension.T his i s t r u e in b o th c a s e s . I t i s an experience o f g ra c e .

5 . In th e T r ik a School a s ev idenced in _the T a n t r a s a r a . c h a p te r fo u r , im perfeo t knowledge ( v id y a ) must be r e ­p la c e d by Pure Wisdom ( Badvidya) th ro u g h th e d e s t r u c ­t i o n o f d i v e r s i t y (v i k a l p a ) in th e D ivine Power-Means t o l i b e r a t i o n . S im i la r ly , in the su g g e s t io n of a e s ­t h e t i c exp er ien ce ( r a s a n i s p a t t i h ) Abhinava s t r e s s e s t h a t th e o b s t a c l e s ( v ig h n a s ) must be d e s t ro y e d b e fo re a e s t h e t i c ex p e r ien c e can f u l l y emerge.

6 . ^n_both in s t a n c e s , t h e r e i s a sense o f repose( v i e r a n t i ) and o f f r u i t i o n which la c k s n o th in g .30

The m ajor d i f f e r e n c e s a r e ;

1 . The q u a l i f i e d pe rson in th e case o f l i b e r a t i o n i s more s t r i c t l y d e f in e d th a n he i s f o r a p p r e c ia t in g a drama. Even c h i ld r e n may watch a drama, a lthough they u s u a l ly do no t have th e mature a p p re c ia t iv e powers o f a d u l t s . N e v e r th e le s s , a e s t h e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y or be in g endowed w ith a h e a r t ( s a h rd a y a tv a ) i s a more e m p ir ic a l and co n cre te q u a l i f i c a t i o n th a n i s th e d e s i r e f o r f i n a l emano ip a t io n (mumuksa) .

0

2. When one has a p ro found a e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e , i t i s simply s a t i s f y i n g . M y s tica l e x p e r ie n c e , however, i s u s u a l ly t r a n s fo rm a t iv e .

3 . I t i s im portan t t h a t t h e o r e t i c i a n s , exc lud ing Abhinava (and perhaps a few o th e r s ) do no t use th e word ananda ( b l i s s ) to d e s c r ib e th e purpojse o f p o e t ry . They use , f o r th e most p a r t , th e words p r i t i ( p l e a ­su re ) and v inoda ( e n te r ta in m e n t ) .

M-. In one p la c e Abhinava w r i t e s t h a t a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i ­ence d i f f e r s from yogic because th e form er has se n su a l c o n ta c t w ith o b je c t s whereas th e l a t t e r does n o t . 31

^ M asso n and Patwardhan, S a n ta r a s a , pp . l 6 l - 2 , f i r s t sen tence o f #5 added.

^ Ibid., p. 162.

T his remark a p p a re n t ly c o n t r a d ic t s th e p o s i t i o n t h a t r a s a and sak t i a r e one.

Are th e s e fo u r d i f f e r e n c e s cogent enough to i n v a l i d a t e th e s i x

s i m i l a r i t i e s ? The f i r s t of them a rg u es t h a t th e d e s i r e f o r

f i n a l em ancipa tion i s only e v id en t in those a s p i r a n t s who medi­

t a t e a c c o rd in g to e n jo in e d r u l e s . In o th e r words, t h i s d i f f e r ­

ence d i s c l o s e s an e x c l u s i v i s t b e n t : l i b e r a t i o n only th ro u g h

c o n tem p la t iv e un ion . A ccord ing ly , th e e x is te n c e of a e s t h e t i o

s e n s i b i l i t y , s in ce i t does not n e c e s s a r i l y i s s u e in a l i b e r a t i v e

d i s c i p l i n e , i s s u s p e c t . Hence, a e s t h e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y has more

o f an e m p ir ic a l t u r n th a n th e d e s i r e fo r f i n a l r e l e a s e . Against

t h i s I no te t h a t A bhinava 's t r e a tm e n t of s a n t a r a s a i n d i c a t e s a

h igh ly developed a e s t h e t i c s e n s i b i l i t y in th e s e n s i t i v e r e a d e r

which p re d is p o s e s him to th e e x p e r ien c e o f l i b e r a t i o n . The

sedond d i f f e r e n c e a l s o d en ie s th e t r a n s fo rm a t iv e a sp e c t o f ae s ­

t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e . In s a n t a r a s a . however, t h i s metamorphosis

i s acco u n ted fo r . The t h i r d d i f f e r e n c e a rgues t h a t s in c e most

w r i t e r s use "p lea su re " or " en te r ta in m e n t" to d e s c r ib e p o e t r y ' s

pu rpose , A bhinava 's use o f " b l i s s " i s a minor moment. In o th e r

words, in l i g h t o f th e g e n e ra l consensus t h a t p le a s u re and

e n te r ta in m e n t a re th e o b je c t of p o e t r y , A bhinava 's o f f e r i n g

b l i s s as i t s o b jec t can not be s e r i o u s . But, on th e c o n t r a r y ,

i t i s p r e c i s e l y A bhinava 's d i s t i n c t i o n to p o in t out t h i s t r a n s ­

cendent enjoyment as p o e t r y ' s pu rpose .

The fo u r th d i f f e r e n c e d i s t i n g u i s h e s a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i ­

ence from th e m y s t ic a l on two c o u n ts : (a) m y s t ic a l ex p e r ien c e

has no c o n ta c t w ith any sen su a l o b j e c t . whereas th e a e s t h e t i o

does — f o r example, th e c h a r a c t e r s in th e drama; (b) m y s t ic a l

ex p e r ien ce i s i n e x t r i c a b ly l in k e d to the ob.ieot o f con tem p la t io n

whereas th e a e s t h e t i c r i s e s above th e d e te rm in a n ts , consequen ts

and t r a n s i e n t emotions co n s id e re d a s o b j e c t s . Answering th e

f i r s t p o in t i t may be e x p la in e d t h a t a e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e , in/_

i t s d eepes t sense a s s a n t a r a s a . a l s o has no c o n ta c t w ith any

sen sua l o b je c t — f o r i t i s th e t a s t i n g o f th e very b a s i s o f /

th e em otions, S iv a 's b l i s s . Hence as t h i s t o t a l s u b j e c t i v i t y

i t i s s i m i l a r to m y s t ic a l e x p e r ie n c e . To th e second p o in t i t

may be rem arked t h a t m y s t ic a l e x p e r ien ce i s l in k e d to th e con­

te m p la t iv e o b je c t only in i t s i n i t i a l d i s c i p l i n e ; in i t s com­

p l e t i o n i t i s th e open ing up o f o n e 's t o t a l s u b j e c t i v i t y .

Hence i t t o o , j u s t a s a e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e , r i s e s above o b je c ­

t i v i t y th ro u g h p ro found ly r e a l i z i n g o n e 's s u b j e c t i v i t y .

T h is second r e j o i n d e r , t h a t m y s t ic a l experience in i t s

f u l l n e s s i s not l in k e d to th e con tem p la tive o b j e c t , can a ls o

be seen in A bhinava 's d e s c r i p t i o n of pure e x p e r ie n c e :

The n a tu re o f t h i s knowledge i s as fo l lo w s : i t i s f r e e from a l l th e l im i t e d p r in c ip le s , — beg inn ing w i th th e e a r t h and s to p p in g be fo re S iva — and i t i s c o n s t i t u t e d o f pure u n l im i te d co n sc io u sn ess . This i s th e Supreme R e a l i ty , th e s t a b i l i t y o f th in g s and th e v i t a l p r i n c i p l e o f th e u n iv e r s e . By i t every ­t h i n g b r e a th e s and i t i s what I m yself r e a l l y am.So I am t r u l y th e very s e l f o f th e u n iv e r s e , but in e ssence t r a n s c e n d in g i t . 32

/Here Abhinava c l e a r l y s t a t e s t h a t man and S iva a re i d e n t i c a l ,

/t h a t m an 's p e r f e o t s u b j e c t i v i t y i s S iva. S ince he e x p la in s

t h a t t h i s m y s t ic a l e x p e r ien ce l a c k s any l i n k t o th e co n tem p la t iv e

32see append ix .

o b je c t , b u t i s r a t h e r a complete s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n , i t i s s im i la r

to a e s t h e t i o p e rc e p t io n whioh a l s o s t r e s s e s t h e s u b je c t iv e .

The f i r s t r e t o r t to th e f o u r th d i f f e r e n c e — t h a t r a s a

does no t c o n ta c t s e n su a l o b je o ts — i s i l l u s t r a t e d in A bhinava 's/_

concept o f s a n t a r a s a . th e p e n e t r a t i o n o f em otional consc iousn ess

devoid o f touch w ith any sen su a l o b je c t . We have a l re a d y seen

t h a t in th e ch ap te r on s a n ta r a s a in th e Abhlnava B h a ra t i Abhinava

s t a t e s t h a t th e S e l f a lo n e p o ss e s se d o f b l i s s and u n l in k e d to

s e n s e - o b je c t s i s th e permanent emotion of th e sen tim ent o f t r a n ­

q u i l l i t y . ^ Thus t h e f r u i t i o n o f t h i s s e n t im e n t ' s permanent

emotion — r a s a a t i t s h ig h e s t l e v e l — i s th e f u l l r e a l i z a t i o n

o f o n e 's S e l f in d iv in e un ion . This b r in g s in to sharp foous

th e im portance of s a n t a r a s a f o r th e complete u n d e rs ta n d in g of/

th e r a s a - a a k t i r e l a t i o n .

(5) LATER CONFIRMATION OF SANTARASA»S TRANSCENDENCE

The su p ra n o rm a l i ty o f s a n t a r a s a . so c l e a r l y i n f e r a b le

from A bh inava 's c o n s id e r a t i o n s , i s a ls o a t t e s t e d by th e f a o t

o f i t 8 acoep tanoe by two subsequent a e s t h e t i c i a n s of renown

who acknowledged Abhinava a s t h e i r m as te r . Both o f th e s e

t h i n k e r s , them selves n o n - th e o lo g ia n s , were no t always e x p l i o i t

in t h e i r rem arks, a s V isvana tha . But one was, Jaganna tha .

152.

•^See Masson and Patwardhan S a n ta ra s a . pp. 130-131.

Let u s f i r s t co n s id e r V iB vanatha 's r e f l e c t i o n s in. h i s

S ah itvadarpana (M irro r of P o e t ry ) . The d e te rm in a n ts o f s a n ta -o

r a s a , he t e l l s u s , a r e ho ly h e rm ita g e s , s a c re d p la o e s and r e ­

t r e a t s o f p ilg rim m age ; i t s consequen ts a re shuddering s e n s a t io n s ;

i t s t r a n s i e n t emotions a re r e c o l l e o t i o n , r e s o lv e and k indness

towards a l l b e in g s ; i t s permanent emotion i s s e r e n i ty ( sama) .

V is v a n a th a 's example o f a b l i s s f u l mendicant a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s

s e r e n i t y ;

When w i l l th e orows f e a r l e s s l y oarry away th e food p la o e d as alms in my jo in e d hands, as 1 move a lo n g th e highway w earing an o ld , w orn-out, t a t t e r e d and inadequate garm ent, looked a t by th e c i t i z e n s on th e ro ad w ith f e a r , c u r i o s i t y and p i t y , s le e p in g in th e ,j, u n fe ig n ed b l i s s o f r e l i s h i n g th e n e o ta r o f s p i r i t u a l i t y ? - '

This d e s c r i p t i o n evokes a p e a c e fu l p i c t u r e ; may i t not in t im a te

th e sen tim en t o f t r a n q u i l l i t y ? The p h ra se , " r e l i s h i n g th e neo­

t a r o f s p i r i t u a l i t y " , p robab ly su g g e s ts th e ex perience o f l i b ­

e r a t ion .

J a g a n n a th a 's rem arks in h i s Rasagangadhara ( B earer o f

th e Ganges o f Rasa) e x p l i c i t l y support, s a n t a r a s a 's m y s t io a l

d im ension :

. . . because o f th e enjoyment o f th e v ib h a v a s . anubhavas. and v y a b h ic a r ib h a v a s . which enjoyment i s evoked . . . by th e sym pathe tic a t t i t u d e o f th e a p p r e c ia t iv e re a d e r or s p e o t a to r , th e mind o f th e a p p re c ia t iv e r e a d e r or s p e c t a to r d w e l l in g on th e v a r io u s s th a y ib h a v a s"i becomes tran s fo rm ed in to th e b l i s s f u l consc iousness whioh i s th e n a tu r e o f th e a tm an . j u s t a s in th e oase o f a Yogin, h i s mind

3^V isvanatha, Sah ity ada rp ana I I I , 246 in i b i d . , p . 167 , whioh u se s Parioohedas I , I I I and X, e d i te d by P. V. Kane, M o ti la l B a n a rs id a ss , D e lh i , f i f t h e d i t i o n , 1 9 6 5 .

beoomes t ra n s fo rm e d in to b l i s s f u l consc io u sn ess d u r in g deep m e d i ta t io n ( samadhi) .35

Here Ja g an n a th a makes a o le a r comparison between th e a e s t h e t i c

and yogio s t a t e . I f i t be o b je c te d t h a t Jaganna tha does not

s p e c i f i c a l l y m ention th e s th a y ib h a v a t a t t v a i n a n a ( th e permanent

emotion, knowledge o f th e t r u t h ) , which i s f o r Abhinava a a n ta -

r a s a ' s s th a y ib h a v a . i t should be p o in te d out t h a t Jaganna tha

i s p u re ly an a e s t h e t i c i a n ; he does not d i r e c t l y and fo r t h e i r

own sake d is o u s s t h e o l o g i c a l i s s u e s , such a s what c o n s t i t u t e s

knowledge o f th e t r u t h . Even were he to do so , b e in g a v o ta ry

o f th e V a llabh a s c h o o l , h i s r e l i g i o u s p o s t u l a t e s would not a c ­

cord w ith A b h in av a 's . N e v e r th e le s s Jaganna tha does draw a

p a r a l l e l between r a s a and m y s t io a l e x p e r ie n c e ; so h i s views

on r a s a ' s m y s t ic a l a sp eo t can be unders tood in a sense not

very d i f f e r e n t from A bhinava 's on s a n t a r a e a ' s l i b e r a t i v e d i ­

mension.

But Jag anna tha a l s o confirm s s'anta.rasa ' s t ran sce n d en c e

by e a u a t in g th e m y s t ic a l and a e s t h e t i c p e rc e p t io n s . F i r s t he

g iv e s th e evidenoe o f th e Bhagavadgita 6, 21, t o i l l u s t r a t e

c on tem p la t ive b l i s s :

That in whioh he findB t h i s supreme d e l i g h t , p e r ­c e iv e d by th e i n t e l l i g e n c e and beyond th e reach o f th e se n se s , w herein e s t a b l i s h e d he no lo n g e r f a l l s away from th e t r u t h . 3°

3 5 R a s a g a n g a d h a r a . Kavyamala e d i t i o n of 1939» 25- 2 7 , in i b i d . , p . 175, a s quoted by Masson and Patwardhan.

3 ^ T ra n s la t io n o f S. Radhakrishnan (The P r in c ip a l U pan isads) o f S a n sk r i t t e x t d f t e d in p a r t by Jagan n a th a ; quoted by Masson and Patwardhan in ^ a n t a r a s a . p . 177*

According to him t h i s p assage shows t h a t th e t a s t i n g o f d i v i n i t y

i s f u l l o f h app iness which i s s u p e r s e n s ib le , "whioh i s p e r c e p t ­

i b l e d i r e o t l y by . . . ( i n t u i t i o n ) and which t ra n s c e n d s every

o th e r k in d o f mundane joy."37 Second he c i t e s T a i t t i r i v o n a n i s a do

2 , 7 » to d e so r ib e a e s t h e t i o b l i s s :

He ( th e S e l f ) s u r e ly i s r a s a , having r e a l i z e d r a s a one becomes supremely happy.3 °

Thus Jaganna tha u n d e rs ta n d s t h a t th e b l i s s o f th e con­

te m p la t iv e and a e s t h e t i o experience i s th e same, which i s p r e ­

c i s e ly A bh inava 's p o s i t i o n . But he a ls o t h in k s t h a t s a n t a r a s a

i s a n i n t h r a s a equal to y e t s e p a r a te from th e o th e r e i g h t .

On th e one hand t h i s c o n t r a d ic t s A bhinava 's p o s i t i o n t h a t i t

i s th e b a s i s o f a l l th e e ig h t r a s a s : on th e o th e r i t a g re e s/_

w ith A bh inava 's t e a c h in g t h a t s a n t a r a s a i s d i s t i n c t l y e n jo y a b le .

Consequently , J a g a n n a th a 's d e s ig n a t io n of r a s a a s m y s t ic a l a l s o

in v e s ts th e s p e c i f i c r a s a o f slant a w ith th e same q u a l i t y .

To conclude, i t i s a p p aren t t h a t A bh inava 's w r i t in g s

dem onstra te o o n f l io t i n g views re g a rd in g r a s a ' s r e l a t i o n w ith

s a k t i . However th e to n e o f h i s a e s t h e t i o t r e a t i s e s g r e a t ly

su gges ts th e tran sce n d en c e ( a la u k ik a tv a ) of r a s a , a view a r ­

guing f o r i t 8 i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith s a k t i . T h is i s f u r t h e r b u t -

t r e s s e d by A bhinava 's l a s t i n s i g h t s , as in s ta n c e d in th e I s v a r a

P ra tvabh i.lna V i v r t i V lm a rs in i . which d e s ig n a te s two l e v e l s f o ro

37 l b id .

3 gl b l d . — r a s o v a l sah rasam hy evayam labdhva a n an d ibhavat i

mystical experience: (1) vyat ireka turiyat it a — with objeotivity

persisting in the subconscious; (2) avyat ireka turiyat it a — wlLth

objectivity expelled. Since Abhinava had divided the aesthetic

experience under the eight rasas generally and under sântarasa

particularly, the conforming of this dual aesthetio level to hie

dual mystical level naturally follows. This bespeaks the admis­

sion of the mystical dimension in rasa. In addition, both in/

the general mystioal categories of the Trika Saiva school and

in the specific constituents of the aesthetic experience, there

are definite equations. For instance, self-consciousness (vi-

marsa) is equivalent to astonishment (camatkara). and Pure

Wisdom (sadvidya) is tantamount to poetic imagination or a/ _

divine impulse manifesting Siva (pratibha). Abhinava's iden­

tification of mystical and aesthetic experience is therefore

unassailable; just as sakti effects liberation, so does/_santarasa.

1 6 3 .

CHAPTER V

/A CONTRAST WITH SAKTI IN TAMIL SIDDHANTA

Now t h a t we have seen b o th th e c o n tem p la t iv e and.

a e s t h e t i c a sp e o ts o f sa k t i in A b h inavagu p ta 's works, i t i s

h e lp fu l t o c o n t r a s t h i s concept o f Divine Power w ith t h a t o fj

th e Tamil sch oo l, th e seoond m ajor Saiva t r a d i t i o n . Let us

b eg in by i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e Tamil sou rces o f r e v e l a t i o n .

(1) SOURCES

R e v e la t io n , f o r th e T r ik a and Tamil S iddhan ta , i s

comprehended in th e Vedas and Agamas. But th e t r u t h th e y a r ­

t i c u l a t e , th e S iddhan ta b e l i e v e s , i s c r y s t a l l i z e d in i t s own

doctrine.^* And "while th e Vedas a re g e n e ra l and meant f o r

a l l " , a s A ru ln a n t i , a prom inent Tamil th e o lo g ia n rem arks, " th e

Agamas a r e s p e c ia l and re v e a le d f o r th e b e n e f i t o f th e b le s s e d

and they c o n ta in th e e s s e n t i a l t r u t h s o f th e Vedas and t h e— 2 —

V edanta ." The so u rc e s o f th e Tamil S iddhanta which d i f f e r

1 /_ John H. P i e t . A L o g ica l P r e s e n ta t i o n o f th e Sa iva

S iddhanta P h ilo so p h y . In d ian R esearch S e r ie s V I I I , Madras:C h r i s t i a n L i t e r a t u r e S oc ie ty f o r I n d ia , 1952» p« 1»

2 ' >/_ _Sivanana C i t t l y a r 3 .15 , c i t e d in M a r ia su sa i Dhavamony.

Love o f God Aooording to Saiva S id d h a n ta . Oxford a t th e Clarendon P r e s s , 1971» P*

from th e T r l k a 's a r e th e tw elve s e r i e s of poems, th e T iru m u ra l .

and. f o u r t e e n works o f v a r io u s m y s t ic a l w r i t e r s , th e most famous

o f whom i s Meykanta T evar. His s ig n i f i c a n c e i s shown in th e

S iddhan ta analogy t h a t " the Vedas a re th e oow, th e Agamas th e

m ilk , th e hymns of th e . . . p o e ts th e b u t t e r and M eykanta 'e

t r e a t i s e ( Sivananapotam) th e t a s t e o f the b u t t e r .

The poems o f th e Tamil S iddhan ta were compiled in th e

t e n t h c e n tu ry of th e C h r i s t i a n e r a . They e x p re ss th e b e l i e f

t h a t d e v o tio n (b h a k t i ) i s th e on ly e f f io a c io u s means t o l i b e r -/

a t ion and th ey p r a i s e Siva fo r h i s g rac e . One o f them,

Manikkavaoakar 's Tiruvacakam i s so moving f o r T am ilians t h a t

one o f t h e i r common p ro v e rb s c h id e s : "he who i s not m elted by

th e Tiruvacakam must have a done f o r a h e a r t . T h e Tamil

S id d h a n ta 's t h e o l o g i c a l t r e a t i s e s , d a t in g from A. D. 1150 t o

1325» a l s o t r e a t o f m an 's d e v o tio n and God's g ra c e .

The souroes p e o u l i a r to t h e T rika system da te from th e

n in th th ro u g h th e e le v e n th cen tu ry o f th e C h r i s t i a n epoch.

They in c lu d e s i x t y - f o u r anonymous works, T a n t r a s . o f whioh, a s

I no ted in Chapter I , th e M alin iv i . iaya i s th e most im portan t

and t e x t s o f known a u th o r s , a s f o r example Somananda's P ra ty a b -v/_ /

h i j n a S a s t r a and V a su g u p ta 's Siva S u t r a s . L ike th e Tamil

^An o ld p ro v erb c i t e d in S. K ulandran. Grace : £ Com­p a r â t ive Study o f th e D oc tr ine in C h r i s t i a n i t y and Hinduism. London: L u t te rw o r th , 1964, p . 203*

kDhavamony, o p . o i t . . p . I 5S.

3Sivananapotam 1 .2 , c i t e d in i b i d . . p . 204.

165.

8 id d h an ta , th e T r ik a system had i t s share o f p o e ts and i t s own/

d i s c u s s io n o f g rac e . But fo r th e T rika g race i s S iv a 's w i l l

( s v a t a n t r y a ) . i d e n t i o a l w ith h i s Power ( s'akt i ) ; i t i s th e monis-/

t i o r e c o g n i t io n o f o n e s e l f a s S iva .

The b h a k t i m o t i f p roper t o th e poems o f th e Tamil

S iddhanta was s y s te m a t ic a l ly e x p re s se d in th e works o f i t s th e ­

o lo g ia n s . Taking over th e bhedabheda rae taphysioa l s t r u c t u r e

fu rn ish e d by th e m onist Saiva s c r i p t u r e s (a n a ly z e d in c h a p te r/ _

I) and t h a t e la b o r a te d by e a r l i e r S a n sk r i t Saiva S id d h an tin s

l i k e Bhoja, they ad ap ted i t w ith some m o d if ic a t io n , to t h e i r

d e v o t io n -o r ie n te d s o t e r io lo g y . T h is s h a l l be our next t o p ic

o f c o n s id e r a t io n .

(2) THE METAPHYSICAL EXPOSITION

Both Meykanta Tevar and A ru ln a n t i , eohoing th e a rg u -

ments o f th e Nyaya th e o lo g ia n s ( th em se lv es S a iv a s ) , s t a t e t h a t

God, pure I n t e l l i g e n c e , i s th e cause o f th e w orld . The u n i ­

v e rse has an i n t e l l i g e n t oause, because i t i s an e f f e c t , l i k ec /

a p o t . Because th e u n iv e r s e e x i s t s in S iva , th e u l t im a te

r e a l i t y , i t a l s o must be r e a l . The world s u b s i s t s in two mo­

d a l i t i e s — g e rm ina lly w ith in S iv a , i t s cause and e m p i r ic a l ly

a s an e f f e c t .

For Abhinava a l s o th e w orld i s r e a l because i t i s/S iv a 's e x p e r ien c e ; f o r him to o i t i s a change from a c a u sa l

^ I b i d . . p . 203. This i s th e Nyaya sy l lo g ism dem o n s tra t in g e x is te n c e K s i ty a d i sa k a r t rk a m . k a ry a tf la t g h a ta v a t .

state to that of being an effect. But the Tamil school con­

siders the world apart from the bouI whereas for the Trika

they are identical, with the former being the exterior pro­

jection of the latter.

Arulnanti explains the soul's nature from the Siddhanta's

perspect ive:

Souls eternally exist, like Siva himself, and are called satasat. because they are neither purely sat, which is God, nor purely asat. whioh is matter, but participate in both. The subtle, states of the soul are three; kevala. sakala. and suddha. In the kevala condition the soul is formless . . . unable to enjoy the fruits of karma . . . and immersed in anava. The sakala state is attributed to the soul in its con- dit ion of embodiment. The soul desiring to experience sense-objeots undergoes as a result of this experience the chain of reb.irthB in accordance with karma. . . . in the suddha state the soul becomes pervious to the descent of grace and obtains the grace of true wisdom.'

The relationship of souls to God has three phases or conditions,

(1) isolation (kevala); (2) bondage (sakala) and (3) liberation

(suddha). In the first condition the soul possesses anava. that

impurity which obscures by nourishing desire and self-love^ and

which leaves it unembodied and fettered. In the second condi­

tion God provides the soul both with a body and with objects

of experienoe through mayai. which is the material principle of

the body and the universe. In this state the soul can undergo

metempsychosis until through God's grace it attains the dispo­

sition to liberation and ultimately, in the third condition,

^Sivanana O i t t i y a r 7»2-7»3 in i b i d . . pp . 232- 2 3 3 *g _ ~ /

Umpati. Sivap Pirakacam . 20, in i b i d . , p . 3^9»

9Ibid.. p. 204, note 2.

l i b e r a t i o n i t s e l f . S i v a 's f iv e fu n c t io n s o f o r e a t io n , su e -

t© n a tio n , d i s s o l u t i o n , concealment and g race a r e m u n if ic en t

because th ey f u r n i s h th e sou l w i th a means o f o b ta in in g good

karma, g rac e and l i b e r a t i o n . A r u ln a n t i 's dua lism s t ro n g ly

c o n t r a s t s w ith A bh inava 's m o n ie tio p o s t u l a t i o n t h a t th e so u l/

i s S iv a 's s e l f - d i s t o r t i o n , and A r u ln a n t i 's t h r e e f o l d c o n d i t io no

o f th e so u l w ith A bh inava 's dual s t a t e of bondage and l i b e r a -

t ion .

As f o r sak t i . Meykanta Tevar s t a t e s t h a t i t i s in s e p -/

a ra b le from Siva j u s t a s an a t t r i b u t e i s from i t s substanoe10 ' Ior s u n l ig h t from th e sun. Siva and s a k t i . a l th o u g h one in

bGing, a r e n e v e r th e le s s d i s t i n c t . ( I n s ta n d a rd Vedanta term s

th e r e i s between them a bhedabheda r e l a t i o n s h i p . ) This d i s -J ' ,y-

t i n c t i o n i s ev iden t in s a k t i ' a a c t i v e n a tu r e . As Sivanana

Yogi w r i t e s :

The a b s o lu te c h a ra o te r o f God i s sa feg u a rd ed from change, and contingency s in c e h i s un ion w ith so u ls i s e f f e o te d by h ie Sakt i . an< e v e ry th in g i s produoed by th e mere v o l i t i o n of h i s Sakt i . H

^ a k t i i s b o th n o n - d i f f e r e n t and d i f f e r e n t from S iva : as non-

d i f f e r e n t i t sh a res d iv in e b e ing and as d i f f e r e n t i t m ed ia te s/ /

between Siva and s o u l s . Although A bhinava 's concept o f s a k t i

sh a re s th e same d i a l e c t i c , i t s p rim ary purpose i s th e v e i l i n g<

o f Siva a s man and th e w orld and th e unmasking o f man and th e/ — /

w orld as S iva . C onsequently , f o r th e r e a l i s t S iddhan ta , s a k t i/

u n i te s two d i s c r e t e b e in g s , w hile f o r th e i d e a l i s t T rika sak t 1

1 0Slvananapotam 2 . ^ in i b i d . , p . 2 0 7»

^Commentary on Sivananap'otam 5 *2 . 2 . in i b i d . , p . 213 .

r e f e ra to one being in two c o n d i t io n s — t h a t o f be ing non-/

i n t u i t e d (man) and i n t u i t e d ( S iv a ) .

E la b o ra t in g th e n o t io n o f s a k t i . A ru ln a n t i rem arks

t h a t in th e th r e e p e r io d s of c r e a t i o n , m ain tenance and d i s -

s o l u t i o n , i t assumes f i v e d i f f e r e n t names: sadasivam . v id v a .

m ahesvara . s iv a and s a k t i . In th e p e r io d o f c r e a t i o n (1 ) when/ — /

knowledge and a c t io n a re e q u a l ly balanoed s a k t i i s sadasivam .

During th e p e r io d s o f m aintenance and d i s s o l u t i o n knowledge

and a o t io n a re not b a lan ced and each p redom inates a l t e r n a t e l y .

In th e form er p e r io d (2) when knowledge i s p re p o n d e ra n t , s a k t i

i s v id y a . and (3) when a c t io n g a in s asoendancy, m ahesvara. In

th e l a t t e r p e r io d (H-) when knowledge p red o m in a te s , s 'ak ti i s

S iva , and (5) when a o t io n p r e v a i l s , i t i s c a l l e d s a k t i . ^2 Des­

p i t e a p p a re n t s i m i l a r i t y to A b h inava 's f iv e t r a n s c e n d e n ta l ca­

t e g o r i e s , t h i s p e n ta d d i f f e r s in t h r e e r e s p e c t s : (a ) i t s co n tex t

o f c r e a t io n -m a in te n a n c e - d e s t r u c t io n c o n t r a s t s w ith th e pu re

s t a t e o f A bhinava 's c a t e g o r ie s ; (b) i t s a n t i t h e s i s of knowledge

and a c t i o n w ith t h a t o f th e T r ik a 's su b je c t and o b je c t ; ( c ) i t s

b a lan ce o f i t s own a n t i t h e s i s which i s sadasivam ( th e f i r s t

m a n i f e s t a t io n o f e m p ir ic a l be ing) c o n t r a s t s w i th th a t o f th e

T r ik a 's b a lano e which i s sadvidya (Pure Wisdom).

The Tamil S iddhan ta a ls o p o s i t s th e o n to lo g ic a l im­

manence o f s a k t i in th e so u l . G od 's power i s p re s e n t in each

so u l as i t s in s t ru m e n ta l oause; th e s o u l 's a o t i v i t y depends

12Sivanana Oittiyar 1.6^ in ibid.. p. 223.

169

on t h i s power; s a k t i i s in s e p a ra b le from th e so u l as i t s p e r ­

manent g ro u n d . ,^ a s th e eye and. s u n l ig h t a re in s i g h t : th e sou lf 1 li

i s th e eye w hile Siva i s th e s u n l i g h t . God o p e ra te s in th e

so u l th ro u g h h i s power o f g raoe ( a r u l c a t t i ) t o save i t from th e

t r i p l e im p u rity of a n a v a . karma and mayai.1^ Hence by th e verya

f a o t o f o r e a t io n G od's g raoe in h e re s in th e so u l l in k in g i t to

h im s e lf ./S a k t i as g race g u id es th e so u l to th e f u l ln e s s o f l i g h t ,

/l i b e r a t i o n . But th e s u s ta in e d d e s i r e to m a in ta in S iv a 's t r a n s ­

cendence over a g a in s t h i s immanence appears in th e analogy o f

th e sun and th e l o t u s :

J u s t a s in th e p resen ce o f th e sh in in g sun one l o t u s f lo w er b lossom s, one i s j u s t budding and one w i th e r s , so a l s o God does not ex p e r ien c e any change in h i s th ou gh t by h i s c r e a t iv e a c t i v i t y and th e r e f o r e ap p ar ­

e n t ly su c ce ss iv e v o l i t i o n s (suoh as th o se o f g race ) in no way q u a l i f y h im .1®

For Abhinava, a lth o u g h s a k t i i s i n t r i n s i c to th e s o u l ,

i t i s so (a s I have o f t e n s a id ) p r im a r i ly a s a v e i l i n g non­

i n t u i t i o n o f d i v in i t y which becomes unmasked in l i b e r a t i o n .

In f a c t , h i s d e s c r ip t io n s o f s a k t i (g raoe) a re always o o r r e l a t e d

w ith th e dawning o f l i b e r a t i n g S e l f - r e c o g n i t i o n :

Hence only th o se s t ru c k by th e r e l e n t l e s s h u r l o f S i v a 's power, and who have had t h e i r d i s o u r s iv e

^ Bivanana C i t t i y a r 2 . 5 -6 in i b i d . . p . 34-3*

iru v a ru tp a y a n 1 . 1 . i n i b i d . . p . 2 7 6 .

^ I r u p a v i r u p a t u 2 .1 2 in I b i d . , p . 24-6.

^ Sivap Pirakaoam 17.6-S., in ibid.. pp. 263-4-, paren­theses added.

knowledge p u r i f i e d in d e g re e s w ith th e a i d o f th e r i g h t s c r i p t u r e s and suoh o th e r means, a re a b le to e n te r th e Supreme R e a l i t y . 17

A bh inava 's s a k t i a s g race i s no t an o n to lo g ic a l b r id g e betw een

two d i s t i n c t e n t i t i e s , God and man, and i f th e so u l i s d iv in e ,

i t i s no t so on account o f i t s u n io n w ith d iv in e g raoe , b u t

r a t h e r because o f i t s i d e n t i t y w ith S iva . In a d d i t io n , Abhinava

does not s t r e s s d i v a 's detaohment from th e w orld except to say/

th a t Supreme Siva i s i n e f f a b le . On th e c o n t r a r y , as I have

p re v io u s ly shown, h i s t re a tm e n t o f ^ a k t i as th e c o n tem p la tiv e

v i s io n o f b l i s s r e t u r n i n g th e l i m i t e d sou l to p len a ry c o n sc io u s ­

n e s s , u n d e rsc o re s th e e m p ir ic a l a s p e c t of God's power.

The Tamil S iddhan ta b e l i e v e s t h a t th e s o u l ' s o n to lo g ic a l

co n n ec tio n w ith d i v i n i t y both w a r ra n ts grace and depends on i t .

On th e one hand, b ecause th e so u l i s e t e r n a l l y in se p a ra b le from

God, g rac e i s p ro p er to i t s n a tu r e . On th e o t h e r , w ith ou t th e /

a s s i s t a n c e o f S iv a 's f iv e a c t i v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y h i s l i b e r a t i n g/ . _

g rac e , th e so u l cannot p u r i f y i t s e l f . Siva b r in g s samsara

in to e x is te n c e f o r th e so le purpose o f a f f o r d i r g th e so u l th e

grace o f l i b e r a t i o n . From i t s embodied s t a t e th rough i t s un­

embodied th e sou l i s c o n tin u o u s ly jo in e d to God's g race .

A bhinava 's id e a t h a t g raoe p u r i f i e s d i s c u r s iv e o o g n i t io n

compares w ith A r u ln a n t i 's t h a t l i b e r a t i n g g race d e s tro y s d e f i l e ­

m ents. But Abhinava d i f f e r s by u n d e rs ta n d in g t h a t th e so u l i s

not u n i te d to God by g ra c e ; th e so u l i s God, a l b e i t h id d en from

^ T a n t r a s a r a , p . 2 3 , see appendix , ( c h a p te r fo u r)

h im s e lf ; hence g race i s p r im a r i ly th e i n t u i t i o n o f o n e 's own

d i v i n i t y .

(3) GRACE AND DEVOTION (BHAKTI)

T his b r in g s us to th e S id d h a n ta 's d o c t r in e of g ra c e ,

in th e d is o u s s io n o f which we w i l l see fo u r m ajor p o in ts o f

c o n t r a s t between i t s concept o f s a k t i and th e T r i k a 's : ( l ) Tamil

s a k t i i s p r im a r i ly a r u l c a t t i . o r God's love a s g ra c e , p a r t i o u -

l a r l y t h a t o f l i b e r a t i o n ; T r ik a 's s a k t i i s b l i s s f u l s e l f - r e a l i ­

z a t io n . ( 2 ) The form er n o t io n conduces to a d e v o tio n a l and

e f f u s iv e a t t i t u d e whereas th e l a t t e r le a d s t o peace and s e l f ­

con ta inm en t. (3) Tamil m e d i ta t io n causes a deep coalesoenoe

between two d i s t i n c t b e in g s , God and man; T r i k a 's con tem p la tive

a s c e s i s e f f e c t s a m o n is t ic r e c o g n i t io n o f o n e 's own d i v i n i t y .

(4-) Tamil s a k t i as a r u l c a t t i s t r e s s e s God's lo v in g in te r v e n t io n ;m

T rik a s a k t i u n d e rsco re s m an's own e f f o r t ( a l th o u g h s e t in m otion/

by th e h a rd h u r l of S i v a 's Power).

A ru ln a n t i d e s c r ib e s g rac e a s a m u l t ip le a t t r i b u t e o f/

th e Godhead. He w r i t e s o f Siva t h a t :

Hie form i s g ra c e , h i s a t t r i b u t e s a re g ra c e ,His fu n c t io n s a r i s e from g ra c e , h i s l im bs a re g ra c e ;And his grace is for all the souls and not for himself.

The so u l o n to lo g ic a l ly p a r t i c i p a t e s in t h i s g rac e th rough whioh

God essentially penetrates the soul, and which ensures the soul's

^ S lv a n a n a O i t t iy a r 1.4-7 a s o i t e d in S. K ulandran, op .p i t . , p . 20S.

f u r t h e r a s s i m i l a t i o n in to th e d iv in e . B e lie v in g t h a t God

a lo n e can e f f e c t l i b e r a t i o n , th e S iddhan tin esohews h i s own

e f f o r t tow ard s th e g o a l to seek God's fa v o r . Meykanta TevarO 1»

s t a t e s t h a t

on ly by se e in g God, and b e in g helped by h i s g rao e , i s th e bouI e n ab led to r e a l i z e i t s t r u e n a t u r e . l 9

Thus th e p o s t u l a t e t h a t th e so u l i s o n to lo g ic a l ly In se p a ra b le

from God le a d s to th e deep r e l i g i o u s sense o f dependence on

him — e x p re sse d in i t s s u p p l i c a t io n fo r h i s f a v o r .

This p ie ty i s i n i t i a t e d by God's power in s p i r in g th e

so u l . As th e Mrgendragama p u ts i t :O

By th e descen t o f grace upon them b hak t i i s engendered in so u ls — 20

an idea which compares w ith t h a t o f A b h in av a 's , a coo rd in g to

which "on ly th o se s t ru o k by th e r e l e n t l e s s h u r l o f S iv a 's/

power . . . a re a b le to e n te r in to th e Supreme R e a l i ty . " Siva

in te n d s t o l e a d th e so u l to l i b e r a t i o n th rou gh i t s p ro g re s s iv e

d e v o tio n a l re sp o n se . God's c a l l and th e s o u l ' s answer to g e th e r

evoke th e l i b e r a t i n g g ra c e , e f f e c t i n g the r e a l i z a t i o n o f God's

in t im a te u n io n w ith th e so u l . This i s th e b l i s s f u l ex p e r ien c e

o f th e s o u l ' s a c tu a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d iv in e l i f e . The g race /

which Siva co n fe rs on t h e sou l i s th e u n d e rs ta n d in g of God's

g re a t lo v e which i t s e l f evokes m an 's re sp o n se . Consequently i t

i s not on ly em otional e f f u s io n , b u t a c o n tin u o u s ly enhanoed

•9sivananapotam 9 .1 .1 . as oited by Dhavamony, 0£. oit..p . 2 1 5 .

20M rg en d rag am a 5 , if. c i t e d i n i b i d . . p . 1 2 0 .

consciousness of God's love, that expresses its delight in this

all-giving Being. Wisdom and love unite in falling in adoration/

before and seeking unity with Siva./

The soul, on its part, becomes dedicated to Siva, so

as "to cling to the Lord's feet", and "to beg for the grace of

melting one's heart and mind."2 The first phrase, from the

Tirukkural. one of the earliest Dravidian writings, and the

second, from the Tiruvacakam. the most poignant Tamil poem,

express both humility and the longing for rapture. And

Manikkavacakar rhapsodically prays:

Give me grace that oeaseless love for you may abide in the inmost of my heart, melting (in love) my very soul. 2

He is cognizant of his need for the touch of divine life whioh

quickens his ontological union into an intuitive one. His/

passionate longing for Siva's graoe reaches its consummation.

when he writes:

I ask not kin, nor name, nor plaoe Nor learned men's society

Men's lore for me no value hasKuttalam's lord, I come to Thee.

Wilt thou one boon on me bestow,A heart to melt in longing sweet

As yearn o'er new born calf the cow2_In yearning for Thy saored feet? *

These poems understandably find no parallel in Abhinavagupta's

2^Tiruvaoakam 111 Ibid.. p. Ib3*

22 Ibid.

2 F. Kingsbury and G. E. Phillips, Trs. Hymns of the Tamil Saivite Saints. London: Oxford University Press, 1921, p. 125.

17*

thought. Neither the Kashmiri theologian nor any poet of the

Trika persuasion could express himself with a like devotional

warmth because the Trika teaohing does not exalt bhakti due to

its recognition of the partial effioaoy of man's own effort in

contemplative discipline and in aesthetic experience.

The Tamil school also defines liberation in triple

fashion. It is: (1) the apex of devotion; (2) surrender to/S iva; (3 ) un ion w ith him! Regarding th e f i r s t meaning,

Meykanta Tevar s a y s :a o

love of Hara makes souls able never to forget him.i.e. oonstantly know him and be united with him,^*

and Manikkavacakar agrees:

Love joined me to your feet in mystic union. . . . 5

The means and end of liberation are the same — devotion. It

is important that the distinctive grace of liberation which /Siva imparts to the soul is arulcatti. God's power as grace;•" 'it is the communication of God's love to the soul in realized

26union, the clear vision of what had been previously murky in

God's initiating grace. Concerning the second definition,

Meykanta Tevar writes that freed souls remain subject to Siva

and are in many ways his servants. ^ With respect to the

third, he asserts that God becomes Inseparably united with the

^*3ivanananbtam 11.2 in Dhavamony, o]d. cit., p. 222.

^ Tiruvacakam 5»71 ibid.. p. 362.

^ Sivap Pirakaoam, 50 ibid., p. 27*.

^ 8ivanananbtam 1.3»3* ibid.. p. 222.

1 7 5 .

so u l when th e soul lo v in g ly co n tem pla tes h im .2^

Ahhinava does no t share any o f th e se n o t io n s . His

concept o f l i b e r a t i o n se e s s a k t i a s th e o on tem p la tive u n d e r-/

s ta n d in g t h a t ".I am S i v a . ” Siva and man a re i d e n t i c a l , not

j u s t u n i t e d . We now co n fro n t th e d e a r e s t p o in t o f c o n t r a s t

between th e two system s — th e r e l a t i o n of God and th e so u l

in l i b e r a t i o n .

/(4-) THE RELATION OF SIVA AND THE SOUL

IN LIBERATION

Meykanta Tevar ho ld s t h a t in l i b e r a t i o n God i s oneo *

w ith so u ls b u t a ls o d i f f e r e n t from them: one as th e so u l i s

w ith th e body, d i f f e r e n t a s th e sun and eye in v i s i o n . 29 yox

Meykanta t h i s dual r e l a t i o n s h ip i s a d v a i t a . "not tw o ."20 He

d ism isse s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s word a s "one" because

th e tho ug h t o f one, s in c e i t i s d i s c u r s iv e , i s a lre a d y tw o:

There i s th e th in k e r and th e th o u g h t . Meykanta w r i te s t h a t

God who i s one w ith th e s o u l , i s not th e sou l i t s e l f ; God can be one w ith th e s o u l . but th e so u l can n o t become God. ? 1

And t h a t/

th e moment when th e sou l r e a l i z e s t h a t Siva has a lw ays s tood in an a d v a i ta r e l a t i o n w ith i t s e l f and

2 gI b i d . . 2 .1 .4 - . , p . 223 .

Sivananapotam 1 .7 0 in i b i d . . p. 3 5 0 *

2° I b i d . , 2 . 1 . , p . 205 .

^ I b i d . , 2 . 1 . 1 . , p . 3 5 0 , e m p h a s i s a d d e d .

1 76

t h a t Siva has been and i s th e re b y th e Prime Mover o f a l l , . . . th e so u l a c c o rd in g ly makes i t s ad jus tm en t by s u r r e n d e r in g i t s e l f t o H is w i l l . . . ,3 2

To e x p la in t h i s r e l a t i o n o f God and th e s o u l , Umapati,

a n o th e r S id d h a n tin , in tro d u c e s th e id ea of a m y s tio a l m a r r ia g e :

As two women can not be u n i t e d in m a r i t a l love b u t on ly human b e in g s o f o p p o s i te se x es , so th e sou l (m y s t ic b r id e ) th rough g ra c e can be u n i te d in lo v e w ith God ( t h e m ystic bridegroom).22

But concom itan t w ith t h e i r d i s j u n c t i o n i s t h e i r un ion th ro u g h/

lo v e — S i v a 's i n i t i a t i n g g race and th e s o u l ' s spontaneous

re sp o n se .

Manikkavacakar a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s d u a l theme o fa

u n io n and d i s t i n c t i o n :

T h is s t a t e ( o f supreme b l i s s ) can no t be a t t a i n e d u n le s s my Lord e n te r s in to me. E n te r in g w i th in my b r e a s t he (God) made me h i s .

and

What you ( Godl^.have g iven i s you, and what you have g a in e d i s me.?

W ith in Tamil S id d h a n ta '6 th e o lo g ic a l e x p o s i t io n , which

c u lm in a te s in t h i s d u a l i s t i c r e l a t i o n o f God and man in l i b e r a ­

t i o n , l e t u s now summarize s a k t i ' s r o l e . I have a lre a d y

in d ic a te d s i x o f i t s a s p e c t s :

1 . I t i s th e in s t ru m e n ta l cause o f th e w orld ./

2 . I t i s in s e p a ra b le from Siva a s sun from s u n l i g h t .

32Sivanananotam 10 a s c i t e d in P i e t , op . c i t . . p . 42.

33t i ru v a ru tp a y a n ( F r u i t o f D ivine G race) S .2 in Dhava— mony, o p . p i t . , ppl 284-5»

3^tiruvaoakam 49*2, 13*17 and 22,10 in i b i d . . pp . 360 and 1 6 9 ; emphasis added by Dhavamony, r e t a in e d by me.

177.

/3* I t i s th e i n t e r i o r dynamism o f S iva .

4 . I t i s S iv a 's m e d ia to r i a l power v i s - a - v i s th e w orld ./

5» I t i s S iv a 's g race o n to lo g i c a l ly u n i te d w ith th e s o u l .

6 . As a more s p e c i f i c a sp eo t o f i t s m e d ia to r i a l f u n c t io n , i t/

i s S i v a 's power t o perform th e f i v e a c t io n s o f o r e a t io n ,

p r e s e r v a t io n , d e s t r u c t i o n , concealm ent and th e bestow al o f th e

grace o f l i b e r a t i o n .

This l a s t a c t i v i t y i s most pronounced in th e works b o th o f th e

p o e ts and o f th e t h e o lo g ia n s . And th e r e a re good rea so n s fo r/

b e l i e v in g t h a t l i b e r a t i n g g race i s th e c r u c i a l a sp e c t o f s a k t i .

Since th e S iddhanta p o s t u l a t e s God's o n to lo g ic a l immanence in

th e so u l th rough g ra c e , t h i s u n r e a l iz e d un ion can a p p r o p r ia te ly

be m a n ife s te d to th e so u l only th ro u g h th e same u n ify in g means.

S iv a 's power o f graoe — a s p e c i f i c form of s a k t i ( a r u l c a t t 1) —m

desoends on th e d evo tee in l i b e r a t i o n , and th e in tim a te o n to ­

l o g i c a l un ion of God and th e sou l i s m y s t ic a l ly r e a l i z e d , a l ­

though w ith o u t fu s io n o f i d e n t i t i e s . Since t h i s l i b e r a t i n g/ 1

grace i s an a sp ec t o f s a k t i . in s e p a ra b le from S iva , i t may be/

s a id t h a t a r u l c a t t i u n i t e s th e so u l w ith S iva ; hence a r u l c a t t i« o

i s th e means to co n te m p la t iv e u n io n .

Abhinava a g re e s w ith th e Tamil concept o f s a k t i in i t s

f i r s t fo u r a s p e c t s . But th e f i f t h and s ix th a sp e c t c o n s t i t u t e

th e m a tr ix o f th e Tamil s c h o o l 's d e v o tio n a l o r i e n t a t i o n . To

them Abhinava does n o t accede , f o r t h e i r u n d e r ly in g assump- /

t i o n s — S i v a 's d i s t i n c t i o n from man and h i s co nnec tion w ith

man th ro u g h g race — c o n t r a d ic t th e T r ik a 's m o n is t io p o s i t i o n .

Abhinava does not greatly discuss grace in Itself beoause

such a treatment would call attention to the point of its

origin, God as other. a tenet which he finds unacceptable.

In sum, the contrast between Tamil Siddhanta's notion

of sakti and Abhinava*s lies in the latter's unique concern

with the peaoeful self-realization attainable to some extent

through man's own efforts in contemplative discipline and in

the aesthetio experience of quietude.

RECAPITULATION

We have seen that from the inoeption of the worship/

of Siva from ahout the end of the fourth milennium B.C. until

almost the end of the first milennium A.D. no distinguished

^aiva systematic theologian emerged. Around that date, in/

Abhinavagupta, Salvism gained its first great thinker. The

Kashmiri ac a rya shaped his theory of liberation in olose con­

nection with his concept of Divine Power, an idea first ex-/ _ /

pressed in the Svetasvatara Upanisad. He defined this Powerm

as the means whereby God veils his majesty to experience

himself as man and the world and also as the way of man's

recognizing hie true divinity. In elaborating Divine Power's

revealing side Abhinava disclosed two equally important as­

pects, the contemplative and the aesthetic.

The first aspect is evident in three means to libera-/

tion taught by the Trika School: Divine Power-Heans, Siva-

Means and Means-Without-Means. Focusing on the Divine Power-i /

Means, Abhinava discussed Siva'B Twelve Saktie, who are his

goddesses, the divisions of his Power, which itself is but his/ /

hypostasis. These Saktis are Biva's circular manifestation

in contemplative consciousness and the revelation of God's

liberating grace. Assuming suoh concrete forms as Kali, the

Temptress and the Terrifying Goddess, they appear in a whirling

cirole of light and cause the devotee to recognize himself as

the Lord.

Divine Power's second aspect is manifest in the senti­

ment of tranquillity. Abhinava demonstrated that the trans-/

cendental basis of aesthetic perception is the Self — Siva./

The experience of Siva — liberation — may be realized through

watohing a drama or reading a poem which suggests the sentiment

of tranquillity. The permanent emotion of this sentiment is

knowledge of the Self; when this knowledge is realized through

the determinants, consequents and transient emotions, libera­

tion ensues.

In describing both the contemplative and aesthetio

experiences, Abhinava used at least three terms of identical

meaning — camatkara, pratibha. visranti — thus equating the

two perceptions. He also postulated a two-level struoture of

aesthetic experienoe — the first requiring latent impressions

of objeotive experiences (rasa) and the second (aantaraaa)

not — with the former passing into the latter (a mystical

experience of liberation). In experiencing the sentiment of

tranquillity, the sensitive aesthete recognizes himself as

Siva just as the devotee does in oontemplative discipline./Siva's liberating Power may therefore be attained both

in meditative ascesis and in the aesthetic experienoe of tran­

quillity, which itself is contemplatively nuanoed. And al-t

though Siva's Power as grace appears in meditation as the

rotating mandala of twelve goddesses, Abhinava does not empha­

size its gratuitousness. Rather, in both contemplation and

aesthetlo perception he calls attention to the monistic intu-/

it ion of oneself as the Supreme Siva. For Abhinava therefore/sakti uncovers man's full reality as God.

The Tamil Siddhanta's understanding of the same con­

cept is quite different from Abhinava's. Although the former's

primary emphasis is also oontemplative, the object of medita­

tion is not monistic apprehension of one's divinity but further/

understanding of God's love for man. Though Siva and man are/

distinct, man can progressively approach Siva through his grace,

which is the ontological basis of man's soul. Believing that

God is all-gracious, the devotee eschews his own efforts for

liberation and seeks God's grace instead. He acknowledges his

dependence on God, beoomes devoted to him and begs to cling to

his feet. Even in liberation the soul is intensely absorbed

in loving God, as is so movingly expressed in Manikkavaoakar's

poetry. Consequently, for the Tamil Saivas sakti illustrates

love of God. Whereas Abhinava's contemplative union is peace­

ful and self-contained, Tamil Siddhanta's is loving and effu-/

sive. Abhinava'a sakt i effeots monistic recognition but the

Tamil Siddhanta's oauses an . intense union between two distinct

beings, God and man. And while Trika acknowledges man's ef­

fort on the way to liberation, for Tamil Siddhanta this effort/

is even less recognized, Siva's graoe being almost wholly

efficaoious for liberation.

/In sum, Abhinava's ooncept of saktl stresses monistic

absorption in God's tranquillity whioli is realized in two ways:

(1) through the perception of the sentiment of tranquillity;

(2) through the appearance of the Twelve Saktis in the Divine

Power-Means to liberation. The first way aesthetioally oc­

casions liberation through the delightful means of dramatio

and poetic experience and the second attains the same goal

through the severe means of yogic discipline. Abhinava's co­

gent explication of the mystioal aspect of aesthetic experience,

together with his description of contemplative experience proper,

may be considered one of the summits of Indian theological

achievement.

EPILOGUE: A THEOLOGY OF KEN0SI3

For th e d iv in e n a tu re was h i s from th e f i r s t ; y e t he d id not p r i z e h i s e q u a l i ty w ith God, b u t made h im s e l f n o th in g , assuming th e n a tu re o f a s la v e .

S t . P au l, P h i l in p ia n s 2 , 6 -7

We a re now in a p o s i t io n to compare A bhinava 's th e o lo g y

w ith some o th e r t h e o l o g i e s , e s p e c i a l l y o f C a th o lio ism , p e rh ap s

th e n e a r e s t o f a l l r e l i g i o n s to Hinduism, and not l e a s t in

t h e o l o g i c a l f e c u n d i ty ; of E a s te rn Orthodox C h r i s t i a n i t y , so

l i k e i t in co n te m p la t iv e c h a r a o te r ; and of I s la m , perhaps f u r ­

t h e s t in s p i r i t from Hinduism, b u t so near i t in th e k ind o f

t h e o lo g io a l s y s te m a t iz a t io n t h a t th e o r th o d o x ie s o f b o th r e l i ­

g ion s came to a d o p t.

T heo log ies concern th em se lves w ith th e a b s o lu te ly

t ra n s o e n d e n t and c o n c e n tra te t h e i r a t t e n t i o n on i t s p o s i t i v e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of p le n i tu d e (p u rn a tv a or p le ro m a) . or on i t s

n e g a t iv e one o f in c o m p re h e n s ib i l i ty ( sunvata o r k e n o te s ) . which

i s only p le n i tu d e c o n s id e re d a s i n e f f a b le . B ut, l e s s o f t e n ,

do t h e i r id e a s t u r n to a p le n i tu d e t h a t , a s i t were, em pties

i t s e l f , in o rd e r th e re b y to. re n d e r i t s e l f p a ra d o x ic a l ly more

p le n te o u s .

In o th e r words, th e re a re fewer t h e o lo g ie s o f k e n o s is

th a n o f p lerom a o r k e n o te s ; and among "keno tio" th e o lo g ie s ,

Abhinava ' b i s su re ly th e most p ro found . T r a d i t io n a l C a th o lio

th eo lo g y i s p re c lu d e d from d ev e lo p in g a k e n o t ic c h a ra o te r by

i t s dograatio and p h i lo s o p h ic a l p r e s u p p o s i t io n s . Dogmatic,

because God, in th e words of V a tic an I , i s

i n f i n i t e in a l l p e r f e c t i o n s , one . . . s in g u la r , w holly sim ple and unchangeable s p i r i t u a l su b s ta n c e . . . .

and he c r e a t e s :

n o t to in c re a s e h i s p e r f e c t i o n or to a c q u ire i t , bu t t o m an ifes t h i s p e r f e c t i o n th rough th e good th in g s which he communicates to c re a tu re s .^ -

P h i lo s o p h ic a l , because i t i s im po ssib le f o r God, Pure Aot, ev er

t o be in a s t a t e o f p o t e n t i a l i t y , and hence of i n t e l l e c t u a l po-/

t e n t i a l i t y , which i s th e s t a t e t h a t A bhinava 's Supreme Siva/

ex p e r ie n c e s b e fo re th e fu n c t io n in g o f h i s Power o r s a k t i be­

g in s . As one C a th o lic th e o lo g ia n , Suarez, s a y s :

The i n t e l l e c t u a l potenoy fo rm a lly s i g n i f i e s th e power o r f a c u l ty o f u n d e rs ta n d in g and of r e o e iv in g i n t e l l e c ­t i o n ; but in God th e r e i s no e l i c i t e d o r re c e iv e d in ­t e l l e c t i o n b u t an i n t e l l e o t i o n t h a t i s o f i t s e l f n e c e ssa ry and by i t s e l f s u b s i s t e n t ; t h e r e f o r e an in ­t e l l e c t u a l po tency w ith r e s p e o t to an i n t e l l e c t i o n of t h i s s o r t i s no t found in God; n e i t h e r does t h i s po­te n c y s ig n i f y p e r f e c t i o n a b s o lu te ly , b u t in c lu d e s im p e r fe o t io n , which i s why i t does no t e x i s t in God fo rm a lly bu t on ly e m in e n t ly .2

N e v e r th e le s s , th e idea o f k en o s is t h a t A bhinava 's

th eo lo g y embodies has resonances in C a tho lio w r i t e r s , a s , f o r

in s ta n c e , B oasuet, who d e c la re s t h a t :

I t i s a s u f f i c i e n t l y a s to n is h in g t r u t h and nonethe ­l e s s a wholly in d u b i ta b le one t h a t among th e i n f i n i t e means God has o f e s t a b l i s h i n g h i s g lo ry th e most e f f i c a o io u s o f a l l i s found to be n e o e s s a r i ly oonneoted w ith low ness. He oan o v e r tu rn a l l n a tu r e , he can make

^D enzinger, E n c h ir id io n Symbolorum ##17&2-17£>3.

^ D is p u ta t lo n e s M etaphysioae . d isp . JO, s e o t . 1 5 , n . 9 .

man see h i s power by a th ou san d new m ira o le s ; but th ro u g h a m arv e llo u s s e c r e t he can no t b e a r h i s g randeur h ig h e r th e n u n t i l he low ers and h u m il ia te s h im s e l f . . . . Let u s say th e n w ith th e p r o p h e t ,"God has produced a n o v e l ty ." What n o v e lty has he produced? He has wished to l i f t h i s g randeur to i t s h ig h e s t p o in t . For t h a t rea so n he has lowered h im se lf He has wished to show us h i s g lo ry in i t s g r e a t e s t l i g h t : vidim us g lo r iam e i u s ; he has t h e r e f o r e c lo th e d h im s e lf in our w eakness : Et, h a b l t a v i t in n o b i s : e t v id im us g lo r iam e i u s . One has h a rd ly seen more o f g lo ry because one has never seen more o f low nese.3

The very c h a ra c te r o f A bh inava 's i d e a l i s t i c th o u g h t , where a l l

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s a re but i d e a t io n a l m o d a l i t ie s in one t r a n s ­

c en d e n ta l mind, demands th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of th e th e o lo g ie s

o f God's plerom a and o f h i s k e n o s i s .

P r e c i s e ly because i t i s i d e a l i s t , w ith God's i n t e l ­

l e c t i o n a s i t s b a s ic co n cep t, t h i s thought tou oh es th e very

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e d e i t y t h a t , acco rd in g to t r a d i t i o n a l

C a th o lic th e o lo g y , c o n s t i t u t e s i t s e ssence . In th e words o f

Suarez.:

The d iv in e knowledge i s no t only th e very su bs tance o f God, but i s fo rm a lly o f th e essence o f God h im s e l f and a s though u l t i m a t e ly c o n s t i t u t i n g i t in th e s i g ­n i f i c a n c e o f i t s p a r t i c u l a r n a tu re o r e s se n o e .^

/The d e s i r e o f A bhinava 's Supreme Siva f o r th e d i s c lo s u r e o f

th e un m an ifes ted w orld i s comparable to God's knowledge o f

c re a tu r e s because

Although fo rm a l ly and p r e c i s e ly speak ing God may not be b le s s e d th ro u g h h i s c o g n i t io n o r knowledge of

3 jacques-B en igne B o ssu e t . Deuxième sermon pour l a f e t e de 1 ' Annonclat io n , p rem ier p o i n t .

^•D isp u tâ tiones M etaphysioae . d i s p . 30 , s e c t . 1 5 , n . 1^

c r e a tu r e s , i t r e a l l y p e r t a i n s to th e p e r f e c t i o n and h app iness o f God to have such a knowledge, by which he n e c e s s a r i ly , and as though th rough a o e r t a in con­sequence, knows th e p o s s ib l e c r e a tu r e s , once t h e i r p o s s i b i l i t y i s p re su p p o se d .5

Knowledge of c r e a tu r e s i s n e ce ssa ry f o r th e p e r f e c t i o n o f God,

"not because he needs them, but th ro u g h th e abundance of h i s

p ro per and i n t r i n s i o p e r f e c t i o n . " ^/

However, th e k e n o s is e x p e r ien c ed by th e Supreme Siva

i s not an o n to lo g ic a l metamorphosis or a n n i h i l a t i o n , bu t merely

a ohange in th e s t a t e o f id e a s . R e a l i ty i t s e l f , f o r th e T r ik a ,

i s no more th a n ap p ea ran ce , o r a mass o f id ea s o r images. The

mind or co n sc io usness oannot do w ithou t a v a r i e t y of conoepts

and, "w ithout them, w itho u t th e v a r i e t y of th e w orld , con sc io us ­

ness would be only unmoved i d e n t i t y and hence would not be con­

sc io u s n e s s , bu t a t h i n g . T h e same i s t h e r e f o r e t r u e o f th e/

co n sc io u sn ess t h a t i s th e Supreme S iva . But, b e ing th e p l e n i -/

tu d e o f b e in g Siva oannot la c k th e p e r f e c t i o n o f l i b e r t y —

l i k e th e V edantic Brahman, who i s only b e in g , co n sc io u sn ess/ .

and b l i s s — and l i b e r t y i s th e power ( s a k t i ) , a s Abhinava

h o ld s , o f n e g a tin g o n e s e l f , o f beooming som ething o th e r th a n

what one i s . In h i s own words:

Thought c o n ta in s a i l t h in g s and of i t s e l f i t produoes a n o th e r , and o f a n o th e r , i t s e l f . I t u n i f i e s bo th and

5l b i d . . 3 0 , 1 5 , 6 .

6 Ib id .

^Raniero G n o li , Bssenza d e i T an tra . T o rino : B o r in g h ie r i ,i 9 6 0 , p . 3 9 .

1S7

h a v in g u n i f i e d them immerses them in i t s e l f . ^

and

The l i b e r t y o f th e ego c o n s i s t s as much in d i f f e r e n t i ­a t i n g what i s no t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d as in u n i fy in g in an i n t e r i o r s y n th e s i s w hatever i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d * The f i v e o p e ra t io n s t h a t t r a d i t i o n a t t r i b u t e s to 8 iv a — in o th e r w ords, c r e a t io n , m ain tenance , r e a b s o r p t io n , g raoe and o b s c u ra t io n — a re no more n a t u r a l i s t i c a l l y c o n s id e re d a s s ta g e s in a r e a l i t y which indepen den tly and o u ts id e our co n sc io usness i s b o rn , evo lves and d i e s , but r a t h e r as moments in th e co n sc io u sn ess o f th e ego which f r e e l y e x p re s s e s i t s e l f th rough them as ego and oo nso io u sn ess .9

Thus th e very sy s te m a tic p o s tu l a t e s o f A bhinava 's

system , a s I su g g e s te d , make h i s theo logy a t onoe p le ro m a t ic

and k e n o t ic . One o f i t s p r i n o ip a l problems — and o f a l l

o th e r t h e o lo g ie s which p o s tu l a t e a t ra n so e n d e n t and i n f i n i t e l y

p e r f e c t r e a l i t y t h a t i s n e v e r th e le s s su b je c t t o some .so r t o f

q u a l i f i c a t i o n — i s how to r e c o n c i l e p e r f e c t i o n and i t s l i m i t a ­

t i o n . A prom inent s o lu t io n d i s t i n g u is h e s th e l im i t a b l e a sp eo t

o f th e t ra n s c e n d e n t from i t s i l l i m i t a b l e one — r e a l l y d i s t i n c t

b u t in e f f a b ly i d e n t i f i e d — th e form er c a l l e d th e t r a n s o e n d e n ta l

essence and th e l a t t e r i t s e n e rg ie s or powers. This d i s t i n c t i o n/ __ /

i s f i r s t su gg es ted in th e S v e ta s v a ta ra Unanisad and o l e a r ly#

fo rm u la ted in B ad aray an a 's Brahma S u t r a s , and i s th e b a s i s o f

th e main sohoo ls o f Hindu th e o lo g y , whioh acoep t th e p r i n c i p l e

o f bhedabheda or d i f f e r e n c e in i d e n t i t y . To my knowledge, t h i s

d i s t i n c t i o n i s no t found in th e Greek p h i lo s o p h e rs and i s

^Abhinavagupta, t r a n s l a t e d from G n o l i 's I t a l i a n v e r s io ni n i b i d .

9 I b i d . . p . 4 0 .

nowhere made th e fo u n d a t io n o f a system in H e l le n ic th o u g h t .

As th e Orthodox th e o lo g ia n Mark o f Ephesus o b se rv e s :

we do not f i n d among th e a n c ie n ts any c l e a r and d e f in e d d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e essence of God and His o p e ra t io n . . . in our t im e . . . th e p a r t i s a n s o f p ro fan e w is­dom have c r e a te d so much con fus ion in th e Church over t h i s q u e s t io n , and have even acoused h e r of p o ly th e ism . . . . This i s why th e o lo g ia n s have i n s i s t e d more on th e s im p l ic i ty o f God th a n on the d i s t i n c t i o n which e x i s t s w i th in h im .10

T his d i s t i n c t i o n was f i r s t c le a r ly propounded in Ortho­

dox th eo lo g y by G rego rio s Palam as. As a n o th e r G regorios ( o f

T hessa lon ik a) commenting on Palam as' th o u g h t, s a y s :

th e d iv in e n a tu re must be s a id to be a t th e same tim e b o th e x c lu s iv e o f , and, in one sen se , open to p a r t i c i ­p a t i o n . We a t t a i n to p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e d iv in e na­t u r e , and y e t . a t th e same t im e , i t rem ains t o t a l l y i n a o c e s s i b l e .11

This double c h a r a c te r o f th e d e i t y , d e c la re s Lossky, oompels us

t o reoogn ize in God an in e f f a b le d i s t i n c t i o n . . . between th e essence o f God, o f His n a tu re p ro p e r ly s o - c a l l e d , whioh i s i n a c c e s s ib le , unknowable and in ­communicable; and th e e n e rg ie s or d iv in e o p e ra t io n , f o r c e s p ro p er t o and in se p a ra b le from God's e sse n c e , in which he goes f o r t h from H im self, m a n ife s ts , communicates, and g iv es H im se lf.^

These e n e r g ie s , o r s a k t i s . " s ig n i f y an i n t e r i o r m a n i f e s ta t io n

of th e T r in i t y which cannot be i n t e r i o r i z e d ",^3 and a r e , a s

Abhinava exc la im s, "w ithou t number11 j 1^- they m an ifes t " th e in -

V ladim ir L ossky, The M ystioa l Theology o f the E a s te rn Churoh. E n g lish t r a n s l a t i o n p u b lis h e d by James Clark and Co., London, 1#57> P* 79*

1 1 I b i d . . P. 6 9 .

1 2 I b l d . . p . 7 0 .

1 ^ I b l d . . p . SO.

1 ^ T a n tr a s a ra . c h ap te r f o u r , see append ix .

numerable names of God . . . Wisdom, Life, Power, Justioe,

Love, Being, God — and an infinity of other names which are

unknown to u s . " 1 ^ The unity of God, then, is not in every

sense undivided. As Abhinava says, "Non-duality according to

us does not in fact exolude multiplicity."^ In fact, unity

cannot exist without multiplicity. Bhaskara, one of the most

important of bhedabheda theologians suocinotly formulates it

as a universal principle:

difference is an attribute of identity (abhedadharmasca bhedah)

and

everything is at the same time unique and multiple, neither totally different, nor totally non-different ( sarvamekanekatmakam natyantabhinnam bh lnmm va).

This basic theology of Hinduism was to be reincarnated in a

most unlikely world, that of Eastern Orthodox Christianity.

Kenotic theology is found in other Hindu systems, be­

sides that of Abhinava — as for instanoe in the Vaisnava0 •*

Vedanta of Bhaskara, Nimbarka, Ramanuja, Vallabha and Caitanya.

The only significant difference between these systems and the

Trika is that the former are not idealist, and believe that

the transformation of Brahman (God) oocurs in reality, not in­

deed in that ultimate Reality's essence, but in its energies

or modes. Vallabha, for instance, distinguishes between a

modification that affeots the essence of the thing to be modi­

fied (vikrtaparinama) as the change of milk into curds resultst <•

^Loseky, o£. cit.. p. SO.

■^Gnoli, op. cit., p.

190.

in the disappearance of the milk; and a modification that

leaves the essence unaffected (avikrtaparinama). as when goldo •

is shaped into a bracelet, the gold remaining gold. The

Brahman can be said to undergo the latter kind of transforma­

tion. Its perfection is manifest when its characteristics of

Being, Consciousness and Bliss are unobsoured; but the power

of obscuration is in fact identical with the supreme Reality

as one of its powers. When it obscures the characteristics of

Bliss and Consciousness (leaving that of Being unolouded) we

perceive the category of the material and perishable; when it

obscureb only Bliss (leaving Consciousness and Being uncovered)

what we see are the individuals of the category of selves; and

when all the characteristics are revealed, we have the Brahman

(where Consciousness predominates) and Purusottama of Krsna0 «% m n

(where Bliss supervenes).

It is remarkable that this theology would again be

reincarnated in a milieu even more unlikely than that of

Orthodoxy. Islam — a creationist faith inordinately zealous

for God's dominion and unity — was to accept a kanotic doc­

trine affirming the principle of identity-in-difference as

the basis of its orthodox theology, a principle that had been

used to justify a religion that in its eyes was pantheistic

and idolatrous.

This prooess of transforming orthodox Islamic theology

into one of bhedabheda was begun, as Zaehner has s h o w n ,

^Robert G. Zaehner. Hindu and Muslim Mystioism. London: Athlone Press, 1970, chapters 5, 6 and- 7»

th rou gh th e m ystio Abu Y a z id 's i n i t i a t i o n in to th e e s o t e r i o

d o c t r i n e b o f U pan isad ic iponism by h i s te a c h e r Abu 'A li a l - S i n d i

who seems to have been a co n v erted Brahmin from Sind. Is la m io

th e o lo g y , however, co u ld never have beoome u n q u a l i f i e d ly m onist

s in c e i t i s blasphemy to id e n t i f y God and c r e a tu r e t o t a l l y . At

th e same t im e , i t i s p o s s ib le f o r t h a t theo logy to be in some

sense n o n - d u a l i s t , and

t o deny e x is te n c e of any s o r t to a n y th in g a t a l l excep t God. T his could be r e p re s e n te d a s th e h e ig h t o f orthodoxy s in c e th e o rthodox th em se lv es who ad­m i t t e d th e d e r iv e d e x is te n c e of c r e a te d th in g s co u ld in t h e i r t u r n be accused of s h i rk ( a s s o c i a t i o n o f a l l t h a t i s not God w ith GodJ in t h a t th e y a llow ed any­t h in g to 'p a r ta k e * o f b e ing which b e lo n g s a b s o lu te ly and e x c lu s iv e ly to G o d . 1 “

In o th e r words, i t would s u i t Is lam w e ll to have a th eo lo g y o f

id en t i t y - i n - d i f f e r e n c e .

T his theo lo gy was p ro v id ed by I s la m 's "Grown o f

M y s tic s" , Abu'l-Qjasim a l-Ju n a y d ( d ie d 9 ! 0 ) » one o f h i s f a i t h ' s

most p ro fou nd m y s t ic a l th e o lo g ia n s . I t i s b a sed on two b ro ad

p r i n c i p l e s : (1) th e p re e x is te n c e o f so u ls in (Sod from a l l

e t e r n i t y a s h i s id e a s , and (2) th e two actB o f a n n ih i l a t i o n

( fa n a ) — th e f i r s t , whereby th e s o u ls lo se t h e i r d iv in e e x i s ­

te n c e and a c q u ire a s e p a r a te ly c r e a tu r e ly one, and th e second

whereby t h i s a c q u ire d e x is te n c e i s d is s o lv e d w ith th e so u l r e ­

tu r n in g t o i t s d iv in e e x is te n c e a s an idea in God.

I s h a l l now exem plify th e s e p r i n c i p l e s m ostly from

Ju n a y d 's w r i t in g s . When speaking o f ( l ) th e d iv in e and id e a l

T PiR obert 0. Z aehner. M ystioism Sacred and P ro fan e .Oxford a t th e U n iv e rs i ty P re s s , 1957» PP* 159- 1 60.

192.

p r e e x i s te n c e of s o u l s , Junayd u se s th e word, t o " e x i s t" t r e n ­

a î t i v e ly . God., says Junayd.:

was • e x i s t i n g ' them ( th e s o u l s ) , encompassing them, w i tn e s s in g them in th e b e g in n in g when th ey were no t h i n g a p a r t from t h e i r e t e r n a l b e in g in which s t a t e th ey were from a l l p r e - e t e r n i t y — and. t h i s i s th e d iv in e e x is te n o e and d iv in e aw areness which i s p ro p e r t o him a lo n e . T here fo re d id we say t h a t when he • e x i s t e d ' man, cau s in g h i s w i l l to f low over him as

he wished, endowing him w ith h i s most e x a l te d a t t r i ­b u te in which none can sh a re t h i s form of e x is te n c e , t h a t was w ith o u t doubt th e most p e r f e c t and th e most e f f i c a c io u s moment. “

From a l l e t e r n i t y , th e n , th e so u ls p o s s e s s th e i d e a t io n a l

e x is te n o e p o s tu l a t e d by A bhinava 's th eo lo g y . Then comes th e

moment o f th e c r e a t i o n o f th e s o u ls ( l a ) , which Junayd v i s u a l ­

ized as an emptying o r a n n i h i l a t i o n , " th e i r a n n i h i l a t i o n out o f

o r a f t e r t h e i r e t e r n a l be in g . i n consequenoe, th e so u l a c ­

q u ire s a s e p a ra te c o n sc io u s n e ss , and th e r e b e g in s th e s e p a r a t io n

from God, which i s " i t s e l f th e so u rce of s u f f e r in g — and su f ­

f e r in g w i l l i n g l y a c c e p te d . . . i s one of th e ways in which God21

l e a d s t h e e s t ra n g e d so u l back t o h im s e l f ." As in most Hindu

th e o lo g ie s , th e n , th e so u l i s bound only to be l i b e r a t e d : " i t

i s d ipped in tim e and r e tu r n s e n r ic h e d by th e ex perien ce o f

s u f f e r in g f o r h i s s a k e . " 22

^■^Junayd, K l ta b a l -F a n a , quoted in Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim M ystio ism . pp . 1*4-6-147.

20 I b i d .

2^Zaehner, _oj>. c i t . , p . 144.

g2I b id .

193

The second a n n i h i l a t i o n ( l b ) whereby a l l t r a c e o f th e

c re a tu re i s o b l i t e r a t e d and h i s c r e a tu r e ly e x is te n c e p a s se s

away, b e g in s w ith God's e le o t io n o f so u ls . T h is , l i k e

A bhinava 's sak t ip a ta ( th e descen t of g race) i s an overwhelming

power, and (say s Junayd) when God "overwhelms, he i s p e r f e c t

in h i s overw helm ing ."23 God th e n r e v e a ls to them, in a f l a s h

o f i n t u i t i o n , t h e i r own t im e le s s b e in g , and i t s unique r e l a t i o n ­

sh ip w ith God. They th e n

exp erien ce b l i s s in him in a manner unseen as th e most d e l i g h t f u l form o f e x is te n c e though i t i s no t a mode o f e x is te n c e a t a l l a s oommonly u n d e rs to o d , because i t i s God a p p r o p r ia t in g them and d iv in e omnipotence over­whelming them.

But t h i s iB only God's makr. th e g u i le by which he d e lu d es th e

m ystic — and he re Junayd employs th e concept o f d e lu s io n a s a

s o t e r i o l o g i c a l d e v io e , so w idely r e f e r r e d t o in Hindu th e o lo ­

g ie s . God d e p r iv e s th e so u ls o f th e b r i e f v i s i o n , th u s making

them a g a in

p re s e n t to t h e i r s p e c i f i c n a tu re , and so they a r e s e p a ra te d from th e commerce they had w ith him and he w ith them. So they g r ie v e f o r them se lves and grow used to t h e i r merely human n a tu re , f o r God d e p r iv e s them o f t h i s f i r s t f u l f i l l m e n t and most p e r f e c t g ra c e , and th ey r e t u r n to d i s c u r s iv e thought and r a t i o c i n a t i o n . G rie f s e t t l e s upon them and th e pang o f l o s s a b id e s w ith them, p re s e n t a s they a re to them selves and t h e i r c o n tin g e n t e x is te n c e . 9

But th e g u i l e does no t end th e r e . God onoe a g a in

overwhelms them

23junayd , ojc. o i t . . p . 220.

2l* Ib id . . p . 221.

2 3 ib id .

to the discomfiture of their renascent human attri­butes. He thus puts a veil between him and them so that they give way to their ego, busy themselves with the senses, and delight in the contemplation of themselves, dwelling in pride, enjoying the fruits of their meditation overcome by omnipotence. He causes them to take refuge from him in their own ef- «,• forts, so that they exult and glory in their isolation.

This is what the monist considers as liberation. However, God

rids them of their self-complaoency by making

the annihilation that is within these souls’ annihila­tion present to them, and shows them the existence that is within their existence.^

And that existence, of course, is the existence of God. In

their awakening, "they behold the myriad glances that proceed

from him so that the very destruction of their human individu­

ality is itself drowned in the tide that flows over them in

eternal being. "2£*

Thus Junayd's theology is a Muslim replica, perhaps

less complex and subtle, of the systematic thought of Abhinava-

gupta. There is however a significant difference, for in the

Trika, multiplicity does not survive liberation, as it does not

also in the thought of Bhaskara. But it does in liberation as

Nimbarka oonceives it, for Nimbarka, unlike Bhaskara, does not

oonsider multiplicity and difference due to adventitious con­

ditions (unadhi)♦

19^.

26Ibid.. p. 223.

27Ibid.. p. 222.

2gIbid.. pp. 223-22 .

Be t h a t a s i t may our com parative s tud y w i l l not be

complete i f we r e s t r i c t o u rse lv e s only to th e o lo g ie s t h a t echo

A bhinava 's s p e c u la t io n o r d e r iv e from i t f and ignore th o se

from which th e g re a t a o a r y a ' s own th in k in g o r ig in a t e d . We have

seen how i t sp r in g s from th e in s ig h tB of th e Vedas, U pan isads ,

Agamas and T a n tra s . But i t s o n to lo g ic a l c h a r a c te r i s unimagin­

a b le w itho u t Buddhism. For w h ile i t s e s p e c ia l m etaph ysica l

p o s t u l a t e s — w hether m onist o r q u a l i f i e d l y m onist (bhedabheda)

— a re p u re ly U p an isad ic , i t s i d e a l i s t c h a r a c te r i s a lm ost

wholly Yogacara B u d d h is t . As Vasubandhu, th e forem ost Y ogacarin ,

w r i t e s , " a l l t h a t we see i s n o th in g bu t c o n sc io u sn ess . O b jec ts

a re indeed appea rances and do not in f a c t e x i s t . ^ d th e

very p o s t u l a t e s o f Yogacara f in d t h e i r l o g i c a l c o n c lu s io n in

T r ik a , f o r

w h ile BuddhiBt id ea l ism had d i s t in g u is h e d th e two moments o f co n sc io u sn ess in to d i r e c t p e rc e p t io n which w i tn e s se s r e a l i t y and in to s u b je c t iv e r e p r e s e n ta t io n which i s d i s o u r s iv e and which c r e a te s and p e rc e iv e s e r r o r s , th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of T r ik a , on th e c o n t r a r y , a f f i r m t h a t t h e r e i s no q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e s e two moments bu t on ly one o f d e g re e . The d i s ­c u rs iv e moment o r though t i s nats bu t th e n a tu r a l evo­l u t i o n or i r r a d i a t i o n o f th e f i r s t . In th e l a t t e r i t a b id e s a lre a d y im p l i c i t and in fu se d j u s t a s th e p e a - cook in a l l th e v a r i c o lo r e d sp lendor o f i t s f e a t h e r s i s wholly p r e s e n t in p o t e n t i a l i t y w i th in th e e g g .30

And th e T r ik a s a lv a t io n i s bu t t h a t o f th e Yogacara — "an a c t

o f c o g n i t io n which no lo n g e r apprehands an o b j e c t , an a c t o f

^ T r a n s l a t e d from th e I t a l i a n r e n d e r in g of G noli, op . c i t . . pp . 21-22.

30(311011 o£. cit.. pp. 25-26.

196.

thought which i s ‘T h o u g h t-o n ly ' , pu re c o n sc io u sn e ss , and. (which}

a l t o g e th e r t ra n s c e n d s th e d iv i s io n between o b je c t and s u b j e c t . "31

F urtherm ore , th e Mahayana d o c t r in e o f th e Buddha n a tu re o f/

th in g s i s h e re r e p la c e d by an e q u a l ly om nipervasive Siva n a tu r e .

Thus Buddhist m e d i ta t io n was absorbed in to th e T r ik a ,/

in t h i s manner r e i n f o r c in g one of S a iv ism 's fo u r c h a r a c te r ­

i s t i c m o d a l i t i e s , c o n te m p la t iv e n e s s . Of th e o th e r t h r e e , t h a t

o f d e v o tio n was to be ex p ressed in more im passioned language

in th e th e o lo g y and l i t e r a t u r e o f th e Tamil S iddhan ta . The

t h i r d and f o u r th m o d a l i t i e s a re kama o r th e fearsom e v i t a l i t y

o f sex and samhara o r d e s t r u c t i o n and d ea th . The symbols o f

sex a re su b lim a ted and th e o lo g iz e d in th e T r i k a 's concep ts o f

v i b r a t i o n ( spanda o r s p h u r a t t a ) o r c r e a t io n a s em iss ion/

( v i s a r g a ) and o f th e h u r l o f S i v a 's power as a sudden t h r u s t

( s a k t i p a t a ) . But t h e concep ts i n s p i r e d by d e s t r u c t i o n e x p re s s ,

as I s a id a t th e b e g in n in g o f t h i s e s sa y , th e e ssen ce o f/ / /Saivism most o o m p e ll in g ly . For th e powers o r sa k t i s o f S iva

have names which c h a r a c t e r i z e d e s t r u c t i o n — such as Blood,/

Death, th e F e a rfu l and Doom. As f o r Siva h im s e l f , " a l l th in g s

a re c o n s t i t u t e d of th e f i r e of th e Supreme Lord" who i s th e

Mahabhairava or th e Mighty T e r r i f y in g God, p o sse s se d of "a

d e s i r e f o r devouring a l l t h a t e x i s t s " and i s h im se lf th e "pure

b la z e t h a t s u b s i s t s when a l l i s d e s t ro y e d ." - ' The Saiva image

■^Edward Gonze. T h ir ty Years o f B uddhist S tudies,. Columbia, South C a ro l in a : U n iv e rs i ty o f South C a ro lin a P r e s s , p . 7S.

3^T a n t r a s a r a , see appendix .

o f d e s t r u c t i o n i s th u s made to ex p re ss th e h ig h e s t moment

o f T rika and o f a l l In d ie r e l i g i o u s thought — l i b e r a t i o n ,

which i s p e ac e .

APPENDIX I

TRANSLATION OF Prabodhapafloadas'ika ( Snligh tenm ent In F i f t e e n V e rse s )

1 . He i s t h e b e in g o f th e form o f sp le n d o r not su b je o t t o s e t t i n g ,

t h e end o f l i g h t s and d a rk n esses who i s a l s o in between l i g h t s

and d a rk n e s s e s .

2 . This supreme lo r d i s indeed th e e ssenoe o f a l l b e in g s ; a l l t h a t

i s b o m o f th e f lu x o f b e in g i s h i s power ( sak t i ) o o n s t i t u t e d o f

l o r d s h ip .

3 . And h i s d iv in e energy ( s a k t l ) does not d e s i r e s e p a r a t io n from/

t h e n a tu re o f 8 iva ; t h e r e i s always i d e n t i t y betw een th e s e two

j u s t a s betw een f i r e and f lam es .

4-. T his f r i g h t f u l re s p le n d e n t god h as th e very o h a r a e t e r i s t i o o f

su p p o r t in g th e world, f o r th e world i s com plete ly r e f l e c t e d th ro u g h

h i s energy ( s a k t l ) which i s m irro red in h i s own s e l f .

3« Indeed t h i s h ig h e s t goddess o f h i s y ea rn s f o r h i s e ssen o e ; h e r

p l e n i tu d e in a l l be in g s i s n e i th e r e x ce ss iv e no r in ad eq u a te .

6 . T his god, th e lo r d , e t e r n a l l y e ag e r f o r th e t a s t e o f p la y w ith

h i s in e x h a u s t ib le goddess, s im u lta n eo u s ly d is p o s e s th e wondrous

a o t s o f c r e a t i o n and d e s t r u c t i o n .

7* His c a u s a l i t y very d i f f i o u l t to oomprehend i s unspeakab le and

t h i s indeed i s independence and lo r d s h ip and th e form o f e n l ig h te n ­

m ent.

3. A c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , i t i s t r u e , i s a

l im i t e d m a n i f e s t a t io n ; in consequence o f which, t h e r e i s an en­

l ig h ten m en t d i f f e r e n t from th e u n i n t e l l i g i b l e which i s ne t

l im i t e d .

9 . Thus — o f t h i s independent b e in g who a t t a i n s d i f f e r e n o e from

h i s power ( dakt i ) — th e essenoe accompanying c r e a t i o n and d e s ­

t r u c t i o n a b id e s th rough h i s own form .

10. That (b e in g ) who (p o s s e s s e s ) superabundant v a r i e t y , in th o s e

( f i v e a c t i v i t i e s : c r e a t i o n , p r e s e r v a t io n , d e s t r u c t i o n , o b s c u ra t io n

and graoe) (ex te n d s) upw ards, below and s idew ays, th o se p a r t s a re

th e w o rld s , in which t h e r e i s a sen se o f joy and sorrow.

11. Of t h a t (b e in g ) t h e r e i s n o n - re c o g n i t io n and o f t h a t one inde­

pendence h as been a f f i rm e d . And t h a t (n o n - re c o g n i t io n ) in t r u t h

i s samsara which s t r i k e s t e r r o r in to f o o l s .

1 2 . From what has a l l t h i s come? Has t h a t (u n d e rs ta n d in g ) come

from th e t a s t e o f graoe i t s e l f , o r from th e a o q u i s i t i o n o f know-ct

l e g e th r o u g h , te a o h e r , o r by th e i n s t r u c t i o n o f th e h ig h e s t lo rd ?

13« This r e c o g n i t io n o f th e t r u t h i s t h a t l i b e r a t i o n (g ra n te d )

from th e h ig h e s t lo r d . That i s th e f u l ln e s s o f th e e n l ig h te n e d

ones and i s u n d e rs to o d a s l i b e r a t i o n d u rin g l i f e ( ¿ iv a n m u k ti) .

l ^ . These two — bondage and l i b e r a t i o n — a r i s e from th e essenoe

o f th e supreme lo r d . In t r u t h n o th in g i s d iv id e d and th e r e i s no

d i v i s i o n in th e supreme l o r d .

1 5 . In t h i s manner B h a irava — who Is w i l l , th e d i g i t , knowledge,

power, th e t r i d e n t , th e l o t u s , th e r e s o r t o f a l l b e in g s , t h e i r very

e ssence — i s t o be r e f l e c t e d on.

16 . These f i f t e e n v e rs e s a re spoken w ith fe rv o r by Abhinavagupta to

e n l ig h te n d i s o i p l e s o f te n d e r u n d e rs ta n d in g .

APPENDIX II

TRANSLATION OF TANTRA3ARA: SAKTQPAYA ( The Essence o f t a n t r a :

Chapter Four, The D ivine Power-Meana to L ib e ra t io n )

When w ith a view t o e n te r in g th e E s s e n t i a l Being a l r e a d y

d e s o r ib e d , d i s c u r s iv e knowledge i s p u r i f i e d in s t a g e s , th e need

t o app ly th e p ro ce sso o f m e d i ta t iv e r e a l i z a t i o n in i t s v a r io u s

s ta g e s beoomes e v id e n t , th e p ro c e ss b e in g p receded by th e r i g h t

r e a so n in g , th e r i g h t s c r i p t u r e s and i n s t r u c t i o n by th e r i g h t t e a ­

c h e r s . Now i t i s by means o f t h i s d i s c u r s iv e knowledge a lo n e t h a t

p eo p le presume th a t t h e i r s e lv e s a re bound, and i t i s t h i s very

p resum ption t h a t i s th e cause o f t r a n s m i g r a t i o n 's u n in te r r u p te d n e s s .

Hence th e r i s e of an a d v e r s a t iv e d i s c u r s iv e knowledge d e s t ro y s th e

d l s o u r s iv e knowledge from whioh t r a n s m ig ra t io n o r i g in a t e s — and

th u s b r in g s about th e dawning o f en lig h ten m en t. The n a tu re o f t h i s

knowledge i s a s fo l lo w s : i t i s f r e e from a l l th e l im i te d p r i n c i p l e s

— b eg in n ing w ith th e e a r t h and s to p p in g b e fo re S iva — and i s cons­

t i t u t e d o f p u re u n l im i te d oo nso io u sn ess . This i s th e Supreme

R e a l i ty , th e s t a b i l i t y o f th in g s and th e v i t a l p r i n c i p l e o f th e

'u n iv e rse . By i t e v e ry th in g b r e a th e s , and i t i s what I m yse lf r e a l l y

am. So I am t r u l y th e very s e l f o f th e u n iv e r s e , bu t in essenoe

t r a n s o e n d in g i t .

But t h i s awareness does n o t a r i s e in th o s e whom maya has

b l in d e d , a s th ey laok th e modes o f knowledge suoh a s r i g h t re a so n in g .

S eo ts l i k e th e V ai^gavas, c o n s t r io t e d by t h e i r a ttaohm ent to t h e i r

own s o r i p t u r e s , la c k even th e o u r i o s i t y f o r n o b le r d o c t r i n e s , and

are thus enemies of the right reasoning, the true scriptures, and

of the instruction of the right teachers. As the author of the

Paramedvaratantra says:

The Vaisnavas and others like them, their minds darkened by ignorance, do not know the Supreme Reality, and are cut off from the knowledge of the All-knowing.

Hence, only those struok by the relentless hurl of diva's power,

and who have had their discursive knowledge purified in degrees

with the aid of the right soriptures and suoh other means, are able

to enter into the Supreme Reality.

Oan the Supreme Reality, you might ask, be the object of

discursive representation? The answer is no: the work of suoh a

representation ends when the impression of duality is destroyed.

As for the Supreme Reality itself — in all places self-luminous

by its very essence — representation serves no purpose at all,

helpful or harmful.

Consequently, in anyone smitten by the hurl of Siva's con­

centrated power, and who has thus aohieved liberation, the right

reasoning spontaneously arises, and suoh a one is said to be the

initiate of the goddesses. But in someone not smitten, that rea­

soning is oooasloned by the study of the Scriptures: I shall deal

with this at length when I oome to examine the hurlings of divine

power (chapter 11). But it is worth recalling now that while the

task of the teacher consists in interpreting the Scriptures, that

of the Scriptures themselves lies in evoking a corresponding men­

tal representation free of doubt and which is the future source of

homogeneous and mutually congenial impressions. And, as I said,

true reasoning itself is none other than this very series of

2 0 3 .

impressions. It is also called "meditative realization", for by

restoring clear evidenoe to an objeot — which, though real, seemed

to be unreal through laok of evidenoe — (it) realizes the object.

Besides the reasoning, which is in essence the light of

true knowledge, there is no other part of yoga capable of realizing

liberation, as is for instance "asceticism" from among the Group

of Disciplines, "non-violenoe" from the Group of Prohibitions, and

"inhalation" from the Group of Respirations. Since all these are

based on the knowable, what funotion can they have with regard to

Consciousness? As for the "withdrawal from the senses", it will but

confer excellence on the sphere of the senses; "meditation", "con­

centrated reflection" and "total absorption", accomplished in

proper order by "exercise", will realize the identity of the oon-

templator with the object of his contemplation. But this exercise

can not function with regard to the Supreme Reality, the self- /

existent Siva-self. For exeroise is but the perfecting of the vi­

tal breath, the mind and the body of someone imposed on Conscious­

ness — as for instance in things like the practioe of oarrying

loads, the understanding of the sense of the scriptures, the prac­

tice of dancing; as for Consciousness, nothing can be given to or

taken away from it. Henoe exercise can have no plaoe in it. Per­

haps right reasoning oan do so? It has been said that the function

of that reasoning is the elimination of duality's impression and

none other.

Or else exercise can be explained thus: the manifestation

(in objects suoh as bodies) of the desired forms and the exolusion

of undesired ones of that whioh is omniformed through its being

in essence Consciousness itself; this is valid also in the case of

exercise of a mundane charaoter. As for the Supreme Reality, nothing,

as I said, can he taken away from it. The impression of duality is

not any autonomously existent thing, hut only the ignorance of one's

essence; hence, as I remarked, the elimination of duality is brought

about by discursive knowledge. This is the Supreme Truth: the lu­

minous essence, gradually abandoning the form of ignorance whioh it

had spontaneously assumed, shines forth — at first as a propensity

for revealing itself, then in the aot of self-revelation and finally

as fully revealed. Hence too illumination is the very nature of the

Lord: henoe also the constituents of yoga are not direot means of

realization. But they can aid right reasoning, and right reasoning

— the direot means of realization — is none other than the category

of Pure Wisdom (sadvidya-tattva), whioh is itself realized in many

ways: by sacrifice, libation, murmured prayers, vows and yoga.

Of these, sacrifioe is the offering of all things to the

Supreme Lord alone, with the purpose of strengthening the represen­

tation that the sole ground of the existence of all things is none

but this very Lord, and that nothing exists apart from him. Hence

the exterior use of delightful things (like offered flowers and

perfumes) is recommended in view of the fact that all such things,

through their capacity to delight, are able to enter consciousness

spontaneously; the offering of these to the Supreme Lord is thus

easy indeed.

Libation is the dissolution of all things in the blaze of

divine consciousness, brought about with the purpose of arriving at

the firm idea that all things are constituted of the fire of the

2 0 5 .

Supreme Lord. Conceived as though he were a desire for devouring

all that exists, this Lord is the pure blaze that subsists when all

the rest has been destroyed.

Prayer is the interior thought that the Supreme Reality

exists in and of itself, with no connotation to the differentiated

external and internal knowable forms of reality. This thought is

undertaken with the purpose of bringing about a knowledge consti­

tuted of these two forms. A vow is the viewing of all things (like

bodies and pots) — at all plaoes and times, and through the con­

ception of equality with the Supreme Lord — for the attainment of

the thought of this Lord who is unattainable by any means at all.✓ /

As the Nandlsikhatantra put s it:

the supreme vow is the equality of all things ....

And laBtly yoga is a definite representation which in essenoe

is the attentive reflection of the very being of the Supreme Reality,

for corroborating the conviction that all existenoe is none other

than the Ultimate Reality's eternal and absolute light. Though this

light illuminates through multiple representations, themselves es­

sentially parts of Pure Wisdom, it is nonetheless wholly independent

of them.

Let us reoall that the Supreme Lord is by essence the pleni­

tude of Consciousness, and that plenitude is his power, identified

in the sacred texts by suoh names as Family, Effioaoy, Undulation,

Heart, Essence, Tremor, Magnificenoe, Lady of the Triads, Kali, the

Temptress, the Terrifying Qoddess, Speech, Pleasure, Vision, the

Eternal and so on, meaning to imply that she oan exist in the hearts

of those who meditate on her in one or another of these forms. The

p le n a ry C onsciousness i l lu m in e s in m a n ife s t in g th e t o t a l i t y o f

power and th e L o rd 's powers a re n um berless . What more can I say?

As g re a t a s t o t a l i t y i s , so numerous a r e h i s powers — how oan

th e y be spoken of? The t o t a l i t y , however, i s oomprehended in

th r e e powers th rou gh whioh th e Lord p e rv a d e s , s e e s and i l lu m in e s/

e v e ry th in g from Siva down t o th e e a r t h ~ (a ) th ro u g h pure con­

s c io u sn e ss in ca p ab le o f b e in g r e p r e s e n te d , t h a t i s h i s H ighest

Power; (b) th ro u g h d i f f e r e n c e - i n - i d e n t i t y , o f whioh an e le p h an t

r e f l e o t e d in a m ir ro r i s an example, t h a t i s h i s H ighest-Low est

Power; (c ) th ro u g h d i f f e r e n c e t h a t i s in essenoe m utual e x c lu s io n ,

t h a t one i s h i s Lowest Power.

There i s a ls o th e power by whioh th e Lord devours in

h im s e l f th e t r ip le -m o d e d t o t a l i t y a s though in an embrace and

th ro u g h a p ro c e s s o f u n i f i c a t i o n ; t h i s i s h i s b le s s e d H ighest

Power, i d e n t i f i e d by suoh names as th e Essence o f th e Mothers and

Devourer o f Time. Each o f th e s e fo u r Powers a re f r e e l y d iv id e d

t h r e e f o l d — in th e s t a t e s o f o r e a t io n , c o n se rv a t io n and d e s t r u c ­

t i o n — and th u s become tw e lv e . They a re a s fo l lo w s :

1 . C onsciousness o p e ra t in g th e r e a l i t y i n t e r i o r l y ;

2. th e n , o p e ra t in g i t e x t e r i o r l y and a s f u l l y m a n ife s te d ;

3* n e x t , t a k in g th e form o f l o v e l i n e s s , o p e ra t in g th e same th in g

w i th a d e s i r e t o ab so rb th e th in g in to i t s e l f ;

4-. n e x t , th e oonsoiouoness c r e a t in g and th en sw allow ing th e doubt

t h a t impedes a b s o r p t io n ;

3« n e x t , o p e ra t in g i t by means o f th e a b s o rp t io n o f t h a t p a r t o f

t h e r e a l i t y whioh doubt had a f f e o t e d ;

207.

6 . th e n , on th e c o n v lo t lo n t h a t a b s o r p t io n i s i t s own e sse n c e ,

o p e ra t in g i t s own b e in g ;

7* n e x t , th e o p e ra t io n o f th e essenoe o f a b s o rp t io n oom pleted,

o p e ra t in g th e s t a t e o f b e in g th rough l a t e n t im p ress io ns ( i n some

th in g s ) and th e residuum o f pure oonso lousness ( i n o t h e r s ) ;

S. th e n , In se p a ra b ly w i th th e above-m entioned o p e ra t io n h av in g to

do w ith i t s own b e in g , o p e ra t in g even th e wheel o f th e s e n se s ;

9» th e n , o p e ra t in g a ls o th e r u l e r o f th e s e n se s , th e Ego;

10. th e n , o p e ra t in g th e knowing s u b je c t which i s f i c t i t i o u s and

i l l u s o r y ;

11 . th u s o p e ra t in g even th e knowing Bubjeot t h a t i s eager t o aban­

don h i s s t a t e o f o o n tra c te d n e s s and an x io us to o b t a i n th e s t a t e o f

f u l l m a n i f e s ta t io n ;

12. f i n a l l y , o p e ra t in g even th e f u l l y m an ife s ted form.

These twelve b l e s s e d powers, i d e n t i f i e d by th e name K a l i ,

a r i s e in dyads, t r i a d s o r in more complex com b in a tion s , s im u lta n e ­

o u s ly or in su o d ess io n , w ith re g a rd t o th e many knowing s u b je o t s ,

o r to one suoh su b je c t o n ly . They unwind in wheel form, e i t h e r

e x t e r i o r l y ( th ro u g h th e d i g i t s o f th e moon, th e z o d ia o a l c o n s t e l ­

l a t i o n s and so f o r th ) o r i n t e r i o r l y ( th ro u g h o b je o t s l i k e j a r s

and o lo th s ) , so in c r e a s in g th e Lord o f th e W heel's l i b e r t y . Oper­

a t i o n th u s means m otion , h u r l in g , knowledge, num bering, enjoym ent,

speeoh and d i s s o l u t i o n in to o n e s e l f . As th e m as te r B h ü t l râ ja . sayB:

K a li i s so c a l l e d because she h u r l s , she has knowledge and because . . . .

You w i l l f i n d t h i s theme hand led a t le n g th in my com m entaries, as

in t h a t on th e P r a k a r a n a s to t r a . As my te a c h e r s a id , a n y th in g t h a t

i s a g re a t s e o re t shou ld n e i t h e r be wholly d iv u lg e d nor wholly h idden.

Hence what I have spoken o f w ith re g a rd to s a o r i f i o e , l i b a ­

t i o n and so on, must be u n d e rs to o d in r e l a t i o n to th e Supreme Lord

a s I have d e s c r ib e d him. Though a l l see th e r e p u l s iv e a s th e b a s i s

o f th e a c c e p ta b le , s t a r t i n g w ith Visnu and go ing up to £fiva a s

though th ey were the Supreme Being i t s e l f , i t i s n ecessa ry t h a t th e

h ig h e s t y o g is f r e e th em se lves from t h i s f a l s e knowledge. T his i s

what V id y a d h ip a t i re g a rd s w ith suoh s t ro n g emotion i n h i s Anubha-

v a a t o t r a . I f , in con n eo tio n w ith th e f i v e e lem en ts whioh we have

examined, from s a o r i f i o e t o yoga, i t i s n eo essa ry to so oomport

o n e s e l f so t h a t one v a r io u s ly confirm s o n e s e l f in eaoh o f them,

t h e r e i s no need a t a l l t o torm ent o n e s e l f to d i s t i n g u i s h what oan

from what oan no t be e a te n , and t h a t whioh i s pu re from t h a t whioh

i s n o t . A ll t h a t 1b Bdid in th e M alin lv l.laya goes to confirm t h i s .

For a l l th in g s t h a t a re beyond th e soope o f th e o b j e c t ' s

i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t i e s a r e imaginary c o n s t r u c t io n s o f our own making.

Indeed , p u r i t y i s no t a q u a l i ty in t h in g s , a s f o r in s tan o e b lu e i s ,

f o r th e very same "pure" t h in g i s a s s e r t e d by o th e r s to be impure —

a s f o r in s ta n o e a g i f t a t th e i n i t i a t i o n oeremony. And i f i t i s

r i g h t to say t h a t i t s im p urity stems from th e v ery f a o t o f i t s be in g

s o r i p t u r a l l y en jo in e d t o be such, t h e r e i s no re a so n why i t can not

be a f f i rm e d t h a t ife p u r i t y a r i s e s from a o o n tra ry r e l i g i o u s in ju n c ­

t i o n . Can i t be s a id t h a t subsequent in ju n c t io n s a re f a l s e beoause

e a r l i e r ones o o n tra d io t them? No: th e power to negate and n u l l i f y

t h e d o c t r in e s o f th e sc h o o ls be longs s o le ly to S iv a 's in ju n c t io n s ,

aB re a so n , th e Sarvajflfenottara and num berless o th e r sao red t e x t s

p ro v e ; more o f t h i s l a t e r . I t has however been e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t

every jb recep t, whether p r o h i b i t i v e o r p r e s c r i p t i v e , a s enum erated

209

/o r i g i n a l l y in th e Vadae and ta u g h t a l s o by th e S a iva s c r i p t u r e s

l i k e th e P a ram e^v a ras id d h an ta . th e T a n t r a . th e K ula and th e

Uoohusma. i s o f l i t t l e use in t h i s o o n te x t . T h is i s what t e x t s ✓ —

l i k e th e f lr inu rva a f f i r m , and can be examined a t le n g th in my

T a n t r a lo k a .

The b e l i e f o f th e a n im a l - s e l f , ex p re ssed in words l i k e " I am

i n t e l l i g e n t " , " I am bound in ka rm a 's n oo se" , " I am o o n t r o l le d by

o th e r b e in g s " , when i t a t t a i n s to th e c o n tra ry c o n v io t io n , th e s e l f

i s a t once t ran s fo rm e d in to th e Lord h im s e l f , whose body Is th e u n i ­

v e r s e , and whose s o u l , c o n sc io u sn e ss .

When th e yogi a t t a i n s to such a c o n v io t io n , l e t him m ed ita te

on i t s t e a d i l y and not e n t e r t a i n doubt in s p i r e d by th e te a o h in g s o f

th e f o o l i s h and th rough a v i s io n no t ap p reh en siv e o f th e essenoe o f

t h in g s .

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A bhinavagupta, Bodhapanoada/lka and PftTrnnSrt h a e a r c a . KashmirS e r ie s o f Texts and S tu d ie s , ^7^-77• E d i te d and oommented on in S a n sk r i t by H a r i b h a t t a s a s t r i . S r in a g a r : K rishna P r e s s , 19^6- 19 -7 .

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2 1 5 .

GLOSSARY

Abhasavada — the Teaching of Appearance.

Abhinava Bharati— Abhinava's Commentary on the Treatiae onDrama.

acarya — teacher.

advaita — not-two.

ahamkara — the "I" sense.

akasa — the sky.

akhyati — non-intuit ion.

alambana vibhava — subject determinant.

alaukika — extraordinary, transcendental.

Amrta Manthana — the Churning of the Ocean,

ananda — bliss.

Anavamala — the impurity of egoism.

anubhava — intuition.

anubhava — consequent.

Anupaya — Means-Without-Means./

arulcatti — Siva's liberating power of grace in Tamil Siddhanta. #

asat — non-being,

asura — demon.

avikalpa — nondiscursive knowledge.

avyatireka txiriyatita — mystical experience in which objectivitydoes not persist in the suboonsoious.

bhakti — devotion.

bhedabheda — differ ence/non-diff erenoe

bimbaprat ibimbavada — the teaching of reflection-seoondaryreflect ion.

buddhi — impersonal judgment.

camatkara — surprise.

carvaka — atheistic school.

carvana — interior gustation.

cit — intelligence.

darsanas — philosophies.

Dhvani — the theory of suggestion.

gunas — qualities./

Hara — Siva.

iccha — will, Bupreme ability.—/Isvaratattva — the Lord category,

j ivaannlikti— the liberated soul in this life,

jnana — knowledge.

jnanendriyas — the perceptual capacities,

kala — limited action.

kala — time._ __ / kalis — saktis.

Kalanalarudrakal1 — the Terrifying Kali of the Fire of Doom,

kancukas — sheaths.

Karmamala — the impurity of action and its fruits,

karmendriyas — the active capacities.

Kapalikas — the Skull-bearers.

kevala — isolation.

Kramavada — the teaching of Gradualness.

Kulavada ■— the teaohing of Suddenness.

217.

kriya — the power of creating,

laksana — indication.9

Lakulisa — the Lord of the Club.

Mahabhairavacandograhorakali — the Frightful Kali of the MightyTerrifying God.

Mahakalakali — the Kali of the Great Death God.

mandala — circle.

mangala — auspicious.

Martandakall — the Kali of the Sun.0 o

Mrtyukali — the Kali of Death,

mahabhutas — the gross elements.

Mahesvara — the Great Lord,

mala — impurity.

manas — the capacity to focus attention and to imagine,

mantra — mystical verse,

maya — self-obscuration.

mayai — the material principle of the body and of the universe for Tamil Siddhanta.

mayiyamala — the impurity of embodiment.

moksa — liberation.a

Nataraja — Lord of the Dance.

natya — the drama, including gesture, dance and music.O

tfafryasastra — the Treatise of Drama of Bharata's.0

nrtta — just dance,

nrtya — gesture and danoe.

niyati — space.

Paramarkakall — the Kali of the Supreme Sun.

jfarinama —— development, transformation.0

parusa — dreary.__ /Parvati — Siva's consort.

pasupa — proteotor of cattle./

pasupati — Lord of beasts./ - /

pati-pasu-pasa — lord-oxeature-bond.

pradhana — material cause or primary matter.

Prajapati — Lord of creatures._ /

prakasa — illumination, luminosity,

prakrti — the world.

pratibha — intuition, imagination, an impulse manifestative of Siva.

Pratyabhijna — recognition,

probandum — conclusion,

probans — premise.

Purna Samvid — Complete Consciousness.

purnatva — fullness.

purusa — man.

raga — limited interest.

Raktakali — the Kali of blood,

rasa — sent iment.

rasadhvani — the suggestion of sentiment,

rasanispattih — rasa is produced.

rasasutra — "Sentiment oomes from the combination of the deter­minants, consequents and transient emotions."

Rudrakali — the Fearful Kali./sakti — Divine Power.tsaktis — divisions of Divine Power.

/ - ' eaktipata — the descent of Siva's grace.

saktitattva — the Divine Power Category; the self-conscious- nese of the transcendent.

saktopaya — the Divine Power Means./sama — peace. _ /sambhavopaya — Siva-Means.

santarasa — the aesthetic experience of tranquillity.( /Sivatattva — the Siva-category; the conceptualization of Being

in itself./ — /Srikantha — both the name of a Saiva theologian and an alter­

nate for Siva./suddha — pure.

Srstikali — the Kali of creation.0 9 0

- /sadaeivatattva — the category of Incipient Empirical Being,

sadvidyatattva — the category of Pure Wisdom.

sakala — bound._ /

Samavesa — the merging of dependent existence into the independent one.

Samharakali — the Kali of destruction.

samhita — collection.

samsara — the eternal oycle of births and deaths,

sat — being.

Battva — goodness.

spanda — vibration.

sphota — pattern.

sphuratta — Vibration.

sthayibhava — the permanent emotion.

s t h i t i n a s a k a l i — th e K a li of C onservation and of D e s t ru c t io n ._ / /

svatantrya — Siva's independence, identified with sakti.

Tamas — darkness.

219.

Tandava — Siva's violent dance,

tanmatras — the subtle elements./

Trika — the Threefold system of Kashmir Saivism, Abhinava's prinoipal school.

Tripura — the triple town.

Tripuradaha — the burning of the triple town./- /

trisula — Siva's trident.

uddipana vibhava — illuminant determinant.

vàBariàs — latent impressions.

vidya — knowledge as limited.

vikalpa — discursive knowledge.

viraarsa — Self-consoiousness.

vibranti — repose.

VisVakarman — the Creator of the universe./

visarga — emission; identified with sakti.

"Vismayo yogabhumika" — the yogic stages are astonishment.

vivaxta — appearanoe (in Advaita Vedanta it is a teohnical term).

vyabhicâribhâva — transient emotion.

vyatireka turiyatita — mystical experience in which objeotivitypersists in the subconscious.

Yamakali — the Kali of the God of Death.

1.

Richard F. Cefalu

B.A. St. Francis College, ltf.Y.

H. A. Fordham University, N.Y.

Shakt i in Abh inavaguota1o Concept of Moksha

Dissertation directed, by Jose Pereira, Dootor of Philosophy

Abhinavagupta's problem is God's relation to man and/ t

the world. Siva's power (sakti) initiates the rise of an un­

manifested world within his own experience with whioh he partly/

identifies. Desiring the manifestation of this world, Siva

inexplicably allows himself to feel its want, which he then

fills through the projection of the empirioal world. Through

the oategory of the self-veiling of divinity (maya-tattva). a

number of categories unfold which increasingly limit it. Hence

the infinite becomes restricted in action and knowledge tempo­

rally and spatially: God becomes man. Similarly what was /

within Siva's experience as God — the latent objeotivity of

the world — becomes actually objective within his experience

as man. This complete transitional process from God to man is

a self-assumed distortion made possible through the Divine

Power. Conversely it is this very Power which can correot the

self-imposed misapprehension. Therefore, Divine Power causes

both bondage and liberation. This thesis proceeds to investi­

gate divine power as liberative.

Abhinava treats of sakti's, contemplative aspect in the

Tantraloka, Isvara Pratyabhijna Tivxti Vimarsini and Isvara

ss I —

Pratyabhiina Vimarsini which are only available in partial

translation. In two of his other works he also discussesV / —

this topic. These are the Prabodhanancadasika and the fourth

chapter of the Tantrasara which are first rendered into

English in this dissertation. In the first composition he

speaks of the intimate union of God and hie Power; in the/

sacond he desoribes in detail the part sakti plays in libera-/

tion. The latter entails the appearance of twelve sakt is —

divisions of Divine Power — in contemplative consciousness.

The devotee who has entered upon one of the three paths to

liberation enjoined by the Trika school, after sustained prac­

tice of the meditative discipline, enjoys a vision of twelve

Divine Powers, which appear as a rapidly rotating oirole of

light. They assume such concrete forms as Kali, the Temptress

the Terrifying Goddess, and effeot liberation, the peaceful

union with divine consciousness. Recent Jungian research has

confirmed the profound psychological side of thiB mandala.

A second aspect of Divine Power is the aesthetic ex­

perience of tranquillity (sahtarasa). This perception is a

liberating realization which is suggested by the three modes

of aesthetic portrayal in poetry and drama — the determinants

consequents and transient emotions. Abhinava's theory of

santarasa is based on Bharata's Treatise on the Drama (Natya-

sastra). It incorporates Bhatta Nayaka's concept of general­

ization, which posits the identification of the spectator with

the aotor through the impersonalization of the three aesthetic

modes. It appropriates Anandavardhana's theory of suggestion,

which holds that words not only denote and indicate hut also

suggest; when this implied sense of words is used, the object

so expressed is rendered beautifully. Abhinava adds to these

previous ideas his own notion that in a drama or poem the per­

manent emotion becomes impersonalized, thus lifting the spec­

tator out of himself into a blissful supranormal dimension.

Abhinava develops this transoendental aspect of senti­

ment in line with the belief that the purpose of poetry and

drama is the same as that of religious life — bliss. The

identification of these two goals is evident in his understanding

of santarasa. Abhinava's best exposition of this sentiment is

found in his commentary on the Treatise on Drama (Abhinava__ _ ~ /

Bharat i). There he shows that the Self — Siva — is the per­

manent emotion of santarasa; when one experiences consciousness

of Siva through the sentiment of tranquillity, one attains the

bliss which is peace./

Therefore, Abhinava's concept of sakti demonstrates

that absorption in God's stillness is realizable both contemp­

latively and aesthetically.

VITA

R ichard F ra n c is O efalu , son o f Frank P. and Marie A. ( O i r r i )

O efalu , was born on November 2 9 , 19^ in Brooklyn, New York. He

a t te n d e d S t . F ran o is P re p a ra to ry School in B rooklyn , New York, and

was g rad u a ted in June, 1962.

He e n te re d S t. Joseph C o llege , C a ll ico o n , New York, in

September, 1962 and was a novice in th e Sooiety o f Jeaus from

September, 1963 t o A p r i l , 1963 a t B ella rm ine C o llege , P la t t s b u rg h ,

N.Y. In September, 1963 he e n te re d S t . F ran c is C o llege , B rooklyn,

New York, where he re c e iv e d th e deg ree o f Baohelor o f A rts cum

la u d e in Ph ilosophy in Jun e , 1968 .

In September, 196S he was aoo ep ted as a g radua te student,

in th e Graduate Sohool o f A r ts and Sciences o f Fordham U n iv e rs i ty ,

and re c e iv e d th e degree o f Master o f A rts in Theology in Jun e ,

1970« From September, 1970 th rough Ju n e , 1973 he was a g rad u a te

a s s i s t a n t in th e Theology Department where he oon tlnued h i s s tu d ie s

in th e H is to ry o f R e lig io n s under th e m entorship o f P ro fe s so r J o s e '

P e r e i r a . He i s m arried and th e f a t h e r of one c h i l d .