Upload
duongthuan
View
218
Download
1
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Als
o in
this
ser
ies
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
?50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
Inte
llgen
ce A
naly
sis
and
Ass
essm
ent
edite
d by
Dav
id C
hart
ers ,
A. S
tuar
t Far
son
and
Gle
nn p
, Has
tedt
Cod
ebre
aker
in th
e F
ar E
ast
by A
lan
Stri
pp
War, Strategy and Intelligence
by M
icha
el I
. Han
del
Edi
ted
by
Con
trol
ling
Inte
llige
nce
edite
d by
Gle
nn P
. Has
tedt
RH
OD
RI
JEFF
RE
YS-
JON
ES
CH
RIS
TO
PHE
R A
ND
RE
WS
ecur
ity a
nd In
telli
genc
e in
a C
hang
ing
Wor
ld:
New
Per
spec
tives
for
the
1990
sed
ited
by A
. Stu
art F
arso
n, D
avid
Sta
ffor
d an
d W
esle
y K
. War
k
Spy
Fict
ion,
Spy
Film
s an
d R
eal I
ntel
ligen
ceed
ited
by W
esle
y K
. War
k
From
Inf
orm
atio
n to
Int
rigu
e: S
tudi
es in
Sec
ret S
ervi
ce B
ased
on
the
Swed
ish
Exp
erie
nce
1939
-45
by C.
G. M
cKay
Die
ppe
Rev
isite
d: A
Doc
umen
tary
Inv
estig
atio
nby
Joh
n C
ampb
ell
The
Aus
tral
ian
Sec
urity
Inte
llgen
ce O
rgan
izat
ion:
An
Uno
ffci
al H
isto
ryby Frank Cain
Polic
ing
POlit
ic,s
:Se
curi
ty I
ntel
lgen
ce a
nd th
e L
iber
al D
emoc
ratic
Sta
teby Peter Gil
Esp
iona
ge: P
at,
Pres
ent,
Futu
re?
edite
d by
Wes
ley
K. W
ark
TE
T
1968
: U
nder
stan
ding
the
Surp
rise
Ron
nie
E, F
ord
IFRANK CASS
LO
ND
ON
. PORTLAND
, OR
Iqq:
J
- .-
-..-
----
----
--
-
First published
1997
in
Gre
at B
rita
in b
yF
RA
NK
CA
SS
& C
OM
PA
NY
LT
DN
ewbu
ry H
ouse
, 900
Eas
tern
Ave
nue
Lond
on IG
2 7H
HC
onte
nts
Edi
tors' P
refa
ce VII
1 The American Road to Central Intelligence B
radl
ey F
. Sm
ith
2 Why Was
the
CIA
Est
ablis
hed
in 1
947?
Rho
dri J
effr
eys-Jones 21
Inte
llige
nce
and
the
Col
d W
ar B
ehin
d th
eD
ikes
: The
Rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
eA
mer
ican
and
Dut
ch I
nteJ
lgen
ceC
omm
uniti
es, 1
946-
1994
4 Science
, Sci
entis
ts, a
nd th
e C
IA:
Bal
anci
ng I
nter
natio
nal I
deal
s , N
atio
nal
Nee
ds, a
nd P
rofe
ssio
nal O
ppor
tuni
ties
5 The
Wiz
ards
of L
angl
ey: T
he C
IA'
Dir
ecto
rate
of
Scie
nce
and
Tec
hnol
ogy
6 The
Com
mitt
ee o
f C
orre
spon
denc
e-C
IAFu
ndin
g of
Wom
ens
Gro
ups, 1
952-
1967
7 The
CIA
and
the
Sovi
et T
hrea
t: T
hePo
litic
izat
ion
of E
stim
ates
, 196
6-19
77N
atio
nal I
ntel
lgen
ce a
nd th
e Ir
ania
nR
evol
utio
nA
mer
ican
Eco
nom
ic' I
ntel
ligen
ce:
Past
Pra
ctic
e an
d Fu
ture
Pri
ncip
les
10 The
CIA
and
the
Que
stio
n of
Acc
ount
abili
ty11 The CIA'
s O
wn
Eff
ort t
o U
nder
stan
d an
dD
ocum
ent i
ts P
ast:
A B
rief
His
tory
of
the
CIA
His
tory
Pro
gram
, 195
0-19
9512
Con
clus
ion:
An
Age
nda
for
Futu
reR
esea
rch
Abo
ut th
e C
ontr
ibut
ors
Inde
x
and
in th
e U
nite
d S
tate
s of
Am
eric
a by
FRANK CASS
c/o
ISB
S58
04 N
.E. H
assa
Io S
tree
t , P
ortla
nd. O
rego
n 97
213-
3644
Copyright i! 1997 Frank Cass & Co. Ltd.
Bri
tish
Lib
rar
Cat
alog
uing
in P
ublic
atio
n D
ata
A c
atal
ogue
rec
ord
for
this
boo
k is
ava
ilabl
e fr
om th
e B
ritis
h L
ibra
ry
Lib
rary
of
Con
gres
s C
atal
ogin
g in
Pub
licat
ion
Dat
a
has
been
app
lied
for
ISB
N 0
- 714
6-48
07- 8
(cloth)
ISB
N 0
-714
6-43
60- 2 (paper)
Thi
s gr
oup
of s
tudi
es fi
rst a
ppea
red
in '
Ete
rnal
Vig
ilanc
e? 5
0 Y
ears
of t
he C
IA'
a Special Issue of the journal In
telli
genc
e an
d N
atio
nal S
ecur
ity,
Vo1
.2, N
o.1 (Januar 1997)
publ
ishe
d by
Fra
nk
Cas
s &
Co.
Ltd
.
All
righ
t.\ r
e.'e
n,"e
d. N
o pa
rt v
f th
is p
ublic
ario
n m
ay b
e re
prod
uced
, sto
red
in a
ret
rie1'
al s
yste
mor
Tra
nsm
itted
in a
ny/a
rm. o
r hy
allY
mt:a
ns, e
lecT
roni
c, m
echa
nica
l, ph
otoc
opyi
ng, r
ecor
ding
,or
orh
en\ i
se, w
irho
ll th
e pr
ior
perm
issi
on o
f Fr
ank
Cas
s an
d C
ompa
ny L
imir
ed.
Prin
ted
byA
nton
y R
owe.
Chi
ppen
ham
, Wilt
s
Bob
de
Gra
aff
and
Cee
s W
iebe
s
Ron
ald
E. D
oel a
ndA
llan
A. N
eede
ll 59
Jeff
rey
T. R
iche
lson
82
Helen Lavile 104
Lawrence Freedman 122
Mic
hael
Don
ovan
143
Philp Zelikow 164
Loch K. Johnson 178
Gerald Haines 201
Chr
isto
pher
And
rew
224 23
423
7
_._
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
43, I
nter
view
s w
ith fo
nner
lOB
offc
ers.
44. L
ette
r to
the
auth
ors
from
the
Cab
inet
Offc
e of
the
Dut
ch P
rime
Min
iste
r.45
. See
for
this
: Kah
in a
nd M
cT. K
ahin
(no
te 2
1) p
p,14
3-21
7.46
. See
for
inst
ance
: R.E
. van
Hor
st P
elle
kaan
, I.c
. de
Reg
!, J
.E B
astia
ans
Patrouile voor de
Papo
ea s
. De
Kon
inkl
ijke
Mar
ine
in N
eder
land
s N
ieuw
-Guinea, I
(Am
ster
dam
: Bat
aafs
che
Leeuwl 989)
pass
im.
47. I
nter
view
s w
ith fo
nner
CIA
offc
ers.
48. Westerfeld
, '
Am
eric
a an
d th
e W
orld
of
Inte
llige
nce
Lia
ison
' (no
te 7
) p.
31.
49. I
nter
view
s w
ith fo
nner
lOB
and
CIA
offc
ers.
50. I
nter
view
s w
ith f
onne
r C
IA a
nd lO
B o
ffci
als.
51. Andre Haamat.
De Revolutie Uitgegleden. Politieke herinneringen
(Am
ster
dam
: Jan
Met
s19
87)
pp.2
01-
11.
52. George Shultz,
Turmoil and Triumph. My Years as Secretary Of State
(NY: Scribners 1993)
pp.2
92-
53. Interview.
54. B
ob W
oodw
ard
VEIL. The Secret Wars of the CIA
1981
-198
7 (L
ondo
n: H
eadl
ine
Boo
ks1988), pp.
239-
41.
55. I
nter
view
s w
ith fo
nner
CIA
offc
ers.
Scie
nce,
Sci
entis
ts, a
nd th
e C
IA:
Bal
anci
ng I
nter
natio
nal I
deal
s,N
atio
nal N
eeds
, and
Prof
essi
onal
Opp
ortu
nitie
s
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L a
nd A
LL
AN
A. N
EE
DE
LL
The
his
tory
and
imm
edia
te p
rehi
stor
y of
the
Am
eric
an C
entr
al I
ntel
ligen
ceA
genc
y cl
osel
y co
inci
de w
ith th
e em
erge
nce
of s
cien
tific
kno
wle
dge
and
scie
ntis
ts a
s ke
y co
ntri
buto
rs to
Am
eric
an m
iltar
y po
wer
and
to n
atio
nal
secu
rity
. Int
ellg
ence
abo
ut s
cien
tific
act
iviti
es a
broa
d, a
nd th
e ap
plic
atio
nof
the
know
ledg
e an
d th
e te
chno
logi
es d
evel
oped
and
use
d by
sci
entis
ts to
cond
uct t
heir
res
earc
hes,
hav
e be
en r
ecog
nize
d as
cen
tral
to th
e m
issi
on a
ndth
e op
erat
ion
of th
e C
IA a
nd it
s predecessor agencies from the very
begi
nnin
g, A
s a
resu
lt, th
e re
latio
ns b
etw
een
scie
nce
and
the
CIA
hav
e be
enin
timat
e, a
lthou
gh th
ey h
ave
also
bee
n m
arke
d by
str
ain
and
by c
ontr
over
sy.
The
re a
re fu
ndam
enta
l diff
eren
ces
betw
een
the
idea
ls a
nd v
alue
s of
inte
llgen
ce g
athe
ring
and
the
idea
ls a
nd v
alue
s th
at s
erve
to d
efin
e th
ein
tern
atio
nal c
omm
unity
of
scie
ntis
ts. T
he h
allm
ark
of in
telli
genc
eop
erat
ions
is s
ecre
cy a
nd th
e ca
refu
l con
trol
of
info
rmat
ion.
Kno
wle
dge
ista
ntam
ount
to p
ower
, usa
ble
by a
n en
emy
to u
nder
min
e an
d to
thre
aten
, and
as a
tool
a n
atio
n ca
n us
e to
pro
tect
itse
lf an
d its
inte
rest
s, In
form
atio
n is
colle
cted
fro
m a
broa
d (c
over
tly if
nec
essa
ry);
info
rmat
ion
is w
ithhe
ld f
rom
thos
e w
ho w
ould
em
ploy
it to
the
natio
ns
detr
imen
t. T
he h
allm
ark
ofsc
ienc
e is
ope
nnes
s. T
here
is a
bsol
utel
y no
roo
m, i
n th
e sc
ient
ific
idea
l, f
orco
nsid
erat
ions
of
polit
ical
ideology or national needs. Indeed, deeply
embe
dded
in th
e tr
aditi
ons
and
self
-im
age
of s
cien
tists
is th
e co
nvic
tion
that
any
atte
mpt
by
nons
cien
tific
inte
rest
s (r
elig
ions
, sta
tes,
or political or
mili
tary
alli
ance
s) to
infl
uenc
e scientific research or to, co
ntro
lco
mm
unic
atio
ns b
etw
een
scie
ntis
ts m
ust b
e re
sist
ed a
t all
cost
s.
The
way
s in
whi
ch th
ese
fund
amen
tal d
iffe
renc
es h
ave
been
neg
otia
ted
- sometimes re
conc
iled,
but
mos
tly n
ot -
in th
e cl
imat
e of
the
Col
d W
arha
ve h
ad e
norm
ous
cons
eque
nces
for
the
CIA
and
its
abilt
y to
rec
ruit
and
to m
ake
effe
ctiv
e us
e of
exp
erts
of
vari
ous
sort
s. T
hey
have
als
o pr
ofou
ndly
alte
red
the
imag
e an
d pr
actic
e of
sci
ence
in p
ostw
ar A
mer
ica.
- -
----
---
" '
' ,' ,
" '
' ", '
, '
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
Am
eric
an s
cien
tists
fac
ed a
pro
foun
d di
lem
ma
with
the
end
of W
orld
War
II,
On
the
one
hand
mos
t had
don
nant
pro
fess
iona
l res
earc
h ca
reer
s to
tend
to, a
nd o
n th
e ot
her
man
y ha
d be
com
e ac
cust
omed
to tb
e st
atus
and
the
acce
ss to
res
ourc
es a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith w
ar r
esea
rch
and
orga
nizi
ng a
ctiv
ity.
The
Uni
ted
Stat
es' e
mer
genc
e fr
om W
orld
War
II a
s th
e w
orld
's leading
mili
tary
and
eco
nom
ic p
ower
and
the
maj
or, i
f no
t yet
pre
cise
ly d
efin
edro
le th
at th
e U
S w
as b
ound
to p
lay
in e
stab
lishi
ng a
new
glo
bal p
ostw
arre
gim
e, insured that the nation
s ne
ed to
mai
ntai
n th
e instruments of
mili
tary
and
eco
nom
ic p
ower
wou
ld n
ot e
nd w
ith th
e ce
ssat
ion
of h
ostil
ties,
Man
y sc
ient
ists
wer
e qu
ite w
iling
- even anxious - to continue, at least
part
-tim
e, working di
rect
ly f
or th
eir
gove
rnm
ent.
Giv
en th
e cr
ucia
lco
ntri
butio
ns th
at s
cien
ce-b
ased
wea
pons
- th
e at
omic
bom
b an
d ra
dar
mos
tpr
omin
ently
- h
ad m
ade
to th
e A
llied
vic
tory
, and
giv
en th
e lo
omin
g th
reat
of n
ew w
eapo
ns -
bio
logi
cal a
nd c
hem
ical
the
mos
t wid
ely
antic
ipat
ed -
itis
no
surprise that the leaders of A
mer
ican
inte
llige
nce
oper
atio
nsre
cogn
ized
the
impo
rtan
ce th
at th
e co
untr
ys
mili
tary
pla
nner
s an
d po
litic
alle
ader
s sh
ould
be
accu
rate
ly in
fonn
ed a
bout
rel
evan
t sci
entif
ic a
dvan
ces
whe
reev
er s
uch
adva
nces
mig
ht o
ccur
.In
deed
, am
ong
the
maj
or p
rom
oter
sof
this
spe
cial
ized
sor
t of
inte
llige
nce
wer
e sc
ient
ists
, esp
ecia
lly th
e gr
oup
of in
flue
ntia
l sci
entis
ts w
ho h
ad p
laye
d le
adin
g ro
les
orga
nizi
ng w
eapo
nsre
sear
ch d
urin
g W
orld
War
II
and
thos
e w
ho w
ere
intim
atel
y fa
mili
ar w
ithsc
ient
ific
inte
llige
nce
oper
atio
ns th
at h
ad b
een
carr
ed o
ut d
urin
g th
atco
nflc
t.B
ut th
ose
sam
e sc
ient
ists
als
o kn
ew th
at s
cien
tific
inte
llgen
ce-g
athe
ring
duri
ng W
orld
War
II
had
not b
een
wel
l coo
rdin
ated
, The
Man
hatta
n Pr
ojec
tun
der
the
cont
rol o
f M
ajor
Gen
eral
Les
lie R
. Gro
ves,
est
ablis
hed
its o
wn
Fore
ign
Inte
llige
nce
Bra
nch
to s
py o
n re
late
d ac
tiviti
es a
broa
d, e
spec
ially
on p
rosp
ectin
g fo
r ur
aniu
m o
re.
The
Off
ice
of S
cien
tific
Res
earc
h an
dD
evel
opm
ent e
stab
lishe
d an
off
ice
in L
ondo
n an
d as
sign
ed s
ome
of th
ena
tion
s le
adin
g sc
ient
ists
to w
hat c
an b
e de
scri
bed
as in
tellg
ence
gat
heri
ngfu
nctio
ns. T
he A
nny
and
the
Nav
y, a
s w
ell a
s th
e O
SS, d
id th
e sa
me.
As
the
war
dre
w to
a c
lose
a s
peci
al e
ffor
t to
gath
er a
s m
uch
info
nnat
ion
aspo
ssib
le f
rom
Gen
nany
and
Jap
an w
as s
et in
mot
ion.
And
alth
ough
a s
peci
alre
adin
g pa
nel w
as s
et u
p w
ithin
the
OSR
D to
rev
iew
inco
min
g in
telli
genc
ean
d at
tem
pt to
mak
e su
re th
at th
ose
who
req
uire
d th
e in
fonn
atio
n w
ere
prom
ptly
info
nned
, few
wer
e sa
tisfi
ed w
ith th
e re
sult.
How
this
sci
entif
icin
put w
as to
be
arra
nged
was
the
grea
t uns
olve
d pr
oble
m,
As
the
natio
n be
gan
the
com
plex
task
of
dem
obili
zatio
n, e
xist
ing
mea
nsof
gat
herin
g sc
ient
ific
inte
llige
nce
had
to b
e transfonned along with so
man
y ot
her
war
-fas
hion
ed o
r w
ar-e
xpan
ded
orga
niza
tions
, Sci
entis
ts, w
ho
achi
eved
unp
rece
dent
ed s
tatu
s an
d in
flue
nce
duri
ng th
e w
ar, s
trug
gled
tode
fine
for
them
selv
es a
pen
nane
nt p
ostw
ar r
ole.
Thi
s st
udy
is in
tend
ed a
s a
sket
ch o
f th
e m
anne
r in
whi
ch th
at w
as a
ccom
plis
hed
, and
as
a m
eans
of
rais
ing
som
e of
the
cruc
ial,
if li
ttle
exam
ined
, iss
ues
the
evol
ving
rel
atio
nsbe
twee
n th
e in
tellg
ence
and
sci
entif
ic c
omm
uniti
es h
ave
raised for both.
INT
EL
LIG
EN
CE
AN
D T
HE
PO
STW
AR
OR
GA
NIZ
AT
ION
OF
MIL
ITA
RY
R&
D
The
mos
t im
port
ant o
rgan
izat
iona
l arr
ange
men
t for
con
tinue
d sy
stem
atic
scie
ntif
ic in
put i
nto
natio
nal s
ecur
ity p
lann
ing
was
the
Join
t Res
earc
h an
dD
evel
opm
ent B
oard
, est
ablis
hed
by th
e Se
cret
arie
s of
War
and
the
Nav
y in
the
sum
mer
of 1
946.
Cha
ired
by V
anne
var
Bus
h, w
ho h
ad s
erve
d as
bot
h th
ewartime leader of th
e ci
vilia
n O
ffce
of
Scie
ntif
ic R
esea
rch
and
Dev
elop
men
t (O
SRD
) an
d th
e ch
ainn
an o
f th
e m
ilita
rys
own
Join
t New
Wea
pons
Com
mitt
ee (
repo
rtin
g di
rect
ly to
the
Join
t Chi
efs
of Staff, the
JRD
B w
as c
harg
ed w
ith th
e re
spon
sibi
lity
of r
evie
win
g th
e st
atus
of
all
exis
ting
rese
arch
and
dev
elop
men
t pro
ject
s an
d, in
the
case
of
over
lapp
ing
responsibilties or of duplication, t
o as
sign
pri
mar
y re
spon
sibi
lty to
one
of
the
serv
ices
. As
impo
rtan
t, th
e JR
DB
rec
ruite
d lit
eral
ly h
undr
eds
of c
ivili
ansc
ient
ists
from
indu
stry
and
the
natio
ns
mos
t pre
stig
ious
uni
vers
ities
tose
rve
on a
dvis
ory
com
mitt
ees
and
pane
ls, B
egin
ning
late
in 1
946,
thes
epa
nels
initi
ated
a s
yste
mat
ic in
vent
ory
of r
esea
rch
area
s an
d pe
rson
nel w
ithth
e in
tent
ion
of a
dvis
ing
the
full
Boa
rd a
nd, through them, the nation
mili
tary
pla
nner
s.T
o gu
ide
its o
pera
tions
the
JRD
B c
reat
ed a
spe
cial
Pol
icy
Cou
ncil,
a
high
leve
l com
mitt
ee c
hair
ed b
y ra
dio
engi
neer
/iono
sphe
ric
phys
icis
t Llo
ydV
. Ber
kner
(in
his
cap
acity
as
JRD
B E
xecu
tive
Secr
etar
y).5
The
Pol
icy
Cou
ncil
was
, in
Ber
kner
s ow
n w
ords
, '
resp
onsi
ble
for
criti
cal a
naly
sis
ofth
e tr
ends
of
rese
arch
and
dev
elop
men
t and
the
vita
l pla
nnin
g as
soci
ated
with
the
utili
zatio
n of
new
wea
pons
: Significantly, a representative of the
rece
ntly
est
ablis
hed
Cen
tral
Int
ellig
ence
Gro
up w
as in
vite
d to
take
par
.M
embe
rs o
f th
e Po
licy
Cou
ncil
quic
kly
reco
gniz
ed th
at th
ey w
ould
requ
ire
timel
y an
alys
is o
f th
e st
ate
of s
cien
ce a
nd s
cien
tific
res
earc
h, b
oth
with
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
and
abr
oad,
To
prov
ide
itsel
f w
ith h
igh-
leve
lscientific input, a fonnal sc
ient
ific
adv
isor
y co
mm
ittee
was
fonn
ed.
App
oint
ed w
ere
I. I.
Rab
i and
Alfr
ed L
oom
is, v
eter
ans
of th
e W
orld
War
II
rada
r de
velo
pmen
t eff
ort;
Wili
am S
hock
ley,
the
Bel
l Lab
orat
ory
elec
tron
ics
expe
rt; C
aryl
Has
kins
, the biologist director of the personally
fina
nced
Has
kins
Lab
orat
orie
s in
New
Yor
k an
d w
artim
e E
xecu
tive
Ass
ista
nt to
the
Cha
inna
n of
the
ND
RC
; and
Geo
rges
F. D
orio
t, p
rofe
ssor
of i
ndus
tria
lm
anag
emen
t at t
he H
arva
rd B
usin
ess
Scho
ol a
nd w
artim
e D
eput
y D
irec
tor
of th
e W
ar D
epar
tmen
ts
Res
earc
h an
d D
evel
opm
ent O
ffce
.? T
his
advi
sory
com
mitt
ee w
as g
iven
spe
cial
top
secr
et b
rief
ings
abo
ut c
urre
nt w
ar p
lans
and
stra
tegy
,
" "
--'
"".
-'-'
' ", "
, ,-
-' '
'', '
.. '
,,, '
, ,
, ,,-
;-.
. ', "
'-'.._
_._.
._-_
.-.
,~~~
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
PLA
NN
ING
SC
IEN
TIF
IC IN
TE
LLIG
EN
CE
The
indi
vidu
al th
at V
anne
var
Bus
h an
d th
e JR
DB
eve
ntua
lly r
ecom
men
ded
to d
evel
op th
is o
ffic
e w
as W
alla
ce R
. Bro
de, D
esce
nded
fro
m a
n ol
d O
hio
fam
ily w
ith s
tron
g sc
ienc
e in
tere
sts
(his
fat
her
and
twin
bro
ther
wer
e al
sopr
ofes
sors
), B
rode
s ca
reer
typi
fied
that
of
man
y A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts w
hobe
cam
e in
volv
ed in
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e in
the
late
194
0s a
nd 1
950s
, APh
D f
rom
Ilin
ois
who
taug
ht p
hysi
cal c
hem
istr
y at
Ohi
o St
ate
until
Wor
ldW
ar I
I, B
rode
had
fou
nd w
artim
e re
sear
ch m
uch
to h
is li
king
, The
for
mer
OSR
D li
aiso
n of
fice
hea
d in
Par
is, B
rode
had
gai
ned
fam
iliar
ity w
ithE
urop
ean
scie
nce
thro
ugh
a 19
26 G
ugge
nhei
m F
ello
wsh
ip a
nd th
roug
h a
sola
r ec
lipse
exp
editi
on to
the
Sovi
et U
nion
, But
wha
t par
ticul
arly
dre
w th
ePo
licy
Cou
ncil
advi
sors
and
Van
neva
r B
ush'
s at
tent
ion
to B
rode
was
his
post
-war
ass
ignm
ent a
s di
rect
or o
f th
e Sc
ienc
e D
epar
tmen
t of t
he N
aval
Ord
nanc
e T
est S
tatio
n at
Inyo
kern
, California, w
here
he
had
deve
lope
dpl
ans
for
scie
ntif
ic in
telli
genc
e ga
ther
ing,
Bus
h al
so a
ppre
ciat
ed B
rode
outs
poke
n di
sdai
n fo
r m
ilita
ry c
omm
anda
nts
who
reg
arde
d sc
ient
ists
as
mer
ely
assi
gned
civ
ilian
labo
rers
(di
rect
ed)
to p
rodu
ce s
uch
item
s as
asupersonic torpedo, just as he might direct another gr
oup
to d
ig a
ditc
hac
ross
the
road
'. B
rode
s sc
ient
ific
elit
ism
mat
ched
Bus
h's
conv
ictio
n th
atsc
ient
ists
nee
ded
to e
nerg
etic
ally
def
ine
thei
r ro
le w
ithin
the
natio
nal
mili
tary
est
ablis
hmen
t."In
stal
ling
Bro
de a
s th
e cl
ande
stin
e le
ader
of
scie
ntif
ic in
tellg
ence
requ
ired
nov
el a
ccom
mod
atio
ns w
ithin
the
Am
eric
an s
cien
tific
com
mun
ity,
Apparently on Bush's
urgi
ng, A
dmira
l Ros
coe
HiH
enko
ette
r m
et w
ithE
dwar
d U
, Con
don
, dir
ecto
r of
the
Nat
iona
l Bur
eau
of S
tand
ards
. Con
don
soon
aut
hori
zed
the
appo
intm
ent o
f B
rode
as
Ass
ocia
te D
irec
tor
with
an
imm
edia
te (
and
secr
et)
leav
e of
abs
ence
, aut
hori
zing
him
to u
se th
e po
sitio
nas a "bl
ind"
, fo
r hi
s in
tellg
ence
act
iviti
es. B
ut C
ondo
n al
so a
gree
d th
ataf
ter
one
year
, Brode would actually
beco
me
the
seco
nd-i
n-co
mm
and
at th
eN
BS
, Thi
s in
duce
men
t was
intended to bu
ttres
s B
rode
s long-term
prof
essi
onal
sta
ndin
g, s
ince
the
Ohi
o ch
emis
t was
for
ced to resign his
tenu
red
prof
esso
rshi
p at
Ohi
o S
tate
in 1
947
, hav
ing
exce
eded
the
num
ber
ofpe
rmitt
ed a
nnua
l abs
eric
es,
All
thes
e ar
rang
emen
ts a
side
, Bro
de w
as n
ot s
ucce
ssfu
l. D
urin
g th
e ye
arhe
led
the
scie
ntif
ic b
ranc
h w
ithin
the
Off
ice
of R
esea
rch
Est
imat
es (
OR
E),
from
Oct
ober
194
7 to
Oct
ober
194
8, B
rode
labo
red
to d
efin
e an
d ha
veac
cept
ed a
cle
ar m
anda
te f
or a
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e br
anch
with
in th
e ne
wag
ency
. He
favo
red
an e
xpan
sive
mis
sion
. Usi
ng th
e gu
ided
mis
sile
as
anex
ampl
e of
a m
odem
wea
pons
sys
tem
dem
andi
ng c
lose
atte
ntio
n, B
rode
argu
ed th
at '
the
scie
ntif
ic o
rder
of
battl
e' r
equi
red
CIA
ana
lyst
s to
exa
min
efo
reig
n 's
cien
tific
res
earc
h an
d de
velo
pmen
t to
the
poin
t of
prod
uctio
n. H
ech
ampi
oned
the
idea
, ear
lier
advo
cate
d by
Rab
i and
Ber
kner
, of
build
ing
amaster biographical database on all foreign sc
ient
ific
and
tech
nolo
gica
lpe
rson
aliti
es; t
his
was
late
r im
plem
ente
d in
Int
ellig
ence
Dir
ectiv
e 8
of th
eN
atio
nal S
ecur
ity C
ounc
il. (
To
disg
uise
inte
llgen
ce in
tere
st in
the
natu
ral
scie
nces
alo
ne, B
rode
rec
omm
ende
d pe
rsua
ding
a f
ound
atio
n to
pub
lish
sim
ilar
stud
ies
of d
ram
a, e
duca
tion
, and
mus
ic to
lend
the
prop
osed
pro
ject
a 'c
ultu
ral'
atm
osph
ere,
)1J
Nev
erth
eles
s, b
y O
ctob
er 1
948
Bus
h re
port
ed to
Sec
reta
ry o
f D
efen
seJa
mes
For
rest
al th
at th
e C
IA r
emai
ned
high
ly in
effi
cien
t, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
scie
ntif
ic a
nd te
chni
cal a
rea
, Ral
ph C
lark
, Bus
h's
dire
ctor
of
prog
ram
s at
the
now
-ren
amed
RD
BI.
mor
e bl
untly
dec
lare
d th
at th
e ' R
DB
has
rec
eive
dsu
bsta
ntia
lly n
o sc
ient
ific
inte
llgen
ce o
f the
type
wan
ted
from
CIA
' ,W
hy B
rode
fai
led
to d
evel
op a
via
ble
scie
ntif
ic in
tellg
ence
org
aniz
atio
nw
ithin
the
CIA
rev
eals
muc
h ab
out t
he r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
scie
ntis
ts a
nd
At p
relim
inar
y in
form
al m
eetin
gs w
ith th
e JR
DB
lead
ersh
ip in
late
194
6th
e 'technical advisors' discussed an ex
trao
rdin
arily
bro
ad r
ange
of
stra
tegi
c co
ncep
ts. T
hey
wer
e al
so g
iven
spe
cifi
c ta
sks,
non
e de
emed
mor
ees
sent
ial t
han
resp
ondi
ng to
a r
eque
st f
rom
Gen
eral
Hoy
t Van
denb
erg,
hea
dof the Central In
telli
genc
e G
roup
, for
assistance in locating qualified
tech
nica
l per
sonn
el f
or n
atio
nal i
ntel
ligen
ce w
ork,
At t
heir
fir
st a
nd s
econ
d m
eetin
gs th
e sc
ient
ific
gro
up d
iscu
ssed
a p
lan
for
recr
uitin
g sc
ient
ists
and
for
'ev
alua
ting
tech
nica
l int
ellg
ence
, and
agre
ed to
sub
mit
that
pla
n to
the
full
JRD
B in
late
Dec
embe
r, D
urin
g th
ead
viso
rs' J
anua
ry 1
947
mee
ting
it w
as n
oted
that
thei
r fo
rmal
pap
er, w
hich
was
ent
itled
' Pro
gram
for
JR
DB
-C
IG C
oope
ratio
n in
the
Fiel
d of
Sci
entif
icIn
telli
genc
e, had been approved by both th
e C
IG a
nd J
RD
B, and a
cons
ider
able
am
ount
of
time
was
spe
nt g
oing
ove
r a
list o
f po
tent
ial
cand
idat
es f
or th
e jo
b of
chi
ef o
f a
plan
ned
scie
ntif
ic b
ranc
h w
ithin
the
CIG
, The
qua
lific
atio
ns w
ere
in c
erta
in r
espe
cts
cont
radi
ctor
y: th
e id
eal
cand
idat
e w
ould
be
a le
adin
g re
sear
cher
wel
l ver
sed
in s
ever
al fi
elds
, but
also
one
who
gra
sped
the
need
s of
inte
llige
nce.
As
impo
rtan
t, th
e ca
ndid
ate
had to be willng to work in anonymity. The te
chni
cal a
dvis
ors
hope
d to
prov
ide
this
sci
entis
t a c
over
pos
ition
in a
Was
hing
ton-
area
uni
vers
ity, a
fede
ral a
genc
y, o
r 'o
ther
sci
entif
ic in
stitu
tions
of
note' such as JR
DB
Cha
irman
Van
neva
r B
ush'
s C
arne
gie
Inst
itutio
n of
Washington, They
rega
rded
the
phys
ical
sci
ence
s as
cri
tical
fie
lds
of s
cien
tific
inte
llgen
ce, y
etre
cogn
ized
indi
vidu
als
of h
igh
stat
ure,
like themselves and w
artim
esc
ient
ific
inte
llgen
ce le
ader
and
CIG
adv
isor
, Princeton physicist H. P.
Rob
erts
on, w
ere
unw
iling
to a
band
on th
eir
univ
ersi
ty c
hairs
and
pub
licro
les
to ta
ke o
n fu
ll-tim
e co
vert
ass
ignm
ents
of t
his
kind
,
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
the
natio
nal s
ecur
ity e
stab
lishm
ent d
urin
g th
e ea
rly
Col
d W
ar, and the
part
icul
ar d
iffc
ultie
s of
inte
grat
ing
scie
ntis
ts a
s a
clas
s of
exp
erts
into
the
trad
ition
al c
ircl
es o
f fo
reig
n po
licy-
mak
ing.
The
pri
ncip
al p
robl
em th
atB
rode
con
fron
ted
was
one
fac
ed b
y th
e in
telli
genc
e co
mm
unity
as
a w
hole
:th
at o
f co
ordi
natin
g, c
olle
ctin
g, a
nd r
evie
win
g va
st a
mou
nts
of in
fonn
atio
nfr
om a
bew
ilder
ing
rang
e of
sou
rces
, Bro
de f
avor
ed a
hig
hly
cent
raliz
edof
fice
, mod
eled
aft
er h
is e
xper
ienc
e in
Ann
y In
tellg
ence
and
fun
ctio
nally
sim
ilar
to th
e su
cces
sful
Sci
entif
ic I
ntel
lgen
ce S
ervi
ce c
reat
ed in
Gre
atB
rita
in d
urin
g W
orld
War
II
by th
e E
dinb
urgh
exp
erim
enta
l phy
sici
st R
. V.
Jone
s. B
ut B
rode
had
insu
ffci
ent r
esources and standing to deal with
exis
ting
inte
llgen
ce s
ectio
ns w
ithin
the
Ann
y, N
avy,
and
Ato
mic
Ene
rgy
Com
mis
sion
, not
to m
entio
n in
fonn
atio
n po
tent
ially
ava
ilabl
e fr
om th
eD
epar
tmen
ts o
f Ju
stic
e, A
gric
ultu
re, C
omm
erce
, Tre
asur
y an
d In
teri
or, t
he
Library of Congress, the National Research Council, and the National
Adv
isor
y C
ounc
il on
Aer
onau
tics,
Nor
did
he
have
the
stat
ure
to f
orce
thes
epo
tent
ial s
ourc
es to
sha
re in
fonn
atio
n w
ith him, This gap between
info
nnat
ion
sour
ces
and
the
need
s of
pol
icy
plan
ners
pre
sent
ed a
dau
ntin
gm
anag
emen
t pro
blem
that
wou
ld p
erpl
ex m
aste
rs o
f sc
ient
ific
inte
llige
nce
for
year
s to
com
e,A
noth
er c
halle
nge
that
Bro
de fa
ced
was
creating an organizational
stru
ctur
e fo
r th
e sc
ient
ific
bra
nch,
How
land
Sar
gean
t, a
Stat
e D
epar
tmen
tof
ficia
l tap
ped
to m
anag
e sc
ient
ific
mat
ters
for
OR
E before Brode
appo
intm
ent,
had
foc
used
on
six
fiel
ds '
of im
med
iate
inte
rest
: aer
onau
tics,
atom
ic e
nerg
y, b
iolo
gica
l war
fare
, che
mic
al w
arfa
re, c
omm
unic
atio
ns a
ndel
ectr
onic
s, a
nd g
uide
d m
issi
les,
Whi
le th
ese
cate
gori
es p
aral
lele
d st
andi
ngte
chni
cal c
omm
ittee
s w
ithin
the
RD
B, a
nd B
rode
acc
epte
d th
eir
prio
rity
as
criti
cal n
atio
nal s
ecur
ity c
once
rns,
he
argu
ed th
at scientific intelligence
wou
ld b
est b
e se
rved
by
trea
ting
scie
nce
with
in s
uch
fam
iliar
dis
cipl
inar
yfr
amew
orks
as
phys
ics,
che
mis
try,
and
bio
logy
. By
recr
eatin
g th
e un
iver
sity
mod
el w
ithin
the
scie
ntif
ic b
ranc
h, B
rode
bel
ieve
d th
at a
naly
sts
coul
d be
stid
entif
y po
tent
ial t
hrea
ts n
ot a
ntic
ipat
ed b
y ta
rget
ed '
fiel
ds, M
oreo
ver,
by
mai
ntai
ning
the
prof
essi
onal
str
uctu
re f
amili
ar to
sci
entis
ts, B
rode
hop
ed to
miti
gate
the
prob
lem
of
recr
uitin
g ne
w s
cien
ce P
hDs
to th
e C
IA. B
rode
organizational plan
, app
rove
d in
Jan
uary
194
8, u
ltim
atel
y pr
evai
led
as th
eba
sis
for
CIA
scientific intellgence. It be
cam
e hi
s m
ost e
ndur
ing
cont
ribu
tion
to th
is o
ffce
. Bro
des
succ
esso
rs m
aint
aine
d th
e un
iver
sity
mod
el in
to th
e 19
50s,
add
ing
new
fie
lds,
suc
h as
med
icin
e an
d as
tron
omy,
as th
eir
impl
icat
ions
for
nat
iona
l sec
urity
bec
ame
clea
r,A
thir
d problem that Brode faced was lack of bureaucratic support
with
in th
e C
IA, p
artic
ular
ly fr
om H
ilenk
oette
r, it
s fi
rst d
irec
tor.
In
cont
rast
to C
IG le
ader
Hoy
t Van
denb
erg,
who
wor
ked
clos
ely
with
Bus
h in
nego
tiatin
g th
e in
terim
RD
B-C
IG a
gree
men
t on
coop
erat
ion
in s
cien
tific
inte
llgen
ce, H
ilenk
oette
r se
emed
indi
ffer
ent t
o th
e sp
ecia
l req
uire
men
ts o
fscientific intellgence collection, a
naly
sis,
and
pro
duct
ion.
He
allo
wed
com
petin
g O
RE
bureau chiefs to usurp responsibility for gathering
scie
ntif
ic in
fonn
atio
n, b
ypas
sing
Bro
des
own
netw
ork
of c
onta
cts.
He
sim
ilarl
y le
ft B
rode
to f
loun
der
whe
n a
seni
or o
ffic
ial c
halle
nged
Bro
deto
p-le
vel c
lear
ance
in n
ucle
ar e
nerg
y, A
war
e th
at a
Nuc
lear
Ene
rgy
Bra
nch
crea
ted
in M
arch
194
8 in
the
Off
ce o
f Sp
ecia
l Ope
ratio
ns, w
hich
ran
the
CIA
's spying activities, violated the Vandenberg-Bush agreement
Hilenkoetter suggested to Bush that the ag
reem
ent h
ad o
utliv
ed it
sus
eful
ness
, Ang
ered
by
Hile
nkoe
tters nonchalance, B
ush
rem
inde
d hi
mth
at th
e R
DB
was
'pro
babl
y yo
ur p
rinci
pal c
lient
in th
e fie
ld o
f sci
entif
icin
tellg
ence
.., t
hus
far
I do
not
fee
l tha
t the
Boa
rd has been supplied with
adeq
uate
sci
entif
ic in
tellg
ence
for
its
guid
ance
. His
adm
oniti
on d
id li
ttle
how
ever
to in
crea
se B
rode
s au
thor
ity w
ithin
the
CIA
,Ultimately more troubling to Brode than Hilenkoetter
s fa
ilure
topr
otec
t him
with
in th
e C
IA w
as h
is in
abilt
y, o
r un
wili
ngne
ss, t
o sh
ield
him
from
loya
lty r
evie
w p
ress
ures
out
side
the
Age
ncy.
In
the
sum
mer
of
1948
Edw
ard
Con
don
, pla
nnin
g to
atte
nd a
n in
tern
atio
nal c
onfe
renc
e on
wei
ghts
and
mea
sure
s in
Par
is, a
sked
Bro
de to
ser
ve a
s N
BS
dire
ctor
in h
is p
lace
.K
now
ing
that
Con
don
was
then
und
er in
vest
igat
ion
by th
e H
ouse
Un-
Am
eric
an A
ctiv
ities
Com
mitt
ee, H
illen
koet
ter
firs
t con
ferr
ed w
ith H
UA
Cch
ainn
an 1
. Par
nell
Tho
mas
, who
insi
sted
that
no
CIA
off
icia
l cou
ld
asso
ciat
e w
ith C
ondo
n, H
ilenk
oette
r th
en r
efus
ed to
gra
nt B
rode
atemporary leave. Brode argued that the or
der
unde
nnin
ed h
is c
over
tap
poin
tmen
t, an
d T
rum
an o
ffic
ials
, ala
nned
by
Hill
's '
pecu
liar
beha
viou
ras
ked
Whi
te H
ouse
off
cial
s Jo
hn S
teel
man
and
Cla
rk C
liffo
rd to
rev
iew
the
mat
ter.
But
Hile
nkoe
tter
s fe
ckle
ssne
ss n
onet
hele
ss w
as th
e fi
nal s
traw
for
Bro
de. B
y su
bmitt
ing
his
resi
gnat
ion,
Bro
de b
ecam
e ye
t ano
ther
cas
ualty
of
the
post
war
loya
lty h
earin
gs in
to U
S s
cien
tific
com
mun
ity,
ES
TA
BLI
SH
ING
AN
OF
FIC
E O
F S
CIE
NT
IFIC
INT
ELL
IGE
NC
E
In a September 1948 m
emo
to H
ilenk
oette
r, B
rode
dec
lare
d th
at th
eor
gani
zatio
nal p
robl
ems
whi
ch h
ad s
tym
ied
him
cou
ld b
e ov
erco
me
only
thro
ugh
the
'dra
stic
' ste
p of
cre
atin
g an
Off
ce o
f Sc
ient
ific
Int
ellg
ence
on
a pa
r w
ith th
e O
RE
. At f
irst
Hile
nkoe
tter
took
no
actio
n, B
ut b
y la
te 1
948
the
prob
lem
of
scie
ntif
ic in
tellg
ence
beg
an to
rec
eive
atte
ntio
n fr
om s
ever
alna
tiona
l com
mitt
ees.
One
was
the
task
forc
e on
national security
orga
niza
tion,
cha
ired
by Ferdinand Eberstadt as part of the H
oove
r
Com
mis
sion
inve
stig
atio
n of
way
s to
incr
ease
eff
icie
ncy
in th
e ex
ecut
ive
bran
ch o
f gov
ernm
ent.
Ala
nned
by
test
imon
y th
at m
edic
al in
tellg
ence
was
virt
ually
non
-exi
sten
t and
that
info
nnat
ion
in th
e at
omic
ene
rgy
and
othe
r
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
fiel
ds w
as li
ttle
bette
r, E
bers
tadt
ste
rnly
war
ned
that
'(f
Jailu
re p
rope
rly
toap
prai
se th
e ex
tent
of
scie
ntif
ic d
evel
opm
ents
in e
nem
y co
untr
ies
may
hav
em
ore
imm
edia
te a
nd c
atas
trop
hic
cons
eque
nces
than
fai
lure
in a
ny o
ther
fiel
d of
inte
llige
nce' .
20 B
y se
curi
ng e
xper
t tes
timon
y fr
om le
adin
g A
mer
ican
scie
ntis
ts a
nd R
DB
off
cial
s, E
bers
tadt
ens
ured
that
his
arg
umen
ts w
ould
reac
h H
ilenk
oette
r an
d ot
her
inte
llgen
ce o
ffci
als,
Fur
ther
pre
ssur
e ca
me
from
the
inte
rnal
ly-r
un D
ulle
s-Ja
ckso
n-C
orre
a re
port
on
the
CIA
to th
eN
atio
nal S
ecur
ity C
ounc
il (t
he s
o-ca
lled
Dul
les
Rep
ort)
, whi
ch r
each
edsi
mila
r co
nclu
sion
s ab
out t
he s
tate
of
scie
ntif
ic in
telli
genc
e, I
n re
spon
seH
ilenk
oette
r cr
eate
d a
dist
inct
Offc
e of
Sci
entif
ic In
telli
genc
e (O
SI)
on 31
Dec
embe
r 19
48.
Rat
her
than
bei
ng th
e or
igin
of s
cien
tific
inte
llgen
cew
ithin
the
CIA
, as
it is
som
etim
es p
ortr
ayed
, the
fou
ndin
g of
this
off
ce w
asone climax in the postwar struggle to in
tegr
ate
scie
nce
with
in th
ebu
rgeo
ning
inte
llgen
ce c
omm
unity
.H
ilenk
oette
rs
orde
r to
est
ablis
h a
dist
inct
OS
I with
in th
e In
telli
genc
eD
irect
orat
e af
fnne
d th
e hi
gh s
tand
ing
of th
e R
DB
with
in th
e na
tiona
lm
ilita
ry e
stab
lishm
ent.
His
ord
er a
lso
refle
cted
a g
reat
er w
iling
ness
by
military and intellgence offcials as well as sc
ient
ists
to e
xper
imen
t with
new
way
s of
gat
heri
ng a
nd c
oord
inat
ing
scie
ntif
ic in
tellg
ence
, The
sec
ond
Tru
man
adm
inis
trat
ion
mar
ked
a tim
e of
incr
ease
d at
tent
ion
to s
cien
ce a
s an
inst
rum
ent o
f fo
reig
n po
licy
and
mili
tary
pla
nnin
g, I
n hi
s se
cond
inau
gura
laddress in January 1949, Truman announced th
e so
-cal
led
Poi
nt IV
initi
ativ
e, w
hich
cal
led
on A
mer
ican
s to
mak
e av
aila
ble
thei
r ex
peri
ence
and
tech
nica
l kno
w-h
ow to
the
deve
lopi
ng n
atio
ns o
f the
wor
ld, M
oreo
ver
thro
ugh
the
1950
s sc
ienc
e an
d te
chno
logy
con
tinua
lly g
aine
d si
gnifi
canc
eas
sym
bols
of
natio
nal a
nd id
eolo
gica
l sup
erio
rity
, Tho
ugh
this
evo
lutio
n of
scie
ntif
ic a
chie
vem
ents
into
inst
rum
ents
of
fore
ign
polic
y ha
d on
ly li
mite
din
fluen
ce o
n th
e O
SI b
y th
e tim
e th
e K
orea
n W
ar b
egan
(w
hich
in tu
rnhi
ghlig
hted
def
icie
ncie
s in
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e fo
r m
iltar
y of
fens
ive
and
defe
nsiv
e ca
pabi
litie
s), t
he K
orea
n ex
perie
nce
spur
red
the
CIA
to e
xpan
d its
invo
lvem
ent i
n sc
ienc
e an
d de
epen
ed it
s re
latio
ns w
ith th
e A
mer
ican
scie
ntif
ic c
omm
unity
,T
he ta
sk o
f de
fini
ng th
e fu
nctio
n an
d op
erat
ion
of th
e ne
w O
SI f
ell t
oB
rode
s su
cces
sor,
Wila
rd M
achl
e, A
lmos
t cer
tain
ly M
achl
e's
sele
ctio
n as
dire
ctor
of
new
OSI
was
infl
uenc
ed b
y E
bers
tadt
s cr
itici
sm th
at m
edic
alintelligence - particularly in
volv
ing
biol
ogic
al weapons and human
physiology -
I rem
aine
d un
avai
labl
e to
the
CIA
. An
MD
by
trai
ning
and
fonn
erly
a p
rofe
ssor
of
med
icin
e, M
achl
e ha
d be
com
e in
volv
ed in
war
time
com
bat s
tudi
es w
ithin
the
med
ical
bra
nch
of th
e O
SRD
and
had
dir
ecte
d th
eA
nnor
ed F
orce
Med
ical
Res
earc
h La
bora
tory
in K
entu
cky,
In 1
946
Mac
hle
rece
ived
the
Leg
ion
of H
onor
for
his
phy
siol
ogic
al r
esea
rch
, jus
t thr
ee y
ears
before he cjm
e director of scientific intelligence, masked by
blin
d
appo
intm
ents
at t
he A
EC
and
the
Ope
ratio
ns R
esea
rch
Off
ice
at J
ohns
Hop
kins
,C
onso
lidat
ing
the
colle
ctio
n an
d ev
alua
tion
of '
natio
nal'
scie
ntifi
cin
tellg
ence
with
in th
e C
IA, a
nd e
stab
lishi
ng th
is a
s a
prio
rity
ove
r th
e m
ore
agen
cy-f
ocus
ed g
oals
of
serv
ice
inte
llige
nce
units
, rem
aine
d a
chie
f ai
m o
fO
SI le
ader
s, T
hrou
gh th
e fi
rst h
alf
of 1
949
this
goa
l see
med
as
elus
ive
toM
achl
e as
it h
ad b
een
to B
rode
.Earth sciences intellgence remained
finnly within the province of Naval. Intelligence, f
or in
stan
ce, a
nd p
rim
arily
resp
onsi
ve to
Nav
y re
quire
men
ts. T
his
was
so even though such
info
nnat
ion
was
cri
tical
for
eva
luat
ing
deve
lopm
ents
in u
nder
sea
war
fare
and
guid
ed m
issi
les
, bot
h hi
ghly
sen
sitiv
e in
telli
genc
e ar
eas
of s
igni
fica
nce
to th
e hi
ghes
t lev
els
of n
atio
nal s
ecur
ity p
lann
ing,
It w
as d
etec
tion
of th
e fi
rst S
ovie
t ato
mic
bom
b te
st in
Sep
tem
ber
1949
,an
em
barr
assi
ng 1
6 m
onth
s be
fore
the
earl
iest
dat
e th
at th
e C
IA h
ad f
orec
ast
the
prev
ious
yea
r, th
at g
ave
Mac
hle
his
mos
t pow
erfu
l ope
ning
, In
a fo
ur-
page
mem
o on
the
'Ina
bilit
y of
OSI
to A
ccom
plis
h its
Mis
sion
, hur
redl
yco
mpo
sed
as S
ovie
t rad
ioac
tive
debr
is d
rift
ed th
roug
h th
e st
rato
sphe
re,
Mac
hle
insi
sted
that
the
non-
coop
erat
ion
of m
ilita
ry a
genc
ies
jeop
ardi
zed
the
CIA
's a
bilit
y to
pro
vide
nat
iona
l sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e on
ato
mic
biol
ogic
al, a
nd c
hem
ical
wea
pons
, as
wel
l as
med
ical
inte
llige
nce
and
basi
csc
ienc
e fie
lds.
Aware of co
ntin
ued
RD
B fr
ustr
atio
n w
ith th
e C
IAH
ilenk
oette
r is
sued
an
unch
arac
teri
stic
ally
bol
d re
orga
niza
tion
plan
, DC
ID3/
3, on 28 October, Bucking po
wer
ful m
ilita
ry in
tere
sts,
Hile
nkoe
tter
orde
r ga
ve th
e O
SI r
espo
nsib
ility
not
onl
y fo
r ba
sic
scie
nce
but f
or n
eww
eapo
ns s
yste
ms
'up
to th
e initiation of series production' - that is
tech
nolo
gica
l as
wel
l as
rese
arch
dev
elop
men
ts, S
uppo
rted
by
Rob
erts
onB
erkn
er, Bush, and other influential advisors, t
he m
ove
plac
ed C
IAsc
ient
ific
inte
llige
nce
on a
par
alle
l cou
rse
with
its
Bri
tish
coun
terp
art a
ndte
mpo
rari
ly e
nerg
ized
rel
atio
ns b
etw
een
the
OSI
and
the
RD
B,
Mac
hle
s ta
sk w
as m
ade
easi
er b
y th
e co
oper
atio
n, a
nd a
t tim
es d
irect
assi
stan
ce, o
f le
adin
g m
embe
rs o
f th
e U
S sc
ient
ific
com
mun
ity, A
fter
194
8,es
peci
ally
aft
er th
e C
omm
unis
t tak
eove
r of
Cze
chos
lova
kia,
the
attit
udes
of
man
y A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts d
arke
ned
alon
g w
ith th
ose
of o
ther
citi
zens
; the
ygr
ew p
artic
ular
ly d
istr
esse
d as
Tro
fim
Lys
enko
s ca
mpa
ign
agai
nst S
ovie
tge
netic
ists
inte
nsifi
ed a
nd p
ublis
hed
atta
cks
on W
este
rn scientists as
lear
ned
lack
eys
of c
apita
lism
' inc
reas
ed, B
y th
e tim
e th
e K
orea
n W
ar b
roke
out in 1950, m
ost A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts r
egar
ded
the
Sovi
et U
nion
as
acr
edib
le th
reat
to A
mer
ican
nat
iona
l sec
urity
, and
acc
epte
d th
at C
omm
unis
tP
arty
inte
rfer
ence
was
dis
tort
ing
the
Sov
iet s
cien
tific
com
mun
ity.28
As
a
resu
lt, i
n w
ays
and
to a
deg
ree
long
con
ceal
ed fr
om c
olle
ague
s an
d po
orly
docu
men
ted
in tr
aditi
onal
arc
hiva
l mat
eria
ls, s
cien
tists
beg
an to
aid
CIA
offc
ials
in c
olle
ctin
g, g
athe
ring
, and
inte
rpre
ting
know
ledg
e ab
out f
orei
gnsc
ient
ific
adv
ance
s,
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
With
man
pow
er s
hort
ages
com
mon
in m
ost f
ield
s of science, and
rest
rict
ions
aga
inst
ope
n pu
blic
atio
n an
d cl
ande
stin
e se
rvic
e a
bar
to f
utur
epr
ofes
sion
al e
mpl
oym
ent,
few
US
sci
entis
ts w
ere
wili
ng to
wor
k fo
r th
eC
IA fu
ll-tim
e,29 Yet it is increasingly clear that m
any
seni
or a
cade
mic
rese
arch
ers
cont
ribu
ted
to th
e O
SI o
n a
part
- tim
e ba
sis:
Van
neva
r B
ush,
for
exam
ple,
join
ed th
e so
-cal
led
' Pri
ncet
on C
onsu
ltant
s, w
hich
met
reg
ular
lywith Allen Dulles; in 1950, J
ames
Kili
an, George Kistiakowsky, and
Jero
me
Wie
sner
est
ablis
hed
the
'Bos
ton
Scie
ntif
ic A
dvis
ory
Pane
l' to
hel
pth
e A
genc
y ad
dres
s th
e po
vert
y of
US
inte
llige
nce
on S
ovie
t wea
pons
development. All were prominent sc
ient
ists
: Kis
tiako
wsk
y, a
Har
vard
chem
ist,
was
a s
enio
r ve
tera
n of
the
Man
hatta
n Pr
ojec
t, w
hile
Kili
an w
asth
e fu
ture
pre
side
nt o
f M
IT. A
ll th
ree
also
wen
t on
to s
erve
as
Pres
iden
tial
scie
nce
advi
sors
und
er E
isen
how
er a
nd K
enne
dy, I
n th
e fi
nal a
naly
sis,
the
goal
s of
sci
entif
ic in
tellg
ence
wer
e sh
aped
less
by
bure
aucr
atic
lead
ers
like
Bro
de a
nd M
achl
e th
an b
y B
ush
, Kis
tiako
wsk
y, a
nd o
ther
elit
e m
embe
rs o
fth
e U
S ph
ysic
al s
cien
ces
and
engi
neer
ing
com
mun
ities
,T
he w
iling
ness
of A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts to
see
the
goal
s of
nat
iona
lse
curi
ty a
s co
mm
ensu
rate
with
impr
ovin
g th
e st
andi
ng o
f A
mer
ican
sci
ence
enco
urag
ed r
oles
for
inte
llgen
ce in
man
ifest
ly o
vert
sci
entif
ic a
ctiv
ities
.Fo
r ex
ampl
e, s
cien
tists
(fu
lly c
ogni
zant
of
thei
r po
tent
ial i
ntel
ligen
ce v
alue
)w
ere
inst
rum
enta
l in
the establishment within the State D
epar
tent
of
scie
ntif
ic a
ttach
e po
sitio
ns w
ithin
em
bass
ies
cons
ider
ed s
trat
egic
for
weapons or te
chno
logi
cal d
evel
opm
ent,'
Lik
ewis
e B
erkn
ers so-called
Science and Foreign Relations report in 1950 to the State D
epar
tmen
t(w
hich
sur
veye
d its
res
pons
ibili
ties
in th
e fi
eld of science) was closely
coor
dina
ted
with
CIA
rep
rese
ntat
ives
.O
ther
Am
eric
an s
cien
tists
will
ingl
y se
rved
as
brok
ers
of in
fonn
atio
nfr
om th
eir
prof
essi
onal
com
mun
ities
to th
e C
IA. T
he e
xten
t to
whi
ch U
Sre
sear
cher
s to
ok p
art i
n di
scip
linar
y su
rvey
s or
res
earc
h pr
ojec
ts f
unde
d by
the
CIA
can
not b
e accurately estimated, a
s of
fici
al s
ecre
cy a
s well as
pers
onal
and
pro
fess
iona
l dis
cret
ion
have
larg
ely
kept
suc
h ca
ses
from
view
Y B
ut th
e na
ture
of
thes
e in
tera
ctio
ns is
sug
gest
ed b
y on
e in
stan
ce th
atha
s co
me
to li
ght.
In 1
959
Ger
ard
p, K
uipe
r, a University of Chicago
astr
onom
er a
nd d
irect
or o
f its
affl
iate
d Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
obse
rvat
orie
s,ag
reed
to p
repa
re a
leng
thy
revi
ew o
f So
viet
wor
k in
pla
neta
ry a
nd s
tella
ras
trop
hysi
cs, u
nder
con
trac
t to
the
CIA
, The
rev
iew
was
larg
ely
wri
tten
bya
visi
ting
Yug
osla
vian
ast
rono
mer
who
se y
ear-
long
res
earc
h ap
poin
tmen
tw
as m
ade
poss
ible
by
thes
e co
ntra
ct f
unds
, Kui
per,
a n
atur
aliz
ed U
S ci
tizen
who
se w
artim
e se
rvic
e du
ring
Wor
ld W
ar I
I ha
d in
clud
ed a
ssig
nmen
ts w
iththe Radio Research Laboratory and the
Als
os
mis
sion
(a
civi
lian-
scie
ntif
icte
am d
eplo
yed
behi
nd a
dvan
cing
Alle
d tr
oops
to in
terv
iew
sci
entis
ts a
bout
thei
r pr
ogre
ss in
wea
pons
res
earc
h), k
ept t
he n
atur
e of
this
con
trac
t sec
ret
from
his
col
leag
ues.
Con
cern
for
nat
iona
l sec
urity
par
tly e
xpla
ins
Kui
per
wili
ngne
ss to
aid
the
CIA
. But
he
also
saw
the contract providing
prof
essi
onal
adv
anta
ges:
by
surv
eyin
g th
e leading frontiers of Soviet
astr
onom
y, K
uipe
r ho
ped
to im
prov
e th
e co
mpe
titiv
e ed
ge o
f hi
s in
stitu
tion
and
his
own
rese
arch
,D
espi
te in
road
s of
this
sor
t, O
SI le
ader
s co
ntin
ued
to f
ind
it di
ffic
ult t
om
eet t
he d
eman
d of
clie
nts
such
as
the
RD
B f
or s
cien
tific
inte
llgen
ce. O
nepr
oble
m w
as th
e St
ate
Dep
artm
ent
s ha
phaz
ard
and
ultim
atel
y lim
ited
use
of it
s sc
ienc
e at
tach
es, w
hich
alw
ays
had
been
inte
nded
, in
part
, to
prov
ide
a ba
ck c
hann
el f
or th
e co
llect
ion
of s
ensi
tive
inte
llige
nce,
Few
if a
nysc
ient
ific
atta
ches
wer
e ex
plic
itly
inst
ruct
ed a
bout
spe
cifi
c co
llect
ion
need
sal
low
ing
them
to d
efin
e th
emse
lves
as
amba
ssad
ors
of A
mer
ican
sci
ence
, a
role they clearly preferred,35
Mor
eove
r , c
aree
r S
tate
Dep
artm
ent o
ffcer
sw
hose
trai
ning
and
bac
kgro
und
shar
ed f
ew c
omm
on in
ters
ectio
ns w
ithsc
ient
ists
, ofte
n re
gard
ed th
e ef
fort
s of
sci
entis
ts to
mai
ntai
n in
tern
atio
nal
cont
acts
as
syno
nym
ous
with
com
mun
ist s
ympa
thie
s. B
etw
een
1952
and
1957
the
num
ber
of s
cien
ce a
ttach
es f
ell f
rom
12
to z
ero
(the
pro
gram
was
late
r re
vive
d in
195
8). Y
et it
see
ms
unlik
ely
that
sci
ence
atta
ches
cou
ld h
ave
been
exp
ecte
d to
ful
fi in
tellg
ence
-gat
heri
ng r
oles
eve
n w
ith g
reat
er S
tate
Dep
artm
ent b
acki
ng: F
renc
h co
mm
unis
t int
elle
ctua
ls, i
nclu
ding
the
nucl
ear
phys
icis
t Fre
deric
Jol
iot-
Cur
ie, b
last
ed th
e at
tach
e pr
ogra
m a
s 'la
ctiv
itees
pion
age
, and
Wes
t Gen
nan
scie
ntis
ts p
oint
edly
igno
red
Bon
ns
scie
nce
atta
ches
unt
il th
ey d
emon
stra
ted
thei
r di
sint
eres
tedn
ess
in s
ensi
tive
topi
cs,
Inadvertent publication of a cl
assi
fied
rec
omm
enda
tion
to s
hift
the
back
stop
ping
of
scie
nce
atta
ches
dir
ectly
to th
e C
IA in
195
5 pr
ejud
iced
the
situation stil further.
A s
econ
d pr
oble
m la
y in
the
diff
culty
that
sci
entif
ic e
xper
ts, n
o le
ss th
an
thei
r co
lleag
ues
in o
ther
fiel
ds, f
aced
in a
ttem
ptin
g to
dec
iphe
r th
e he
alth
and
vita
lity
of S
ovie
t science. Detailed studies from outside consultants
wer
e ha
rdly
infa
llble
: Kui
per
s fi
rst O
SI r
epor
t in
1959
crit
iciz
ed L
unik
Il's
his
toric
imag
es o
f the
luna
r fa
rsid
e as
pos
sibl
e fa
kes,
a v
iew
Kui
per
revi
sed
the
follo
win
g ye
ar a
fter
a lo
ng p
riva
te m
eetin
g w
ith a
chi
ef L
unik
proj
ect s
cien
tist.
Alth
ough
inte
rvie
ws
with
US
scie
ntis
ts r
etur
ning
fro
m th
eSo
viet
Uni
on w
ere
used
to a
ugm
ent t
hese
rep
orts
(pa
rtic
ular
ly a
s So
viet
part
icip
atio
n in
inte
rnat
iona
l sci
entif
ic u
nion
s ba
lloon
ed a
fter
Sta
lins
deat
h
in 1953), the di
fficu
lties
of c
olle
ctin
g appropriately detailed technical
info
nnat
ion
from
suc
h su
bjec
ts r
emai
ned
fonn
idab
le.
A f
inal
pro
blem
for
OSI
lead
ers
thro
ugh
the
earl
y 19
50s
wer
e th
eir
alw
ays
diff
icul
t rel
atio
ns w
ith o
ther
chi
ef s
ourc
e of
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
eth
e m
ilita
ry in
tellg
ence
age
ncie
s, D
espi
te h
igh-
leve
l pro
ddin
g fr
om th
e fir
st
Hoo
ver
Com
mis
sion
and
the
Dul
les
Surv
ey, N
avy
and
Air
For
ce
inte
llige
nce
serv
ices
wer
e re
luct
ant t
o as
sign
add
ition
al o
ffce
rs to
sci
entif
ic
' ':"
", ,
' '. -
- '"
-" "
'" '
- -:
",,.
., '
- -
' ,. .
, -' -
, ,-.,o
: . "
'"
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S. A
ND
TH
E C
IA
mat
ters
, and
eve
n m
ore
relu
ctan
t to
pass
on
hard
-won
fin
ding
s to
the
CIA
,By 1952
, lea
ders
of
thes
e se
rvic
es, n
ever
rec
onci
led
to th
e O
SI's
hei
ghte
ned
auth
ority
in s
cien
tific
and
tech
nica
l ass
essm
ent f
ollo
win
g th
e 19
49 S
ovie
tat
omic
bom
b de
tect
ion
, suc
cess
fully
pre
ssur
ed H
ilenk
oette
rs successor
Gen
eral
Wal
ter
Bed
ell S
mith
to r
estr
ict O
SI a
naly
sts
to b
asic
sci
ence
alo
ne.
The
shi
ft w
as il
umin
atin
g, f
or S
mith
cle
arly
app
reci
ated
sci
entif
icin
tellg
ence
mor
e th
an h
is p
rede
cess
or. H
, Mar
shal
l Cha
dwel
l , a
che
mis
tan
d ex
pert
in c
omba
t med
icin
e w
ho r
epla
ced
Mac
hle
as h
ead
of O
SI a
fter
Mac
hle
had
a fa
lling
-out
ove
r th
e pr
oble
m o
f in
telli
genc
e ac
cess
, fou
nd th
isa
dem
oral
izin
g bu
t tem
pora
ry s
etba
ck: t
he li
ne b
etw
een
appl
ied
and
basi
cre
sear
ch p
rove
d im
poss
ible
to d
efin
e , a
nd b
y th
e m
id- 1
950s
OSI
ana
lyst
sw
ere
agai
n in
volv
ed in
wea
pon
stud
ies.
40 A
mor
e tr
oubl
ing
cons
eque
nce
ofO
SI's
turf
bat
tles
wer
e co
ntin
ued
diff
icul
ties
in r
ecru
iting
ful
l-tim
e an
alys
ts,
As
late
as
1955
OSI
em
ploy
ed ju
st o
ver
200
anal
ysts
, a m
odes
t num
ber
tosu
rvey
suc
h di
spar
ate
fiel
ds a
s m
athe
mat
ics ,
bio
logy
and
med
icin
e, p
hysi
csan
d ge
ophy
sics
, mec
hani
cs, t
henn
odyn
amic
s, m
athe
mat
ics ,
and
ast
rono
my,
as w
ell a
s fo
reig
n sc
ient
ific
inst
itutio
ns a
nd m
anpo
wer
tren
ds.
The
se li
mita
tions
wer
e ev
iden
t in
the
firs
t rep
orts
that
OSI
ana
lyst
sst
rugg
led
to p
rodu
ce. I
n 19
76 th
e C
hurc
h C
omm
ittee
pro
be f
ound
that
ear
lyC
IA in
telli
genc
e es
timat
es w
ere
choc
k w
ith in
fonn
atio
n fr
om '
all m
anne
r of
subj
ects
' fro
m p
oliti
cs to
sci
ence
- b
ut b
y 'attempting to do everything,
(the
y) c
ontr
ibut
(ed)
alm
ost n
othi
ng. C
erta
in e
arly
OSI
fin
ding
s se
emed
irre
leva
nt to
the
part
icul
ar n
eeds
of
polic
y-m
aker
s as
wel
l. O
ne la
te 1
949
OS
I stu
dy o
ffere
d to
Pre
side
nt T
rum
an a
nd th
e N
atio
nal S
ecur
ity C
ounc
ilre
port
ed th
at th
e nu
mbe
r of
pub
lishe
d ab
stra
cts
in S
ovie
t che
mis
try
had
plum
met
ed b
elow
50
per
cent
of
thei
r 19
41 le
vel,
indi
catin
g th
e ex
tent
of
new
res
earc
h no
w considered classified and linked to w
eapo
nsde
velo
pmen
t. Q
uant
itativ
e in
dice
s of
Sov
iet s
cien
ce w
ere
care
fully
ref
ined
by O
SI a
naly
sts
thro
ugh
the
1950
s. B
ut th
is r
epor
t fel
l sho
rt o
f pr
edic
ting
the
type
or
sig
nifi
canc
e of
nov
el c
hem
ical
wea
pons
that
NSC
and
RD
Bst
affs
nee
ded
to p
lan
appr
opri
ate
resp
onse
s"T
oo m
uch
can
be m
ade
of c
ritic
ism
s of
this
kin
d, f
or s
ever
al s
cien
tific
inte
llige
nce
find
ings
wer
e ap
plic
able
to s
peci
fic
fore
ign
polic
y is
sues
. Apa
rtic
ular
cas
e in
volv
ed S
wed
en. I
n Ju
ne 1
948
, Sec
reta
ry o
f St
ate
Geo
rge
C. M
arsh
all p
rote
sted
to T
rum
an th
at S
wed
ens
neut
ralit
y po
licy
aide
d th
eSo
viet
Uni
on a
nd u
rged
sw
ift a
dopt
ion
of th
e pr
opos
ed N
AT
O tr
eaty
to ti
pth
e Sc
andi
navi
an s
yste
m to
war
ds th
e W
est.
The
fol
low
ing
year
OSI
ana
lyst
spr
oduc
ed' A
n E
stim
ate
of S
wed
ish
Cap
abili
ties
in S
cien
ce, T
his
64-p
age
sing
le-s
pace
d re
port
pro
vide
d a
deta
iled
eval
uatio
n of
Sw
edis
h sc
ient
ists
,un
iver
sitie
s, r
esea
rch
inst
itutio
ns, and technological programs, including
high
ly c
lass
ifie
d w
ind
tunn
el a
nd p
ulse
jet e
ngin
e research. It tersely
conc
lude
d th
at '
(t)h
e U
SS
R w
ould
gai
n di
stin
ct, but relatively small
adva
ntag
e fr
om th
e po
int o
f vi
ew o
f sc
ienc
e by
overrnning Sweden
at th
epr
esen
t tim
e. F
ollo
win
g th
e gu
idel
ines
for
cov
ert a
ctio
n au
thor
ized
by
NSC
10/2
in 1
948,
OSI
ana
lyst
s al
so r
ecom
men
ded
deny
ing
cert
ain
Sw
edis
hsc
ient
ists
and
res
earc
h fa
cilit
ies
in c
ase
of S
ovie
t inv
asio
n. T
his
was
prec
isel
y th
e ki
nd o
f po
licy
pape
r th
at th
e N
SC h
ad sought to address
Scan
dina
vian
neu
tral
ity, a
lthou
gh it
s fa
ilure
to a
ppea
r in
tim
e to
join
rel
ated
repo
rts
unde
rcut
its
valu
e"O
SI in
tellg
ence
est
imat
es g
radu
ally
est
ablis
hed
the
offi
ce w
ithin
the
CIA
.44
But, compared with the Agencys geographic, economic, and
political directorates, t
he m
anda
te a
nd a
utho
rity
of
scie
ntif
ic in
tellg
ence
rem
aine
d il-
defi
ned
and
vuln
erab
le. T
urf
battl
es w
ith m
ilita
ry in
tellg
ence
(and
the
crea
tion
of th
e N
SA in
195
2, w
ith it
s di
stin
ct a
dvis
ory
pane
lsco
mpe
ting
for
scie
ntif
ic le
ader
s lik
e R
ober
tson
) w
orke
d ag
ains
t the
OSI
. Yet
cont
inue
d de
man
d fo
r ph
ysic
al, b
iolo
gica
l and
med
ical
inte
llgen
ce, a
ndincreased recognition by the E
isen
how
er a
dmin
istr
atio
n of
the
pres
tige
valu
e of
sci
ence
in f
orei
gn p
olic
y to
war
ds L
atin
Am
eric
a, A
fric
a, a
nd I
ndia
(illu
stra
ted
by th
e A
tom
s fo
r Pe
ace
prog
ram
and
mor
e dr
amat
ical
ly b
y th
espace race), simultaneously placed counter-pressures on the C
IA th
aten
cour
aged
cat
holic
ism
in s
cien
tific
col
lect
ion
and
anal
ysis
"
CO
VE
RT
SC
IEN
CE
: CIA
ME
DIC
AL
RE
SEA
RC
H
A c
entr
al ta
sk o
f th
e O
SI d
urin
g th
e 19
50s
rem
aine
d an
alys
is o
f sc
ient
ific
inte
llgen
ce to
ass
ist i
n pr
epar
ing
natio
nal i
ntel
ligen
ce e
stim
ates
. But
CIA
offi
cial
s al
so s
ough
t to
just
ify
cove
rt r
esea
rch
prog
ram
s in
str
ateg
ic f
ield
s.G
iven
the
enon
nous
nat
iona
l inf
rast
ruct
ure
for
nucl
ear
wea
pons
res
earc
hin
telli
genc
e an
alys
ts p
rom
oted
in-h
ouse
res
earc
h in
oth
er f
ield
s, p
artic
ular
lybi
olog
ical
toxi
ns a
nd m
edic
ine,
In th
e la
te 1
940s
a le
adin
g co
ncer
n fo
r A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts a
nd m
ilita
rypl
anne
rs r
emai
ned
pote
ntia
l ene
my
adva
nces
in b
iolo
gica
l, ch
emic
al, a
ndra
diol
ogic
al w
arfa
re (
BW
, CW
, RW
). B
ioch
emic
al w
eapo
ns w
ere
clea
rly
over
shad
owed
by
atom
ic b
ombs
as
doom
sday
wea
pons
dur
ing
the
early
Col
d W
ar, b
ut a
bsen
ce o
f in
tern
atio
nal t
reat
ies
regu
latin
g th
eir
use
- an
d th
em
odes
t siz
e of
the
inst
alla
tions
req
uire
d fo
r th
eir
man
ufac
ture
- m
ade
this
fiel
d a
high
pri
ority
for
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e. O
SI o
ffic
ials
wer
e w
ell a
war
eof
Jap
ans
use
of b
iolo
gica
l wea
pons
aga
inst
Chi
na d
urin
g W
orld
War
II
and
subs
tant
ial a
dvan
ces
in b
ioch
emic
al w
eapo
ns r
esea
rch
in o
ther
bel
liger
ent
natio
ns, p
artic
ular
ly th
roug
h ca
ptur
ed G
enna
n an
d Ja
pane
se re
cord
s, A
seri
es o
f re
port
s by
fon
ner
War
Res
earc
h Se
rvic
e di
rect
or G
eorg
e M
erck
and
othe
r le
adin
g sp
ecia
lists
sug
gest
ed a
US
edge
, But
they
nev
erth
eles
sun
ders
core
d th
at th
e E
ast-
Wes
t bal
ance
of
pow
er c
ould
be
thre
aten
ed if
the
Sovi
et U
nion
ach
ieve
d m
ajor
adv
ance
s in
bio
chem
ical
wea
pons
(B
W),
or
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
" 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
succ
essf
ully
sm
uggl
ed B
W, C
W, o
r R
W a
gent
s in
to th
e U
S, T
he k
eyde
side
rata
was
'm
uch
wid
er in
fonn
atio
n, particularly of an intelligence
natu
re:7
Yet
, as
a fr
ustr
ated
Fer
dina
nd E
bers
tadt
rep
orte
d to
the
Hoo
ver
Com
mis
sion
in 1
948
, med
ical
inte
llige
nce
reac
hing
the
CIA
was
vir
tual
lyno
n-ex
iste
nt.
The
lack
of m
edic
al in
telli
genc
e es
peci
ally
wor
red
lead
ers
of th
e C
IA'
clandestine services, w
ho fe
ared
fore
ign
adva
nces
in m
ind-
cont
rolli
ngte
chni
ques
of
bioc
hem
ical
ori
gin,
The
wid
ely publicized confessions of
Hun
gary
s Cardinal Mindszenty in February 1949 convinced Western
obse
rver
s th
at m
ind-
alte
ring
che
mic
als
had
been
use
d to
for
ce M
inds
zent
yte
stim
ony,
a s
uspi
cion
bol
ster
ed W
este
rn im
pres
sion
s of
ear
ly C
old
War
tria
ls o
rche
stra
ted
by J
osep
h, S
talin
in th
e Soviet Union,
49 M
edic
al
spec
ialis
ts a
nd d
efec
tors
pri
vate
ly f
uele
d fe
ars
of S
ovie
t adv
ance
s in
bra
in-
was
hing
tech
niqu
es. A
t a W
ashi
ngto
n co
ckta
il pa
rty,
Cha
dwel
l was
lect
ured
by a
med
ical
col
leag
ue f
or p
ayin
g in
suff
icie
nt a
ttent
ion
to '
spec
ial
inte
rrog
atio
ns. A
llen
Dul
les
sim
ilarl
y re
cord
ed s
tori
es f
rom
ref
ugee
s ab
out
forc
ed in
terr
ogat
ions
beh
ind
the
Iron
Cur
tain
,A
naly
sts
wor
red
abou
t tw
o di
stin
ct b
ut r
elat
ed m
atte
rs: t
he n
eed
toex
trac
t cri
tical
info
nnat
ion
quic
kly
from
cap
ture
d So
viet
age
nts
in th
e ev
ent
of h
ostil
e ac
ts in
volv
ing
biol
ogic
al o
r ch
emic
al w
eapo
ns, a
nd w
ays
to b
ette
req
uip
US
pers
onne
l aga
inst
suc
cess
ful t
ruth
-ser
um o
r m
ind-
alte
ring
age
nts
deve
lope
d by
Sov
iet r
esea
rche
rs, B
y th
e la
te 1
940s
CIA
off
icia
ls b
ecam
ees
peci
ally
con
cern
ed th
at a
com
bina
tion
of h
ypno
sis
and
drug
s co
uld
indu
ceunwitting individuals to follow another
s w
ill. A
nxie
ties
abou
t a h
ostil
ego
vern
men
t cre
atin
g a
prog
ram
med
ass
assi
natio
n -
popu
lari
zed
in th
e 19
59no
vel b
y R
icha
rd C
ondo
nThe Manchurian Candidate
- escalated during
the
Kor
ean
War
aft
er c
aptu
red
US
sold
iers
pub
licly
'co
nfes
sed'
toem
ploy
ing
bioc
hem
ical
wea
pons
.C
IA s
cien
tific
ana
lyst
s, le
d by
Cha
dwel
l , r
espo
nded
in tw
o w
ays,
One
was
to f
ight
for
incr
ease
d do
min
atio
n ov
er th
e pr
oduc
tion
and
diss
emin
atio
nof
med
ical
inte
llige
nce.
Thr
ough
the
firs
t hal
f of
194
9 , B
rode
and
Mac
hle
had
no m
ore
succ
ess
in c
oord
inat
ing
inte
llgen
ce in
med
icin
e th
an in
oth
erfi
elds
of
scie
nce;
des
pite
the recommendations of seven se
para
teco
mm
ittee
s , the m
atte
r ha
d re
mai
ned
unre
solv
ed. 5
2 T
he b
road
reor
gani
zatio
n of
sci
entif
ic in
tellg
ence
fol
low
ing
the
firs
t Sov
iet a
tom
icbo
mb
enab
led
Cha
dwel
l to consolidate the production of medical
inte
llgen
ce a
t the
CIA
. The
OSI
use
d its
exp
ande
d analytical capabilities to
iden
tify
new
med
ical
thre
ats,
war
ning
for
inst
ance
in F
ebru
ary
1950
that
the
Sovi
ets
wou
ld s
oon
gain
the
abili
ty to
con
duct
rad
iolo
gica
l war
fare
.T
he s
econ
d re
spon
se -
eve
ntua
lly w
ith b
road
ram
ific
atio
ns f
or th
e C
IAan
d th
e bi
omed
ical
res
earc
h co
mm
unity
- w
as to set up covert research
programs in medical phannacology, with the goal of influencing and
SCIENCE, SCIENTISTS
, AN
D T
HE
CIA
cont
rolli
ng h
uman
beh
avio
r th
roug
h ps
ycho
activ
e dr
ugs
and
othe
r ch
emic
albi
olog
ical
, and
psy
chol
ogic
al m
eans
. In
Apr
il 19
50 H
ilenk
oette
r ap
prov
eda
cove
rt p
lan
initi
ally
pro
pose
d by
the
CIA
's O
ffic
e of
Sec
urity
, cod
enam
edB
lueb
ird'
, to employ sc
ient
ific
met
hods
and
kno
wle
dge
'to alter the
attit
udes
, tho
ught
pro
cess
es, a
nd b
ehav
ior
patte
rns
of a
gent
per
sonn
el' ,
Lat
er r
echr
iste
ned'
Art
icho
ke' ,
this
pro
gram
cam
e un
der
the
dire
ctio
n of
the
OS!
. A d
istin
ct b
ut r
elat
ed p
roje
ct, c
hris
tene
d 'M
KU
LT
RA
', b
egan
in 1
953
afte
r th
e C
IA's
ope
ratio
ns b
ranc
h an
d its
Off
ice
of S
peci
al O
pera
tions
(in
char
ge o
f sp
ying
) w
ere
mer
ged,
MK
UL
TR
A w
as d
esig
ned
to s
tudy
the
use
of b
iolo
gica
l and
che
mic
al m
ater
ials
in m
ind-
cont
rol,
com
pile
info
nnat
ion
on n
atur
ally
occ
urri
ng p
oiso
ns th
roug
hout
the
wor
ld, a
nd carr out covert
expe
rim
ents
with
LSD
and
rel
ated
sub
stan
ces
on h
undr
eds
of s
ubje
cts,
It i
sno
w c
lear
that
experiments were carred out on cognizant as well as
unw
ittin
g su
bjec
ts, a
t tim
es w
ith f
atal
con
sequ
ence
s. I
n at
leas
t one
cas
e a
care
er a
nny
scie
ntis
t em
ploy
ed in
bio
chem
ical
war
fare
rese
arch
, Fra
nk
Ols
on, c
omm
itted
sui
cide
soo
n af
ter
LSD
was
pla
ced
in h
is d
rink
by
CIA
colle
ague
s in
volv
ed w
ith M
KU
LT
RA
.T
hat e
xper
imen
ts w
ere
carr
ied
out o
n hu
man
s w
ithin
fiv
e ye
ars
of th
eend of World War
and
the
Nur
embe
rg tr
ials
whi
ch h
ad r
evea
led
the
horr
ors
of N
azi m
edic
al experimentation in the concentration camps,
dem
ands
exp
lana
tion.
Seve
ral f
acto
rs jo
ined
to a
id C
IA e
ffor
ts to
est
ablis
han
aut
onom
ous
prog
ram
in m
edic
al r
esea
rch,
Dee
peni
ng C
old
War
tens
ions
,th
e de
tona
tion
of th
e fi
rst S
ovie
t ato
mic
bom
b, th
e ou
tbre
ak o
f th
e K
orea
nW
ar, n
ucle
ar te
stin
g at
the
new
ly a
utho
rize
d N
evad
a T
est S
ite, a
nd p
ersi
sten
t
repo
rts
from
Eas
t blo
c de
fect
ors
all m
ade
wor
res
abou
t rad
iolo
gica
l and
bioc
hem
ical
war
fare
see
m m
ore
cred
ible
, But
dev
elop
men
ts w
ithin
the
US
natio
nal s
ecur
ity s
yste
m w
ere
equa
lly s
igni
fica
nt. T
he a
dopt
ion
of N
SC 6
8an
d 10
/2 d
efin
ed th
e S
ovie
t Uni
on a
s an
ideo
logi
cal f
oe b
ent o
n w
orld
dom
inat
ion
and
auth
oriz
ed c
over
t act
iviti
es, w
hile
the
asce
nsio
n of
Mac
hle
and
Cha
dwel
l as
lead
ers
of O
SI g
uara
ntee
d th
at m
edic
al in
telli
genc
e w
ould
beco
me
a hi
gh A
genc
y pr
iori
ty. M
edic
al c
urio
sity
, cou
pled
with
the
abse
nce
of peer review within the CIA'
s hi
ghly
sec
retiv
e O
SO, a
lso
enco
urag
ed
rese
arch
ers
to v
iola
te c
onte
mpo
rary
eth
ical
sta
ndar
ds. T
hat e
thic
al
boun
dari
es h
ad b
een
brea
ched
was
cle
arly
recognized by the CIA's
insp
ecto
r ge
nera
l in
1957
, who
labe
led
Ols
ons
deat
h a
resu
lt of
'un
ethi
cal
and ilicit activities, This highly embarrassing episode joined covert
polit
ical
ass
assi
natio
ns a
s pa
rtic
ular
ly d
amag
ing
reve
latio
ns o
f th
e C
hurc
hC
omm
ittee
hea
ring
s on
CIA
act
iviti
es in
197
5.It
is im
port
ant t
o no
te th
at b
iom
edic
al e
xper
imen
tatio
n of
this
kin
dw
hile
con
cent
rate
d at
ded
icat
ed a
nny
faci
litie
s lik
e Fo
rt D
etri
ck (
whi
chw
orke
d cl
osel
y w
ith th
e C
IA in
stu
dyin
g bi
oche
mic
al a
gent
s an
d de
liver
ysy
stem
s), w
as n
ot c
onfi
ned
to m
ilita
ry r
esea
rch
inst
alla
tions
, Rat
her,
it w
as
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
diff
used
with
in th
e U
S sc
ient
ific
com
mun
ity. A
s w
ith m
ost a
reas
of
CIA
scie
ntif
ic o
pera
tions
, rel
ativ
ely
little
is k
now
n ab
out e
xtra
mur
al A
genc
ysu
ppor
t for
res
earc
h in
this
fie
ld. B
ut C
IA f
unds
cle
arly
enc
oura
ged
rela
ted
stud
ies
at A
mer
ican
uni
vers
ities
and
insp
ired
inde
pend
ent s
chol
ars
toad
dres
s A
genc
y ne
eds,
One
exa
mpl
e w
hich
has
com
e to
ligh
t inv
olve
dG
eorg
etow
n U
nive
rsity
, the
nat
ion
s oldest Jesuit university. In 19
55 -
the
CIA
sec
retly
hel
ped
fund
a $
3 m
ilion
ext
ensi
on to
its
hosp
ital c
ompl
ex to
mak
e po
ssib
le M
KU
LT
RA
Subproject #35, whose go
al w
as '
high
lyse
nsiti
ve' r
esea
rch
invo
lvin
g bi
olog
ical
, che
mic
al, a
nd r
adio
logi
cal w
arfa
re,
A c
oope
rativ
e ho
spita
l sta
ff re
sear
cher
was
the
Age
ncys sole point of
cont
act ,
leav
ing
Geo
rget
own
offi
cial
s in
the
dark
abo
ut C
IA in
volv
emen
t in
the
hosp
ital e
xpan
sion
, Whe
n D
ulle
s bl
anch
ed a
t the
pri
ce- t
ag f
or th
is e
ffor
t(w
hich
ulti
mat
ely
reac
hed
$600
mill
ion)
, Tec
hnic
al S
ervi
ces
Sta
ffresearchers rushed to its defense, illuminating the value that sc
ient
ific
inte
Uig
ence
age
nts
plac
ed o
n un
iver
sity
- bas
ed p
rogr
ams.
The
ir G
eorg
etow
ncu
tout
' wou
ld p
rovi
de c
over
for
thr
ee C
IA r
esea
rche
rs, e
nhan
ce th
eir
scientific status, p
rodu
ce v
olun
teer
s fo
r m
edic
al e
xper
imen
ts, a
nd e
nabl
eA
genc
y pe
rson
nel t
o re
crui
t new
sci
entis
ts a
nd c
onta
cts,
58 W
hile
Sub
proj
ect
#35
was
unu
sual
ly c
ostly
, the
Geo
rget
own
oper
atio
n ap
pear
s to
res
embl
eco
vert
med
ical
res
earc
h pr
ogra
ms
fund
ed a
t oth
er A
mer
ican
uni
vers
ities
incl
udin
g C
olum
bia ,
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Il
inoi
s M
edic
al S
choo
l , and the
Uni
vers
ity o
f O
klah
oma.
Scie
ntis
ts r
ecog
nize
d th
at q
uest
ions
in th
ese
fiel
ds c
ould
not
be
addr
esse
dby
indi
vidu
als
with
out s
ubst
antia
l tra
inin
g in
sci
ence
, But
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
scie
ntis
ts a
nd in
telli
genc
e needs introduced fundamental and
larg
ely
unre
solv
ed te
nsio
ns. P
rofe
ssio
nal s
tric
ture
s ag
ains
t em
ploy
ing
scie
ntif
ic r
esea
rch
sole
ly to
aid
nat
iona
listic
aim
s ke
pt m
ost s
cien
tists
fro
mpa
rtic
ipat
ing
in in
tellg
ence
act
iviti
es o
n m
ore
than
an
occa
sion
al o
r pa
rt-
time
basi
s.In
ret
rosp
ect,
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
scie
ntif
ic in
telli
genc
e w
ithin
the
CIA
in th
e im
med
iate
pos
twar
per
iod
was
at b
est a
mix
ed s
ucce
ss. E
arly
eff
orts
to s
ecur
e m
edic
al in
tellg
ence
fai
led,
the
scie
nce
atta
che
syst
em w
ither
edan
d m
ilita
ry in
telli
genc
e ag
enci
es r
esis
ted
, ofte
n su
cces
sful
ly, t
he in
trus
ions
of c
ivili
an in
telli
genc
e an
alys
ts. T
he n
eed
to in
stal
l lea
ders
of s
cien
tific
inte
llgen
ce in
blin
d of
fici
al p
ositi
ons
led
to in
crea
sed
cyni
cism
and
dis
trus
tw
ithin
the
scie
ntif
ic c
omm
unity
, and
the
ethi
cal l
apse
s of
CIA
med
ical
spec
ialis
ts in
'A
rtic
hoke
' and
'M
KU
LT
RA
' min
d-co
ntro
l exp
erim
ents
rank
ed a
mon
g th
e A
genc
ys
mos
t tro
ublin
g vi
olat
ions
of
natio
nal t
rust
.W
hen
Bro
de r
ecom
men
ded
advi
sing
Vic
e Pr
esid
ent R
icha
rd N
ixon
in 1
959
that
'the majority of all our basic science pr
ogra
ms
are supported by
miltary agencies as an al
trui
stic
ges
ture
but
with
hidden motives
, he
unw
ittin
gly
reve
aled
a f
unda
men
tal c
ynic
ism
abo
ut th
e st
ruct
ure
of C
old
War
sci
entif
ic in
stitu
tions
that
the
CIA
, at least in part, had helped to
insp
ire.
Yet
it w
ould
be
unfa
ir to
pai
nt th
e pr
oduc
ts o
f sc
ient
ific
inte
llige
nce
in a
who
lly n
egat
ive
light
. Wes
tern
sci
entis
ts r
ecog
nize
d th
e im
port
ance
of
understanding Soviet achievements as the Cold W
ar d
eepe
ned, and
perc
eive
d a
Sovi
et s
cien
tific
com
mun
ity in
crea
sing
ly o
ppre
ssed
by
Com
mun
ist i
deol
ogy
and
stat
ist p
ower
, In
the
early
and
mid
- 195
0s O
SI
scie
nce
anal
ysts
pro
duce
d su
bsta
ntia
l rep
orts
on
Sovi
et s
cien
tific
cap
acity
and
its c
ontr
ibut
ions
to e
cono
mic
dev
elop
men
t, in
crea
sing
the
valu
e of
the
CIA
's N
atio
nal I
ntel
lgen
ce E
stim
ates
ser
ies,
62 M
oreo
ver ,
US
sci
entis
tsfo
und
the
CIA
an
ally
in th
eir
effo
rts
to m
aint
ain
inte
rnat
iona
l con
tact
s in
scie
nce
duri
ng th
e 19
50s
in th
e fa
ce o
f St
ate
Dep
artm
ent h
ostil
ity to
Eas
t-W
est c
omm
unic
atio
ns f
rom
the
stan
dpoi
nt o
f fo
reig
n po
licy,
CIA
sci
entif
ican
alys
ts jo
ined
civ
ilian
counterparts in the mid- an
d la
te-1
950s
inpe
rcei
ving
the
pres
tige
valu
e of
sci
ence
for
Thi
rd W
orld
nat
ions
, The
irre
port
s in
dire
ctly
hel
ped
stim
ulat
e sc
ient
ific
and
tech
nolo
gica
l ass
ista
nce
prog
ram
s in
Lat
in A
mer
ica
and
Sub-
Saha
ran
Afr
ica,
6J F
inal
ly, t
he s
ucce
ss o
fC
IA s
cien
ce s
peci
alis
ts in
dev
elop
ing
grea
tly im
prov
ed r
emot
e m
onito
ring
mea
ns b
y th
e la
te 1
950s
(in
clud
ing
aeri
al a
nd s
atel
lte reconnaissance and
elec
tron
ic e
aves
drop
ping
) re
duce
d th
eir
relia
nce
on m
ilita
ry in
telli
genc
eagencies and helped bring about a further consolidation of sc
ient
ific
reso
urce
s in
the
Age
ncys new D
irec
tora
te o
f Sc
ienc
e an
d T
echn
olog
y
CO
NC
LU
SIO
N
The
suc
cess
ful m
obili
zatio
n of
sci
entif
ic r
esou
rces
dur
ing
Wor
ld W
ar I
Im
ade
scie
nce
a po
tent
nat
iona
l sec
urity
issu
e in
the
Col
d W
ar, T
he a
dven
tof
the
atom
ic b
omb
and
nucl
ear
dipl
omac
y th
rust
sci
ence
into
all
subs
eque
ntde
liber
atio
ns a
bout
for
eign
pol
icy
and
fore
ign
inte
llige
nce.
But
the
mos
tsi
gnif
ican
t con
trib
utio
n of
sci
ence
in W
orld
War
II
was
to d
emon
stra
te th
epotential significance of all fields of science - fr
om b
iom
edic
ine
tometeorology - to na
tiona
l def
ense
, 'In the field of science' as Wallace
Bro
de o
bser
ved
in 1
948,
'it
is d
iffc
ult t
o de
fine
that
sci
entif
ic in
tellg
ence
whi
ch m
ay b
ecom
e vi
tal a
s an
eco
nom
ic, s
ocia
l or
mili
tary
fac
tor
in th
ena
tiona
l sec
urity
and
hen
ce it
is n
eces
sary
to m
aint
ain
broa
d co
vera
ge o
fsc
ient
ific
adv
ance
men
t and
rel
ativ
e st
atus
of
othe
r co
untr
ies,
'60
By
the
end
of H
ilenk
oette
rs
tenn
as
DC
I , C
IA le
ader
s be
lieve
d th
at a
sus
tain
ed f
low
of infonnation about fo
reig
n sc
ienc
e w
as n
eces
sary
to e
nsur
e et
erna
lvi
gila
nce
for
natio
nal s
ecur
ity.
As the Cold War deepened, U
S s
cien
tists
con
cern
ed,'
with
Sov
iet
adva
nces
in a
tom
ic a
nd b
ioch
emic
al w
eapo
ns s
yste
ms
soug
ht to
sup
ply
gove
rnm
ent o
ffci
als
with
info
nnat
ion
to strengthen the national defense.
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
(created in 1963),64
Whi
le a
naly
ses of these developments must await
further dec1assifications, they illuminate the intimate re
latio
n be
twee
nsc
ient
ific
inte
llige
nce
and
the
mot
ivat
ions
of
scie
ntis
ts a
nd th
e A
mer
ican
stat
e in
the
year
s fo
llow
ing
Wor
ld W
ar I
I,
NO
TE
S
Llo
yd V
. Ber
kner
(he
reaf
ter
LV
B)
Pape
rs, M
S D
iv.,
Lib
rary
of
Con
gres
s (h
erea
fter
LC
j,W
ashi
ngto
n D
C.
7. Biographical infonnation on Doriot is from an obituar published in the
Harvard Business
Scho
ol B
ulle
tinOct. 1987
, pp.
12-1
3' a
nd o
n H
aski
ns f
rom
an
atta
chm
ent t
o a
lette
r fr
om A
.N
. Ric
hard
s (P
resi
dent
of
the
Nat
iona
l Aca
dem
y of
Sci
ence
s) to
Jam
es E
. Web
b (A
ctin
gS
ecre
tar
of S
tate
) 16
May
195
0, F
olde
r N
AS/
NR
C C
entr
al F
ile: I
nt. R
elat
ions
: Int
. Sci
ence
Polic
y St
udy
of S
tate
Dep
t.; N
RC
por
tion:
Gen
eral
, Nat
iona
l Aca
dem
y of
Sci
ence
s/N
atio
nal
Res
earc
h C
ounc
il (h
erea
fter
NA
S/N
RC
j rec
ords
, Was
hing
ton
DC
.8.
JR
DB
57/
1 an
d re
late
d do
cum
enta
tion
in th
e Fo
lder
'S
cien
tific
Adv
isor
s to
the
Pol
icy
Cou
ncil'
, RD
B S
ubje
ct/u
mer
ic S
erie
s, B
ox I
, Ent
ry 3
41, R
G 3
30. N
AR
A.
9. J
. H. T
hach
Jr
(Nav
y ,S
ecre
tar,
JR
DB
j to
the
Nav
y m
embe
rs o
f the
Boa
rd, '
Con
sulta
nts
toth
e P
olic
y C
ounc
il. J
RD
B',
16
Dec
. 194
6; a
nd a
gend
a fo
r th
e m
eetin
g sc
hedu
led
on 1
7, 1
8.19
Jan
. 194
7, b
oth
RD
B ib
id.
10. For Bush's
view
s on
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e, s
ee W
alla
ce B
rode
, '
The
Res
pons
ibili
ties
of th
eSc
ient
ific
Bra
nch
with
in th
e C
.I.A
.', 4
th d
raft
, n.d
. (c.
Oct
. 194
8) B
ox 8
4 (B
ox 4
of
II)
Wal
lace
R, B
rode
pap
ers
(her
eafte
r W
RB
) LC
; see
als
o un
title
d no
tes
on p
ossi
ble
RD
Bsu
cces
sors
, no
date
(19
48j,
Box
165
1, O
ffic
ial F
iles
seri
es (
here
afte
r O
F) H
ar S
. Tru
man
Pres
iden
tial L
ibra
r, I
ndep
ende
nce,
MO
(he
reaf
ter
HST
),II. No comprehensive biography of Brode ex
ists
; see
'P
erso
nnel
act
ions
, WR
B' f
ie, u
ndat
ed(1
958)
and
'Pe
rson
aliti
es in
You
r G
over
nmen
t'. W
LW
rad
io p
rogr
am, 9
Feb
, 195
8, b
oth
Box
6 off 11, W
RB
. Bro
des
rela
tions
hip
with
Bus
h ca
n be
infe
rred
fro
m W
alla
ce S
, Bro
de(u
ntitl
ed r
epor
t on
scie
ntif
ic m
anpo
wer
pro
blem
)', 1
8 N
ov. 1
946
and
his
cove
r le
ttert
o B
ush
on th
is d
ate,
bot
h B
ox 1
5, V
anne
var
Bus
h pa
pers
(he
reaf
ter
VB
j, L
C; s
ee a
lso
Stev
en L
.R
eard
en.
His
tory
of
the
Off
ce o
f th
e Se
cret
ary
of D
efen
se, V
olum
e 1.
T
he F
orm
ativ
e Y
ears
:19
47- 5
0 (W
ashi
ngto
n D
C: H
isto
rica
l Off
ce, O
ffce
of
the
Sec.
of
Def
ense
198
4) p
.IO
I.12
. Quo
ted
in B
rode
, 'R
espo
nsib
ilitie
s of
the
Sci
entif
ic B
ranc
h'; s
ee a
lso
cros
s re
fere
nce
shee
t(I
.N,P
, Sto
kes)
. 31
Aug
. 194
8, B
ox 6
1, C
onfi
dent
ial F
ile s
erie
s, H
ST.
13. N
atio
nal S
ecur
ity C
ounc
il In
telli
genc
e D
irec
tive
(her
eaft
er N
SC 1
0) 8
, '
Bio
grap
hica
l Dat
aon
For
eign
Sci
entif
ic a
nd T
echn
olog
ical
Per
sona
litie
s, 2
5 M
ay 1
948
(cla
ssif
ied
secr
et),
Box
, RG
263
, NA
RA
, as
wel
l as
Bro
de to
Hile
nkoe
tter,
12
Nov
. 194
7 an
d B
rode
, '
(unt
itled
note
on
CIA
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e un
its)'
Dec
. 194
7, b
oth
Box
4 o
f II
, WR
B.
14. T
he '
Join
t' de
sign
atio
n w
as d
ropp
ed f
ollo
win
g pa
ssag
e of
the
Nat
iona
l Sec
urity
Act
in 1
947;
see
Rea
rden
Formative Years
(note II) pp.23
--, 9
7-15
. V .
Bus
h to
Sec
, of
Def
ense
Jam
es V
. For
rest
al, 1
3 O
ct. 1
948,
Box
77
, Joh
n N
. Ohl
y pa
pers
(her
eaft
er J
NO
), H
ST, R
, Cla
rk to
Fer
dina
nd E
bers
tadt
, not
ed in
col
lect
ed a
bstr
acts
for
(Se
c.of
Def
ense
Rob
ert P
.) P
ater
son
, und
ated
(19
49),
Fer
dina
nd E
bers
tadt
pap
ers
(her
eafte
r F
E).
Seel
ey G
. Mud
d M
S L
ibra
r, P
rinc
eton
U.
16. R
hodr
i Jef
frey
s-Jo
nes
The CIA and American Democracy
(New Haven
, CT
: Yal
e U
P 19
89)
57. O
nthe
foun
ding
of B
ritis
h sc
ient
ific
inte
llige
nce
see
Reg
inal
d V
. Jon
esThe Wizard
War: British Scientifc Intellgence
1939
-/94
5 (N
Y: C
owar
d. M
cCan
n an
d G
eogh
egan
197
8)and Jones
Reflections on Intellgence
(Lon
don:
Hei
nem
ann
1989
); s
ee a
lso
Jack
son
and
Cla
usse
nOrganizational History
(note 2) p.V
I-17
.
17. Ludwell Lee Montague,
Gen
eral
Wal
ter
Bed
ell S
mith
as
Dire
ctor
of C
entr
al In
tellg
ence
,O
ctob
er /9
50-F
ebru
ary
/953
(U
nive
rsity
Par
k: P
enns
ylva
nia
Stat
e U
P 19
92)
p.17
4, a
ndW
ilard
Mac
hle
to P
resc
ott C
hild
s, 3
1 M
arch
194
9, F
ile C
IA-M
isce
llane
ous,
com
pile
d by
the
Adv
isor
y C
omm
ittee
on
Hum
an R
adia
tion
Exp
erim
ents
, Was
hing
ton
DC
199
5 (h
erea
fter
AC
HR
E).
18. Arthur B. Darling,
The
Cen
tral
Inte
llige
nce
Age
ncy:
An
Inst
rum
ent a
fGov
ernm
ent,
to /9
50(U
nive
rsity
Par
k: P
enns
ylva
nia
Stat
e U
P 19
90)
pp.1
61-5
; Ste
phen
Pen
rose
mem
o
, '
Rep
ort
on CIA', 2 Jan. 1948, in Foreign Relations of United States
(hereafter FRUS):
The
Em
erge
nce
of th
e In
tellg
ence
Est
ablis
hmen
t, 19
45-/
950
(Was
hing
ton
DC
: US
Dep
t. of
Sta
te19
96)
pp.8
3l-
, Bro
de to
DC
I (H
illen
koet
ter)
11
Mar
ch 1
948,
RG
CIA
-031
4495
-A
CH
RE
; see
als
o H
illen
koet
ter
mem
o to
Bus
h an
d B
ush
mem
o to
Hile
nkoe
tter
(quo
ted)
.bo
th 2
4 M
arch
194
8, F
ile C
IA-M
isce
llane
ous,
AC
HR
E.
19, S
ee B
rode
mem
o to
fie
s, 2
0 S
ept.
1948
, Box
84
, 4 o
f II
, Bro
de, a
nd c
ross
ref
eren
ce s
heet
(I.N
.P. S
toke
s), 3
1 A
ug, 1
948,
Box
61
, CF,
HST
. The
Con
don
loya
lty h
eari
ngs
(par
icul
arly
Bot
h au
thor
s ac
know
ledg
e su
ppor
t fro
m th
e Sm
ithso
nian
Ins
titut
ion
(Doe
l for
a p
ostd
octo
ral
fellowship in 1994-
95),
and
a g
rant
-in-
aid
from
the
Frie
nds
of th
e C
ente
r fo
r H
isto
ry o
f Ph
ysic
sof
the
Am
eric
an I
nstit
ute
of P
hysi
cs. I
n ad
ditio
n, D
oel i
s gr
atef
ul f
or tr
avel
fun
ds f
rom
the
Nat
iona
l End
owm
ent f
or th
e H
uman
ities
as
wel
l as
the
Tru
man
and
Eis
enho
wer
pre
side
ntia
llib
rare
s; h
e es
peci
ally
ack
now
ledg
es r
esea
rch
supp
ort f
rom
the
Polla
ck A
war
d of
the
Dud
ley
Obs
erva
tory
and
the
Nat
iona
l Sci
ence
Fou
ndat
ion
(aw
ard
NS
F S
BR
- 951
1867
). W
e al
so th
ank
Rho
dri J
effr
eys-
Jone
s. D
enni
s B
ilger
, and
Dw
ight
Str
andb
erg
for
advi
ce a
nd a
ssis
tanc
e.
I. O
n th
e no
rmat
ive
structure and practice of science, s
ee L
orra
ine
Das
ton,
'The
Mor
alE
cono
my
of S
cien
ceO
siri
s (2
nd e
d.) 10 (1995) pp.
24. R
elat
ions
bet
wee
n sc
ient
ists
and
thei
r pa
tron
s ar
e ill
umin
ated
in C
harle
s C
ouls
ton
Gill
ispi
e
, '
Sci
ence
and
Sec
ret W
eapo
nsDevelopment in Revolutionar France, 1792-
1804
: A D
ocum
enta
r H
isto
ryH
isto
rica
lStudies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
23/1 (1992) pp.
35-1
52; f
or th
e re
latio
nshi
pbe
twee
n sc
ient
ists
and
the
stat
e in
the
twen
tieth
cen
tury
, see
for
exa
mpl
e M
onik
a R
enne
berg
and
Mar
k W
alke
r (e
ds.
Science, Technology, and National Socialism
(Cam
brid
ge, E
ngla
nd:
CU
P 19
94).
Lor
en R
. Gra
ham
Science in Russia and the Soviet Union: A Short History
(NY
:C
ambr
idge
UP, 1993) and Elisabeth Crawford, Terr Shinn
, and
Sve
rker
Sor
lin (
eds.
Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of /Ilernational Scientifc Practice
(Dor
drec
ht:
Klu
wer
199
2). A
hel
pful
ove
rvie
w o
f re
cent
sch
olar
ship
is A
aron
L. F
ried
berg
, . S
cien
ce, t
heC
old
War, and the State (Review Essay)', Diplomatic History
20/1 (Winter 1996) pp,
107-
18.
2. C
omm
issi
on o
n th
e O
rgan
izat
ion
of th
e E
xecu
tive
Bra
nch
of th
e G
over
nmen
t (th
e H
oove
rC
omm
issi
on),
Task Force Report on Natiollal Security Organization
(Washington DC: 13
Jan. 1949), and George S. Jackson and Marin p, Claussen.
Org
aniz
atio
nal H
isto
ry o
f th
eCentral Intelligence Agency
(Ch.
VI:
Pro
blem
s of
Sci
entif
ic a
nd T
echn
ical
Int
ellig
ence
), M
ay19
57. d
ecla
ssif
ied
draf
t in
DC
I H
isto
rica
l Ser
ies,
Rec
ord
Gro
up (
here
afte
r R
G)
263
, Nat
iona
lA
rchi
ves
and
Rec
ords
Adm
inis
trat
ion
(her
eaft
er N
AR
A),
Was
hing
ton
DC
.3.
The
inte
ntio
n w
as, t
hrou
gh o
vert
and
cov
ert m
eans
, eff
ectiv
ely
to c
ontr
ol th
e w
orld
's s
uppl
yof that essential mineral; see Jonathan E. Helmreich,
Gat
herin
g R
are
Ore
s: T
he D
iplo
mac
yof Uranium Acquisition,
1943
-195
4 (P
rinc
eton
UP
1985
) an
d R
icha
rd R
hode
sDark Sun:
The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
(NY
: Sim
on &
Sch
uste
r 19
95)
p.10
9.4.
No
sing
le s
ourc
e co
mpr
ehen
sive
ly d
iscu
sses
sci
entif
ic in
telli
genc
e du
ring
Wor
ld W
ar I
I; f
oran
intr
oduc
tion
see
Mar
k W
alke
rG
erm
an N
atio
llal S
ocia
lism
and
the
Que
st fo
r N
ue/e
arPo
wer
, 19
39-/
949
(NY
: Cam
brid
ge U
P 19
89)
pp.153--0 and John Gimbel
Scie
llce,
Technology and Reparations: Exploitation alld Plunder
ill Postwar German)'
(Sta
nfor
d U
P19
90),
5. A
lso
incl
uded
on
the
Polic
y C
ounc
il w
ere
the
Any
and
Nav
y ap
poin
tees
to th
e JR
DB
Secr
etar
at, t
wo
mem
bers
app
oint
ed b
y ea
ch o
f the
Dep
t, S
ecre
tare
s, a
nd th
e A
dmin
istr
ativ
eS
ecre
tar
of th
e JR
DB
. On
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of
the
JRD
B a
nd th
e ro
le o
f its
Pol
icy
Cou
ncil,
see
Alla
n A
. Nee
dell
. '
Rab
i Ber
kner
, and
the
Reh
abili
tatio
n of
Sci
ence
in E
urop
e: T
he C
old
War
Con
text
of
Am
eric
an S
uppo
rt f
or In
tern
atio
nal S
cien
ce, 1945-
1954
', in Francis H.
Hel
ler
and
John
Gill
ingh
am (
eds.
The
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
lld th
e In
tegr
atio
ll of
Eur
ope:
Leg
acie
sof the Post War Era
(NY
: St M
arin
s Press 1994) pp.28
9-30
5; a
nd J
oint
Res
earc
h an
dD
evel
opm
ent B
oard
(he
reaf
ter
JRD
B)
23/1
, 30
Sep
t. 19
46, r
evis
ed 4
Oct
. 194
6, R
esea
rch
and
Dev
elop
men
t Boa
rd (
here
afte
r R
DB
j rec
ords
, Box
18,
RG
330
, NA
RA
.6.
Llo
yd V
. Ber
kner
to W
alke
r D
yke,
31
Oct
. 194
6, F
olde
r 'P
erso
nal L
.YB
, 194
6-47
', B
ox 3
: ,
" .
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
' 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SCIE
NC
E, S
CIE
NT
IST
S, A
ND
TH
E C
IA
iron
ic in
ligh
t of
his
will
ing,
cov
ert a
ccom
mod
atio
n to
the
CIA
) ar
e ex
plor
ed in
Jes
sica
Wan
g, '
Scie
nce ,
Sec
urity
, and
the
Col
d W
fJ: T
he C
ase
ofE
, U. C
ondo
nIs
is
83/2
(19
92)
pp. 23
8-69, While John Prados
(Pre
side
nts
' Sec
ret W
ars:
CIA
and
Pen
tago
n C
over
tOperations from World War II through Iranscam
(NY
: Mor
row
198
8) p
p.80
-1J
note
s th
atH
ilenk
oette
r , la
bori
ng w
ith a
lim
ited
netw
ork
of c
onta
cts,
has
rec
eive
d un
due
criti
cism
, his
inde
cisi
on to
wfJ
ds s
cien
tific
inte
llgen
ce b
ette
r su
ppor
ts C
hrst
ophe
r A
ndre
ws
asse
ssm
ent
that
Hile
nkoe
tter
was
'pr
obab
ly th
e w
eake
st' Director of Central Intelligence; see Fo
r th
eP
resi
dent
's E
yes
Onl
y: S
ecre
t Int
ellg
ence
and
the
Am
eric
an P
resi
denc
y fr
om W
ashi
ngto
n to
Bus
h (NY: HarrCollns
1995
) p.
J70.
20. Q
uote
d in
Jac
kson
and
Cla
usse
nOrganizational History
(note 2) p.
, I, a
nd F
. Ebe
rsta
dtto
V. B
ush
, 12
Aug
. 194
8, B
ox 2
8, F
E.
21. Jackson and Claussen
Organizational History
(note 2) pp.VI, pp.
I-4.
22. Needell
. '
Rab
i Ber
kner
' (no
te 5
) pp
. 289
- 93;
on
the
evol
ving
rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n sc
ient
ists
and
the
stat
e in
the
efJl
y C
old
WfJ
, see
esp
ecia
lly S
tuar
W. L
eslie
The Cold War and
Am
eric
an S
cien
ce: T
he M
ilita
ry- I
ndus
tria
l-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford
(NY
:C
olum
bia
UP
1993
) pp
.13
and
Alla
n A
. Nee
dell
, '
From
Mili
tary
Res
earc
h to
Big
Sci
ence
:. L
loyd
Ber
kner
and
Sci
ence
- Sta
tesm
ansh
ip in
the
Pos
tWfJ
Era
, in
Pete
r G
alis
on a
nd B
ruce
Hev
ly (
eds.
Big
Sci
ence
: The
Gro
wth
of L
arge
- Scale Research
(Sta
nfor
d U
P 19
92)
pp.2
90-
311.
23. Montague
Smith
(n
ote
17)
pp.J
74-5
; How
ard
A. R
usk
and
Ric
hfJd
L. M
eilin
g, M
Ds ,
to F
.Eberstadt 28 Sept. 1948, B
ox 7
3, F
E; a
nd '
Mac
hle
Rec
eive
s Le
gion
of M
erit"
New
Yor
kT
imes
22 F
eb. 1
946,
p.
, co1
.7.
24. E
ven
in th
e fie
ld o
f med
ical
inte
llige
nce
. fJg
umen
ts v
oice
d in
fav
or o
f re
tain
ing
inte
llige
nce
func
tions
with
in s
ervi
ce a
genc
ies
dom
inat
ed in
telli
genc
e ci
rcle
s th
roug
h ef
Jly
1949
; see
(nam
e de
lete
d) to
Mac
hle ,
18
Feb,
194
9, F
ile C
IA- 0
3069
5-, A
CH
RE
.25
. Ben
o G
uten
berg
to E
. C, W
atso
n, 2
9 Se
pt. 1
946,
Box
18.
, Ben
o G
uten
berg
pap
ers
(her
eafte
rB
G),
Cal
iforn
ia In
st. o
f Tec
hnol
ogy
fJch
ives
, Pasadena, California (hereafter CIT),
Org
aniz
atio
n an
d D
irec
tion
of C
omm
ittee
on
Geo
phys
ical
Sci
ence
s, 2
7 M
ay 1
947
, Box
227
, RG
330
, NA
RA
, and
'Sc
ient
ific
Int
ellg
ence
: exc
erpt
s fr
om f
ile ta
bbed
Pro
gres
sR
epor
ts, I I July 1952, B
ox 2
, RG
263
, NA
RA
. Pop
ulfJ
acc
ount
s oc
casi
onal
ly b
lam
eV
anne
var
Bus
h fo
r fa
iling
to r
ecog
nize
the
stra
tegi
c va
lue
of g
uide
d m
issi
les ,
ena
blin
g th
eSo
viet
Uni
on to
bea
t Am
eric
ans
in la
unch
ing
the
firs
t ari
fici
al s
atel
lite
(see
e. g
. Will
iam
B.
Bre
uer
Race to the Moon: America's Duel with the Soviets
(Wes
tpor
t , C
TlL
ondo
n: P
raeg
er19
93)
pp. I
OO, 116-17. Yet recently declassified records (for instance, Bush to James
Forr
esta
l, 1
3 O
ct. 1
948,
Box
77
, JH
O- H
ST)
reve
al th
at B
ush
stre
ssed
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f th
ese
wea
pons
to m
ilita
r an
d in
tellg
ence
off
cial
s; f
or h
isto
rical
dis
cuss
ions
of g
uide
d m
issi
lepo
licy
in th
e ea
rly
Col
d W
ar, s
ee M
icha
el A
. Den
nis,
'O
ur F
irst
Lin
e of
Def
ense
: Tw
oU
nive
rsity
Lab
orat
orie
s in
the
Post
WfJ
Am
eric
an S
tate
Isis
85
/3 (
1994
) pp
.427
- 55 and
David H. DeVorkin,
Scie
nce
with
a V
enge
ance
: How
the
Mili
tary
Cre
ated
the
U.S
. Spa
ceSciences after World War II
(NY
: Spr
inge
r-Verlag 1992).
26. M
achl
e to
Pre
scot
t Chi
lds,
31
MfJ
ch 1
949.
CIA
- mis
cella
neou
s fi
le, A
CH
RE
, and
Mac
hle
toH
illen
koet
ter ,
29
Sep
t. 19
49, B
ox 4
, Ent
ry H
RP
82- 2
002
86, R
G 2
63, N
AR
A; s
ee a
lso
Rho
des.
Dark Sun
(not
e 3)
p.3
63.
27. Montague,
Smith
(note 17) p.
174, Jackson and Claussen,
Organizational History
(note 2)
VI-
47- 9
, and
mem
o fo
r SI
C w
orki
ng c
omm
ittee
s , 1
3 O
ct. 1
950
, Box
2, R
G 2
63, N
AR
A.
This order, k
now
n as
DC
m 3
/3, a
lso
esta
blis
hed
a ne
w Science Advisory Committee
composed of OSI representatives as well as re
pres
enta
tives
from
ser
vice
inte
llige
nce
agen
cies
, a m
ove
that
con
solid
ated
OSI
lead
ersh
ip in
pro
vidi
ng s
cien
tific
inte
llige
nce
for
the
RD
B.
28. See Daniel J. Kevles
, '
KIS
2: K
orea
, Sci
ence
, and
the
Stat
e, i
n Pe
ter
Gal
ison
and
Bru
ceH
evly
(ed
s.Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research
(Sta
nfor
d U
P 1
992)
pp.3
12- 3
3 an
d R
onal
d E
. Doe
l and
Rob
ert A
. McC
utch
eon,
'In
trod
uctio
n (t
o A
stro
nom
yunder the Soviets)', Jnlfor the History of
Ast
rono
my
26/3 (1995) pp.27
9-96
. esp
. pp,
285-
29. 'Tenth Meeting of the Committee on Geophysical Sciences
. RD
B, B
ox 2
26. R
G 3
30N
AR
A. H
ilenk
oette
r hi
mse
lf te
stif
ied
befo
re E
bers
tadt
"s T
ask
Forc
e th
at m
oney
was
not
apr
oble
m in
rec
ruiti
ng s
cien
tists
, but
rat
her
the
inab
ility
to p
ublis
h; s
ee te
stim
ony
reco
rded
by
Ferd
inan
d E
bers
tadt
for
the
Hoo
ver
Com
mis
sion
task
for
ce, c
ompi
led
for
(Sec
. of
Def
ense
Rob
ert)
Pat
ters
on. n
. d. (
1949
), B
ox 7
3, F
E.
30. Montague
Smith
(note 17) pp.
175-
6 an
d Je
ffrey
s-Jo
nes.
C
IA (note 16) pp.79, 108.
31. '
Ver
batim
Min
utes
of a
Mee
ting
of th
e In
telli
genc
e A
dvis
ory
Com
mitt
ee, 3
Dec
. and
17
Dec
. 194
8, in
FR
US
Em
erge
nce
(note 18) pp.88
1-95
.32. Needell
. ' R
abi , Berkner' (note 5) pp.
297-
8; see also Allan A. Needell
, ' Truth is our
Wea
pon
: Pro
ject
TR
OY
, Pol
itica
l War
fare
, and
Gov
ernm
ent-
Aca
dem
ic R
elat
ions
hips
in th
eN
atio
nal S
ecur
ity S
tate
Diplomatic History
17/3
(Su
mm
er 1
993)
pp.
399-
420.
33. O
n th
is is
sue
see
paiic
ulfJ
ly R
onal
d E
. Doe
l, '
Sci
entis
ts a
s P
olic
ymak
ers.
Adv
isor
s, a
ndIn
telli
genc
e A
gent
s: L
inki
ng C
onte
mpo
rar Diplomatic History with the History of
Con
tem
pora
r Sc
ienc
e, i
n T
hom
as S
oder
qvis
t (ed
.T
he H
isto
riog
raph
y of
Con
tem
pora
ryScience and Technology
(Lon
don:
Har
ood
Aca
dem
ic P
ublis
hers
, for
thco
min
g 19
97)
pp.3
3-62
and
'A
CH
RE
Inf
onna
tion
Col
lect
ions
AC
HR
E F
inal
Rep
ort
Supp
lem
enta
lV
olum
e 2:
Sou
rces
and
Doc
umen
tatio
n (W
ashi
ngto
n D
C: U
S G
over
nmen
t Pri
ntin
g O
ffic
e19
95)
pp. 9
1-11
3.34. Ronald E. Doel
, '
Eva
luat
ing
Sov
iet L
unfJ
Sci
ence
in C
old
War
Am
eric
aO
siri
s (s
econ
dse
ries)
7 (
1992
) pp
. 238
- 64.
Ans
wer
ing
a lis
t of
ques
tions
supplied by his CIA handlers
(whi
ch h
as n
ot s
urvi
ved)
, Kui
per
mad
e cl
ear
that
he
wou
ld n
ot d
elib
erat
ely
dece
ive
his
Sovi
et c
olle
ague
, as
he w
as a
ppfJ
ently
ask
ed to
do
(see
p. 257). Professional allegiances
allo
wed
sci
entis
ts to
con
trib
ute
to n
atio
nal d
efen
se n
eeds
but
not
at t
he c
ost o
f co
mpr
omis
ing
pers
onal
rel
atio
ns w
ith f
orei
gn c
olle
ague
s or
thei
r re
sear
ch c
omm
uniti
es.
35. J
osep
h K
oepf
li O
ral H
isto
ry I
nter
view
(he
reaf
ter
OH
I) (
Ron
ald
E. D
oel ,
inte
rvie
wer
, 3 A
ug.
1995
, tra
nscr
ipt a
t Nie
ls B
ohr Librar of the American In
stitu
te o
f Ph
ysic
s (h
erea
fter
AlP
),an
d R
icha
rd T
. Arn
old
OH
I (D
oel ,
10
Aug
. 199
4, A
lP).
36. F
ranc
es G
. Kni
ght t
o S
cott
McL
eod, 6 April 1953, Box 2.4, Joseph B. KoepfI papers
(her
eaft
er J
BK
), C
IT; A
rnol
d O
HI ,
AlP
; and
'W
hat
s H
appe
ned
to S
cien
ce in
Sta
te?'
Che
mic
al
Engineering News
34/2 (9 Jan. 1956) pp.
112-
15. For foreign reactions, see
Plan U.S.A. de Mainmise sur la Science
(Pars: La Nouvelle Critique 1953) quoted on p.
and
J,B. KoepfI
, ' Su
mm
ar o
f T
rans
latio
n of
Bro
chur
e. A
U. S. Plan for Dominating
Scie
nce
, Box
2,
, JB
K. O
n th
e H
oove
r C
omm
issi
ons
adm
issi
on o
f th
e C
IA b
acks
topp
ing
plan
, see
Koe
pfI
to E
al A
. Eva
ns J
r , 9
Feb
. 195
6, B
ox 1
. 3, J
BK
.37. Doel
, '
Sov
iet L
unar
Ast
rono
my
, pp,
257-
38. See pariculfJly Robert G. Leonard
, '
Com
mun
icat
ion
to th
e E
dito
rs (
re. '
Cov
ert S
cien
tific
Col
lect
ion
),
Studies in Intellgence 3 (1959) pp.
129-
, Box
12
, RG
263
, NA
RA
. Tha
t no
criticism of the practice appeared in the flagship journal
Scie
nce
befo
re 1
962
sugg
ests
that
the
com
mun
ity o
f A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts a
ccep
ted
the
prac
tice
as le
gitim
atel
y he
lpfu
l to
US
natio
nal s
ecur
ity; t
his
first
inst
ance
was
Pat
rick
D. W
all. '
Sci
entis
ts a
nd th
e C
IA'
Scie
nce
136
(13
Apr
il 19
62)
p,l7
339
. Onl
y in
ato
mic
ene
rgy,
han
dled
by
the
Join
t Ato
mic
Ene
rgy
Inte
llige
nce
Com
mitt
ee, w
asth
ere
a sa
tisfa
ctor
y re
solu
tion
of th
ese
tens
ions
; see
Mon
tagu
eSm
ith
(note 17) pp.
175-
40. F
inal
Rep
ort o
f th
e Se
lect
Com
mitt
ee to
Stu
dy G
over
nmen
tal O
pera
tions
with
Res
pect
toIntelligence Activities (Church Report),
Sena
te R
epor
t94 Cong.
, 2 s
ess.
, nO
. 94-
755
(197
6)(h
erea
fter
Chu
rch
Com
mitt
ee):
Boo
k 4:
Sup
plem
enta
r D
etai
led
Staf
f R
epor
ts o
n Fo
reig
nan
d M
ilita
r In
telli
genc
e, p. 60
and
Ray
S. C
line
Secr
ets,
Spi
es a
nd S
chol
ars:
Blu
epri
nt o
fthe Essential CIA
(Was
hing
ton
DC
: Acr
opol
is B
ooks
197
6) p
. 147
.41
. Thi
s fig
ure
is n
oted
in A
nnex
B to
DC
I Dire
ctiv
e 3/
4, B
ox 2
, RG
263
, NA
RA
. alth
ough
the
tota
l num
ber
of s
uppo
rt p
erso
nnel
in th
is o
ffce
was
muc
h hi
gher
; see
Chu
rch
Com
mitt
eeB
ook
IV: S
uppl
emen
tar
Det
aile
d St
aff
Rep
orts
on
Fore
ign
and Militar Intellgence, p.
57.
By
the
mid
-196
0s. a
s sc
ient
ific
inte
llgen
ce f
unct
ions
exp
ande
d to
incl
ude
spy
sate
llite
s an
dre
late
d fie
lds
, the
num
ber
of c
ore
empl
oyee
s sw
elle
d to
130
0; s
ee C
hurc
h C
omm
ittee
, Boo
kV
I: S
uppl
emen
tfJY
Rep
orts
on
Inte
llige
nce
Act
iviti
es, p
p.26
2-42. Church Committee, B
ook
I: F
orei
gn a
nd M
ilita
r In
telli
genc
e , p.20, a
nd '
Abs
trac
ting
Serv
ices
as
an I
ntel
lgen
ce T
ool f
or A
sses
sing
Sov
iet C
hem
ical
Res
efJc
h', C
IA/O
S I
repo
rt4/
4919
Dec
, 194
9, B
ox 2
57, P
sych
olog
ical
Str
ateg
y B
oard
file
s (h
erea
fter
PS
B),
HS
T. T
his
tech
niqu
e is
dis
cuss
ed in
U. B
agna
ll. '
The
Exp
loita
tion
of R
ussi
an S
cien
tific
Lite
ratu
re f
orIn
telli
genc
e Pu
rpos
esStudies in Intelligence 2
(195
8) p
p.45
- 9, B
ox 1
2, R
G 2
63, N
AR
A.
" ,,
'. "
"c.':'
,, "
'' ;''
'' ., ,:
""
"'-
. '. '
.;,.'
- ,
' ,
ET
ER
NA
L V
IGIL
AN
CE
? 50
YE
AR
S O
F T
HE
CIA
SC
IEN
CE
, SC
IEN
TIS
TS
, AN
D T
HE
CIA
43. '
An
Est
imat
e of
Sw
edis
h Capabilities in Science
. CIN
OSI
rep
ort 1
/49,
9 A
ug. 1
949
Mar
shal
l to
Tru
man
, 3 J
une
1948
, Box
257
, PSB
, and
'R
epor
t of
NSC
on
Posi
tion
of U
S w
ithRespect to Scandinavia, 16 Dec. 1948. N
SC
rec
ord
serie
s, b
oth
HS
T. U
S d
iplo
mat
icre
actio
ns to
Sw
eden
s ne
utra
lity
polic
y ar
e di
scus
sed
in M
elvy
n P.
Lef
fer,
A Pr
epon
dera
nce
of P
ower
: Nat
iona
l Sec
uril)
The
Tru
man
Adm
inis
trat
ion, and the Cold War
(Sta
nfor
d U
P19
92)
pp. 2
17-1
8 an
d R
eard
enFormative Years
(not
e 11
) pp
A70
- 3. O
SI c
oncl
usio
ns a
bout
the
stat
e an
d di
rect
ion
of S
wed
ish
scie
nce
are
gene
rally
in a
ccor
d w
ith th
ose
of r
ecen
thi
stor
ies
of S
wed
ish
scie
nce;
see
Doe
l, '
Sci
entis
ts a
s P
olic
ymak
ers
' (no
te 3
3) p
.39.
44. O
ne s
uch
exam
ple
is '
Sovi
et S
cien
tific
and
Tec
hnic
al M
anpo
wer
, Jun
e 19
53, B
ox 3
, Whi
teH
ouse
NSC
Sta
ff, N
SC R
egis
try
Seri
es, Dwight D. Eisenhower Pr
esid
entia
l Lib
rar,
Abi
lene
, Kan
sas
(her
eaft
er D
DE
). o
rigi
nally
cla
ssif
ied
secr
et.
45. S
ee M
emo
to S
peci
al S
taff ,
NS
C, 5
Jun
e 19
53, S
erie
s W
hite
Hou
se- N
SC R
egis
try,
Box
3,
DD
E. O
n th
e ro
le o
f the
NS
A, s
ee J
effr
eys-
Jone
s,
CIA
68 and Rear Adm. IN. Wenger to
P. R
ober
tson
, 14
Jan,
195
3, B
ox 1
2.11
. How
ard
Per
cy R
ober
tson
pap
ers
(her
eafte
r H
PR
),C
IT.
46. Jackson and Claussen
Organizational History
(not
e 2)
pp.
VI-
II-3
4; Montague,
Smith
(n
ote
17)
pp. j
778.
47. Q
uote
d fr
om th
e A
d H
oc C
omm
ittee
on
Bio
logi
cal W
arar
e (Carl P. Haskins
, cha
ir, 1
949)
. Sus
an W
right
, ' Evolution of Biological Warare Policy: 1945-
1990
', in Wright (ed.
Preventing a Biological Arms Race
(Cam
brid
ge, M
A: M
IT P
ress
199
0) p
p.26
-68,
on
p.30
.B
y 19
46 th
is is
sue
also
was
a g
row
ing
conc
ern
for
chem
ist a
nd H
arar
d pr
esid
ent J
ames
B.
Con
ant;
see
Con
ant t
o R
oger
Ada
ms
, 9 S
ept.
1946
. Rog
er A
dam
s pa
pers
(he
reaf
ter
RA
),U
nive
rsity
of
Ilin
ois
arch
ives
. US
effo
rts
to a
sses
s fo
reig
n sc
ient
ific
adv
ance
s im
med
iate
lyaf
ter
Wor
ld W
ar I
I ar
e no
ted
in D
avid
Cas
sidy
, 'Controlling Gennan Science. I: U
S,
and
Alli
ed F
orce
s in
Gen
nany
, 194
5-19
47'
His
toric
al S
tudi
es in
the
Phy
sica
l and
Bio
logi
cal
Scie
nces
24/2 (1994) pp.
198-235 and R.
W. H
ome
and
Mor
rs F
. Low
, '
Post
war
Sci
entif
icIn
telli
genc
e M
issi
ons
to J
apan
Isis
84/3 (1993) pp.
527-
37.
48. E
bers
tadt
to B
ush,
Box
28,
FE
, and
Mac
hle
to H
illen
koet
ter,
29
Sep
t. 19
49, B
ox 4
, Ent
ryH
RP
82-
2 00
286
, RG
263
, NA
RA
.49, The most comprehensive di
scus
sion
of t
his
issu
e is
Joh
n M
arks
The
Sea
rch
for
the
Man
chur
ian
Can
dida
te(NY: Norton 19
91);
see
als
o C
hurc
h C
omm
ittee
, Boo
k II:
Inte
llige
nce
Act
iviti
es a
nd th
e R
ight
s of
Am
eric
ans'
(he
reaf
ter
Boo
k 2)
. pp.
57-9
. On
the
larg
er is
sue
of U
S pe
rcep
tions
of
Sovi
et r
esea
rch
, see
Sus
an G
ross
Sol
omon
, '
Ref
lect
ions
on
Wes
tern
Stu
dies
of
Sovi
et S
cien
ce. i
n L
inda
Lub
rano
and
idem
(ed
s.T
he S
ocia
l Con
text
of
Soviet Science (B
ould
er. C
O: W
estv
iew
Pre
ss 1
980)
pp.
l-30
.50
. Cha
dwel
l to
Dep
uty
Dire
ctor
, Adm
inis
trat
ion, 25 April 1951
, and
mem
o on
AR
TIC
HO
KE
conf
eren
ce. 4
Dec
, 195
2, F
ile C
IA-0
3144
95-A
, AC
HR
E.
51, Marks.
Sear
ch
(not
e 49
) p.
9, a
nd C
hurc
h C
omm
ittee
, Boo
k 2
, pp.
57-
52. P
resc
ott C
hild
s to
DC
I (H
ilenk
oete
r). 2
0 M
ay 1
949
, Box
2, R
G 2
63, N
AR
A.
53. C
INO
SI, '
Sovi
et P
oten
tialit
ies
to C
ondu
ct R
adio
logi
cal W
arfa
re' (
WP-
40- 5
0, c
lass
ified
top
secr
et).
23
Feb.
195
0, C
IA-m
isce
llane
ous
file
, AC
HR
E,
54. John Ranelagh,
The
Age
ncy:
The
Ris
e an
d D
eclin
e of
the
CIA
: Fro
m W
ild B
il D
onov
an to
Wiliam Casey
(NY
: Sim
on &
Sch
uste
r (9
86)
p.20
4.55. Marks,
Sear
ch
(note 49) pp.73
-, C
hurc
h C
omm
ittee
, Boo
k 2
, p. 58, and
AC
HR
E F
inal
Rep
ort
(Was
hing
ton
DC
: US
GPO
199
5) p
p.18
4-7.
The
mer
ger
of th
e O
ffice
of P
olic
yC
oord
inat
ion
and
the
Off
ce o
f Sp
ecia
l Ope
ratio
ns is
exa
min
ed in
Jef
frey
s-Jo
nes,
C
IA
(not
e16
) p.
70.
56. F
or a
n in
trod
uctio
n to
rel
evan
t lite
ratu
re, s
ee A
lan
Bey
erch
en
, '
Wha
t We
Now
Kno
w a
bout
Naz
ism
and
Sci
ence
. in
Mar
gare
t C. J
acob
(ed
.T
he P
oliti
cs o
f W
este
rn S
cien
ce, 1
640-
1990
(Atla
ntic
Hig
hlan
ds, N
J: H
uman
ities
Pre
ss 1
994)
pp.
129-
56.
57. Q
uote
d in
Chu
rch
Com
mitt
ee, B
ook
2
, pp.
57-8
; on
the
Chu
rch
Com
mitt
ee, s
ee A
ndre
wPresident's Eyes (note 19) pp.41
4-22
.58
. Dep
uty
Dire
ctor
(P
lans
) to
DC
I re
MK
ULT
RA
, Sub
proj
ect 3
5, 1
5 N
ov. 1
954;
Mem
oran
dum
for
the
reco
rd, (
info
nnat
ion
dele
ted)
, reo
Sub
proj
ect 3
5, 5
May
195
5, F
ile C
IA-0
3144
95-
and
mem
oran
dum
, ' S
UB
PR
OJE
CT
35
of P
RO
JEC
T M
KU
LTR
A',
10
May
195
5, a
ll F
ileC
IA-0
3144
95-
, ACHRE; and Marks,
Sear
ch
(not
e 49
) p.
202.
59. Marks
Sear
ch
(note 49) p.5
9.60
, Bro
de, '
Res
pons
ibili
ties
of th
e Sc
ient
ific
Bra
nch'
(no
te 1
0).
61. Wallace R. Brode to John A. Anitage, country desk offcer, U
SSR
, Sta
te D
ept.
n.d. (July
1959). Box 6 of 11, W
RB
, 62. Ranelagh
The Agency
(note 54) pp.196-7. By the 1960s
, as
oppo
sitio
n to
sci
entis
tspa
rici
patio
n in
Vie
tnam
War
eff
ort i
ncre
ased
and
rec
ruitm
ent f
or th
e C
IA b
ecam
e m
ore
diff
cult
, sci
entif
ic in
tellg
ence
in le
ss c
entr
l fie
lds
beca
me
mar
gina
l; a
reve
alin
g ex
ampl
e is
provided in Bruce MUIY,
Jour
ney
into
Spa
ce: T
he F
ir,'t
Thi
rty
Yea
rs o
f Sp
ace
Exp
lora
tion
(NY
: Nor
ton
1989
) pp
.99-
IOO
,
63. E.B
. Sko
lnik
offt
o Ja
mes
R. K
ilan
Jr, 2
3 O
ct. 1
958,
Exe
cutiv
e O
ffce
of
the
Pres
iden
t, O
ffce
of Science and Technology, R
G 3
59, B
ox I
II, N
AR
A; s
ee a
lso
Doe
l. 'S
cientists as
Polic
ymak
ers'
(note 33) p
AO
.64. See John Lewis Gaddis
The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War
(NY
:
OU
P 19
87)
pp.1
95-2
14, R
anel
agh,
The Agency
(not
e 54
) pp
.24
, 490
-, C
hurc
h C
omm
ittee
Book IV
, pp,
77-8
, Sco
tt D
. Bre
ckin
ridg
eT
he C
IA a
nd th
e U
.S, Intelligence System (B
ould
erC
O: W
estv
iew
Pre
ss 1
986)
p.3
3 an
d Je
ffrey
Ric
hels
onT
he U
.S. I
ntel
ligen
ce C
omm
unity
.2n
d ed
. (C
ambr
idge
, MA
: Bal
lnge
r 19
89)
pp.1
7-18 and p
assi
m.
It is
inte
rest
ing
to n
ote
that
the corresponding elevation of science within the State Dept., t
hrou
gh th
e cr
eatio
n of
its
Bur
eau
of O
cean
s an
d In
tern
atio
nal E
nviro
nmen
tal a
nd S
cien
tific
Affa
irs, d
id n
ot c
ome
about until 1973/74; see Science and Technology in the Department of State,
Sci
ence
Pol
icy
Res
earc
h D
ivis
ion,
Con
gres
sion
al R
esea
rch
Serv
ice.
Com
mitt
ee P
rint
(W
ashi
ngto
n D
C: U
SGPO 1975) and
Science and Technology in U.S. International Affairs:
Rep
ort o
f th
eCarnegie Commission on Science, Technology, and Govemment
(NY
: Car
egie
Con
uiss
ion
1992
) p.
50.
. -
~~~~