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http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/index.asp 561 [email protected]
International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (IJMET)
Volume 8, Issue 10, October 2017, pp. 561–578, Article ID: IJMET_08_10_063
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=8&IType=10
ISSN Print: 0976-6340 and ISSN Online: 0976-6359
© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed
REVIEW ON MANUFACTURING OF FIBRE
METAL LAMINATES AND ITS
CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES
K.Logesh
Research scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Sathyabama University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
V.K.Bupesh Raja
Professor & Head, Department of Automobile Engineering,
Sathyabama University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M, Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji
UG Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Veltech Dr.RR & Dr.SR University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
ABSTRACT
Fibre Metal Laminates (FML) is new class of materials which are in high demand
because of its superior mechanical and metallurgical properties. Such materials can
be manufactured by a variety of ways depending on size required, end application and
cost affordability. However FML are susceptible to defects which are governed by
factors such as type of skin and core material selected, preparation method used, post
treatment and load applied. Possible defects can be overcome by following care while
preparing the material as per end requirements. FML can be used for applications
which demand low weight to high strength ratio such as aeronautics, automobiles,
marine and structures.
Keywords: Fibre Metal Laminates, Skin, Core, Preparation Method, Mechanical
Properties, Post Treatment.
Cite this Article: K.Logesh, V.K.Bupesh Raja, Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M,
Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji, Review on Manufacturing of Fibre Metal Laminates
and its Characterization Techniques, International Journal of Mechanical Engineering
and Technology 8(10), 2017, pp. 553–560.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp?JType=IJMET&VType=8&IType=10
1. INTRODUCTION
Advancements in the field of materials and manufacturing have brought forward new kinds of
materials. Laminate materials are new class of composite materials which have been
developed recently. Such materials are tailor made to be used for specific applications. The
first fibre metal laminate was developed during 1967. It was found that in comparison with a
K.Logesh, V.K.Bupesh Raja, Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M, Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji
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typical aluminium sheet, a laminate of same thickness made of fibre and aluminium had twice
the fracture toughness [1]. Like a typical composite material, laminate materials are generally
produced to enhance the overall properties such as low density and corrosion resistance of the
fabricated components [2-3]. However the properties of such materials get shared to give
benefits as well as drawback such as low fatigue resistance and high moisture absorption [4-
14].
The innumerable combination of materials that can be combined to create a composite
material, makes it open ended to research and development. Such materials are used
extensively in aeronautics, automobiles and structural materials [15-19].
In this paper, sandwich material, which is a type of composite material is considered and
discussed. A sandwich material consists of layers of its composition arranged to replicate a
sandwich, such as plywood. Fig.1. shows the morphology of typical sandwich materials. It
consists of a skin which acts as the matrix, while the interlayer acts as the reinforcements.
Like any composite material, the composition of the sandwich material can be selected based
on the end requirement, i.e, the properties desired from the produced composite. There can be
several layers between the outer skins in the sandwich material.
Figure 1 A typical laminate material [20]
1.1. History of Laminate Materials
The earliest known literature about the use of bonded laminate structures dates back to 1950
[21]. It was revealed that Fokker Aero-structures of Netherlands made first attempts to
prevent emergence of fatigue cracks by using laminated materials. It was identified that its
performance was better than monolithic structures made up of same materials. Research on
Fibre metal laminates (FML) was coined by Aerospace Engineering in Delft University of
Technology, Netherlands. They developed a fibre metal laminates comprising of Aramid
fibres in Aluminium laminates (ARALL) [22-23]. It was commercialized during 1982 with
two variations: ARALL 1 with AA7075 as the laminate and ARALL 2 with AA2024 as the
laminates. Later two more types of ARALL came into existence and commercialized
respectively. More research on FML brought forward Carbon reinforced Aluminium
laminates (CARALL). In 1989, Glass Laminate Aluminium Reinforced Epoxy (GLARE) was
developed and patented [24]. It was later commercialized in 1991 [25]. Generally E-glass
fibres are used to make GLARE.
1.2. Classifications of FML
Numerous research activities in FML have given rise to many different kinds of laminated
materials. Figure 2 shown below reveals the classifications of FML. Based on the layup of the
reinforcements a FML can be of two types: Unidirectional Hybrid Laminate (UDHL) and
Cross-ply Hybrid Laminates (CPHL). Comparatively the CPHL is better in terms of impact
performance and damage resistance [26]. Fig.3 shows the general layup of reinforcements and
metal laminates of a sandwich material. In case of UDHL the fibres will be either oriented in
00 or 90
0 orientations. In the CPHL fibres will be twined similar to the form of textile fabrics.
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Based on the material used as the laminate, FML can be of the following types: Titanium
based FML, Magnesium based FML and Aluminium based FML. CARALL, GLARE and
ARALL are classes of Aluminium based laminates. There are four types of ARALL and six
types of GLARE, each having specific properties depending upon the types of aluminium
used to fabricate the same [22-23]. The materials chosen as the laminate is such that it
contributes to the reduction in weight of the FML without sacrificing its superior mechanical
properties such as high strength, yield strength, impact resistance, etc. Titanium has the
advantage of strength to weight ratio, however it is not preferred for low applications. The
mechanical properties such as impact resistance and hardness of magnesium is lower than
aluminium and titanium, hence it is preferred only for applications which do not required high
strength. Aluminium has some advantages like strength to weight ratio, fatigues and corrosion
resistance[24-27]. Applications of aluminium metal laminates includes aero structures and
automobile components [21-24][28-31].
Based on the types of reinforcements used FML are of the following types: Kevlar
reinforced laminate, CARALL and GLARE. Kevlar has the benefit of extremely light weight
however being costly makes its applications restricted to scientific research and government
aided projects. Glass and carbon fibre has the advantages of low cost yet reliable hence highly
preferred for commercial applications [22].
Based on the layup of the laminates and reinforcements in FML can be of the following
types: 2/1 laminate in which there will be one layer of reinforcement sandwiched between two
metal laminates and 3/2 laminate in which there will be three layers of metal laminates
separated by two layers of reinforcements. The fibre may be oriented in different directions
between the laminates [32-34]. Figure 4 shows a 3/2 laminate.
Figure 2 Classification of Fibre Metal Laminates
K.Logesh, V.K.Bupesh Raja, Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M, Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji
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Figure 3 Layup of reinforcements and metal laminates in FML [35]
Figure 4 3/2 laminate materials [36]
2. FABRICATION OF FML
FML are prepared with an aim of reducing the overall weight without sacrificing the
beneficial properties on a specific application [24][37]. Fabrication of FML consists of four
steps: pre-treatment, preparation of prepreg, production of FML and post treatment.
2.1. Pre treatment
The skin has to be pre-treated in order to enable proper bonding of the metal laminate with the
reinforcements. The skin and the fibre reinforcements have to be cut to the required
dimensions before carrying out the pre-treatment processes [38]. Modification of surface
properties of the skin or metal laminate is carried out by mechanical abrasion and degreasing
by using solvents [25][39].
The procedures for pre-treatment were explained with the following steps [40]:
Degreasing the metal laminates by immersing it in Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
solution,
Cleaning with water,
Creation of micro roughness using a 400 and 200 grit abrasion papers. Any
contaminants were wiped out using tissue papers,
Etching for 10 minutes at room temperature by immersing it in a 5% NaOH solution,
Rinsing with hot water,
Etching the metal laminate for 12 minutes in sulfochromic solution. (ASTM standard
D2674-72, 2004) and (ASTM standard D2651-01, 2004) standards were used during
the etching process,
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Producing porous layers of pseudoboehmite aluminum oxyhydroxide (ALOOH) on
the metal laminate by immersing it in hot water for one minute,
Coating the surface of the metal laminate using an organosilane adhesion promoter, γ-
Glycidoxypropyltrimethoxy silane (γ-GPS),
Drying in an oven at 1000C for one hour. It was noted that the coating improved the
strength and durability of the adhesive. The metal laminate used for his study was
aluminium.
2.2. Preparation of the prepreg
The preparation of FML is preceded by the manufacture of prepregs[25]. A single sheet of
fabric reinforcement can be cut to the desired size and held in a mould [41]. The mould is the
connected to resin feed and a vacuum source as shown in Fig.4. The transfer of resin from
source towards the vacuum enables ingression of the resin into the fibre. This is called as resin
ingression technique. In order to delay the curing of the resin with the fibre, the mould is
transferred to a deep freezer and held for 24 hours at -180C. The prepreg which is the uncured
resin impregnated fibre is wrapped in a polythene sheet and frozen for future use. Prepreg
produced in this manner was called as just-in-time prepreg (JIPREG). The prepregs can be
stored without any changes in its properties upto 20 days.
2.3. Production of the FML
There are many methods available to produce a FML: hand layup, stamp forming, autoclave
and Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM). There are several types of RTMs, the popular ones are
Structural Resin Injection Moulding (SRIM), Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI),
Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM) and Resin Film Infusion (RFI).
2.3.1. Hand layup
In case of the hand layup technique as shown in Fig.5 the reinforcement will be prepared just
before it is to be used. The reinforcement material mostly in the form of fabric, fibres or
powders will be mixed with a suitable resin to enhance its bonding with the skin. As soon as
the reinforcements is mixed with the resin. It will be placed between the skins. Then light to
moderate pressure is applied to the skins in the form of pressing by hand or a roller. The
applied pressure compresses the prepreg and enables proper bonding between the skin and the
reinforcements. Enough time is allowed to enable proper bonding. The hand layup technique
is used for creating large laminates which are to be used for low cost and light load
applications [42-43].
Figure 5 Hand layup technique
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2.3.2. Stamp forming
Stamp forming is similar to the above method except that heavy force is applied to bond the
laminate and prepreg as shown in Fig.6. In this method layers of laminate and the prepreg are
arranged as desired over the cavity of a blank. The cavity resembles the final desired shape of
the finished laminate. It is then pressed using a round tipped tool into the blank. The applied
pressure forces the prepreg to get bonded to the laminate. The layers are held in a die, blank
holder and punch setup. The shape of the produced part is determined by the design of the die
and punch [44]. Pressure is applied from both sides of the mould. Hence this method is also
called as press forming or stamp forming depending upon the direction of the applied force
[25][45].
2.3.2. Stamp forming
Stamp forming is similar to the above method except that heavy force is applied to bond the
laminate and prepreg as shown in Fig.6. In this method layers of laminate and the prepreg are
arranged as desired over the cavity of a blank. The cavity resembles the final desired shape of
the finished laminate. It is then pressed using a round tipped tool into the blank. The applied
pressure forces the prepreg to get bonded to the laminate. The layers are held in a die, blank
holder and punch setup. The shape of the produced part is determined by the design of the die
and punch[44]. Pressure is applied from both sides of the mould. Hence this method is also
called as press forming or stamp forming depending upon the direction of the applied force
[25][45].
Figure 6 Stamp forming technique [46]
2.3.3. Autoclave
Autoclave method as shown in Fig.7 is a traditional method used for production of FML. The
stored prepregs are taken out of the deep freezer and its temperature is allowed to get to room
temperature. Then it is separated from the polythene sheets and stacked with the pretreated
metal laminates. Since the layers are stacked by hands, the autoclave method is otherwise
names as hand forming technique. The number of layers depends upon the end requirements
as desired such as 2/1 laminate, 3/2 laminate or 4/3 laminates. It is then placed in autoclave
chamber and vacuumed. Pressure is then applied along with heat to enhance the bonding
between the laminate and the prepreg [41]. This method is simple in design and do not require
a power feed during manufacturing and parts can be fabricated quickly. However it has some
drawbacks such as: not suitable for preparing larger parts, high operating costs, prior
knowledge in curing and properties of the resin, fibre and metal laminate.
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Figure 7 Autoclave method [47]
2.3.4. Structural Resin Injection Moulding (SRIM)
In this method resin is prepared separately while the fibre reinforcements and the skin
materials are placed inside a mould. Most cases the reinforcements are arranged sandwiched
between the skin materials. The resin is then injected or pumped under high pressure over the
reinforcement [48]
2.3.5. Vacuum Assisted Resin Injection (VARI)
VARI has the benefit of low cost production of FML and also the ability to manufacture large
sized parts [49]. In the VARI, the layers of perforated reinforcements and metal skins are
arranged as desired. It is then placed inside a one sided mould and covered by flexible film
resembling a mould cavity. Peel plies are provided to enable easy removal of the finished
laminate materials as shown in Figure 8. The process is carried out by removing the air from
inside the cavity by using a vacuum pump attached at one of the longer ends of the
arrangement. It is then followed by pumping of hot resin from the other end. The resin flows
inside the cavity because of the pressure difference and gets infused with the reinforcement
[50].After curing for some hours a FML with the desired properties will be obtained.
Figure 8 Schematic Representation of VARI [51]
2.3.6. Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM)
VARTM technique has a similar construction of the VARI. Fig.9 shows the construction of
VARTM and the important parts [52-54]In VARTM the vacuum pump creates a much greater
negative pressure than the VARI. Resin is sucked into the mould cavity because of pressure
difference between the cavity and the resin holder. The quality of the FML depends upon the
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fluidity of the resin. After the transfer of the resin into the mould chamber, the composition is
allowed to cure and set.
Figure 9 Illustration of VARTM [56]
2.3.7. Resin Film Infusion
This method has some similarity in construction as compared to autoclave method. It consists
of a single mould cavity in which pellets of resin is placed over the reinforcement. Heat is
supplied to the setup, which melts the resin and distribute over the reinforcements [57]. The
quality of the FML depends upon the temperature supplied, the pressure inside the mould
cavity and the viscosity of the resin to flow and distribute evenly into the reinforcements.
2.4. Post treatment
Post treatment is referred to the curing of the FML after the resin is introduced into the
reinforcements. The curing time differs, depending upon various factors mentioned below.
Pre treatment employed
Type of the resin used i.e., semisolid or liquid during the time of infusion into the
reinforcements.
Whether prepreg is used or not i.e., if the preparation method uses prepregs then the
resin had been already infused into the reinforcement. Hence the post treatment
employs higher heat required to enable resign flow into the pre treated skin material.
Type of the reinforcements and the skin materials used.
3. INVESTIGATION OF FML CHARACTERIZATION
FMLs are generally subjected to the following types of testing: impact test, tensile test,
flexural test, fire retardant characteristic. While conducting tests on FML, care should be
taken on the scaling effect. Literature review revealed that scaled model and full sized model
gave drastically different results. This was because of variation in parameters such as
thickness of fibre laminate, material removed from the metal layer, mass and overall thickness
between scaled and full sized model [58- 61].
3.1. Impact strength
The study of force-time on the laminate revealed three notable occurrences. First is the
materials resistance against impact damage. Second is the fluctuation in force which indicates
decrease in local bending stiffness. Third is the maximum bearing load before the material
cracked to the impactor. The major cause of failure is delamination. It was observed that the
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load and the ply direction influenced the failure of the laminates. Lower load to cross ply and
90o orientation of fibre gave better resistance to damage [62].
3.2. Tensile Strength
Tensile test conducted on different FMLs revealed that failure in FML occurred because of
many factors including the metal used as laminate, type of fibre, sequence of laminate
prepereg stacking, geometry of impact, percentage of post stretching, etc. Material properties
like Young’s modulus, yield stress, strain hardening coefficient, anisotropic parameter and the
true stress v/s true strain curve are the basic input parameter required for the pre-processing of
the deep drawing process and hence need to be procured from the tensile test [63]. Analysis of
pre stress on GLARE, ARALL and CARALL revealed that GLARE could with stand greater
stress. The mode of failure was due to fibre and also the laminate material. Improving the
stiffness and strength of laminate material proved to have a drawback. The metal exhibited
brittleness and the failure originated low energy absorption and low damage resistance
characteristics. Fig.10 shows the relation between various reinforcements on failure on
comparing with the base metal. It can be found that GLARE exhibited superior resistance to
failure that other materials [64].
Figure 10 Force vs deflection for various core materials [65-66]
Inclusion of magnesium as the composition in the laminate gives some advantages such as
low density, magnetic resistance and corrosion resistance, along with reduction in crack
resistance and residual strength [67].
The ratio of Metal Volume Fraction (MVF) is unique to FML is shown in equation (1). It
is the ratio between the overall thicknesses of the laminate to the thickness of metal layer.
MVF =
(1)
It was suggested that increasing the thickness of the fibre reinforcement improves impact
resistance of the laminate. Hence in every laminate a slight larger thickness of the resin and
fibre reinforcement is maintained. There is no optimum thickness ratio allocution to determine
and limit the MVF. However care should be taken to maintain lower density. Otherwise the
reason to go for laminate material cannot be justified. Many literatures are available to
correlate the MVF with density [68-71].
FML may experience stress due to unequal thermal contraction especially while using
autoclave method preparation. It was found that the metal and reinforcement show different
behaviour under static loading and dynamic loading respectively [70] [72-74]. Such laminate
will have low energy absorption and premature failure. This can be overcome by stretching
the metal layer to plastic state while the reinforcement remains in elastic region [75].
K.Logesh, V.K.Bupesh Raja, Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M, Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji
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Tensile test was conducted using UTM on a rectangular specimen in contrast with the
traditional method of using ASTM standards. The test revealed that the strain to failure on
FML was same in comparison with composite material. However the same was greater than in
comparison of FML with the base metal. This is justified by the bonding strength which
added to the tensile strength of FML [76]. Figure 11 and Figure 12 reveals the above
explained result.
Figure 11 Stress strain curve (0-90 FML) [76]
Figure 12 Stress strain curve (45 FML) [76]
3.3. Formability
Cup test and hemispherical dome test are the two methods to determine the forming
characteristics of the FML [54]. The test conducted on FML with different orientations
revealed that the laminate with 0-90 orientation of reinforcements exhibited greater strength
compared to that with ±45 orientations. This intimates that load distribution evenly along the
rolling direction of the metal layer and the reinforcements.
The most widely used test of sheet metal forming is the uni-axial tension test [77]. Plastic
strain ratio (r) is used to determine the uni-axial tension as shown in equation (1). Plastic
strain ratio is the resistance of steel sheet to thinning during forming operation. This is the
ratio of the true width strain to the true thickness strain of the plastically strained sheet metal
[78].
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r= εw / εt (1)
Where,
εw - ln (w/w0)
εt - ln (t/t0) = ln (L0w0/Lw)
w - Change in width
w0 - Original width
t - Change in thickness
t0 - Original thickness
Form strength of both FML configurations is approximately around 160 MPa. It can be
noticed that the tensile strength of the [Al, 0-90] FML is approximately 150 MPa while that
for the [Al, ±45] FML is approximately 130 MPa. Generally, the form strength of a material
could be higher than its tensile strength [79-81]. This happens because during a tensile test,
the whole specimen is subjected to a constant stress whereas during forming test, a relatively
small region of the specimen experiences maximum stress. This difference in loading volume
reduces the likelihood of failure in the sample as show in the Figure 13.
Figure 13 Stress vs strain on Al-FML [76]
The Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) image of the specimen subjected to Erichsen
cupping test is shown in Figure 14 [23].
Figure 14 SEM image of specimen subjected to Erichsen cupping test [23]
K.Logesh, V.K.Bupesh Raja, Vipin H Nair, Sreerag K.M, Vishvesvaran K.M and M.Balaji
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3.4. Fire Retardancy
Fire retardant characteristic is an important property for a FML.[23] conducted extensive
research on the fire retardant characteristics on FML. A typical FML material should have the
following characteristics while subjected to flame:
Should not be toxic to human, animals and plants,
Should not release any harmful evaporating gases,
Should not release any additional toxic, harmful or corrosive smoke gases in case of
fire,
Should not negatively affect the flame retardancy.
3.4.1. Flammability
The cone calorimeter investigation is very popular and standard method for ranking and
comparing the flammability properties of polymeric materials. During the entire combustion
process of the sample in a cone calorimeter, a constant external heat flux is maintained to
sustain the combustion of the test sample i.e. the test method creates a forced flaming
combustion scenario. Therefore, the test results from cone calorimeter are very important in
flammability evaluation of any polymeric material [23].
UL94 testing is carried out following two standards: one is the vertical burn test (UL94 V)
and the other is the horizontal burn test (UL94 HB). The LDPE/LDH nano-composites
containing up to 16.2 wt% LDH did not pass any of the UL94 V specifications. All the
samples started burning spontaneously after first 10 seconds flame application, which
continued until the test specimen is completely burnt up to the sample holding clamp. This
means that the nano-composites are not self-extinguishing [23].
3.5. Flexural Strength
The flexural test is conducted analysis on flexural characteristics on FML
AA8011/Polypropylene/AA1100. There are different standards to perform flexural tests. One
such standard is ASTM D790 in which the specimen of 150 mm length, 30 mm width and 4
mm thick is subjected to a load at its centre[23]. The applied load and displacements were
recorded and obtained using the formulas shown in equation (2) and (3) respectively.
σf = 3PL/2bd2
and (2)
εf =6Dd/L2 (3)
Where,
‘L’ is the span length,
‘b’ is the width of the sandwich sheet,
‘d’ depth of the sandwich sheet
Specifically, mechanical properties and failure modes of AA8011/Polypropylene/AA1100
sandwich sheets are characterized. Flexural strengths of three specimens cut from the
sandwich sheets are summarized and the optimum values of load (P), maximum deflection
(D), flexural stiffness (Sf), flexural stress (y) and flexural modulus (E) of sandwich sheets
were found to be 140 kN, 28 mm, 8.23 MPa, 81.56 MPa and 323.81 MPa respectively [82-
87].
Figure 15 shows load-mid span deflection under three-point bending of the sandwich
sheet by flexural test. It is revealed that the deflection of sandwich specimen increased almost
linearly with load upto final failure. Hence it is determined that specimen could withstand
flexural load. Much of the force is absorbed by the thick layer of epoxy resin and the
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reinforcement than the skin material. The flexural tests reveal that, the sandwich sheet can be
applied as outer shell of automobiles and aeroplanes [88-90].
Figure 15 Load-mid span deflection of the sandwich sheet in flexural test [66]
4. CONCLUSIONS
FML has more advantages such as low density, superior strength, and hardness over
the composite material and base metal. Hence FML has found applications in many
fields including, structures of aeronautical, automobile and marine.
There are many methods of preparing FML which can be selected based on the
parameters such as cost and finish required from the process.
Specific properties can be induced on the FML by suitably selecting the
reinforcements, MVF and fibre orientation.
Pretreatment on the metal and post treatment of FML can enhance the properties of the
FML.
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