REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Studies of AOM conducted on Mathematics Studies of AOM conducted on Subjects other than Mathematics Studies on Intelligence vs Achievement

CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

New efforts have been made in training teacher educators and, in turn,

student-teachers related to Models of Teaching, a vital area of research. By

now, few of studies have been completed in this field at M.Ed., M.Phil. and

Ph.D. levels in National and the international level. The investigator was able

to review some of these studies which have a direct bearing on the central

theme of the present study. In this section, the investigator makes a humble

attempt to report some of the important related research studies reviewed.

Intelligence was considered to be the “matching variable” in this study.

According to Guilford, the matching variable should be highly related to the

dependent variable-achievement. In order to establish the fact that

intelligence is related to achievement, a few studies reviewed are presented

at the end of this chapter.

Care has been taken to arrange the studies in chronological order. For

convenience, the studies are presented under the following heads:

1. Studies of AOM conducted on Mathematics

2. Studies of AOM conducted on subjects other than Mathematics.

3. Studies on Intelligence vs Achievement

3.1. STUDIES OF AOM CONDUCTED ON MATHEMATICS

Mathew (1997) tried to compare the efficacy of AOM with CM of

teaching mathematics at secondary school level. the AOM was more effective

in terms of student achievement.

Gopakumar (1995) compared the effectiveness of AOM and ITM on

mathematics achievement at secondary school level. The objective was to

compare the effect of AOM and ITM on mathematics achievement at

secondary school level and to compare the effectiveness of AOM and ITM on

mathematics achievement at secondary school level with reference to the

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73

instructional objectives Knowledge, Understanding and application. The

findings showed that the ITM is superior to AOM.

Raj, S. Meera (1995) studied the effect of AOM as an instructional

strategy in learning and retention of mathematics of pupils at secondary

school level. The objective were to examine the effect of AOM on

mathematics achievement in comparison with CMT when taken as a whole

and with reference to the instructional objectives Knowledge, Understanding

and Application and to examine the effect of AOM on retention scores of

mathematics achievement in comparison with CMT when taken as a whole

and with reference to the instructional objectives Knowledge, Understanding

and application. The findings showed that the AOM is superior to CMT in

mathematics achievement as well as in retention of learned materials when

taken as a whole and under the instructional objectives understanding and

application, but not significant at knowledge level.

Thomas (1995) conducted a study on the effect of mathematical

achievement in comparison with conventional method of teaching at

secondary level. The objectives were to examine the effect of AOM on

mathematics achievement in comparison with CMT with reference to the

instructional objectives Knowledge, Understanding and Application. The

findings showed that the AOM is superior to CMT under the objectives

understanding and application but not significant at knowledge level.

Preetha (1990) conducted a study to examine the effectiveness of

advance organizer model and ITM in the teaching of Mathematics in Std. VIII.

The result showed that the attainment of pupils taught using AOM was not

differing significantly from those taught using ITM. But the attainment in

Mathematics of pupils taught using AOM was significantly higher than those

taught using TM with respect to the objectives namely knowledge,

understanding, application and evaluation.

Pande, B (1986) compared the effectiveness of AO and set induction in

learning the major objective of the study were to determine the effect of AO

and set induction on achievement. The findings of the study revealed that

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74

there is no significant influence of interaction between method of instructional

criterion test and sex criterion test.

Bhalwankar (1985) made a study on the effect of expository and

guided discovery method of teaching on achievement in mathematics of

students of different levels of intelligence. The major findings of the study

were that the guided discovery and expository method were equally effective

on knowledge and comprehension objective with respect to immediate test

and retention test. The expository method was found to be more effective than

the guided discovery method on application objective with respect to students

of high intelligence.

Chitriv (1983) ascertained the comparative effectiveness of Ausubel

and Bruner strategy on the criteria of concept attainment and concept

acquisition in Mathematics. The strategy of Ausubel and Bruner were found

equally effective for teaching mathematical concepts to the 11th grade

students.

The study conducted by Jose (1980) on Cybernetic Approach to

instruction for higher education in Mathematics with special reference to India

revealed that the teaching model can be applied with appropriate modification

to instructional situations so that efficacy of mathematical instruction can be

increased several fold.

Kerston (1976) examined the effect of an AO on the learning and

retention of learning materials. It was found that there was no significant

difference between AO group and control group.

Smith C.D. (1976) studied the effect of AO and Abstract reasoning

levels on learning and retention of post secondary mathematics students. AO

was found to have more effects on long range retention.

Graber (1975) examined the use of AO and questioning. As a method

of testing, pretest – posttest experimental design was employed for the study.

The findings of the study indicated that no organizer was superior than the

other and there was no significant advantage over the level of questioning.

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Caponechi (1973) conducted a study on 91 undergraduate students

and examined the effect of an advance organizer as compared to an

introductory overview and a control set of historical materials on the

acquisition and retention of the topic of matrices within a normal class room

situation. The findings showed that there were a significant interaction

between thee treatment and ability level on achievement test; and no

statistical difference between the organizer and introductory overview means,

although the difference in the means favoured the advance organizer.

Nixt (1972) conducted a study on students enrolled in freeman

mathematics course to examine the relative effects of frequent use of

advance organizer and structures review in a college mathematics course for

students who are not physical science engineering or mathematics majors.

The result of the study showed that there were no significant difference for

treatment effects, recitation instructor effects not interaction.

It may be noted that even though Mathematics is an important subject,

the researches of AOM in this area has been scanty.

3.2 STUDIES OF AOM CONDUCTED ON SUBJECTS OTHER THAN MATHEMATICS

In this section, a brief description of the reviewed studies conducted on

Science, Social Science, Languages, Computer and other general subjects

are presented in chronological order.

Mayer (2004) Abstract Forty-four published research studies involving

advance organizers were reviewed. Twenty-seven studies included an

advance organizer vs. a control group (standard advance organizer study)

and 17 studies included an advance organizer vs. a post organizer group

(modified advance organizer study). Results of the studies were compared to

the predictions of several theories. In addition, four specific predictions of

assimilation theory were evaluated: that advance organizers should have a

stronger effect for poorly organized text than for well organized text, that

advance organizers should have a stronger positive effect for learners lacking

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prerequisite knowledge, that advance organizers should have a stronger

effect for learners lacking prerequisite abilities, and that advance organizers

should have an especially strong effect on measures of transfer rather than

retention

Raj Rani Agarwal (2004) in a study found that the Advance Organizer

Model and the Concept Attainment were found more effective than the

Conventional Method in fostering concept learning.

Keppell (2001) conducted a study which explored the development,

trial, and implementation of the Content Production Process (CPP) which was

designed to assist instructional designers in eliciting and conceptualizing

unfamiliar content from subject matter experts. Highlights include advance

organizers, schema theory, consultation practices, knowledge acquisition in

constructing expert systems.

Bastick (2001) in a study tested the common assumption that lists of

instructional objectives (LIOs) presented at the start of a lesson are used as

advance organizers (AOs). Because traditional research designs have

yielded conflicting results, an alternative design was used that sought to falsify

the necessary association between the objectives and their use that results

when AOs are used.

Callison (2000) focuses on "organizers," tools or techniques that

provide identification and classification along with possible relationships or

connections among ideas, concepts, and issues. Discusses David Ausubel's

research and ideas concerning advance organizers; the implications of

Ausubel's theory to curriculum and teaching; "webbing," a specific

organizational technique; and graphic organizers

Bastick (1999) in this study investigated the assumption that students

use instructional objectives as advance organizers. This assumption,

developed by D. Ausubel (1968), is appealing to instructors, but has been

difficult to test experimentally.

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DaRos and Onwuegbuzie (1999) conducted a study to determine the

effectiveness of using advance organizers in instruction at the graduate level

and found to be effective.

Chung (1999) compares Chinese Students' listening comprehension

rates for video texts using a variety of techniques: advance organizers,

captions, a combination of both, and none of the foregoing. Results showed

that more effective comprehension occurred when a combination of

techniques were used.

Hatch and Dwyer (1999) describes a study that examined the

instructional effect varying the positions of advance organizers, practice

exercises, and feedback in an instructional environment. The effect of varied

advance organizer strategies and students' locus of control orientation on

instructional and testing time were also investigated

Chung and Huang (1998) investigated the effects of three aural-

advance organizers on student comprehension of second-language (L2)

videotaped materials. Subjects were 160 low-intermediate Chinese students

of English in Taiwan. Suggests that in preparing advance organizers for

English-as-a-Foreign-Language students, teachers should focus on new

words rather than on video characters

Peterson and John (1998) describe a method for organizing the subject

matter associated with the history of economic thought. The conceptual matrix

is an organizer and visual display that cross references normative and

economic issues with their historical context. Maintains that the matrix

promotes critical thinking and allows students to focus on the issues

Story (1998) examined advance organizer research to determine its

implications for instructional designers planning learning activities and

instructional media, particularly the relationship between the forms of advance

organizer and media. Found few studies comparing forms of organizers or the

relationship between forms or organizers and media, indicating a need for

further research in these areas

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Thompson (1998) in experiment one, 40 younger and 40 older adults

used advance organizers with a 1500-word passage. Experiment 2 replicated

the test with adults of limited verbal ability. Advance organizers were helpful

only in restricted circumstances. They appeared to help those with limited

ability to comprehend detail.

Tyler and Reynolds (1998) used a model for incorporating feature films

into a course for training group facilitators is presented. Using cognitive-

learning theories, the authors describe how films may be used as an

advanced organizer, as the basis for student learning assessment, or as

examples of specific theory in action. Specific examples are provided.

Herron, York, Cole and Linden (1998) compared student retention of

information in foreign-language videos in two advance organizer conditions.

Participants were 67 college students enrolled in five sections of a beginning-

level French course. Findings were interpreted as supportive of the premise

that it is significantly better to incorporate an advance organizer with video

than not.

Kirkman, and Shaw (1997) conducted a study to examine the effects

of a comparative advance organizer in an oral format on learners' immediate

and delayed retention of subject matter related to food and nutrition when

controlling for learners' prior knowledge level.

Bassoppo-Moyo (1997) examines the effects of three pre-instructional

strategies--advance organizers, performance objectives, and structured

overviews--in enhancing learner understanding of textual materials. Two

achievement tests were administered to 674 pre-service teachers enrolled in

two of Zimbabwe's teachers' training colleges. Results indicated that

performance objectives were relatively superior to the other

Avery and Graves (1997) describes the Scaffolding Reading

Experience, a technique that helps students deal with challenging expository

texts and supports social science inquiry methods. This technique relies on

various supporting activities during the pre-reading, during-reading, and post-

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79

reading phases. Outlines a series of these activities used during a U.S. history

course.

Boyle and Weishaar (1997) conducted a study with thirty-nine high

school students with mild disabilities and poor reading comprehension were

trained to use either student-generated or expert-generated cognitive

organizers to improve literal and inferential reading comprehension. Following

training, both groups exceeded the reading comprehension performance of a

control group, and students using student-generated organizers had

significantly high difference in their scores than those using expert-generated

organizers.

Kiewra et al. (1997) in experiment with 109 college students examined

the effects of advance organizers and repeating a lecture on test

performance. Advance organizers that integrated subtopic information (linear

and matrix organizers) increased recall of subtopic information but more

general organizers (conventional) aided overall recall, especially general topic

information.

Kurian (1997) made an experimental study on the effect of AOM with

CM of teaching and found that in the teaching of chemistry AOM was found

superior.

Thompson (1997) in a study, randomly assigned thirty adults ages 53-

85 and 28 adults ages 19-38 were to three groups to read six passages. One

group received advance organizers prior to reading, the second got orienting

instructions plus advance organizers, and the controls received neither.

Orienting instructions significantly helped both age groups and greatly

reduced performance differences between age groups

Kang (1997) describes a study that investigated whether an advance

organizer could facilitate learning in a computer simulation environment using

HyperCard. It examined the differential effectiveness of an advance organizer

across three different grade levels--fifth, sixth, and seventh. Analyses of data

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showed significant differences between the organizer and non-organizer

groups.

Ruthkosky, and Dwyer (1996) examines the effect that learners' prior

knowledge has on long-term retention of information. Study (200

undergraduates) found no differences in long-term retention when prior

knowledge was controlled, no interaction between prior knowledge and

advance organizer strategies, no increased long-term retention with advance

organizers, and no increased achievement with visuals.

Chun and Plass (1996) focus on how reading comprehension can be

facilitated with a multimedia application for second language learning. Results

indicate that a dynamic visual advance organizer does aid in overall

comprehension and that annotations of individual vocabulary items consisting

of both visual and verbal information help more than verbal information only.

Chung (1996) explores two video instructional strategies for the foreign

language classroom: advance organizers and captions in the target language.

A set of classroom procedures are proposed that combine advance

organizers and captions to teach English as a foreign language

Janardhanan (1996) studied the effect of AOM as an instructional

strategy on Biology achievement of secondary school pupils. The findings

showed that there is significant difference between mean scores on

achievement of experimental and control group under the objective

understanding and application except knowledge level.

Muhammed (1996) studied the effect of AOM on Biology achievement

at secondary school level. The finding showed AOM is effective than TM at

understanding and application level.

Griffin et al. (1995) this study examined whether graphic organizer

instruction would facilitate comprehension, recall, and information transfer,

and how much explicit instruction was necessary for independent generation

of graphic organizers. Fifth graders read social studies information with or

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81

without graphic organizers and explicit instruction. Explicitness and presence

of graphic organizers facilitated students'

Herron et al. (1995) in a study on college students enrolled in an

introductory French course viewed 12 French-language videos, with 1 group

exposed to oral descriptions and pictures from the videos before viewing and

a second group exposed to only oral descriptions. Students in the description-

plus-pictures group demonstrated higher levels of comprehension than

students in the description group.

Chiquito (1995) maintains that the use of metacognitive learning

strategies have been recurrent pedagogical tools for facilitating foreign

language learning. Describes how new hypermedia and interactive video

technology have broadened the scope of computer-assisted instruction.

Hanley et al. (1995) compares the effects of two visual advance

organizers on comprehension and retention of a written passage in a FLES

(Foreign Language in the Elementary School) Program: (1) "Video" and (2)

"Pictures + Teacher Narrative". Investigators randomly assigned 62 students

to 1 one of 2 conditions. "Video" was the more effective organizer of the two.

Downing and Agnes (1995) conducted study on the effectiveness of

Advance organizer advocated for the improvement of presentation method of

teaching and expository learning based on David P. Ausubel’s theory of

meaningful verbal learning. They found that Advance organizer allowed for

oral presentation by the teacher with ensuring discussion resulted in the

greatest and efficient recall.

Philip (1995) studied the effect of AOM in teaching of economics in

standard IX. The finding showed AOM is superior to TM under instructional

objective knowledge, understanding and application.

Pande P.B. (1994), studied the effect of Advance Organizer Model and

set induction on learning and transfer among class XI students.

Downing, Agnes (1994) in her paper advocates for the improvement of

presentational methods of teaching and expository learning, based on David

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Ausubel's theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning and its derivative, the

Advance Organizer Model of Teaching. This approach to teaching enables

teachers to convey large amounts.

Katherine Barbee (1994) research on instructional methods has

suggested that advance organizers (e.g., metaphors) can be an effective tool

in teaching certain types of material in some situations. In many cases,

teaching computer programming concepts satisfies these criteria.

Patnaik and Mohanan (1993) investigated the effectiveness of Advance

Organizer Model on the attainment of History concepts by class VII students.

Panday N.N. and Purohit (1993) investigated the efficiency of Advance

organizer in comparison to teachers training model for learning outcome of

educational psychology of B.Ed students. The finding showed that Advance

organizer model was superior than the Traditional teaching method in

facilitating educational psychology to B.Ed students.

Saidi (1993) conducted a study on the impact of Advance Organizer

upon students achievement in computer assisted video instruction and found

that AO do not facilitate transfer of learning in computer assisted video

instruction.

Relan (1991) conducted a study on the effect of visual organizer in the

teaching of Biology. It was found that AO did have a facilitating effect on all

levels of learning outcomes.

Rincheart et al. (1991) in their study on the effectiveness of Advance

organizer on text recall by poor readers revealed that the experimental group

who used cognitive maps as Advance organizer benefited much better than

the control group.

Joseph J. (1990) conducted a study to examine the effect of CAM and

AOM in the teaching of Physics in standard VIII and found that both CAM and

AOM were effective than that of TM at Knowledge, Understanding and

Application.

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Pandey N. (1990) studied the effectiveness of AOM and ITM for

teaching of social science to class VIII students. The major findings of the

study revealed that with regard to achievement scores the difference between

AOM and ITM was not significant compared to the CM. The achievement

score was significantly different in AOM.

Townsend and Clarihew (1989) conducted activity on the use of

Advance organizer in facilitating children’s comprehension. They investigated

the effect of verbal and pictoral advance organizer’s. The study revealed that

the verbal organizers assist text comprehension of children with strong prior

knowledge while the addition of a pictoral component aids comprehension of

children with weak prior knowledge.

Chaudhary (1988) conducted an exploratory study to find out the

impact of teachers personality on competency in AOM and ITM. Teaching is

intended behaviour for which the aim is to induce learning since ancient times

people have tried to understand and improve instruction and teaching.

Avalos (1987) tried to determine the use of advance organizers and

organizers at the middle and end of each learning task. The findings of the

algebra study was that the use of organizer alone and the combined use of

organizers in enhancement of pre requisites and mastery learning have

significant positive effects on student learning.

Buddhisagar (1987) conducted his study in development and

comparison of instructional material developed by using AOM and operant

conditioning model for teaching educational psychology to B.Ed students. The

instructional material PLM and AOM were found to be effective in terms of

achievement of students on different criterion tests and reaction of students.

The PLM as well as AOM were found superior to the traditional method.

The research findings of Grawal and Kane (1987) were that the

Bruner’s model was more effective than Ausubels’ model and traditional

method of teaching, while the latter two did not differ from each other

significantly.

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Lenz (1987) investigated the use of advance organizer in activating the

inactive learners. Advance organizer did positively affect students retention of

information but only after students were taught to attend and to use the

advance organizer.

Rajoria (1987) conducted a study on the effectiveness of AO on the

achievement of students of standard VIII in science. The experimental group

with AOM is found superior to control group with traditional method

Satapathy (1987) concluded the relative effectiveness of wholistic

(SMTI) Partists (MMTI) and partist first demonstration (MMTI) approaches in

terms of theoretical understanding of the model

Swarup, Budhisagar and Rajoria (1987) studied the effect of two

instructional method with AO and without AO in terms of pupil achievement

and found that the instructional material without AO was more effective.

The study conducted by Lewis (1986) showed that either the advance

organizer or simplified reading material is significantly better than no

treatment but the two together are significantly better that either alone.

Pandey S.N. (1986) conducted a study on the effectiveness of advance

organizer and ITM for teaching social studies to std. VIII and found that both

AOM and ITM were significantly different from CM but there was no significant

difference between AOM and ITM in terms of pupil achievement.

Sathapathy (1986) compared programmed learning material, advance

organizer material and traditional materials in terms of achievement of

students studying through them and studied the effect of personality factors

and their interaction with the treatment on achievement of student. He found

that the PLM and TM were equally effective in terms of achievement of

student on criterion test. The AOM was effective that both the PLM and TM in

terms of achievement of students on criterion test.

Carnes (1985) investigated the effects of AO and the various sizes of

groups of students on achievement retention and rate of learning. It was found

that the students working in groups of 3 or 4 achieved significantly better rates

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85

of learning than students working alone, while no significant difference of

achievement or retention were observed.

Dennis (1985) investigated the effectiveness of AO and repetition on

the achievement in a High school Biology Class. The findings o f the study

revealed that there was no significant interaction between treatment on the 2

dependent variables. However there was a significant gain in achievement by

the students in all groups from pretest to posttest

Meurer (1985) drawing from linguistic cognitive psychology and

educational psychology assessed L1 and L2 reading comprehension

performance of Brazilian university students in relation to expository texts and

hierarchical levels of information distribution within the content structure of

texts and the effects of Advance organizer in the form of brief introduction.

The findings supported the use of Advance organizer as seen within.

It is seen from the findings of the study in Biology by Morgan (1985)

that there was a statistically significant facilitating effects of advance organizer

on both student achievement and student attitude.

George (1984) conducted a study on content organizer in chemistry for

standard VIII based on Ausubel’s meaningful learning. The findings showed

that Ausubelian approach of content organizer in the teaching chemistry is

superior to CM of teaching.

Miller (1984) compared the effectiveness of visual and verbal

organizers. The results showed that the experimental group scored

significantly better on immediate recall than the control group who used prose

organizer.

Livingston (1984) investigated the effects of advance organizer and

direct instruction passage on high and low ability eight grade student in the

learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. The findings showed that

the high ability subjects in Advance organizer group achieved significantly

higher scores than low ability students in their group.

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In a study, Lott (1983) compared inductive and deductive approaches

and reported that there was essentially no difference between the two

approaches.

Makhdom (1983) evaluated the effect of AO in facilitating the learning

of English by foreign students. The findings showed no significant difference

between nationalities by treatment interaction.

Mahajan (1983) made the objective of his study to see whether the

effect of Ausubelian advance organizer on the learning of formal operational

students was any different from their effect on concrete operational students.

The sample consisted of 305 physics students. It was found that there was a

significant interaction between the cognitive level and the absence or

presence of organizers at least as far as the immediate post test was

concerned. For the two delayed post test there was no significant interaction

as far as the composite score or scores on the recall portion of the test was

concerned.

Moore (1983) conducted a study on three groups of differing pre-

requisites skills and knowledge. The result of this research did not add

support to Ausubel’s theory.

Neol (1983) in his study on the influence of advance organizer on

transfer of rules learning concluded that while students benefit from

systematically designed instruction to rules Advance Organizer incorporated

in that instruction did not necessarily enhance learning transfer.

Vasu (1983) conducted a study on the effect of Ausubelian approach

on Biology instruction and found that Ausubelian approach was far superior to

CM of learning Biology in secondary school.

Research findings of Anne (1992) suggests that AO facilitated listening

comprehension for both learning disabled and non learning disabled group in

both narrative and expository modes. The non learning disabled group scored

significantly higher than the learning disabled group when AO were used.

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Bornes (1982) conducted a study on three instructional method on

Ausubel concept of meaningful learning specially the effectiveness of AO and

no AO using on expository passages. The findings of the stuffy revealed that

the use of AO had a significant effect on delayed retention level but in the

case of above level readers the AO exerted no significant influence.

Brune (1982) examined the effect of advance organizer on listening

comprehension among learning disabled and non learning disabled

adolescents in grade seven and eight. The subjects consisted of 30 learning

disabled and 30 non disabled adolescents matched for sex and grade

placement. The findings showed that Advance organizer facilitated listening

comprehension for both learning disabled and non disabled groups in both

narrative and expository modes. The non learning disabled group scored

significantly higher than the learning disabled group when Advance Organizer

used.

Chang (1982) examined the effect of filmic advance organizer on the

learning and retention of facts and concepts from a sound film by the regular

and mainstreamed educable mentally retarded learners from sixth seventh

and eight graders. The findings showed that filmic advance organizers

presented for the study appeared to provide facilitative effects for the regular

subjects in acquisition and retention of facts and concepts presented in a

consumer education film and ability levels did not differentially affect the

learning outcomes.

Lantz and Braine (1982) through their study on 8th grade physical

science students showed that AO’s benefited students of all subsumer level’s

on cognitive learning and presence of relevant subsumers in cognitive matrix

benefited students on both immediate and delayed tests.

Stone (1982) analysed long term studies of advance organizers (AO)

with Glass's meta-analysis technique. The results of the study indicated that

advance organizers were associated with increased learning and retention of

the material to be learned. This was consistent with Ausubel's prediction.

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It is seen from the findings of the study conducted on science learning

achievement of 8th grade students by Thamthai (1982) that the advance

organizer did have a facilitating effect on female students who were field

independent while it inhibited the science learning of field dependent female

students.

Watkins (1982) assessed the effect of Advance Organizer and

Advance Organizer with listening examples of the cognition performance and

aural discrimination of musical concepts and the skills by non music majors.

The sample consisted of undergraduate non music major from two intact

fundamentals of music. The findings of Advance Organizer and Advance

Organizer models did not indicate scores higher than baseline averages.

AOM when compared with Advance Organizers indicated increased written

test scores as well as phase mean scores for each of the two treatment

interventions.

Aman (1981) investigated the effects of the use of an AO on transfer in

programmed instruction materials situation. The result of the study indicated

that the use of AO was more effective in reducing magnitude of errors on

post test score.

Giles (1981) compared the effect of AO and clustering as mediators of

learning in lesson presented at planetariums. The clustering treatment and

AO treatment produced significantly higher performance than the control

treatment.

Haghighi (1981) tried to find out the effects of underlining cues AO and

post AO on meaningful prose learning. It was reported that both AO and

underlined cues facilitated meaningful prose learning.

Korzenowski (1981) tried to find out the effect of interspersed questions

AO and post organizer on good and poor comprehend. It was found that the

post organizer provide more helpful in the immediate recall of ideas.

Research findings of the study conducted by Moriera and Santos

(1981) suggests that the approach based on Ausubel’s theory influenced the

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students cognitive structure in such a way that, their conceptual hierarchies

are more coherent with the basic laws and conceptual structure of the subject

matter.

Barharas (1980) conducted a study to examine the effect of involving

the use of AO with earth science students and found that there was no

significant difference in the achievement of student after the experiment. The

investigator recommended that the pattern of the AO should be established

before the experiment started.

Darrow (1980) investigated the relative effectiveness of two pre

instructional treatment on the learning and retention of material processing

concepts by eighth and ninth grade industrial arts students on treatment

involved. The sample consisted of 178 students. The findings showed that no

significant difference was found between treatment group for either the initial

learning or the retention measure. The advance organizer and conventional

overview treatments were equally effective for both measures.

Dene (1980) tested the effect using a graphic Advance Organizer

before, during and after reading as the comprehension of written test. Sample

consisted of 197 sixth grade students. The findings indicated that although the

graphic Advance Organizer did not facilitated comprehension of single theme

text, it did facilitate comprehension of multi thematic text. The graphic

Advance organizer strengthened retention of context and below level, at level

and above level readers benefited similarly from the use of the graphic

Advance Organizer.

Morganett (1980) also found a significant effect of AO in testing the

level of knowledge on learning and retention on Social Science content.

Kneen (1979) compared the effects of two types of AO guide material

and structured overview on a comprehension of a reading task. The findings

showed ht the structured overview resulted in a significantly greater

comprehension if the reading task than did guide material evidenced by

comprehension test performance.

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Meena (1979) studied the effect of written and graphic comparative AO

upon learning and retention form Audio Visual presentation . This study

supported the conclusion that providing the learners with AO prior to viewing

an Audio visual presentation will enhance their ability to learn and retain

instructional content material.

Schwartz (1979) tried to grasp the effect of specially prepared AO on

level of relevant knowledge subsumed present in learners cognitive structure

and interaction of AO and subsuming level on the learning of unfamiliar

science related material at the College level. The findings provide support for

Ausubel theory regarding the ideational scaffold provided by the AO and the

facilitating effect of learning new material when the relevant prior knowledge

were available.

Geiger (1978) investigated the relation between certain personality

traits and verbal forms of Advance Organizer and determined whether

learning and retention are facilitated by the Advance organizer and if the

Advance Organizer are differentially effective among learning who

demonstrate varying degree of the selected personality traits. The sample

consisted of 81 eight grade students. It was found that Advance Organize

format did not have significant effect on learning and there was a trend for the

visual Advance Organizer group to achieve higher scores on learning and

retention.

Kahle (1978) conducted a study to find the effect of an advance

organizer and behavioural objectives on the achievement of disadvantaged

biology students. The study revealed that there was significant difference in

achievement for the experimental group and control group on the two units.

Although an immediate post test on three units showed no significant

difference between the experimental and control groups, there was a

significant difference favouring the experimental group on a retention test

administered three weeks later.

Moriera (1978) conducted a study on experimental college physics

course based on Ausubel’s learning theory using the principle of progressive

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differentiation. It is seen form the study that Ausubelian approach fostered

concepts differentiation, relatedness and meaningful hierarchical organization

to a greater extent that did traditional approach.

Oppong, (1978), investigated on the facilitative effects on

achievements of organizers learnt to mastery using geography material at the

ninth grade level. the result indicated that the use of advance organizer before

each text chapter, showed significant superiority in achievement when

compared with the non-organizer group using text materials only.

Thompson (1978) tried to determine the extent to which three types of

expository organizer would facilitate the verbal learning and retention

performance of selected 5th grade elementary school subjects. The findings of

the study supported the basic assumption Ausubel’s Subsumption theory that

expository AO did have a facilitating effect on acquisition and retention of

learning material.

Goodman (1977) investigated ninth and tenth geometry students to

study about the effects of treatment on the learning of a unit on descriptive

statistics. The result of this study showed no significant effect due to treatment

and no significant interaction. There was a significant effect due to ability.

Lawton (1977) reported a very carefully and complex investigation as

to whether the use of AO would effect the learning of Social Science Material

and also facilitates logical thinking in 6 and 10 year old children. The findings

of the study revealed that the effects are much stronger for the older children

especially with regard to transfer of thinking ability. If the material is presented

with an organizing structure it will increase the probability of learning and

retention of material and also the potential of influencing the logical

operations.

Rickard and Cornick (1977) conducted a study on whole versus part

presentation of AO in college students. The whole and part method of

presenting AO yielded equivalent recall passage information and the

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experimental groups produced significantly more recall than the group of the

organizers themselves.

Salman (1977) evaluated the utility of the Advance Organizer pre

instructional strategy using an oral mode of presentation. The sample

consisted of 96 college students. Analysis of Variance was used. It was

conducted that oral Advance Organizer or learning passages in conjunction

with either written or oral learning passages provide no differential in learning

or retention with verbally sophisticated subjects.

After analyzing the effect of AO on the meaningful learning of carefully

sequenced material. Kahle and Rastorae (1976) suggested that meaningful

learning is increased by the combined effect of organizers and sequentially

presented learning material.

Travers (1976) evaluated the effects of using AO in a laboratory inquiry

oriented physical Science course for non science majors. The findings

indicated that the use of AO did not increase the performance of the students

West and Fensham (1976) attempted to test some prediction from

Ausubel’s theory concerning the subsuming role of Advance organizer. The

study can be said to provide strong support for Ausubel proposition that the

learner’s prior knowledge structure plays a subsuming role in the new

learning.

Edward (1975) conducted a study to determine the effectiveness of

AOM which is applicable to subject of all scholastic level or for a particular

level of pupil who demonstrated a specific scholastic ability. The subjects of

the study indicated that it is benefited for all levels of scholastic ability, but it is

more beneficial for short term achievement than long term achievement.

Jones (1975) conducted a study to determine if Advance Organizer’s

generally describe as more abstract general and inclusive than the materials

they produce and also level specific which means selectively beneficial only to

subjects at a particular level of demonstrated scholastic ability. The study

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93

revealed that these are benefited for short term achievement rather than the

long term retention.

Lucas and Flower (1975) undertook a study to determine the effect of

three types of AO upon the teaching of Biological Concepts. The interactive

effects of certain student variable were also subjected to study. The result of

the study did not indicate any significant effect between the three types of AO

and scores on the achievement test. The interaction effects of the student

variable also were found significant.

Murchison (1975) explored the usefulness of advance organizer for the

teaching of science to ninth grade students and found that IQ and motivation

were each significant and treatment difference were significant.

The result of the study conducted by Slock (1975) to determine if an

advance organizer would cause short term and long term increase in students

performance of an achievement test showed that if students are appraised of

the learning experience ahead of them, they are likely to perform better than

students who are not appraised.

In a study conducted by Saretsky (1975) on eight graders resulted in

the findings that there was no significant difference for the use or non-use of

AO.

Barrow (1973) determined whether the use of an advance organizer or

historical introduction significantly influenced learning and retention in a

discovery learning unit in science at the seventh grade level. The findings of

the study did not demonstrate Joyce and Weil’s assumption that advance

organizer would effect active learning situation positively.

A study conducted by Felker (1973) on 88 introductory psychology

students found that adjunct post questions resulted in significantly superior

problem solving behaviour compared to no adjunct question and there were

no significant performance difference having and not having AO and there

were no significant interaction effects.

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A study conducted by Lucas (1972) showed that the use of three types

of advance organizers did not significantly affect the learning of a biological

concept in seventh grade science and that no interactive effects of IQ,

abstract reasoning, sex were found.

Ethirveera Singham (1971) compared the effect of organizer on that of

overview and summary in learning and retaining complex verbal material and

provided evidence and generalized the results to vocational students. He

found that that there was no significant difference in learning between

treatments. There were also no significant interaction between retention.

Hershman (1971) investigated the utility of advance organizer and

behavioural objectives for improving achievement in Physics at the college

level. The findings showed that there were no significant difference that could

be attributed to treatment effect with assurance, the behavioural objectives

were more able to help the lower ability students in most of the aspiration of

the students were the decisive variables that marked the treatment effects.

Munford (1971) tested the effectiveness of Advance Organizer in

facilitating learning and retention. The sample consisted of 51 college

students It was found that there is no significant difference among the groups

in the amount of initial learning or retention.

Sternbrink (1970) used interacting social science class of rural students

of 5th and 6th grade students. It was stated that the experimental group was

given a conceptual AO and a daily AO, The control group received only the

conceptual AO. Sternbrink came to the inference that the experimental group

shoed significant difference in the performance in favour of the AO

Broney (1969) examined the effect of varying types of introductory

information (advance organizer or historical introduction) on the acquisition

and retention of knowledge about differential geological phenomena found in

the field environment. The findings showed that subject receiving advance

organizing information did not show significantly greater acquisition on

historical introduction prior to a field experience.

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Weisberg (1969) examined the value of several modes of informal

organizers used to teach topography to eight grade students and determine

whether the Advance organizer in the form of visual aids might serve the

same function as Ausubel’s verbal advance organizer. The sample consisted

of 96 eighth grade students. The finding showed that there was a significant

difference between map as graphic organizer and verbal organizer.

Alexander and Williams (1979) studied five variation of social studies

lesson taught to grade 5-7 students. Organizer group retained more content

than the control group but no organizer group differed significantly from any of

the others. The study has shown that organizers designed to help students

structure their learning can facilitate achievement even at elementary level,

take visual or oral interactive form in addition to written form can be effective

when placed after the body of the lesson or post organizers.

Allen (1970) studied the effect of advance organizer on learning and

retention of IX grade students of 2 Junior high schools. The findings of the

study support the hypothesis that meaningful learning proceeds more easily

when new concepts are subsumed under broader and inclusive concepts.

Furthermore the nature of persons’ understanding of the concept changes as

it is associated with a wider array of concepts and specific prepositions.

Ausubel and Yousef (1963) in their study concluded that previously

learned relevant background knowledge significantly facilitated the learning of

concepts and retention of the first of two parallel related unfamiliar learning

passages when the influence of verbal ability was controlled.

Ausubel and Fitzgerald (1962) studied the effect of an advance

organizer antecedent learning and retention of two unfamiliar sequential

passages about endocrinology. The use of advance organizer enhanced the

learning of the material for those students with poor verbal ability knowledge

of the first passage exerted significant influence upon the new information

In the 1960’s several theories of learning and development emerged

that promised to provide a more direct link between learning theories and

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teaching of mathematics. The theories of Ausubel (1968), Bruner (1960, 66),

Gagne(1965), focused explicitly on the structure of content to be learned. The

theories of Ausubel, Bruner and Gagne could be applied more directly to

curriculum. Although Ausubel’s and Bruner’s position were probably more

congruent with the current theoretical orientation than Gagne’s initial neo-

behaviourism it was Gagne who provided the clearest specification of how the

mathematics curriculum would be analyzed and researched.

Studies of Advance organizer typically consists of comparing groups

one or which receives information which it is believed will aid clearness to

assimilate a subsequent communication which is given to both groups.

Although most early studies showed that the advance organizer had a

beneficial effect, mixed results begin to appear in the past decades

A further instance of positive effect of organizers came from Kahle and

Rastovac (1976) while no significant effect is reported by Clawson and Barnes

(1973), Graber Means and Johnsten (1972) Kahle and Nordland (1975) and

Koran and Koran (1973). After review Hartley and Davies (1976) and Gabel

Kogan and Sherwood (1980) concluded that Advance organizers are

generally advantageous through results are not clear cut. In contrast Barnes

and Clawson (1975) whose methods are criticized by Lawton and Wanska

(1977) concluded that Advance organizers generally are ineffective.

Resolution of the conflict in results may tie in the suggestion by West and

Fensham (1974) that Advance organizer can assist learning only if they

supply subsuming concepts which the students lack. West and Fensham

(1976) argue that most advance organizer studies do not provide evidence

about the validity of Ausubel theory since they do not eliminate alternative

explanation of positive or negative results. West and Fensham (1976)

attempted a more critical test by making two predictions that only those

learners who lack relevant prior knowledge will benefit from an advance

organizer and that the benefit can equally well be provided by remedial

teaching of the relevant prior knowledge Their results confirmed both

prediction providing strong support for at least part of Ausubel’s theory.

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From the reviewed research studies of AOM on various subjects, it is

evident that studies are inadequate to say anything definite about which

method is going to be most effective for presentation of a particular type of

content. A look at the research studies in the methodology of teaching and

teacher preparation also reveals the need for concerted efforts to try out

models of teaching in various areas and at all levels of schooling.

The teacher has to be convinced of their efficiency, in terms of time

and energy and of their efficiency in normal classroom teaching situations.

This should give researches on models a different orientation- not comparing

and establishing that they are better but that they are practical and useable.

This too substantiate that there is a need for research on the reasons for this

and then on how to use them in every day teaching.

3.3 STUDIES ON INTELLIGENCE Vs ACHIEVEMENT

To establish the fact that intelligence is related to achievement, the

investigator briefly presents below, a few reviewed studies in this regard.

Deary, Strand, Smith and Fernandez (2007) in the study on 5-year

prospective longitudinal study of 70,000+ English children examined the

association between psychometric intelligence at age 11 years and

educational achievement in national examinations in 25 academic subjects at

age 16. The correlation between a latent intelligence trait (Spearman's "g"

from CAT2E) and a latent trait of educational achievement (GCSE scores)

was 0.81. General intelligence contributed to success on all 25 subjects.

Essix, Sapp, and Kohler (2006) conducted a study designed to

examine the validity of the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence: Third Edition. TONI-

3 IQs, WISC-III FSIQs and KTEA N/U- Intercorrelations computed among

TONI-3 IQs, WISC-III IQs, and K-TEA Reading and Math Composite scores

indicated moderate relationships

Kovas, Harlaar and Petrill (2005) Mathematics performance at 7 years

as assessed by teachers using UK national curriculum criteria has been found

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to be highly heritable and found substantial genetic overlap between

mathematics and g (0.67)

Oh Hyeon-Joo, Glutting, Watkins, Youngstrom, and McDermott (2004)

in the study, the authors used structural equation modelling to investigate

relationships between ability constructs from the "Wechsler Intelligence Scale

for Children-Third Edition" (WISC-III; Wechsler, 1991) in explaining reading

and mathematics achievement constructs on the "Wechsler Individual

Achievement Test" (WIAT; Wechsler, 1992). Participants comprised the

nationally stratified Linking sample (N = 1,116) of the WISC-III and WIAT.

Results for mathematics indicated that they are obliged to consider "g".

Brandsma and Doolaard, (1999) in a study evaluating Dutch

elementary students by IQ, socioeconomic status, math and language test

scores, and expected and actual school recommendations found that pupil

scores in high-effective schools are almost 12 points higher than those in low-

effective schools. Higher SES and IQ meant higher teacher

recommendations.

Veena (1998), in her study tries to explore the relationship of

mathematics learning with different temperamental variables and found that

IQ and reasoning are significantly related to the dimensions of ascendant,

responsible, critical and plentiful.

Lalitha Bai (1992) compared the cognitive factor structures of high,

average and low achievers in mathematics at the secondary school level and

found for the high mathematics achievers the 31 cognitive variable are

reduced to three cognitive factors, Abstract reasoning, Numerical Spatial

Facility and Non- Language Reasoning.

Kasant, (1991), attempts to identify the cause of the large failure in

mathematics at SSC examination of Marati medium high school students in

Palghar tahsil found that low intelligence is one of the factor for the cause of

large failures among boys and girls along with poor numerical ability, poor

comprehensions and poor study habits.

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Sarala (1990) surveyed the conceptual errors of secondary school

pupils in learning select areas in modern mathematics and found that the

number of conceptual errors is very high and it is influenced by intelligence

along with some other variable namely sex, study habit etc. The relationship

between errors in mathematics and intelligence was seen to be negative and

significant.

Shankara Narayanan (1990), addresses the problem of achievement in

mathematics under guided discovery learning and reception learning

conditions in relation to intelligence and anxiety for that. The student of high

intelligence performed better that the average intelligence students,

irrespective of the method of instruction employed on the criterion measures.

Deshmukh Veena (1988) in a study tries to explore the relationship of

mathematics learning with different temperamental variables and found IQ

and reasoning were significantly related to it.

Setia S. (1992) in a study addresses to the theoretical understanding of

the achievement of learner at the senior secondary level in Modern

Mathematics in relation to the socio -psychological educational factor and

found that there was a significant difference in the achievement of rapid

learners on different levels of intelligence.

Kasant B.S. (1991) in an in-depth study of the causes of the large

failures in Mathematics at SSC examination of Marati Medium High School

Students points out intelligence is a major factor for the cause of failure along

with other variables like poor numerical ability, poor comprehension and recall

ability, no interest in Mathematics and poor study habits.

Shankara Narayanan B.L (1990) in a study addresses the problem of

achievement in Mathematics under guided discovery learning and reception

learning condition in relation to intelligence and anxiety and found that

students of high intelligence performed better than the average intelligent

students irrespective of the method of instruction employed on the criterion

measures

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Researchers continue to search for the interventions that will increase

IQ and, ultimately, academic achievement. Intelligence and creativity are the

two main cognitive variables studied by a large number of researchers.

Corroborative evidence to prove that intelligence is a correlate of achievement

was obtained by Garg L., 1992; Kaur P.,1992; Sen Barat K., 1992; Chanda

N.K. and Chanda S., 1990; Devi U.A., 1990; Shah J.H. 1990; Thilagavathi T.,

1990; Kumar R. 1989; Bhusari C.V., 1988 and Kaile H.S., 1988. They found

that the conjoint effect of intelligence and creativity is different on achievement

in different subjects.

Studies in the past decade have confirmed that intelligence and

socioeconomic background are major contributors to mathematics

achievement (Singh, 1986; Nilima Kumari, 1984; Rajput, 1984; Gakhar, 1981;

Jabbal, 1981; Kabu, 1980; Nalinidevi, 1976). Nilima Kumari (1984) studied

the conservation of number and substance in relation to intelligence and SES,

revealing significant positive relationships. Gakhar (1981) identified variables

of educational environment as responsible for acquisition of mathematical

concepts. Apart from SES and intelligence, variables like teachers'

qualifications, class size, encouragement to teacher by the head, use of

audio-visual aids, and feedback. were found significantly related to acquisition

of Mathematical concepts.

These studies clearly establishes the fact that intelligence is positively

correlated with achievement. Hence the investigator decided to take

intelligence as the matching variable in her study.