14

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A lot of analytical work has been carried out on natural water bodies, both fresh

water and marine water, throughout the globe and as such a voluminous literature is

available on the subject. In view of the objective of the present research, a critical

survey of literature was carried out to gather information on various relevant aspects

such as physicochemical features, heavy metals concentrations and their

bioaccumulation.

At International Level

Physico-chemical Features

Seasonal variations in water temperature of various aquatic bodies have been

recorded by Welch (1952), Hannan and Young (1974) and Harshey et al. (1982). Jolly

and Chapman (1966) made a preliminary study on effects of pollution on Farmers

Creeks and Cox’s river with respect to temperature.

pH variations in water are widely studied worldwide. Impact of addition of

sewage and industrial effluents on pH levels has been observed by Oswald (1960)

while Hannan and Young (1974) and Chapman and Kimstach (1992) recorded effects

of industrial discharges on the pH level of water. Wanganeo (1984), Khalique and

Afser (1995), Islam and Islam (1996) and Sithik et al. (2009) recorded changes in pH

values with addition of sewage and agricultural effluents.

Dissolved oxygen which is a parameter of primary importance in the aquatic

ecosystem by virtue of its role in both chemical as well as biological reactions, has

been recorded in various water bodies throughout the world by Hutichinson (1957),

Reid (1961), Ray et al. (1966) and Kara et al. (2004). The changes in dissolved

oxygen levels in water with addition of domestic sewage, various industrial wastes

and agricultural run off have been investigated in different water bodies by Gonzalves

15

and Joshi (1946), George et al. (1966), Jolly and Chapman (1966), De Smet and

Evens (1972), Cairns et al. (1975), King (1981), Woodword (1984), Meybeck et al.

(1992), Jameson and Rana (1996) and Jameel (1998) and Otieno (2008).

Mairs (1966) suggested total hardness to be a complex mixture of cations and

anions while Cole (1975) recorded calcium and magnesium to account for most of the

hardness. Thomson (1952), Chapman and Kimstach (1992) and Meybeck et. al.

(1992), investigated the impact of sewage and industrial effluents on the hardness

values of water.

Physicochemical features of water influence the uptake of heavy metals by fish.

Experimental studies were conducted by Merlini and Pozzi (1977) to investigate the

accumulation of lead by an edible freshwater fish at different pH conditions. An

experimental study on heavy metal toxicity to fish and the influence of water hardness

was undertaken by Pascoe et al. (1986). Cadmium was found to be acutely toxic to

rainbow trout in both soft and hard water. The effects were however, delayed in hard

water. A laboratory study to evaluate the effects of temperature on the acute toxicity

of some heavy metals to the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii (Girard) was

conducted by Del-Ramo et al. (1987).

Metals in Water

Trace metals are considered to be major toxicant in contaminated water

worldwide (Chi-Man and Jiu, 2006; Katsoyiannis and Katsoyiannis, 2006; Asonye et

al., 2007 and Yasuhiro et al., 2007). Several studies have been attempted assessing

heavy metal pollution according to the distribution of particle size and to relationship

of its organic content (Hiraizumi et al., 1978; Kristensen, 1982 and Simokawa et al.,

1984).

16

Heavy metal levels in many natural water bodies across the world have been

investigated. Cooper et al. (1978) analyzed water quality of the river Tean Staff and

found increase in cadmium levels with addition of sewage. Polprasert (1982) analyzed

heavy metal levels in water of the Chao Phraya river estuary, Thailand and discussed

their long term impact on the aquatic environment. Mart and Nurnberg (1984)

determined trace metal levels in the eastern Arctic ocean while Abaychi and Douabul

(1985) determined trace metals in Shatt Al-Arab river, Iraq and indicated metal levels

to be within the recommended limits. Maroof et al. (1986) analyzed cadmium and

zinc concentrations in drinking water supplies of Dhaka city, Bangladesh and

highlighted the impact of addition of bleaching powder and pumping on zinc

concentration. Jing and Wei-Wen (1988) analyzed concentrations of trace metals in

the Qiantang-Jiang river and its estuary Southern China and Found higher levels of

metals with addition of industrial wastes. Pelig-Ba et al. (1991) analyzed trace metals

concentrations in Borehole waters from the upper regions and the Accra plains of

Ghana. Vazquez et al. (1998) analyzed dissolved metals in Alvarado lagoon, Maxico

and examined the seasonal variations in the levels of cadmium, copper and lead.

Ozmen et al. (2004) conducted a preliminary study on heavy metal (Zn, Mn, Ni, Cu,

Cr, Co and Pb) concentrations in surface water of Hazar lake and discussed the heavy

metal pollution status of the lake. Emoyan et al. (2005) evaluated heavy metals

loading of river Ijana, Nigeria and results indicated higher metal contents in winter

season. Thari et al. (2005), in a multivariate analysis of heavy metal concentration in

soil, sediment and water in the region of Meknes (Central Morocco), compared the

metal contents in water and sediment to suggest correlations between them. Abulude

et al. (2006) analyzed Fe, Cr, Cd, As, Ni, Co and Zn in drinking water samples in

Akure, Nigeria. Adefemi et al. (2008) determined heavy metal (Zn, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu,

17

Co, Cr, Cd and Ni) contents in water from Ureje dam in south-western Nigeria to

determine the water quality.

Impact of heavy metal inputs from various industries has been investigated in

several studies. Huynh-Ngoc et al. (1988) determined cadmium levels in the Rhone

river polluted by industrial wastes. Peerzada et al. (1990) studied distribution of heavy

metals in Gove harbour, northern territoty, Australia to find the impact of a bauxite

treatment plant on the heavy metal status of water. Vazquez et al. (1993) investigated

heavy metals to study effects of industrial lead inputs into the San Andres lagoon,

Tamaulipas, Maxico. They carried out a comparative study of several metals (Cd, Co,

Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, and Zn). Sah et al. (2000) conducted a study on assessment of heavy

metal pollution of water in the Narayani river, Nepal contaminated by paper industry

effluents. Sanayei et al. (2009) analyzed heavy metal levels in Zayandeh Rood river,

Isfahan-Iran at seven sites to observe the influence of the industrial activities and

dump of municipal waste on heavy metal concentrations in this region.

Metals in Sediment

Many studies indicated that levels of metals were higher in sediment than in

water. Krauskopf (1955) suggested the heavy metal concentration increases in the

sediment due to the adsorption of cations by organic matter present in the sediment

layers. Similarly Curits (1966) and Singer (1977) suggested that metals interact with

organic matter in aqueous phase and settle down resulting in high concentrations in

sediments. The role of sediments in adsorption of cations has been demonstrated in a

study on rivers by Moriarty and Hanson (1988).

Many studies conducted on metal accumulation in sediment showed increase in

metal levels in sediment with addition of sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural

18

wastes (Vivian and Massie, 1977; Nolte, 1988; Fernandez et al., 1994; Barlas, 1999;

Thari et al., 2005; Pradit et al., 2009; Uluturhan, 2009 and Wang et al., 2009).

Ellis and Revitt (1982) examined surface sediments of roads within N. W. London

for heavy metal concentrations in various types of roads. Nasralla (1984) analysed

concentrations of lead in urban street and playgrounds, and discussed the effects of

lead contaminated dust on children. Mudre and Ney (1986) made a comparative study

on accumulation pattern of heavy metals in the sediments of various roadsides.

Maxfield et al. (1974), in a study of Coeur D’ Alene river delta, found bottom of

the lake to be covered with metal polluted sediments. Similarly Pilotte et al. (1978)

analyzed estuarine sediments in Florida for heavy metal deposits. Wingor and

Andreasen (1985) analyzed heavy metal residues in the sediments of lakes in the

Atchafalaya river basin (Louisiana). Moriarty and Hanson (1988) analyzed heavy

metal accumulation in sediments of river Ecclesbourne, Derbyshire while Marcus et

al. (1988) analyzed heavy metal concentrations in sediments of coastal South Carolina

Marinas and discussed seasonal variations in metal accumulation.

Verta (1989) discussed the history of heavy metal pollution in Finland as

recorded by lake sediments. Lietz and Galling (1989) examined sediments of the Oker

river in the Federal Republic of Germany for contamination with Cd, Zn and Pb while

Pardo et al. (1990) recorded contents of Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni and Co in sediments of

Pisuerga river and discussed inter-relationships. Gibbs (1994) compared the

distribution of metals in bottom and suspended sediments of the Hudson river estuary.

An exploratory study of the trace metals Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in sediments of lake

Valencia (Venezuela) was undertaken by Garcia-Miragaya and Sosa (1994). Muller et

al. (1994) determined heavy metal contents in river sediments of Carinthia (Austria).

Klavins et al. (1995) observed Pb, Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn and Mn in sediments collected from

19

49 lakes throughout Latvia. A case study to analyze heavy metal soil contamination

after the flooding of the river Meuse during the winter of 1993-1994 was conducted

by Albering et al. (1999). Balkis and Cagatay (2001) observed the distributions of Fe,

Mn, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cr, Zn and Hg in the surface sediment of the Erdek bay, sea of

Marmara in Turkey while Murray et al. (2004) analyzed metals in an urban watershed

in Southeastern Michigan.

The accumulation pattern of chromium in water, suspended particles, sediments

and biota of the Iraja river estuary in Guanabara bay has been studied by Pfeiffer et al.

(1982). Bonnevie et al. (1992) determined concentrations of lead in sediments

collected from 18 locations of the Newark bay, New Jersey estuary and discussed

their effects on aquatic biota. Heiny and Tate (1997) analyzed the concentrations and

distribution pattern of twelve elements in bed sediment and fish of the South Platte

river basin, USA. Giusti (2001) recorded heavy metal contamination of brown

seaweed and sediments collected from the UK coastline between the Wear river and

the Tees river and discussed their adverse biological effects. Topcuoglu et al. (2004)

determined heavy metal levels in biota and sediment in the Northern coast of the

Marmara sea.

Ramessur and Ramjeawon (2002) analyzed sediments from an urbanized river in

Mauritius for lead, chromium and zinc to study the effects of industrial wastes. Ali

and Abdal-Satar (2005) analyzed some heavy metals in two fish species Mugil sp. and

Tilapia sp. in some fish farms in El-Fayoum province .Yang and Rose (2005)

examined trace element pollution in sediments from six states of UK lake and

discussed history, regional differences and influence of pollution sources. Balkis et al.

(2009) determined heavy metal concentration in water, sediment from Gokova bay,

Turkey. Latif et al. (2009) determined concentrations of trace elements (As, Cr and

20

Fe) in foodstuff, soil and sediment from various areas in Bangladesh and found an

excessive amount of chromium in the sediment from the tannery area of Bangladesh.

Metals in Fish

Mathis and Cummings (1973) analyzed metal accumulation in ten freshwater

fish from the Illinois river and found higher metal accumulation in omnivorous fish

than carnivorous fish. Cross et al. (1973) and Eustace (974) studied metal

accumulation in different fish species and reported that accumulation of metals based

on fish feeding habits. Giesy et al. (1977) determined trace metal concentrations in

five freshwater fishes and carried out one-way analysis of variance of species effects

on the whole body concentration for five metals. Babji at el. (1979) determined

concentrations of zinc, lead, cadmium and mercury in fishes caught from the coastal

waters of West Malaysia and provided baseline data and information on the contents

of cadmium, lead, zinc, and mercury in small coastal water fishes in West Peninsular

Malaysia. Cowx (1982) carried out a study on accumulation metals in five tissues of

brown trout Salmo trutta L. and Salvelinus alpinus L. collected from two oligotrophic

lakes in North Wales and discussed distribution pattern of metals in various tissues of

the fishes. Pfeiffer et al. (1982), in a study to determine levels of chromium in water,

suspended particles, sediment and biota in the Iraja river estuary in Guanabara bay,

discussed the ability of the fish Poecilia reticulate to accumulate chromium from the

environment and then to return it in the form of detritus as a source of particulate

matter. Polprasert (1982) recorded the range of heavy metals in the fish from Chao

Phraya river estuary, Thailand. Voutsinou-Taliadouri (1982) determined heavy metals

in marine organisms and recorded seasonal variations. A survey of trace elements

residues in fish from the Savannah river near Savannah river nuclear plant was

undertaken by Koli and Whitmore (1983). Fifteen trace elements were determined in

21

the muscle tissue of the fifteen fish samples and their distribution pattern in various

fish species was examined. Levels of As, Se, Mg, Hg, Ca, Zn and Fe were relatively

higher than those of Pb, Cd, Ni, Co, Cr and Mn in all fish species.

Uysal and Tuncer (1983) examined heavy metal levels in commercial fish

species in the Bay of Izmir (Turkey) and discussed heavy metal accumulation in

relation to age, habitat and feeding behavior of the fish. Norris and Lake (1984)

carried out a preliminary examination of trace metals in five fish species from the

South Esk river, Northeastern Tasmania, Australia, recorded variations in metal

concentration in relation to fish size and discussed comparative uptake of cadmium,

zinc and copper in different tissues. Winger and Andreasen (1985) analyzed metal

residues in fish and sediments from lakes in the Atchafalaya river basin (Louisiana)

and found fish from these lakes to be relatively uncontaminated by metals. Diaz-

Mayans et al. (1986) investigated cadmium accumulation in various tissues of the red

crayfish, Procambarus clarkii (Girard) from lake Albufera.

In Bangladesh, fish is one of the main sources of protein and provides a

significant contribution to the diet of the general population. Five marine fish species

collected from the Bay of Bengal were analyzed by Khan et al. (1987) to assess the

level of trace and minor elements. Sharif et al. (1991) analyzed trace metals in

tropical marine fish from the Bay of Bengal. Six species of marine fish caught from

the Bay of Bengal were analyzed in order to assess the level of trace and minor

elements in this essential food item consumed by the population of the coastal region

of Bangladesh in particular. The levels of all metals in all six species were found to be

well below the accepted limits for human consumption.

Ashraf and Jaffar (1988) analyzed trace metal concentrations in six species of

fish. Saiki (1988) assessed trace element residues in bluegills and common carp from

22

the lower San Joaquin river, California and its tributaries and applied two-way

ANOVA to observe location and species effects for various trace elements. Barak and

Mason (1990) analyzed the concentration of mercury, cadmium and lead in five

freshwater fish species from Eastern England and discussed the variations in heavy

metal concentrations in various species collected from different sites. Kilgour (1991)

studied cadmium uptake from cadmium-spiked sediments by four freshwater

invertebrates and indicated that animals which have close relationship with sediment,

show relatively high body concentration of cadmium. Al-Mohanna (1994) determined

heavy metals in various fish tissues collected from Red Sea coast, Jizan, Saudi Arabia.

Campbell (1994) analyzed heavy metal concentrations in fish living in water

treatment pond. Ismail and Abu-Hilal (2008) analyzed heavy metals in three coral reef

fish species from the Jordan Gulf of Aqaba, Red sea.

Mears and Eisler (1977) analyzed trace metals in blue fish Tautog and Tilefish.

Thomas et al. (1985) analyzed accumulation of cadmium by Salmo gairdneri. Eisler

(1981), Roch and McCarter (1984), Heath (1987) and Schreier et al. (1987) analyzed

heavy metals in various tissues of fish. Studies on similar lines have been carried out

by (Legorburu et al., 1988; Carpene and Vasak, 1989; Thompson, 1990; Kargin and

Erdem, 1991; Hogstrand and Haux, 1991 and Ikem et al., 2003).

Many other studies indicated that liver accumulate the highest level of metal

concentrations as compared to other fish organs (Amundsen et al., 1997; Chen and

Chen, 1999; Krishnamurti and Nair, 1999; Romeo et al., 1999; Alam, et al., 2002;

Nsikak et al., 2007 and Al-Kahtani, 2009). Dallinger and Kautzky (1985) studied

heavy metal levels in fish Salmo gairdneri and indicated that muscle is not considered

as a metal accumulating tissue and as also reported by Legorburu et al. (1988). Allen

23

(1995) and Nicula et al. (2009) reported minimum metal levels in fish brain while

Gomma et al. (1995) found maximum metal accumulation in fish brain.

In Turkey, several studies have been carried out on accumulation of metals

in fishes. Unlu and Gumgum (1993) determined concentrations of metals in various

tissues of fish Capoeta capoeta umbla and sediments collected from Tigris river in

Turkey. Gumgum et al. (1994) analyzed some heavy metals in water, sediments and

some fish species from the Tigris river in Turkey and found concentrations of metals

to be directly related with the extent of contamination of the river. Unlu et al. (1996)

analyzed heavy metal levels in muscle, liver, gonads, gill and intestine of mullet Liza

abu collected from the Tigris river in Turkey to study the impact of contamination of

the river by a copper plant on heavy metal concentrations. The site contaminated by

hospital effluents showed particularly high metal concentration. Kargin (1998)

examined seasonal variations in the levels of various metals in tissues and

comparative accumulation in liver, gill and muscle tissues of edible freshwater fish

Capoeta barroisi collected from Seyhan river, Turkey. Barlas (1999) analyzed heavy

metal concentrations in fishes from the upper Sakarya river basin, Turkey and found

the river basin to be contaminated with metals. Kalay et al. (1999) reported heavy

metal concentrations in tissues of three fish species having different ecological needs,

Mullus barbatus, Caranx crysos and Mugil cephalus caught from three stations of the

Northeast Mediterranean sea in turkey. Karadede and Unlu (2000) determined the

concentrations of some heavy metals in water, sediment and fish collected from the

Ataturk dam lake, Turkey. Canli and Atli (2003) studied heavy metal levels in six

Mediterranean fish species and indicated relation between metal accumulation and

fish habitat. Karadede et al. (2004) determined heavy metals in mullet, Liza abu and

catfish, Silurus triostegus collected from the Ataturk Dam Lake located on Euphrates

24

(Turkey) and metals were analyzed in liver, gill and muscle tissues of fish. Topcuoglu

et al. (2004) reported heavy metals levels in biota and sediments in the northern coast

of the Marmara sea. This study suggested that heavy metal concentrations in fish

samples were not higher in the northern coast of Marmara sea. Altindag and Yigit

(2005) analyzed heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Hg and Cr) in water, sediment, plankton and

fish collected from lake Beysehir in Turkey. Yilmaz (2005) studied metal levels in

two fish species and found that maximum metal accumulation in liver. Demirak et al.

(2006) recorded concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn) in water,

bottom sediment and tissues of Leuciscus cephalus caught from the Dipsiz stream in

the Yatagan basin of southwestern Turkey. Yilmaz (2006) examined the

bioaccumulation of heavy metals in water, sediment, aquatic plants and tissues of

Cyprinus carpio collected from Kizilirmak in Turkey and suggested some guidelines

for safe consumption of fish. Yilmaz et al. (2007) recorded heavy metal levels in two

fish species Leuciscus cephalus and Lepomis gibbosus. The concentrations of metals

were determined in muscle, gill and liver of these fishes caught from Saricay, South-

West Anatolia. Turkmen and Ciminli (2007) determined metals in fish and mussel

species. Tepe et al. (2008) studied heavy metals in two commercial fish species of

four Turkish seas. Turkmen et al. (2008 and 2009) evaluated metals in tissues of fish

species from Black, Marmara and Aegean Seas and Yelkoma lagoon, Northeastern

Mediterranean Turkey. Oymak et al. (2009) determined concentration of Co, Cr, Cu,

Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn in kidney, liver, gill and muscle of Tor grypus captured from

Ataturk Dam Lake, Euphrates river, Turkey. Ozturk et al. (2009) analyzed heavy

metal contents in tissues of Cyprinus carpio from Avsar dam lake in Turkey and

found metals in fish to have reached to hazardous levels for the health of human.

Turan et al. (2009) studied the levels of heavy metals in some commercial fish species

25

captured from the Black sea and Mediterranean coast of Turkey. Yildirim et al.

(2009) evaluated heavy metal levels in some fish species sold at retail in Kayseri,

Turkey. Akbulut and Akbulut (2010) studied heavy metal accumulation in water,

sediment and fish tissue in Kizilirmak river basin in Turkey and found no particular

pattern for metal accumulation.

Berninger and Pennanen (1995) determined Hg concentrations in muscle and

Cd, Pb, Al, Zn and Fe concentrations in muscle, liver and kidney of perch (Perca

fluviatilis ) caught from acidified lakes in the Salpausselka Esker area in Finland.

Study indicated the highest concentrations of Cd, Pb and Zn in kidney and those of Al

and Fe in liver. Saiki et al. (1995) analyzed copper, cadmium and zinc in aquatic food

chains from the upper Sacramento river (California) and selected tributaries and

compared whole body concentration of Cu, Cd and Zn in fishes from the Sacramento

river and reference tributaries. Kock et al. (1995 & 1996) observed seasonal patterns

of metal accumulation in Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) collected from an

oligotrophic Alpine lake and illustrated the ability of Arctic char to eliminate

considerable amounts of accumulated metals. Madany et al. (1996) studied the trace

metal concentrations in fish and shellfish samples collected from the coastal areas of

Bahrain in the Arabian Gulf. Amundsen et al. (1997) reported metal accumulation in

fish tissues is depend on their feeding nature. Heiny and Tate (1997) analyzed

concentrations of twelve elements in bed sediment and fish tissues in the South Platte

river basin, USA and discussed the distribution pattern and comparative accumulation

in tissues. Farag et al. (1998) carried out an analysis of metals in fish caught from

Coeur d’ Alene river basin, Idaho. Sun and Jeng (1998) carried out a comparative

study to find out concentrations of metals in various tissues of 24 aquatic organisms

including common carp and several freshwater fishes. Ekpo and Ibok (1999) carried

26

out an investigation on the abundance and distribution of trace metals in water and

nine species of fish caught from Calabar river, S.E. Nigeria.

Romeo et al. (1999) studied heavy metal distribution in different fish species

from the Mauritania coast. Zyadah (1999) determined the accumulation of heavy

metals, copper, zinc, cadmium and lead in flesh, gill, liver and gonads of Tilapia zillii

caught from lake Manzalah in Egypt and derived correlations between metal

concentrations and gonado-somatic index (GSI). Khalil (2000) observed the

accumulation levels of heavy metals in tissues of fish from lake Mariut , Egypt.

Mansour and Sidky (2002) analyzed the heavy metals in fish from Fayoum

Governorate (Egypt) and discussed accumulation pattern in various fish organs,

seasonal pattern of accumulation and relative accumulation of total heavy metals in

Solea aegyptiaca, Tilapia sp., Penacus sp. and Mugil sp. Khaled (2004) evaluated

seasonal variations of some heavy metals in muscle tissue of two fish species in

Alexandria, Egypt. The concentrations of seven heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb

and Zn) were detected seasonally in Siganus rivulatus and Sargus sargus collected

from El-Mex Bay and Eastern Harbour. Ali (2002) assessed impact of agricultural and

sewage effluents on the ecosystem of lake Qarun. Ali and Abdal-Satar (2005)

analyzed some heavy metals in two fish species Mugil sp. and Tilapia sp. in some fish

farms in El-Fayoum province while Ali and Fishar (2005) determined trace metals in

some fish species from Llake Qarun, Egypt.

Mason et al. (2000) recorded the factors controlling the bioaccumulation of

mercury, methylmercury, arsenic, selenium and cadmium by freshwater invertebrates

and fish from two sites in western Maryland: Herrington Creek tributary and

Blacklick Run. Mormede and Devies (2001) and Watanabe et al. (2003) studied metal

27

accumulation in fish from the Rockall Trough and Mississippi river respectively and

indicated that metal levels varied according to fish feeding habits.

Chen and Chen (1999) studied accumulation of sediment-bound metals in Liza

macrolepis and found that liver accumulate maximum metal concentration. Chen and

Chen (2001) determined the heavy metal concentrations in most common nine species

of fishes caught from coastal waters off Ann-Ping, S.W. Taiwan. Fishes were

analyzed for the Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn and Cd concentrations in the muscle, liver and

gonads. Chen (2002) reported baseline concentrations of essential and non-essential

metals in sediment and fish from the subtropical Chi-Ku Lagoon, S. W. Taiwan and

described species-specific characteristics of A. berda, P. indicus, L. macrolepis and V.

cunnesius fish species and their role as bioindicators of metal pollution in Chi-Ku

Lagoon. Haung (2003) analyzed heavy metal concentrations in common benthic

fishes. Zinc, copper, cadmium and lead concentrations were determined in muscle,

gills, intestine and liver of twenty benthic fishes of the most common commercial fish

caught from the coastal waters of eastern Taiwan. A similar study was carried out in

Megalops cyprinoids, Chanos chanos, Liza macrolepis, Mugil cephalus and

Orhechromis sp. caught from the Erren river in southwestern Taiwan by Chen et al.

(2004). This study was attempted to evaluate pollution status of the river and a

restoration plan was completed in 2000.

Gillanders (2001) analyzed trace metals in four structures (otoliths, scale, eye

lenses and spines) of a territorial reef fish. Otoliths, scales, spine and eye lenses of

Parma microlepis differed in composition, both in terms of the actual elements

present and the concentration of individual elements. Wong et al. (2001) evaluated the

levels of six heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) in different tissues of three

species of cultured marine fishes (Epinephelus areolatus, Lutjanus russelli and Sparus

28

sarba) collected from three fish culture sites in Hong Kong and reported capacity of

different tissues to accumulate heavy metals. Bhagwant (2003) reported some metal

levels in organ tissue samples of three edible fish species Scarus ghobban,

Acanthurus mata and Mugil cephalus thriving in Tombeau bay in Mauritius and

reported interspecies difference and selective uptake of metal in organ tissue.

Mzimela et al. (2003) screened seasonal variation in concentrations of metals in

sediments, water and tissues of fish from the Mhlathuze eastuary in South Africa and

compared the metal accumulation in various tissues of fish. Henry et al. (2004)

analyzed heavy metal concentration in four fish species viz. Plaice, Dab, Flounder and

Cod collected from the French coast of the Eastern English Channel and Southern

Bight of the North Sea. Papagiannis et al. (2004) observed copper and zinc

accumulation in four freshwater fish species caught from lake Pamvotis in Greece.

Metal concentrations were measured in muscle, liver and gonads of Cyprinus carpio,

Silurus aristotelis, Rutilus ylikiensis and Carassius gibelio.

Ashraf (2005) measured the levels of Pb, Co, Cu, Ni, Zn, Mn and Cd in the

kidney and heart tissues of Epinephelus microdon fish caught from the Arabian Gulf,

Eastern province of Saudi Arabia and indicated accumulation pattern of metals in

different tissues of the fish. Alinnor (2005) assessed the elemental contaminations in

water and fish from Aba river which is polluted by discharges from industries located

near the river. Bu-Olayan and Thomas (2005) carried out a laboratory study to

analyze toxicity and bioaccumulation of heavy metals in mullet fish Liza klunzingeri

(Mugilidae : Perciformes). Concentrations of Pb, Ni, V, Cu and Fe were measured

and their bioaccumulation factor (BAF) was calculated for various tissues. Cogun et

al. (2005) examined seasonal variations and tissue distribution of heavy metals in

shrimp and fish species caught from Yumurtalik coast of Iskenderun Gulf,

29

Mediterranean. Zn, Pb, Fe, Cu and Cd concentrations were recorded in different

tissues of Solea solea, Sparus aurata and Penaeus semiculatus. Dailey et al. (2005)

carried out an extensive study in Wyoming fish. Trace metals were analyzed in 96

fish composites representing 11 species collected from 28 lakes/reservoirs to screen

Hg and Se levels in Wyoming fish. Javed (2003) studied relationship among metal

levels in water, sediment and biota of the river Ravi while Mahmood (2003) analyzed

nickel and lead concentrations in fish and water of the river Ravi. Javed (2005)

assessed heavy metal contamination of freshwater fish and bed sediments in the river

Ravi stretch and related tributaries and studied the accumulation patterns of metals in

Catla catla, Labeo rohita and Cirrhina.

Has-Schon et al. (2006) examined heavy metal profile in five fish species

included in human diet, domiciled in the end flow of river Neretva (Croatia) While

Has-Schon et al. (2008) studied heavy metal distribution in tissues of six fish species.

Concentrations of Hg, Pb and Cd were determined in muscle, liver, kidney, gills and

gonads of fish. Staniskiene et al. (2006) observed distribution of heavy metals in

tissues of freshwater fish. Concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Fe, Ni, Cr, Mn and V

were determined in flesh, liver, gill and intestine of 20 freshwater fish netted in

various Lithuania freshwaters. Adeniyi and Yusuf (2007) assessed metal levels in

fish, water and bottom sediment from Epe and Badagry lagoons, Nigeria. Chouba et

al. (2007) studied seasonal variation of heavy metals in Mugil cephalus from the Ghar

El Melh lagoon (Tunisia).

Farag et al. (2007) examined the concentrations of metals in water, sediment,

biofilm, benthic macroinvertebrates and fish in the Boulder river watershed, Montana.

The interrelationship of the metals accumulating in the various components suggested

30

the fish to acquire metals both directly from water and sediment and indirectly

through the food chain.

Adefemi et al. (2008) reported heavy metal concentrations in water, sediment

and Tilapia mossambicuis fish from Ureje dam in South-Western Nigeria. Al-Weher

(2008) determined levels of heavy metal Cd, Cu and Zn in different tissues of three

fish species collected from the Northern Jordan Valley, Jordan. Has-Schon et al.

(2008) reported heavy metal distribution in tissues of six species included in Human

Diet, inhabiting freshwater of the Nature Park “Hutovo Blato” (Bosnia and

Herzegovina). Soegianto et al. (2008) determined bioaccumulation of heavy metals in

aquatic animals collected from coastal waters of Gresik, Indonesia and found that the

level of metals in all samples collected from this area contained metals in their tissue

within acceptable range for consumption.

Terra et al. (2008) analyzed heavy metal in tissues of three fish species from

different trophic levels in a Paraiba Do Sul river of Brazil. Concentrations of four

metals (Cu, Cr, Zn and Pb) were determined in muscle and gonad tissues of fish

Oligosarcus hepsetus (carnivore), Geophagus brasiliensis (omnivore) and

Hypostomus luetkeni (detritivore). Kalay et al. (2008) studied trace element levels in

Liza ramada caught from Mersin Gulf. Akan et al. (2009) analyzed some heavy

metals in tissues of six freshwater fishes caught from lake Chad in Doron Bhuari,

Maiduguri, Nigeria. Allinson et al. (2009) analyzed trace metal concentrations in

muscle and liver of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in three catchments of Sri

Lanka. Al-Kahtani (2009) determined heavy metals in Oreochromis niloticus from

Al-Khadoud spring, Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia and discussed aspects related with safe

human consumption. Rauf et al. (2009) evaluated heavy metal levels in various

tissues of three fish species collected from the river Ravi, Pakistan. Kumaruzzaman et

31

al. (2010) analyzed heavy metals in some tissues of commercially valuable fish

species. Raphael et al. (2011) determined trace metals distribution in various tissues

of cat fish (Chrysichthys nigrodidatatus) and Tilapia (Tilapia nilotica).

At National Level

Physico-chemical Features

Seasonal variations in water temperature of various aquatic bodies in India

have been recorded by Rao (1955), Munawar (1970a), Qadri and Yousuf (1978),

Swarup and Singh (1979), Goel et al. (1980), Patra and Nayak (1983), Bagde and

Varma (1985a & b), Palharya and Malviya (1988), Shyam Sunder (1988), Prakash

(1990), Pandey et al. (1993), Kaur et al. (1995, 1996a & b and 1997), Kumar (1995a

& b), Bath and Kaur (1999), Valarmathi et al. (2002), Singh and Mathur (2005),

Chaurasia and Pandey (2007), Shyamala et al. (2008) and Pawar et al. (2009). Impact

of contamination with industrial effluents on temperature of water in various aquatic

systems has been recorded by Munawar (1970a & b), Mahadevan and Krishnaswamy

(1983), Bisht (1986), Sarwar (1987), Palharya and Malviya (1988), Shah (1988),

Adholia et al. (1991), Jindal and Kumar (1993), Bath (1996), Syal (1996) and Kumar

and Sharma (1999) and that of contamination with sewage by Kaur et al. (2003).

Mohanty (1975) while studying physico-chemical features of the outer channel

of the Chilka lake, recorded seasonal variations in pH of water. Seasonal variations in

pH values have also been observed by Zutshi and Vass (1978) and Khan and Zutshi

(1980) for Kashmir lakes and Sharma and Dhaneshwar (1986), Mishra (1988) and

Bandhopadhyay and Gopal (1991) for other water bodies. Impact of addition of

sewage and industrial effluents on pH levels has been observed by Singh et al. (1969),

Seenayya (1971) and Kumar and Sharma (1979) while Trivedy and Goel (1986) and

Sinha et al. (1991) recorded effects of industrial discharges on the pH level of water.

32

Bansal and Khare (1990) and Mishra (1991) observed changes in pH due to addition

of paper mill effluents. Singh et al. (1982), Sharma and Dhaneshwar (1986), Mishra

(1988), Jindal and Kumar (1993), Bath (1996), Syal (1996), Narain and Chauhan

(2000), Chaurasia and Pandey (2007), Pawar et al. (2009) and Sithik et al. (2009)

recorded changes in pH values with addition of sewage and agricultural effluents.

Dissolved oxygen has been recorded in various water bodies in India by

Chakraboarty et al. (1959), Pahwa and Mahrotra (1966), Ray et al. (1966), Vasisht

and Sharma (1975), Badola and Singh (1981), Bhowmick and Singh (1985),

Bandhopadhyay and Gopal (1991), DattaMunshi and Singh (1991), Shastree et al.

(1991), Pandey et al. (1993) and Esmaeili and Johal (2005).

Paramasivam and Sreenivasan (1981) and Mishra (1991) carried out

investigation on effects of paper mill effluents on dissolved oxygen. The changes in

dissolved oxygen levels in water with addition of domestic sewage, various industrial

wastes and agricultural run off have been investigated in different water bodies by

Saxena et al. (1966), Bulusu et al. (1967), Venkateswarlu and Jayanti (1968), Verma

and Shukla (1969), Vasisht and Sharma (1975), Das and Pandey (1978), Paramasivam

and Sreenivasan (1981), Trivedy and Goel (1986), Palharya and Malviya (1988),

Rana and Palria (1988), Goel and Chavan (1991), Mishra (1991), Tripathi et al.

(1991), Mathuthu et al. (1993), Kaur et al. (1995), Kumar (1995a & b and 1998),

Bath (1996), Jameson and Rana (1996), Kaur et al. (1996a & b), Syal (1996), Narain

and Chauhan (2000), Valarmathi et al. (2002), Kumar et al. (2003) and

Prasanakumari et al. (2003).

Singh et. al. (1969), Bhuyan (1970), Upadhyaya and Roy (1982), Bagde and

Verma (1985a and b), Trivedy and Goel (1986), Sinha (1987), Sinha and Prasad

(1988), Gopal (1990), Sinha et. al. (1991), Kaur et al. (1995 & 2003) and Syal (1996)

33

investigated the impact of sewage and industrial effluents on the hardness values of

water. Kannan (1991) provided standards depicting nature of water on the basis of

total hardness values.

Metals in Water

There are several studies on heavy metal contamination of groundwater in

different areas of India (Srikanth et al., 1993; Bhattacharya et al., 1997; Dixit et al.,

2004; Bhattacharjee et al., 2005; Rajmohan and Elango, 2005; Ram and Singh, 2007;

Lohani et al., 2008 and Dhakate and Singh, 2008). Manivasakam (1984), Mishra

(1990) and Kannan (1991) studied environment pollution and suggested that increase

in metal levels due to addition of effluents from industrial units.

Koul et al. (1988) studied trace metal concentrations in some Kashmir

Himalayan lake and discussed seasonal trends. Paul et al. (1994) analyzed trace

metals and lanthanides in a tropical river environment and found higher metal levels

in summer season. Analytical studies on rivers in Punjab have been conducted by

Dhillon and Kaur (1996), Kaur et al. (2000) and PSCST (2005). Meenakumari and

Nair (1996) recorded levels of trace elements in the surface waters of Cochin harbor

and discussed the impact of run off during monsoon period on metal concentrations in

water. Agarwal and Gopal (1998) analyzed the physico-chemical characteristics and

heavy metals in Ganga river at various locations of Northern plains. Govindasamy et

al. (1998) determined seasonal variation of heavy metals in water of Pondicherry

coast, Bay of Bengal and observed higher cadmium content in post monsoon season.

Khan et al. (1998) studied trace metals in Ganges-Brahamputra-Meghna estuary and

indicated higher metal levels in winter season. Kaushik et al. (1999) determined

heavy metals levels in three lentic water bodies (Motijheel, Surajkund and Ranital) of

Gwalior region. Seasonally lowest and highest values of metals were recorded during

34

summer and rainy season respectively in all the three water bodies. Dash et al. (1999)

assessed lead speciation in Rushikulya surface waters, east coast of India and

recorded seasonal variations of dissolved and particulate fraction of lead in upper

reaches of the estuary. Aggarwal et al. (2000), Lokhande and Sathe (2001) and Singh

et al. (2005) studied heavy metals in various water bodies and found increase in metal

content with addition of sewage and industrial effluents. Mandal et al. (2006)

recorded occurrence of various metals in surface water of river Ganga in west Bangal

and discussed seasonal trends in concentration of metals. Buragohain et al. (2009)

examined seasonal variations in metal contamination of groundwater in Dhemaji

district, Assam. They recorded high concentrations of all the metals in the dry season

than in the wet season.

Prahalad and Seenayya (1989) analyzed zinc and lead levels in the Husainsagar

lake of Hyderabad polluted by industrial wastes and found metal levels to be within

the permissible limits. Mhatre (1991) emphasized for a need of bioindicators of heavy

metals pollution and their possible use in biomonitoring. Garg et al. (1992) analyzed

trace metals in river Ganges at Kanpur to study the impact of various industrial

effluents. Trivedy et al. (2002) analyzed heavy metal pollution in the river Krishna

and Koyana in Maharashtra as a result of addition of domestic, industrial wastes and

agricultural run off. Gupta et al. (2002) recorded concentration of heavy metals in

waters of the area around Mandideep industrial complex to study the impact of

industrial wastes. Borole and Patil (2004) reported the effect of waste water of sugar

industry on some heavy metals in a river in Maharashtra. Hussain and Hussain (2004)

evaluated the impact of textile waste water on the drinking water and ground water

quality of villages close to river Kothari, Rajasthan. Joseph and Chacko (2005)

investigated the distribution of dissolved and particulate heavy metals in Chitrapuzha

35

river, Kerala contaminated with industrial wastes. Sandwar and Tiwari (2006)

recorded monthly variations in heavy metals concentration in Ganga river water in

North Bihar region which receives wastes from Barauni-Mokamah industrial

complex. Gowd and Govil (2008) studied distribution of heavy metals in surface

water contaminated with wastes from Ranipet industrial area in Tamil Nadu and

discussed health hazards especially for the people working in the tannery industries.

Kar et al. (2008) analyzed heavy metal pollution in surface water at different stations

on the river Ganga (West Bengal) to study the impact of heavy metal loaded industrial

waste water. Begum et al. (2009a) analyzed water, plankton and sediment of river

Cauvery to study the impact of fertilizers, agricultural ashes, industrial effluents and

anthropogenic wastes on heavy metal concentrations in these components.

Studies on heavy metal contamination of various water bodies to assess the water

quality have been done by Jain and shrivastava (1998) in Kolar reservoir, Bhopal

(M.P.), by Rani and Reddy (2003) in Hussain Sagar lake, by Chaudhary et al. (2004)

in the river Yamuna at Faridabad, by Pandey et al. (2004) in river Pandu at Kanpur,

by Jain et al. (2004) in a coastal aquifer of Andhra Pradesh, by Sinha (2004) in Sai

river at Rae Bareli, by Anitha et al. (2005) in Mir Alam lake, Hyderabad, by Gupta et

al. (2005) in surface water of lower lake, Bhopal, by Rajappa et al. (2010) in

groundwater of Hakinaka Taluk and by Pandey et al. (2010) in Ganga river at

Varanasi

Metals in Sediment

The role of sediments in adsorption of cations has been demonstrated in a number

of studies on rivers (Ayyavoo 1989; Mani et al. 1989; Kurian and Banerjee 1989). Jha

et al. (1990) studied heavy metals in sediments of the Yamuna river and compared

with those of the Ganges and other Indian river sediments.

36

Singh et al. (1997) analyzed heavy metal pollution in freshly deposited sediments

of the Yamuna river and discussed the impact of urbanization on heavy metals

concentrations. Singh et al. (2002, 2003) analyzed heavy metals in freshly deposited

stream sediments of river associated with urbanization of the Ganga plain and

indicated that these urban centers act as anthropogenic source of heavy metal input

into rivers sediments of the Ganga plain.

Ganasan et al. (1991) analyzed heavy metal concentrations in sediments of rivers

Khan and Kshipra and identified pure textile dyes to be the major source of all these

metals. Chakrapani and Subramanian (1990), Ramesh et al. (1990) observed increase

in metal concentration in sediment due to addition of municipal wastes. Pande and

Sharma (1999) studied toxic metal levels in the sediments of Ramganga river at

Moradabad contaminated by industrial waste, municipal waste and agricultural run

off. Saha et al. (2001) assessed metal contents in the sediments of Jagannath canal

receiving municipal wastes of Calcutta metropolis. Kaur et al. (2000), Koshy and

Nayar (2002) and PSCST (2005) analyzed trace metals in the sediments of river Satluj

and Pamba contaminated by industrial or other point sources pollution. Balachandran

et al. (2005) recorded high metal levels in sediments of Cochin estuary caused by

anthropogenic inputs from industries. Gaur et al. (2005) analyzed distribution of

heavy metals in sediment of the river Gomti polluted by industrial, domestic wastes

and agricultural runoff. Similarly Jain et al. (2005) evaluated metal contents in

sediments of the river Hindon receiving direct discharges of municipal and industrial

effluents and surface runoff. Impact of industrial and municipal waste on heavy metal

levels has been investigated by Singh et al. (2005), Jain et al. (2007, 2008 & 2009) in

bed sediments of river Gomti, lake Nainital, river Narmada and Hussainsagar lake

respectively.

37

Metals in Fish

Khangarot and Ray (1987), in an experimental study, observed heavy metal

acute toxicity in Daphnia manga and fish, and carried out a statistical comparison of

their toxicity to various heavy metal ions. Radhakrishnaiah (1988) conducted a

laboratory experiment to study the accumulation of copper in various organs of

freshwater fish, Labeo rohita (Hamilton) exposed to lethal and sublethal

concentration of copper. Kureishy and D’Silva (1993) conducted an experimental

study to estimate the comparative uptake and loss of Hg, Cd and Pb in various tissues

of Tilapia mosambica, Perna viridis and Villorita cypriniides. Manoj and

Ragothaman (1999) conducted a laboratory study on metal accumulation in tissues of

an edible estuarine fish, Boleophthalmus dussumieri and reported the pathological

changes in gills, liver, kidney and blood cells after treated with mercury, copper and

cadmium. metal in muscle as compared to other organs. Shukla et al. (2002) carried

out experimental study to study effects of metals on fresh water fish, Channa

punctatus and evaluated the nutritive value of treated fish. Gupta and Dua (2002)

recorded architectural alterations in the gill surface of a fresh water fish, Channa

punctatus induced by different concentrations of mercury in an experimental study

conducted in the laboratory. Sharma and Jain (2004) conducted an experiment in

laboratory to observe toxic effects of heavy metals on biochemical composition of

freshwater fish Cirrhinus mrigala.

Usually, the concentration of heavy metals in fish species inhabiting sewage fed

ponds remain within the permissible limits for consumption. Pandey et al. (1995)

recorded accumulation of heavy metals in soil, water, aquatic weed and fish collected

from sewage-fed ponds. Balasubramanian et al. (1997) examined the bioconcentration

38

of copper, nickel and cadmium in sewage fed fish pond and compared the heavy

metal accumulation in the fish species with different feeding behaviour.

Ajmal et al. (1985) studied the distribution of heavy metals in plants and fish of

the Yamuna river (India). They found Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn concentrations

to be highest in the plants collected from Delhi in the region receiving wastes from a

large number of factories and industrial establishments including those manufacturing

fertilizers, paper and chemicals. Begum et al. (2009a) determined the concentrations

of heavy metals in the fish from the river Cauvery contaminated by fertilizers,

agricultural ashes, industrial effluents and anthropogenic wastes. Nayaka et al. (2009)

analyzed heavy metals in muscle of Cyprinus carpio from water contaminated with

industrial effluents and domestic sewage.

Joseph and Srivastava (1993) determined the concentrations of mercury in the

Ennore estuary and in the fish Mystus gulio collected from this estuary. Rao and

Patnaik (2000) studied heavy metal accumulation in the cat fish Mystus vittatus

(Bloch) collected from Mehadrigedda stream of Visakhapatnam. Maiti and Banerjee

(2002) carried out a study to analyze comparative accumulation of metals in various

tissues of fishes in wetlands of Calcutta. Vinodhini and Narayanan (2008) evaluated

bioaccumulation of heavy metals in various organs of fresh water fish Cyprinus

carpio. Begum et al. (2009b) determined heavy metals in various organs of ten fish

species collected from Madivala lakes of Bangalore and compared the metal

accumulation in various organs. Gupta et al. (2009) determined some heavy metals in

muscles of two cat fish species, Channa punctatus and Aorichthys aor. Malik et al.

(2010) carried out a comparative study on bioaccumulation of heavy metals in fish

tissues of a freshwater lake of Bhopal.

39

The studies on accumulation of metals in the aquatic environment have been

reviewed by Gupta et al. (2002), Shrivastava and Sohani (2002) and Jain and Mittal

(2004). ChandraSekhar et al. (2003) estimated concentrations of Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Cr,

Ni and Co in sediment and three edible fish species collected from Kolleru lake in

Andhra Pradesh and discussed the economic aspects of fish in terms of human

consumption. Chakraborty et al. (2003) examined accumulation of heavy metals in

some fresh water fishes from eastern India and discussed the impact of possible

accumulated metals on human health. Raja et al. (2009) evaluated heavy metals

concentration in four commercially valuable marine edible fish species from

Parangipettai coast, South East coast of India while Shanthi and Ramanibai (2009)

carried out studies on heavy metal accumulation in two fish species from Ennore

coastal zone, Bay of Bengal and the results s indicated heavy metals in the edible

parts of investigated fish to be within permissible safety levels for human use.