Lecture # 29Review of lectures 1-7

Word ‘linguistics’ derived from Latin lingua (tongue) & istics (knowledge or science)Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics is that science which studies the origin, organization, nature and development of language descriptively, historically, comparatively and explicitly.

Linguistics

Linguists study general principles of language organization and behaviour with reference to some actual language or languages – any language can be taken

Linguistics is learning about a language rather than learning a language

Introduction

Example of a car Learning how to drive Learning how to speak a

language Learning how a car works Learning the organization of language

Introduction

Linguists study the languages of the world in order to answer questions like: What are the building blocks of languages?

- Sounds (combine to make words) - words (combine into phrases and sentences) - sentences (combine into discourses)

Questions that linguists answer

Language is objective because it is observable by senses – can be heard with ears or seen when vocal organs are in movement or when reading words on a page

Observation leads to classification and definition – chemist classifies into metals & non- metals, biologist classifies into plants & animals

Linguistics is both empirical science & social science

Linguistics is a human discipline since it is concerned with human language so…

It is a part or the study of humanities – study of literature, appreciation of beauty & music of poetry

Conclusion

In understanding language, human kind can understand itself

Since every branch of Knowledge uses language, linguistics is central to all areas of knowledge

Lyons says: Linguistics has natural links with a wide range of academic disciplines

Conclusion (contd..)

In modern linguistics the activity of describing the language system is the most important.

SO Modern Linguistics is known as

Descriptive Linguistics

Descriptive Linguistics is concerned with the description and analysis of the ways in which a language operates and is used by a given set of speakers at a given time.

Descriptive language is the fundamental aspect of the study of language

In descriptive language we describe language systematically at all levels i.e phonology, grammar and semantics.

Historical Linguistics Robins (1985, p.5) explains:Historical Linguistics is the study of the development in language in the course of time, the ways in which languages change from period to period and of the causes and results of such changes… It must be based on a description of two or more stages in the development of the language being studied.

A synchronic description is non-historical, a diachronic description traces the historical development of a language (Lyons, 1981, p.219)

Changes in English from old English to Middle English to Modern English – Diachronic or historical study

Structure of English as it exists today and without reference to its past shape- Synchronic study

Comparative Linguistics – two languages are compared - History of two languages is compared to discover historical relation between two languages in comparative historical study (or philosophy)- Such a work dominant in 19th century

L Proto- language (Parent language)

L1 & L2 Sister languages (developed later)

All these taken together form a language familye.g Proto – Indo – European

Latin Greek German Sunskrit

A sound similarity in each cognat. They are cognates belonging to a set

relating to a word which may have existed in proto- Indo - European language

Comparative linguists try to construct cognat sets & reconstruct proto forms to talk about the changes that have occurred in the development of languages

Comparative linguists study language changes, formation & development of languages

This is not possible without describing the related languages – comes in Descriptive languages

When descriptive linguistics study two or more languages that exist at a particular time, it studies language changes

Modern Linguistics is: - mainly descriptive because it attempts to describe fully and accurately the structure of language as it exists at a given time.- Synchronic study of language- An effort to describe language at all levels

(Phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic & discourse level)

Conclusion

Language has hierarchical structure Language made up of smaller units which

are made up of still smaller units & finally smallest indivisible unit – single distinguishable sound called phonemes

Levels of linguistic Analysis

Rules of phonology determine occurrence and combination of particular phonemes

Rules for word formation – behaviour of morphemes

Rules of sentence formation – combination & positioning of words in a sentence

So each level is a system in itself.

Rules

Rules of phonology determine occurrence and combination of particular phonemes

Rules for word formation – behaviour of morphemes

Rules of sentence formation – combination & positioning of words in a sentence

So each level is a system in itself.

Rules

Morphology: Morphology examines the structure of words and the principles that govern the formation of words.

Words also made up of a number of units, the word ‘unhappiness’ involves three elements (or morphemes) un-, -happy- and –ness. Morphology deals with how languages add morphemes together.

Morphology

Level of morphology is related to phonology on the one hand and to semantics on the other

take – took (change in one of the sounds) take the action take + time present change took the action take + time past in meaning

Morphology (contd..)

Syntax: Syntax investigates the structure of sentences and the common principles that determine how phrases and sentences are built up from words.

It also explores the way that languages vary in their application of these common principles by looking at the variation across languages.

Syntax

Rules of syntax should explain how grammatical & meaningful sentences are formed.

e.g. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (meaningless) Semantics studies the meanings of words and sentences independently of any context.

Discourse: a unit of text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic phenomena that range over more than one sentence.

formal and orderly and usually extended expression of thought on a subject

connected speech or writing a linguistic unit (as a conversation or a

story) larger than a sentence

Discourse

Language is related to the inner world of man’s mind & to the outer world of society and social relationships.

Each of these aspects has led to the study of ‘Psycholinguistics’ & ‘Sociolinguistics’

Main branches of linguistics

recent branch of linguistics developed in the sixties

study of interrelationship of psychological linguistic behaviour

uses linguistic concepts to describe psychological processes connected with the acquisition and use of language

Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics related to mental phenomenon - so mental processes articulated in language behaviour

It studies processes of thought, concept formation and their articulation in language.

This reveals about structures of human psychology and language.

Psycholinguistics

Cognitive psychology: It explores how meanings are understood by human brain, how syntax and memory are linked & how messages are ‘decoded’ and stored

Psycholinguistics studies influence of intelligence, motivation, anxiety etc. on the kind of language understood and produced.

Psycholinguistics

The bonds between psychology and linguistics become stronger by the extent to which language is influenced by and itself influences such things as memory, motivation, attention, recall & perception

Psycholinguistics is language and the mind Sociolinguistics is language and community

Summary

Language is social – cultural, geographical phenomenon.

Deep relationship between language and society

Geographical area considered while studying language (dialects, sociolects etc.)

Sociolinguistics

Language to be looked at from within and without

Language to be studied from both the points of view of form and function

Socio-linguistics – study of speech functions according to the speaker, the hearer, their relationship and contact, the context and the situation

Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics deals with the exploration of the relation between language and society

Based on the fact that language is not a single homogeneous entity

It has different forms in different situations Changes in language occur because of

changes in social situations.

Sociolnguistics

Variation may occur because speakers belong to different geographical regions

Example of English: RP Received pronunciation, south West of England, Universities of Oxford & Cambridge, & BBC

Varieties of language

Cockney English – spoken by working class people in England (Less educated people)

Indian English American English Australian English

Varieties of English (contd..)

Sociolinguistics – study of language variation and change- how varieties of language are formed when people belong to a geographical region, social class, social situation, and occupation etc.

Varieties formed in various regions involve change in pronunciation and vocabulary both.

Language variation & change

Syntax variation – ‘I’ve gotten it’, ‘I ain’t seen nothing

Lexical variation – Lift (British English) Elevator (American English) Dialectology: study of demarcation of

dialect boundaries across a region and of specific features of each dialect

Linguistic features of dialects

Specific area of human activity

e.g. English used in different fields – of law, religion, science, sports, business etc.

Every field has specific vocabulary and manner of use – it’s called Register

Another reason for variation

Sociology of language includes study of attitudes to language by social groups – which language is more / less important, which should be medium of instruction/ second language etc.

Which are legally & constitutionally recognized, their status

Sociology of language related to other aspects of social world – political, economical, social etc.

Sociology of language

Varieties of language Code Dialect & Sociolect Isogloss Registers Idiolect Diglossia Pidgin Creole

Language varieties

Introduction: Applied Linguistics is the collective term for the various applications of linguistic (and phonetic) scholarship to related practical fields – foreign language, teaching, lexicography, translation, speech pathology and therapy, error analysis etc.

Applied Linguistics

In the widest sense, Applied Linguistics borders on other disciplines e.g. sociology, anthropology, psychology, biology, stylistics etc.

Speech therapists, literary critics, translators, communication engineers, language teachers, syllabus formers, educational planners, text book writers, dictionary makers have found linguistics useful for their work

Applied Linguistics (Intro..)

Use in Psychology, mathematics, sociology, Media, neuro-surgery, law, Engineering, Philosophy,

Conclusion Study of linguistics quenches linguistic

thirst

Gives knowledge of the properties and mysteries of knowledge

It Illuminates ancient and pre-historic

culture Helps in improving and reforming

spellings, vocabulary, pronunciation, usage, interpretation.

Applied Linguistics (contd…)