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The Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan2008, Vol.47, 223-230
Rethinking the Role of the School Psychologist in Japan:Comparison With School Psychologists' Work in Other Countries
Keiko Ku MAGAI
(UNIVERSITY OF TSUKUBA GRADUATE SCHOOL OF COMPREHENSIVE HUMAN SCIENCES, INSTITUTE OF DISABILITY SCIENCES)
Certification of school psychologists in Japan started in 1997. Now there are about 3,700 certified
school psychologists in Japan. They work in kindergartens, elementary schools, junior high schools,
high schools, and special schools, as well as for local educational authorities and counseling centers.
But these school psychologists work as teachers, school counselors, and other extra staff, not as school
psychologists. Furthermore, school psychologists in Japan usually do not do developmental assessment
of children. This situation is very different from that in other countries. The present report reviews
school psychologists' work in some other countries and recommends changes in the job responsibilities
of school psychologists in Japan. In the U.S.A., UK, and some other countries, school psychologists
have much to do with the assessment of children with special educational needs. School psychologists
in Japan also should have skills needed for the developmental assessment of students who may have
special educational needs, in order to establish a firm status as psychologists.
Key Words : role of school psychologists, psychological assessment, children with special educa-
tional needs, school psychologists in Japan
In Japan, the Japanese Association of Educa-
tional Psychology has started to certify a license
for school psychologists. Starting on November 25,
2001, the following five academic associations cooper-
ated and united to make an umbrella administrative
organization for the certification of school psycholo-
gists: the Japanese Association of Educational Psy-
chology, the Japanese Association of Special Educa-
tion, the Japanese Association of Developmental Dis-
abilities, the Japan Society of Developmental Psychol-
ogy, and the Japanese Academy of Learning Disabil-
ities.
From March 10, 2007, the following four academic
associations also began to cooperate in this program:
the Japanese School Psychology Association, the
Japanese Society of Clinical Educational Psychology,
the Japanese Association for Study of Guidance and
Counseling, and the Japanese School Counselor Asso-
ciation.
Currently, there are about 3,700 school psycholo-
gists in Japan.
The organization for the certification of school
psychologists describes the role of school psycholo-
gists in Japan as follows:Nowadays, many students in Japan have vari-
ous problems in the school life and require sup-
port for problem solving. According to a survey
by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology in 2004, there were over
126,000 truants, although this number was de-
creased from 2003. Problems like bullying, delin-
quency, dropout, apathy, and suicide are becom-ing increasingly serious at the same time as
problems like class disintegration and school
violence are becoming greater. Support for stu-
dents with disabilities and/or special educational
needs, such as students with LD, ADHD, HFPDD,
is also an important subject. Educational profes-
sionals have a responsibility to secure and pro-
mote the best development of every student, in-
cluding those students who require support.
School psychologists must have special knowl-
edge and skills relating to school psychology.
Their role is to provide direct support such as
counseling for students who have problems in
school life and for parents, teachers, and school
―223―
The Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan, Vol.47.
administrators (Japanese Association of School Psy-chologists, 2007).
The purpose of the present report is to compare the
role and work of school psychologists in Japan with
those in some other countries, especially educational
psychologists in the UK and school psychologists inthe U.S.A. Recommendations will be presented for the
role of school psychologists in Japan.
1. Educational psychologist in the UK
(A) Their role and workIn the UK, "educational psychologist" refers to
school psychologists. According to the British Psy-
chological Society (2008), "educational psychologists
tackle the problems encountered by young people in
education, which may involve learning difficulties and
social or emotional problems. They carry out a wide
range of tasks with the aim of enhancing children's
learning and enabling teachers to become more aware
of social factors affecting teaching and learning.
Reports may be written about children for allocation
of special educational places, or as part of court
proceedings or children's panels."Most educational psychologists in the UK are em-
ployed by local education authorities. Local educa-tion authorities have an office for an educational
psychologist. From that office, they go out to workin schools, colleges, nurseries, and special units, inter-
acting primarily with teachers and parents. They
regularly liaise with other professionals from depart-
ments of education, health, and social services.
The work of educational psychologists in the UK
can be summarized as follows;
(1) Educational psychologists work with children
and young people, mainly under 19 years old, who are
experiencing difficulties (e.g., learning, emotional, or behav-
ior problems), in order to promote their educational and
psychological development.
(2) Most educational psychologists are employed by
local education authorities, but some are self-em-
ployed and work as consultants for Social ServicesDepartments, voluntary bodies, parents, and others.
(3) They work mainly in consultation with parents,
teachers, social workers, doctors, education officers,
and other people involved in the education and care of
children and young people.
This work can be done either be directly with a
child (for example, assessing progress, giving counseling) or
indirectly (through working with parents, teachers, and other
professionals).
(B) Training and QualificationsCurrently the majority of practicing educational
psychologists in England, Wales, and NorthernIreland are qualified and experienced teachers with an
undergraduate degree in psychology and a postgradu-
ate professional qualification in educational psychol-
ogy at the master's degree level.
From September 2006, one-year master's degree
courses in professional educational psychology were
discontinued and replaced with three-year doctorate-
level courses. The British Psychological Society and
training course directors have agreed that the previ-
ously mandatory entry requirement to postgraduate
training courses of a teaching qualification and a
minimum of two years' teaching experience should be
dropped for those entering a three-year doctorate
course.
(C) The Association of Educational Psychologists"The Association of Educational Psychologists is an
independently registered trade union and professional
association for educational psychologists. It repre-
sents the professional and employment interests of
93% of qualified educational psychologists working,
most of who work for local governments. It is the
only professional association or trade union organized
exclusively by and for educational psychologists."
(Association of Educational Psychologists (n.d.))
2. School Psychologists in the U.S.A.
(A) Their role and workAccording to the National Association of School
Psychologists' (2000a) web site, in the U.S.A., "school
psychologists help children and youth succeed aca-demically, socially, and emotionally. They collabo-
rate with educators, parents, and other professionals
to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning envi-
ronments for all students that strengthen connections
between home and school. School psychologists
work to find the best solution for each student and
situation; they use different strategies to address
student needs and to improve school and district-wide
support systems.
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教 育 心 理 学 年 報 第47集
School psychologists work with students individu-
ally and in groups. They develop programs to train
teachers and parents about effective teaching and
learning strategies, including techniques for managing
behavior at home and in the classroom, working with
students with disabilities or with special talents, ad-
dressing abuse of drugs and other substances, and
preventing and managing crises."
In addition, most school psychologists in the U.S.A.
provide the services described in Table 1.
The majority of school psychologists in the U.S.A.
work in schools. However, they can practice in a
variety of settings in addition to public and private
school systems, such as school-based health centers,
clinics and hospitals, universities, community and
state agencies, and other institutions, as well as in
private practice."According to the American Psychological Associa -
tion (n.d.), school psychologist, operating within a
scientific framework. They work to promote effec-
tiveness and efficiency in the field of school psychol-
ogy. School psychologists conduct psychological
assessments, provide brief interventions, and develop
or help develop prevention programs. Additionally,
they evaluate services with a special focus on the
developmental processes of children within the school
system and other systems, such as families. School
psychologists consult with teachers, parents, and
school personnel about learning, behavioral, social,
and emotional problems. They may teach lessons on
parenting skills (like school counselors), learning strat-
egies, and other skills related to school mental health.
In addition, they explain test results to parents and
students. They provide individual, group, and, in some
cases, family counseling (Applied Psychology, 2008).
School psychologists are actively involved in district
and school crisis intervention teams. They supervise
graduate students in school psychology. School psy-
chologists in many school districts provide profes-
sional development to teachers and other school per-
sonnel on topics such as positive behavior intervention
plans and achievement tests.
School psychologists are influential within the
Table 1 Services provided by school psychologists in the U.S.A.
Note. From National Association of School Psychologists (2000b)
―225―
The Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan, Vol.47.
school system and are frequently consulted to solve
problems. Practitioners should be able to provide
consultation and collaborate with other members of
the educational community and confidently make
decisions based on empirical research" (Applied Psychol-
ogy, 2008).
(B) Education and certificationThe majority of states require the completion of a
specialist-level program (60 graduate semester credits) in
school psychology, including a 1200-hour internship.
A few states continue to certify school psychologists
who have graduated from programs of fewer than 60
graduate semester credits ; however, the NationalAssociation of School Psychologists (2000b) maintains
that the minimum acceptable education in school
psychology is specialist-level training.The National Association of School Psychologists
approves both specialist and doctoral level programs,
whereas the American Psychological Association only
accredits doctoral programs in school psychology.
The American Psychological Association's standards
describe how doctoral programs should be structured,
but do not specify which courses should be offered
(Committee on Accreditation, 2008). The National Associ-
ation of School Psychologists (2000b) describes how
specialist and doctoral programs should be developed
and implemented.
3. School psychologists in other countries
Farrell, Jimerson, Kalambouka, & Benoit (2005)
surveyed teachers' views of school/educational psy-
chologists in eight countries ; Turkey, Estonia, Greece,
Cyprus, South Africa, England, Denmark, and the U.S.
A. For their study, questionnaires were completed by
1,105 teachers in 250 schools. Table 2 shows the
average time per week that school/educational psy-
chologists were reported to spend in schools. In these
countries, most school/educational psychologists are
hired by school districts or local education authorities,
and visit many schools in that district.
According to the Table 2, school psychologists
spend the most time in schools in Turkey. Educa-
tional psychologists in England spend less than one
hour a week in schools, whereas school psychologists
in the U.S.A. spend the most time in schools among
school psychologists in the surveyed countries, about 2
to 3 days a week. Teachers in Turkey, Estonia, and
Greece report that they are satisfied with the amount
of school psychologist time that their school receives,
but teachers in the other five countries surveyed were
reported that they were not satisfied.
Table 3 presents the rankings of the frequency with
which activities are undertaken by school psycholo-
gists made by teachers in the U.S.A. and England.The main activity of school psychologists in the U.S.
A. and educational psychologists in England is to
assess children who may need special education.
Table 4 presents data on that same question from
teachers in the other six countries surveyed. As
shown in Table 4, the main activity of school psychol-
ogists in those countries is to see individual children
for counseling and therapy ; the second most common
Table 2 Average time per week that school psychologists spend in schools
Note: From Farrell, Jimerson, Kalambouka, & Benoit (2005)
―226―
教 育 心 理 学 年 報 第47集
Table 3 Teachers'ranking of the frequency with which activities are undertaken by school/educational
psychologists
Note: From Farrell, Jimerson, Kalambouka, & Benoit (2005)
Table 4 Teachers' ranking of the frequency with which activities are undertaken by school/educational
psychologists
Note: From Farrell, Jimerson, Kalambouka, & Benoit (2005)
activity in five of the six countries is assessing chil-
dren who may need special education.
Table 5 presents a comparison of teachers' percep-
tions of the frequency of activities undertaken by
school psychologists and those that the teachers would
like them to carry out. According to Table 5, tasks
that teachers would like school psychologists to carry
out are very different from the present job activities of
school psychologists in those countries. Teachers in
the eight countries surveyed reported that they need
school psychologists to work with groups of parents
and to provide training for teachers.
What would teachers in Japan like school psycholo-
gists to do?
Idsoe (2003) surveyed the conceptual framework for
the work behavior of school psychologists in the
school psychology service in Norway, focusing on
differences at the individual and systemic levels. 470
―227―
The Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan, Vol.47.
Table 5 Comparison of teachers' perceptions of the frequency of activities undertaken by school psychologists
with those that they would like them to carry out
Note: From Farrell, Jimerson, Kalambouka, & Benoit (2005)
school psychologists in 121 offices were investigated
in this study. The 20-item questionnaire included a
rating format for each item comprised of six ordinal
categories from 1 (never) to 6 (very often). The results
of this study showed that the hypothesized four-factor
solution was supported.
Table 6 presents the item content and scales
measuring four aspects of work behavior in the school
psychology service in Norway. According to Table
6, the work behavior of school psychologists in Nor-
way can be divided into four factors: individual level
treatment, individual level prevention, systemic level
treatment, and systemic level prevention. Individual
level treatment often done by school psychologists in
Norway includes obtaining information from
preschool-teachers, teachers, or teaching assistants
concerning students in need of specials help, undertak-
ing work that requires expert knowledge, writing
reports or letters in connection with students in need
of special help, testing students in need of special help,
and recommending special education on a one-to-one
basis or in small groups for students in need of special
help. In Norway, school psychologists need to know
about special help and to have testing skills.
School psychologists in Japan
At the present time, there are many psychologist
certification systems in Japan, and there are many
types of psychologists who can receive such certifica-
tion, for example, clinical psychologists, clinical
developmental psychologists, and educational coun-
selors. The training courses required for these vari-
ous certifications by the certifying associations have
very similar content, including bullying, delinquency,
dropouts, apathy, and suicide. Recently, they have
become very interested in developmental disabilities
such as LD, ADHD, and pervasive developmental
disorders (PDD). The training courses include the
topic of developmental disabilities.
Discussion
In the present paper, we reviewed school/educa-
tional psychologists' work in several countries.
Their work is centered around the assessment of
children who may need special education and also
seeing individual children for counseling and therapy.
Of course, school psychologists in Japan have been
trained about children who may need special support
education, because lectures about developmental dis-
abilities are included in the training course for school
―228―
教 育 心 理 学 年 報 第47集
Table 6 Item content and scales measuring four aspects of work behavior in the school psychology service in
Norway
I . Individual Level Treatment
II . Individual Level Prevention
III. Systemic Level Treatment
IV. Systemic Level Prevention
Notes: The question asked was "How often during the past year has your work involved any of the following?"
The table was after Idsoe (2003).
―229―
The Annual Report of Educational Psychology in Japan, Vol.47.
psychologists. But there is no training course in
Japan where school psychologists can learn how to
assess those children.
Are Japanese school psychologists really specialists
in support for schools and students? School psycholo-
gists in Japan should have not only knowledge about
children with special educational needs, but also the
special skills needed to assess children who may have
special educational needs, counsel those children, and
provide therapy for them.Special support education, which includes having
children with LD, ADHD, and pervasive develop-
mental disorders study in regular classes in regular
school as "special support education" started this year
in Japan. Assessment of children who may need
special support education is very important. Like
school/educational psychologists in many other coun-
tries, including Norway, school psychologists in Japan
should have special skills for doing assessment and
providing therapy then, they could contribute toschools and their students in special support educa-
tion.
The Japanese Academy of Learning Disabilities has
prepared a training course for Special EducationalNeeds Specialists. This training course, which is
mainly for special support educational coordinators
working in schools, includes lectures how to assess
children who may have LD, ADHD, and pervasive
developmental disorders. Lectures are also included in
how to interpret the results of such assessments. The
assessment methods include interviews with parents,
behavior observations, and psychological tests such as
the WISC-III or K-ABC.
I think that school psychologists should have assess-
ment skills, including how to interview parents and
teachers, how to make behavioral observations, and
how to administer and interpret psychological tests.
The new special support education system in Japan
still needs specialists who have the skills to assess
children who may have special support educational
needs. School psychologist certifying organizations
and associations should develop training courses that
include how to assess children by means of psychologi-
cal tests. Otherwise, school psychologists will
remain unknown among many other kinds of psychol-
ogists and related occupations.
References
American Psychological Association.(n. d.) Division of
School Psychology goals and objectives. http://
www.indiana.edu/-div16/goals.html
Applied Psychology.(2008). http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Applied_psychology
Association of Educational Psychologists.(n.d.).
http://www.aep.org.uk/About/about.html
British Psychological Society.(2008). Educational
psychology.http://www.bps.org.uk/careers/areas/educational.
cfm
Committee on Accreditation.(2008). Guidelines and
principles for accreditation of programs in profes-sional psychology.
http://www.apa.org/ed/accreditation/coalist.html
Farrell, P., Jimerson, S. R., Kalambouka, A., & Benoit,
J.(2005). Teachers' perceptions of school psy-
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nasponline.org/standards/index.aspx
―230―