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Restoring Armour and Swords – Contrasting Points of View
Part A: Armour
I. Bottomley, F.A.B. Coutinho, B. Hennick and W.B. Tanner
Introduction As is so often the case when individuals who share a common interest meet, the conversation frequently
veers into the exchange of observations, anecdotes and opinions. Such a discussion began between two
of the authors around the question of restoration vs conservation of Japanese artifacts, notably
weaponry and its accessories, both decorative and utilitarian. Gradually, the number of participants in
the discussion grew to the four authors listed here, each of whom brought his own contribution.
While each of the authors brings his own experience, preferences and ideas to the meeting of minds, all
are united in the appreciation for and delight in ongoing study of Japanese weaponry and its
accoutrements. Although they are situated in a variety of countries, the authors are unhampered by
distance and different time zones thanks to the freedom of communication capability afforded by the
Internet.
As the discussion continued over time, the authors reached a mutual agreement to publish the data they
had collected, including the supporting examples they had researched. Predictably, perhaps, the original
germ of the idea that had inspired the discussion, namely, the wisdom of restoration vs. conservation in
treating antique weaponry et al, had expanded significantly. Exploration of the methods employed in
treating damaged antique artifacts and the attitudes and practices that inspired the individual courses of
action moved from the general to the specific. As the areas of study became more delineated, focusing
on arms and armour, swords, shirasaya and koshirae/fittings, it became clear that attempting to
incorporate all the collected evidence in one article would be difficult, if not impossible, and definitely
overwhelming to the reader.
It was determined by mutual agreement, therefore, to publish four separate, yet related, articles, thus
affording each of the areas of study the attention it deserves. The resulting four articles that follow are:
Restoring Armour and Swords –Contrasting Points of View
Part A: Armour Part B: Swords
Part C: Shirasaya Part D: Koshirae / Fittings
In each of the articles, attention has been paid to the courses of action chosen by the principles—
museums, dealers or individual collectors-- in repairing the artifacts, the results produced by these
choices and the reflection of the attitudes of the time and place these decisions were made.
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 2
As always, there are other factors which may influence the rationale behind choosing restoration over
conservation or vice versa. These may include, but are not limited to:
availability of resources
availability of qualified and well-trained craftsmen
scholarly interest in and knowledge of historical characteristics
consensus of opinion as to the desired course of action (This element may impede, if not totally
halt, the progress of remedial care when more than one person or agency is involved in the
decision-making)
the intended use of the restored or conserved item(s)
For the purposes of the discussions in the following articles, the elements listed above are, for the most
part, not included, as the resulting data would indeed be unwieldy.
Alternately, the choices as to treatment of artifacts and the ultimate results are reported and supported,
when possible, by the inclusion of illustrations.
It is not the intent of the authors to determine which of the methods of repair—restoration or
conservation—is the superior or preferred choice. In each of the examples presented, the focus has been
on the method of repair chosen, the ultimate results and recognition of the attitudes and context in
which the choices were made.
This statement of intent underlying the direction of the articles is likely to be repeated throughout the
following articles as a reminder that the discussions are presented in the hope that the information
shared here will educate rather than invite a verdict. The ultimate goal is the enhancement of
understanding and continued enjoyment of these beautiful and historic artifacts.
Part A: Armour
When antique artifacts are acquired, the purchaser or recipient is often faced with the option of
changing the condition of the artifact, whether this is for the purpose of public display, resale or
personal enjoyment.
In general, the options available include:
Restoration: returning the condition of the artifact, as closely as possible, to its original
condition at the time of its production
Conservation: preserving the condition of the artifact as it exists at the time of its acquisition,
thus arresting any further deterioration.
Reproduction: creating new facsimiles in the style of the original artifacts to replace missing or
damaged components The resulting items are usually incorporated in the restoration process.
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 3
The following discussion focuses specifically on swords and armour and the attitudes of two groups—
a) European and American museum curators/collectors and b) Japanese specialists—as regards the
treatment of these artifacts.
The concept and practice of restoration is a relatively recent one, as demonstrated in the examples
offered below. In the 19th century, most European swords and armour were in the hands of private
collectors. One such collector was Bashford Dean, an American (Dean 1915); another was Sir Richard
Wallace, whose collection of artifacts is now known as the famous Wallace Collection (Capwell 2011).
Some pieces in these collections were heavily restored.
Emma Schumuecker proposes a modern point of view (Schumuecker 2007) in her description of the
treatment applied to armour and her opinion of the result:
"Research into the Japanese and Western ethics for the conservation of Japanese armour
was undertaken to enable a better understanding of past treatments and modern ideals. It
has sometimes been thought by Western conservators that Japanese conservators and
craftsman heavily restore armours. There is evidence that this to be true as, for example, in
1972 a Japanese company sponsored the restoration of a Royal Armouries early 17 th
Century armour. It was an important object presented by Tokugawa Hidetada to King
James I in 1613, through Captain Saris of the East Indies Company, and had been on
display in the Tower of London since at least 1662. On arrival back from Japan after
restoration it was found that many areas had been re-lacquered or filled with lacquer and
that the whole armour had been relaced (Kitoku1989). This treatment has made the whole
armour very robust for display and loans but unfortunately much historical evidence has
been lost (figures 9 and 10)."
[Figures 9 and 10 referenced above appear as Figures 1 and 2 in this article]
The suits of armour displayed in Figures 1 and 2 appear at first
glance to be two different sets of armour when, in fact, they are
both the same set of armour pre- and post- restoration. When
examined side by side, definite differences are evident:
1. The kabuto (helmet) does not seem original
2. The kote (sleeves) are missing
3. The haidate (apron) is missing
Figure 1
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 4
Emma Schumuecker has many suggestions about how she thinks a
proper restoration should have been done, and says that "the
restoration of the Royal Armouries 17 th
century armour [the
armour is catalogue number XXVIA.1] is not representative of the
Japanese approach to the restoration and display of armours.”
Emma Schumuecker further describes the restoration of a crest of a Japanese helmet, as illustrated in
Figures 3 and 4 below.
-Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 3 Figure 4
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 5
Ms Schumuecker’s approval of the resulting restoration of the crest is evident in her comments cited
below. When praising the restoration skills of Japanese professionals, she echoes the attitude of many
European conservators:
"For example, many Japanese Shrines’ catalogues, dating as far back as 1968
illustrate armours with areas of loss filled with the same materials but in
obviously different colours. Original lacing and leathering is often retained and
areas of loss are filled with complimentary materials that are obvious to the
observer as not original. Loose material is also often retained separately. “
The table below (Figure 5), taken from her paper, illustrates what she considers are the options to
restore the crest mentioned above and the shortcomings of each possible choice.
The armour presented to King James I (and VI of Scotland) still has its original helmet. When sent to
Japan for restoration it had lost the elaborate mitsu kuwagata dai from the peak and several of the
copper-gilt ornaments off the bowl itself. The Japanese armour restorer made a new mitsu kuwagata
dai and new fittings to replace those lost but left the originals in their worn state. The new additions are
visually obvious as they are brightly gilded, hence satisfying Emma Schumuecker’s requirement that
replacements should be immediately obvious. These additions could be easily removed if needed; thus
they are compatible with the need for reversibility. What the Japanese restorer did that was
incompatible with modern conservation ideals was to consolidate flaking lacquer and replace missing
sections of lacquer using urushi (lacquer) and to replace all the lacing and cords with new silk. Neither
of these actions complies with the Western notion of the need for reversibility and the avoidance of
restoration. In defense of the staff at the Tower of London, what was considered as acceptable practice
at the time is now regarded with disapproval; for example, the standard technique used to deal with
pieces of European armour that had lost plates was to replace them with newly-made ones stamped with
the Tower of London mark to indicate that they were replacements. Helmets and the like that had been
damaged by rust were repaired by riveting a new patch inside the piece, embossing that patch outwards
until its surface was flush with the original surface and then polishing the whole. Today the accepted
practice would be simply to stabilize any active rust and leave any holes as they are found.
Figure 5
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 6
Figure 6
One mystery which persists is the failure of the Japanese
restorer to return the kote, haidote and storage box to the
restored suit of armour. One possible and likely logical
conclusion is that these items were not part of the original
armour. During the time that the armour was on display in the
Tower of London, H. Russell Robinson was curator of Oriental
Arms and Armour. Robinson collected Japanese armour himself
and published widely on the subject. It is possible that Russell
Robinson provided the now-missing items as they were readily
available in the sale rooms at the time of his tenure. The kote,
haidote and storage box may have been included in the display
to demonstrate a “complete” set of armour, but they may have
been removed when the armour was shipped to Japan for
restoration as they were not original to the suit of armour.
A second set of gift armour presented to King James I had been
housed in various palaces since the day it had been received and
suffered far less from neglect than the first set. During the
interregnum following the execution of King James’ son,
Charles I, it was sold, along with many other Royal Treasures to
a Major Bass for the sum of £10. On the accession of King
Charles II it was recovered, ultimately being deposited on loan
to the Royal Armouries Museum. The conservation in this case
concentrated on repairs to the fabrics and sewing down broken
cross-knots with silk thread. As a consequence, it remains one of
the few armours from the early Edo period that retains its
original lacing and fabrics.
Within the same era as the King James I armour described
above, the Spanish crown also received gifts of Japanese armour
on the arrival of the first and second Japanese missions to
Europe in 1585 and 1615, respectively. On each of these
occasions, three sets of armour were presented as gifts. For the
purpose of this discussion, particular attention will be paid to
one of the first three suits of armour given to King Phillip II of
Spain in 1585. It was ultimately included in the Royal
Armouries’ Collection (Bottomley 2006) and, like the King
James I armour referenced earlier, required remedial care as
time passed. The contrast between the treatments afforded the
latter Spanish armour and the former British acquisitions reflect
the differences in attitude towards conservation and restoration
of these artifacts.
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 7
A manuscript dating back to 1603 described the armour presented to King Phillip II and ordered it to be
transferred from the palace to the Royal Armoury following the sovereign’s death. Later it was acquired
from the Spanish Royal Collection, together with two other Japanese armours, by Rodrigo Diaz de
Vivar Gomes de Sandoval y Mendoza, 7th Duke of the Infantado. It was included as part of the
inventory of his palace in Guadalajara in 1643.
There it remained until the 19th Century when it was acquired by Euseblo Zuloaga. In 1840, Zuloaga
sold it by auction in London, where it was purchased by the Tower of London. At that time, the
catalogue description identified it as an armour of a “Moor of Granada”. It is shown in Figure 6.
The movement order of 1603 included a description of the armour at the time. The detailed account
stated that it was originally black-laced, had a “gilded leather panach” or koshiro date on top of the
helmet and a maedate on the front with a Shimazu family kamon (crest) between two black fur-covered
“tails” or horns.
At the time of its purchase, the armour was in a very dilapidated condition.When it was acquired by the
Tower of London, the crests, the top plate of the neck guard, the throat guard of the mask and the leg
armour were missing. It was re-laced, incorrectly, by the staff of the Tower using green-worsted braid,
in spite of the specific reference in the description to its earlier black braiding.
In 2005, a decision was made by both the curatorial and conservation staff of the Royal Armouries to
restore this armour to something approaching its original appearance. As a first step, the armour was re-
laced using black silk. The 19th century velvet pieces onto which the metalwork of the sleeves had been
sewn were to be replaced by sleeves of hemp and the missing plates were to be restored, ostensibly to
achieve a more complete look. Unfortunately, the program was halted; by this time, the only work
which had been completed was the consolidation of lacquer on the plates of one shoulder guard
The current staff responsible for conservation has subsequently opted to revoke the original decision
and retain the original 19th century reconstruction. The rationale used to support this position is that “it
is part of the armour’s history”. In contrast, the same conservation staff considers it perfectly acceptable
to re-strap European armour when the old internal leathers holding the plates together disintegrate.
Perhaps the difference in attitude where restoration of Japanese armour is concerned may be attributed
to the absence of a precedent or accepted directive on how to perform such a task without causing
criticism.
Problems have arisen already when standard Western conservation techniques are attempted with
Oriental material as in the case of conserving flaking lacquer. A Western conservator’s training
demands the use of an approved solvent-based adhesive injected under the flake and clamped until set.
In practice such an adhesive dries quickly around the exposed edges of the flake, but because the
lacquer is impervious to the solvent and can only evaporate by slow diffusion through the already dried
adhesive, it remains fluid under the flake. There is no adhesion except around the edges unless the flake
is left clamped for months. In Japan urushi is used as the adhesive. This hardens irreversibly throughout
its mass, re-gluing the whole flake to the substrate in a matter of hours. The Japanese justification to the
argument about reversibility is that ‘the flake [is not intended] to come off again anyway’. The article
by Emma Shmuecker (Schmuecker (2007)) describes her attempts to deal with this problem. The
Figure 6
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 8
method she tried, however failed. Therefore the problem of how to restore lacquer, from the European
point of view is an open problem.
A further on-line discussion can be found at:
http://nihon-no-katchu.proboards.com/thread/1081/additional-pics-historical-armours-
ukiyasu#ixzz3OwQxboeW
In the West, the controversy continues as to the best approach to rescuing damaged artifacts:
conservation or restoration. The solution may involve a complex analysis of the existing problem while
considering the historic treatment applied when similar damage occurred as a result of the normal
intended use of the object. As an example, it is easy to imagine an antique suit of armour in danger of
falling apart because its silk lacing has rotted. One course of action to correct this problem is to use new
silk to re-lace rather than using thread or monofilament in an attempt to tie all back together. During its
original working life, the armour would have needed re-lacing and refurbishing from time to time as a
result of everyday wear and tear. To accomplish this efficiently, the armour would have been stripped
down to bare plates and given a new coat of lacquer to cover scratches and chipping before being re-
built. Further, there is some evidence that during these periodic refurbishments, the owners would take
the opportunity to have the armour re-lacquered in a different colour. An example of this practice is
visible on one the suits of armour included in the Royal Armouries collection. While it is currently
gold-lacquered, it was originally black-lacquered; the original colour is visible around the gold-
lacquered kamon on various parts of the set. Likely re-lacquering was somewhat superficial as a cost-
cutting measure. In this case, the decision to restore rather than conserve the armour is an interesting
one and closely resembles the steps followed by ancient artisans whose mission was to ensure the utility
of the armour rather than preserving the artistry of the original.
As mentioned earlier, the modern tendency to choose restoration is a relatively recent practice. By the
19th Century, most European swords and armour were in private hands. Two such notable collectors
were the American Bashford Dean (Dean 1915) and the British Sir Richard Wallace, who amassed the
now-famous Wallace Collection (Capwell 2011).
In his description, Tobias Capwell refers to “the most iconic work in the Armouries of the Wallace
Collection: the famous Gothic equestrian armour” (Capwell 2011, page 54). The text is quoted below,
followed by a glossary of terminology which may be unfamiliar.
“The rider’s armour includes a number of original elements, some very fine, others
altered in modern times. The sallet skull, bevor and cuisses are all authentic pieces,
but ‘improved’ in the 19th
century through the addition of decorative bands…The
breastplate is constructed of old metal, possibly two munitions breastplates c. 1500,
remade by the 19th
century restorer.”
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 9
Term Description Term Description
sallet helmet tassets plates hanging from the
skirt over the thighs
bevor chin defence pauldrons shoulder defences
besagews circular plates at the
armpits
greaves shin defences
cuisses thigh defences crinet horse’s neck defence
sabatons foot defences arson plate saddle plate
Some of the terminology used to discuss European arms and armour may not be familiar to collectors of
Japanese swords. In order to illustrate and clarify the references used, labelled photographs of Horse
Armour and Man Armour have been included in the Appendix of this article.
Tobias Capwell’s account in the “European Arms and Armour Supplement” (1986) of the Wallace
Collection provides more details about the altered components of the arms and armour and leaves no
doubt that it is far from genuine. According to Capwell, the skull of the sallet is real but originally had a
bevor that used the same pivots as the visor. The fluting on the lower part of the breastplate is 19th
century, as are the skirt, tassets, pauldrons and besagews. The greaves have been modified as have the
sabatons. The backplate is genuine but from another armour. The third, fourth and fifth plates from the
top of the crinet covering the neck of the horse are 10th century, as is the left arson plate and the struts
of the saddle. In other words, very little of this armour actually dates from the 15th century, yet it
appears time and again in publications as if completely authentic.
When Sir Richard Wallace acquired the equestrian armour discussed above, he had no real knowledge
of arms and armour. At that time, in the early part of the 19th century it was quite fashionable to acquire
arms and armour and some dealers of the era were not above over-restoring to satisfy demand. Sir
Richard Wallace bought two large collections to decorate his house and had the wealth and freedom as
proprietor to choose how he wished them to be prepared for display. Whether the piece is over-restored
or not, it remains extraordinarily beautiful and the sword is genuine.
At the outset of this article, the issue of restoration vs. conservation was introduced with a brief
description of how these methods of “rescuing” damaged artifacts are different in both method and
philosophy. It is not the intention of this discussion to make a judgment favouring either restoration or
conservation as the superior choice in all cases, but rather to highlight examples and examine how they
reflect the different attitudes.
Just as “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder”, to borrow an old cliché, the choices made as to how
armour is to be returned to its former glory rests in the hands of those who have acquired those pieces.
Figure 7
Terminology: Parts of Armour
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 10
Whether the choices made are the result of personal esthetic preference or the desire to preserve as
much of the original as possible, the results will continue to provide insights into an earlier era.
In conclusion, when considering armour, it is important to emphasize again the differences between the
attitude of Japanese collectors as compared to that of European/American collectors – the latter appears
totally fixated on reversibility, avoiding any treatment that cannot be undone – conservation first, but if
absolutely necessary restoration; whereas Japanese collectors are quite comfortable restoring objects to
their functional condition.
Many thanks are offered to Sylvia Hennick for her editing prowess. The discussion will
continue with Part B: Swords.
APPENDIX- THE PARTS OF EUROPEAN ARMOURS
A. HORSE Armour – St. John's Castle - a replica of a castle in the European-Tudor style built
in the 20th C, by Ricardo Brennand in Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil (Finner (2008)).
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 11
B. MAN (Armour with the current names for the parts - (Armour No. II.82) and 'By permission
of the Trustees of the Royal Armouries')
Restoring Armour and Swords Part A: Armour Page 12
Bibliography
Bottomley I. (2006) - Ian Bottomley, The acquisition of XXVIA.2 and its possible origin. Arms
& Armour 3 (2) 149-157.
Capwell (2011) - Capwell (2011) - Tobias Capwell, Master Pieces of European Arms and
Armour in the Wallace Colection, Paul Robertson Publishing, London.
Dean B. (1915) - Bashford Dean Catalogue of a Loan Exibition of Arms and Armour The
Metropolitan Museum of Arts, New York.
Finner (2008) - P. Finner, R. Brennandand M .A. Maciel - Coleção de armas no Castelo São
João Raithby Lawrence & Company London 2008. - The catalogue in English and Portuguese
describe a selection of pieces that are housed in the castle. The castle is open to the public
visitation and contributes to educate the people of Pernambuco about its own past.
Kitoku (1989) - M Kitoku (ed.) - Yamazumi Shrine Catalogue, Omishima (Japanese text)
Oakeshott (1998) - Ewart oakeshott, A Knight and His Horse, Second Edition Dufour Editions
Inc. Chester Springs, Pennsylvania
Schumuecker (2007) - Emma Schumacker, The conservation and Display of a Japanese
helmet, Arms & Armour 4 (2) 145-158