Resistance Training in Children

By: Courtney Seib, Samantha Tartaglia, Jessie Butts, Kayla Waltemath & Karissa Jones

Introduction● Benefits of Resistance Training:

o improve muscular strength and enduranceo build bone masso reduce blood pressure and body fat

● Types of Resistance Training:o Enduranceo Strengtho Hypertrophyo Power

Recurring Questions● Is it safe for children and adolescents

to be resistance training?● Will it affect their growth and

development?● Will it cause injuries?● How does it affect performance?

Current OpinionAccording to the British Journal of Sports Medicine, resistance training can have many benefits for Children.● Performance improvements:

o muscular strength/power productiono running velocity/agilityo general motor performance

● Health benefits:o skeletal health, enhance bone mineral densityo reduce BF/improve body compositiono regulate insulin sensitivity in overweight/obese

Lloyd, R. S., Faigenbaum, A. D., Stone, M. H., Oliver, J. L., Jeffreys, I., Moody, J. A., . . . Myer, G. D. (2014). Position statement on youth resistance training: The 2014 international consensus. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1-12. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092952

Current Opinion● The World Health Organization (WHO) now includes resistance

training guidelines for physical activity in children.● Research has found that RT reduces sports related injury risk.

o 3.5 million that resulted in hospitalization (2009)● Improved muscular strength/RT is even associated with positive

psychological health and well-being.● Completely safe as long as RT is professionally supervised and

tailored to children’s needs.

Lloyd, R. S., Faigenbaum, A. D., Stone, M. H., Oliver, J. L., Jeffreys, I., Moody, J. A., . . . Myer, G. D. (2014). Position statement on youth resistance training: The 2014 international consensus. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1-12. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092952

Commonly Tried Methods● A Systematic Review of 12 studies looking at resistance training

interventions in children and adolescents.● Common between all studies

o majority of the studies used circuit training.o long term programs.o professional supervisiono low to moderate intensityo almost all studies used RT programs of 3 days/weeko increased muscle mass

Benson, A. C., Torode, M. E., & Singh, M. A. F. (2008). Effects of resistance training on metabolic fitness in children and adolescents: A systematic review.Obesity Reviews, 9(1), 43-66. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00388.x

Commonly Tried Methods● Pros:

o increase in body mass (muscle mass) across the boardo increases in health and cardiorespiratory fitnesso concluded as a good way to battle childhood obesity

● Cons:o saw no real changes in glucose levelso there was a lot of variation in program componentso many studies didn’t record all the data

● What could be improved:o find studies that include RT aloneo more evidence based data is needed to make conclusions

Benson, A. C., Torode, M. E., & Singh, M. A. F. (2008). Effects of resistance training on metabolic fitness in children and adolescents: A systematic review.Obesity Reviews, 9(1), 43-66. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00388.x

Athletic Injury Prevention (Pros)● Advanced training and programs that include

weightlifting movements and plyometrics are now recommended as part of performance-enhancing and injury-reducing in youth programs.

● Studies have shown that RT in adolescents reduces the risk of sports related injuries.

A D, Faigenbaum (2010). Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects. British Journal Of Sports Medicine, 44(1), 56-63.

Athletic Injury Prevention (Pros)● Including plyometrics into the resistance

training programs have been found to enhance movement biomechanics, improve functional abilities, and reduce the number of sport-related injuries in younger athletes.

● Integrative Neuromuscular Training (INT) programs have reduced abnormal biomechanics and decrease injury rate in adolescent females.

A D, Faigenbaum (2010). Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects. British Journal Of Sports Medicine, 44(1), 56-63.Faigenbaum, A. D., Myer, G. D., Farrell, A., Radler, T., Fabiano, M., Jie, K., & ... Hewett, T. E. (2014). Integrative Neuromuscular Training and Sex-Specific Fitness Performance in 7-Year-Old Children: An Exploratory Investigation. Journal Of Athletic Training (Allen Press), 49(2), 145-153.

Athletic Injury Prevention (Pros)● INT is used to enrich motor learning, enhance

physical fitness, and prevent proliferation of neuromuscular deficits in adolescents.

● Young girls that do not participate in INT have a decrease in physical activity and an increase in sport-related injury later in life.

● Incorporating INT programs into PE classes shows increases in physical activity and improved overall health.

Faigenbaum, A. D., Myer, G. D., Farrell, A., Radler, T., Fabiano, M., Jie, K., & ... Hewett, T. E. (2014). Integrative Neuromuscular Training and Sex-Specific Fitness Performance in 7-Year-Old Children: An Exploratory Investigation. Journal Of Athletic Training (Allen Press), 49(2), 145-153.

Athletic Injury Prevention (Cons)

● Adolescent powerlifters have reported low back pain and injuries to the hands and feet.

● This is due to a lack of supervision by a trained coach or professional.

● The adolescents also lifted 4 times a week.

A D, Faigenbaum (2010). Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects. British Journal Of Sports Medicine, 44(1), 56-63.

Athletic Injury Prevention (Recommendations)

● All youth that will participate in resistance training need to be mature.

● Need to wear footwear that has good traction.

● There must be a qualified professional to aid in supervision and instruction at all times.

A D, Faigenbaum (2010). Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects. British Journal Of Sports Medicine, 44(1), 56-63.

Overweight & Obesity ● Growing rate of obesity - many schools are

cutting physical education● Resistance training can be used as reverse and

preventative methodso 30-45 mins, 3 days/week, 45-55% VO2max

● Major muscle groupso biceps curl, shoulder press, bench press, triceps extension,

quadriceps extension, straight-leg raise, handgrip, and squat with sandbags on the shoulders.

● Decreased fat mass and increased lean body mass

Yu, C. C., Sung, R. Y., So, R. C., Kam-Chi, L., Lau, W., La, P. K., & Lau, E. M. (2005). Effects Of Strength Training On Body Composition And Bone Mineral Content In Children Who Are Obese. Journal Of Strength & Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing Services Inc.), 19(3), 667-672

Overweight & Obesity● Along with weight loss, muscle mass increase

may occuro Developmental stages

● Increased oxygen consumption in increased lean muscle masso Burn more calories, decrease body fat

● Lean mass and bone mineral densityo Significant effectso Prepubescent, different developmental stages

● Low back pain and back injury preventative measureso Posture and strong musculature

Yu, C. C., Sung, R. Y., So, R. C., Kam-Chi, L., Lau, W., La, P. K., & Lau, E. M. (2005). Effects Of Strength Training On Body Composition And Bone Mineral Content In Children Who Are Obese. Journal Of Strength & Conditioning Research (Allen Press Publishing Services Inc.), 19(3), 667-672

Overweight & Obesity● Safe in children as long as it is supervised

o Experienced professional● Overweight or obese children are at a higher

risk of injuryo Excess body weight

● The health benefit of preadolescent resistance training are similar to those of adultso Improved strength, power, endurance, bone density, motor

performance, self-esteem

Sothern, M. S., Loftin, J. M., Udall, J. N., Suskind, R. M., Ewing, T. L., Tang, S. C., & Blecker, U. (1999). Inclusion of Resistance Exercise in a Multidisciplinary Outpatient Treatment Program for Preadolescent Obese Children. Southern Medical Journal, 92(6), 585-592.

Skill-related Components Enhanced performance is simply a by-product of a well designed resistance training program. Skill-related components of fitness :

Power Balance Coordination Agility

The product of strength and speed. When we perform a task as quickly and as forcefully as we can.

Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium whilst stationary, or moving.

Coordination is the ability to use the body parts and senses together to produce smooth efficient movements.

Being agile is all about being able to change your direction and the speed at which you are travelling, quickly and efficiently.

Skill-related ComponentsRecommendations :

● Resistance-training programs for youth should include a 10- to 15-minute warm-up and cool-down.

● Young athletes should have adequate intake of fluids and proper nutrition, because both are vital in maintenance of muscle energy stores, recovery, and performance.

● Sport-specific exercises should be learned initially with no load (no resistance). Once the exercise technique has been mastered, incremental loads can be added using either body weight or other forms of resistance.

● Resistance training should involve 2 to 3 sets of higher repetitions (8 to 15) 2 to 3 times per week and be at least 8 weeks in duration.

● A general strengthening program should address all major muscle groups, including the core, and exercise through the complete range of motion. More sports-specific areas may be addressed subsequently.

Piazza,M.,Battaglia, C., Fiorilli, G., Innocenti, G., Iuliano, E., Aquino, G., Calcagno, G., Giombini, A., Cagno, A. (2014) Basic and Applied Anatomy Effects of resistance training on jumping performance in pre-adolescent rhythmic gymnasts: a randomized controlled study. Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology, 119, (1), 10 -19.

Hormone Response● A study was conducted on the hormone response in children

with resistance training.● Conducted of:

o 12 lean children (%BF of < 85th percentile), 13 obese children (%BF > 95th percentile) and 10 lean adults (%BF < 25th percentile)

o Exercise trials were completed in the morning between 9 am and 11 am.

o Consumed a breakfast two hours before the study that contained: 260 kcals which had 7 grams of fat, 14 grams of protein, and 37 grams of carbohydrates.

Rubin, D. A., Castner, D. M., Hoang, P., Ng, J., Adams, E., & Judelson, D. A. (2014). Hormonal and Metabolic Responses to a Resistance Exercise Protocol in Lean Children, Obese Children, and Lean Adults. Pediatric Exercise Science, 26(4), 444-454

Hormone Response● In order to take a resting blood

sample, a catheter was placed in an antecubital vein.

● 5 minute warm up on a stationary bike with a goal to raise their heart rate above 120 bpm, then a set of 3 lower body stretches were repeated twice.

Rubin, D. A., Castner, D. M., Hoang, P., Ng, J., Adams, E., & Judelson, D. A. (2014). Hormonal and Metabolic Responses to a Resistance Exercise Protocol in Lean Children, Obese Children, and Lean Adults. Pediatric Exercise Science, 26(4), 444-454

Hormone Response● The exercise training program consisted of 6 sets of 10 reps per

leg on a step up platform while wearing a weighted vest. Adults wore heavier vests and stepped on a higher stepper.

● Rest period: 1 minute between sets● Heart rate was monitored throughout the program.● Blood pressure was measured after the third and sixth sets.● RPE was taken after each set.● About 10 ml of blood was taken to test hormones

Rubin, D. A., Castner, D. M., Hoang, P., Ng, J., Adams, E., & Judelson, D. A. (2014). Hormonal and Metabolic Responses to a Resistance Exercise Protocol in Lean Children, Obese Children, and Lean Adults. Pediatric Exercise Science, 26(4), 444-454

Hormone Response: Results

● Obese participants were heavier having a higher %BF and a greater resting systolic BP than the lean participants.

● As expected, adults were older, taller, and had more body mass than the children.

● Children and adults had similar heart rates during and after exercise.

● In all groups systolic BP increased.

Hormone Response: Results

● No differences in epinephrine response within the groups.● Norepinephrine responses did vary:

o Lean group showed no change over time.o Obese children and adults showed an increase with exercise.

● No significant changes or differences for growth hormone and insulin like growth factor-1 were seen in response to resistance training.

● Growth hormone concentrations were lower in obese children than in lean children and adults.

● Significant change in insulin , but no difference in adults.● Lean children showed a decrease in glucagon in response to exercise and this

continued throughout recovery. Obese children showed a decrease in glucagon. Adults showed an increase in glucagon at 15 minutes into recovery.

Rubin, D. A., Castner, D. M., Hoang, P., Ng, J., Adams, E., & Judelson, D. A. (2014). Hormonal and Metabolic Responses to a Resistance Exercise Protocol in Lean Children, Obese Children, and Lean Adults. Pediatric Exercise Science, 26(4), 444-454

FITT Plan for Children● Guidelines Given:

2-3x weeks ~8-10 reps

Free Weights (ie. dumbbells, stability ball, med. ball)

Less than 60 minutes/ day

FITT Plan Revised● According to the research we read:

o 3 days/week long term programs seem to have better results

o 8-10 reps/circuit training Either stick to reps if you are using free weights or use time

limits if you are only using body weighto Body weight or free weights

easier than trying to find correctly sized machineso 30-60 minutes

lower intensity, higher duration; no more than 60 minuteso Low to moderate intensity

start low and work up to a more intense routine● Supervision is necessary

Future Studies● More studies on the general healthy population.

o Comparison to overweight and obese childreno Not sport-specifico Direct vs. Indirect measures

● Looking at a variety of sports.● More studies on integrative neuromuscular

training.● Looking at what the effective sets and

repetitions are for children.

References