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A presentation by
Jessie Booth & James Neill
RESILIENCE AND COPING IN
OUTDOOR EDUCATION
!
19 t h Nat iona l Outdoor Educat ion Conference , March
30, 2016 Univer s i t y o f Sunsh ine Coast ,
Queens land , Aust ra l ia .
Introduce psychological theory about stress, coping and resilience.
Review research about coping strategies and resilience in outdoor education (OE).
Explore how OE can use coping strategies to contribute to the development of resilience.
THIS PRESENTATION WILL:
Hardiness Resourcefulness Mental toughness
RESILIENCE – RELATED CONCEPTS
Capacity for adapting well in the face of tragedy, trauma, threats or significant stress (American Psychological Association, 2010)
Bouncing back from a challenging experience (Smith et al . , 2008)
Conceptualisation has changed from being a special, invulnerable characteristic of some individuals to a normal achievable and basic human adaptation system.
PSYCHOLOOGICAL RESILIENCE
RESILIENCE – SOURCES
some types of risk make individuals vulnerable
protective factors lessen an individuals response to adversity (or make them more resilient)
Antecedent → Adversity (e.g., experiences that are difficult to adjust to)
Response → Positive adaptation (e.g., behavioural competencies that are symptoms of internal well-being)
Coping
Coping = behavioural and cognitive attempts to manage stress (Carpenter, 1992)
Diverse range of coping skills enables healthy adaptation.
Transactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987) 1. Primary appraisal = perception of a threat as irrelevant/benign or
stressful. 2. Secondary appraisal = selecting a response to the threat to best
manage it.
COPING
3 main categories of coping responses (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980): Problem-focused Emotion-focused Avoidant
We should be cautious about labelling particular coping strategies as positive or negative because each may be effective in particular situations.
COPING
Stress Inoculation Model Similar to development of immunity against disease Small dosages of stress allow the system to build resilience
COPING & RESILIENCE
Challenge (Stress-inducing
experience)
Adaptive coping
behaviour
Increased resilience and adaptability
Stress Coping Resilience
Psychoeducation sessions (x4) for stressed uni students: resilience and stress models, coping strategies, responsibility,
changing disempowering interpretations, creating meaningful connections, and self-leadership
Results (compared to control group): Significantly higher resilience scores Greater use of problem-focused coping strategies Lower use of avoidant coping strategies
Techniques to develop coping (what we can do in OE): Psychoeducation Change environment/ stressor to test and practice responses Coping effectiveness training and practice
STUDY 1 – COPING INTERVENTION (STEINHARDT & DOLBIER, 2008)
Unfamiliar, wilderness environments Challenging nature of adventure activities Guided facilitation of experiences Group dynamics
In theory, this can create constructive anxiety or dissonance Participants are required to engage coping strategies and
therefore build resilience
Generally positive but variable results in studies examining change in resilience through OE programs
OE AS A RESILIENCE INTERVENTION
Neill and Dias (2001): Adult participants in a 22-day Outward Bound Australia program (large change: d = 1 .10, N = 41)
Shellman (2009): Youth participants in 14 to 30 day Outward Bound USA programs ( large change: d = 0.87, N = 63)
Hayhurst, Hunter, Kafka, & Boyes (2015): Youth participants in a 10-day New Zealand sail training voyage (moderate change: d = 0.59, N = 66)
Ewert & Yoshino (2011). US college students outdoor adventure education semester program (moderate change: d = 0.40, N = 66)
However, other studies have found no significant changes: Sheard and Golby (2006): 26 university students in UK for a 3-month outdoor
adventure education curriculum. Skehill (2001): 99 adolescents in initial 5-week period of residential program
that combined outdoor education with traditional school curriculum.
RESILIENCE & OUTDOOR EDUCATION STUDIES
Investigated development of psychological resilience and the contribution of different coping strategies
Outward Bound program for adolescents
Mixed method (quantitative & qualitative)
COPING & RESILIENCE IN OUTDOOR ED (BOOTH, 2015)
I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times. I have a hard time making it through stressful
events. (R) It does not take me long to recover from a
stressful event. It is hard for me to snap back when something
bad happens. (R) I usually come through difficult times with little
trouble. I tend to take a long time to get over set-backs in
my life. (R)
BRIEF RESILIENCE SCALE (SMITH ET AL . , 2008)
CHANGE IN RESILIENCE FOR EACH PARTICIPANT
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 Series1
RESULTS - CHANGE IN RESILIENCE
QUANTITATIVE: Small increase in resilience- effect size= .2 (small)
Positive change
Typical of OE/Resilience results
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Time1 Time2
QUALITATIVE: over half 14 interviewed participants had positive changes in resilience.
COPE (CARVER ET AL . , 1989)
Average overall use of strategy
4= a lot 3= a medium amount
2= a little bit 1= not at all
COPING STRATEGIES
DURING AN OE PROGRAM Resilience-enhancing
Resilience-undermining
3 coping strategies partially explained change in resilience: Qualitative data showed greater use of:
Positive Reinterpretation: Construing a stressful transaction in positive terms e.g., “I learnt something from the experience.”
Quantitative data showed lower use of: Acceptance:
Accepting the reality of a stressful situation e.g., I learnt to live with it.
Focus on and Venting of Emotions: Focusing on what is distressing or upsetting and ventilating those feelings e.g., I felt a lot of emotional distress and found myself expressing those feelings a lot.
predicted greater positive changes in resilience
RESULTS – CONTRIBUTION OF COPING TO CHANGE IN RESILIENCE
Resilience is a core psychological outcome targetted by outdoor education programs
There is positive but varied evidence about effect of OE on participants’ resilience levels.
Psychological theory suggests coping strategies can influence development of resilience.
Thus, to improve outcomes of OE programs, consider: Greater integration of psychoeducation to help guide participants’
coping strategy skill and choices Facilitators can be influential in teaching, facilitating, and role
modeling use of adaptive coping skills Specially target:
Positive reinterpretation (↑) Acceptance (↓) Focus on and venting of emotion (↓)
CONCLUSION
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