Researching Society and Culture

Week 3Designing research: which methods

Structure of lecture

• Key readings• Ontology and epistemology revisited• Objectivism, positivism and empiricism• Interpretivism/constructivism• Quantitative versus qualitative research

methods• Mixed methods• Values in research

Key readings

• Bryman, A. 2008, Social Research Methods. Oxford Uni Press. Oxford. (Chapter 1) CE

• May, T. 2011. Social research (e-book)

• Duneier chapter and Wilding article for seminar, plus download Pearson article.

What can we know and how can we know it?

• Ontology – The ‘what’ (Being) refers to theories concerning what exists to be known.

• Epistemology – the ‘how’(method) refers to theories about the ways in which we perceive and know our social world, including the tools used.

Ontological position 1: Objectivism

• That there is an external, knowable reality out there that we can define, code, investigate and record.

• This exists independently of the social actors and their interpretation of what is going on.

• Linked to epistemological positions of positivism and empiricism.

Epistemological position 1: Positivism/empiricism

• Advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the study of social reality.

• Assumes neutrality of the researcher.• Can establish correlations/ cause and effect

between variables.• Empiricist in that knowledge comes from

sensory experience – what we can see, hear, touch etc.

Ontological position 2: constructionism/interpretivism

• People are different from the phenomena studied by the natural sciences.

• Social reality is constructed by the meanings and contexts of social actors.

• These meanings are constantly changing and being revised by social actors.

Epistemological position 2: Interpretivism/constructivism

• We cannot really know the social world, only how people name and interpret (construct) it.

• Research studies the meanings, and interpretations of social actors.

• Researchers themselves, of course, have interpretations and apply meanings to the social world they are studying.

Epistemological position 3: (Critical)Realism

• Accepts that there is a reality out there which can be studied.

• But, this reality is not necessarily directly ‘observable’, but is generated by other mechanisms; thus, domestic violence is generated by patriarchy.

What does all of this mean?

• What we research and how we research it are all influenced by our ontological and epistemological positions.

• But remember, we are also influenced by other considerations, e.g. our experiences and values.

Quantitative research

• Emphasises quantification in the collection and analysis of data

• Usually entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research (testing theories)

• Practices and norms of the natural sciences• Social reality as external and objective

Qualitative research

• Predominantly an inductive approach in which research generates theory

• Rejects practices of natural science and positivism

• Focus on how individuals interpret their social world

• Views social reality as unstable and constantly changing, and as the creation of social actors

Strengths and weakness

Quants• Research and the data are

statistically replicable• Are generally large scale

projects, and so representative

• ‘Scientific’• BUT:• Does not really answer the

why or how questions

Quals• In depth understanding of

people’s lives• Can give a voice to

oppressed groups and change the world

• But:• Possible researcher bias, so

not replicable• Small scale, so not

representative

Mixed methods

• The previous discussion implies that quals and quants are incompatible.

• But some researchers argue that it possible to combine – triangulation.

• E.g. large scale survey and focus groups• But: only if relevant to the research question(s)• Some argue that it is not possible to mix

different ontological and epistemological positions

Values in research

• As researchers we bring our own values to our research. This impacts on:

• 1) our choice of research area• 2) what our research questions are• 3) our choice of method• 4) research design and data collection

methods• 5) the analysis and presentation of the data

Reflexivity

• In order to deal with these issues we should ‘recognise and acknowledge that research cannot be value free’ (Bryman, A. 2008: 25)

• So, we should forewarn our readers of our attitudes and positioning so that they can judge for themselves.

• Especially prevelant in feminist research

What next?

• For seminar:• Read one of Bryman (2008) or May (2011)• And read intro to Duneier (CE) and Wilding

(online), and download Pearson article.

• NEXT WEEK: QUANTITATIVE METHODS (1)