Research Service Background Paper

Parliament of Australia

Research Service Background Paper

An Overview of Current Issuesin Primary and Secondary Education:National and State Perspectives

Mary LindsayEducation and Welfare Research Group

14 June 1990

This paper has been prepared for general distribution to Members of the Australian Parliament.The views expressed in the paper do not necessarily reflect those of the Research Service or of anyparr of the Parliament.The content of the paper may be attributed to the author.

ISSN 10~107

Copyright Commonwealth of Australia 1990

Except to the extent of the u... permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no pan of thll publication may be reproduced ortransmitted in any form or by any meana including information atorage and retrieval sylt.m, without the prior written consentof the Oepartment of the Parllamentaty Ubrary, other than by Membefa of thl AumaJian Parliament in the courw of theirofficial dull••.

Published by the Department 01 the Parliamentary Ubre/"f. 1990

I should like to thank all the members of the Education and

Welfare Section of the parliamentary Research Service for their

support and assistance. My thanks also to Paula O'Brien of the

Reference Section of the Parliamentary Library and staff from

State education departments who provided comments on early drafts

of the paper.

Mary Lindsay

7 June 1990

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION

INCREASING RETENTION RATES - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

- BY STATE AND TERRITORY

CHANGES TO THE CURRICULUM - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

- BY STATE AND TERRITORY

1

2

4

6

8

ASSESSMENT AND CERTIFICATION - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 14

- BY STATE AND TERRITORY 17

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 25


THE DRIFT TO PRIVATE SCHOOLS - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 35


THE POSITION OF TEACHERS - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 40


- 1 -

INTRODUCTION

It is evident, at the beginning of the 1990s, that families areas concerned as ever about the quality of education available tochildren in Australia.

In the past two decades there have been many significant changesin primary and secondary education and more can be expected inthe 1990s. Major factors are likely to include:

demographic changes, with the current drop inprimary school enrolments beginning to impact onsecondary schoolsthe changing role of post-compulsory schoolingcompeting pressures on curriculum and accreditationpressures for centralisation and others fordecentralisationthe rapid pace of social change, with concomitantpressure on the education system and increasinganxiety on the part of families to ensure theirchildren obtain the 'right' education.

It is not the intention of this paper to weigh these factorsagainst each other. There are too many variables, and differentsocial and ethical values will be applied by different groups.

The paper sets out some of the national and State trends relatingto retention rates, curriculum, assessment and certification,organisational change, the drift to private schools and theposition of teachers.

The author spent three months with the Research Service (April toJune 1990) on secondment from the Department of Employment,Education and Training.

Enquiries on this paper should be addressed to Ms ConstanceLarmour, Director, Education and Welfare Research Group,telephone 2772410.

- 2 -

INCREASING RETENTION RATES - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

The number of students remaining at school until Year 12increased dramatically during the 1980s in every State andTerritory. Nationally, the retention rate was 40.6 per cent1 in1983. It has increased in each year since, reaching 60.3 percent in 1989. A number of factors contributed to thissignificant change. These include:

(1) Commonwealth and State Government Policy

A succession of governments expressed increasing concern duringthe 1970s and 1980s about the low retention rates in Australiacompared with those of our major trading partners and the likelyconsequences of this for Australia's future economic development.In 1985 the Federal Government announced a new target for schoolretention - to ensure that by the early 1990s, 65 per cent ofschool students would complete Year 12. Although considered overambitious in some quarters this target has provided Stategovernments and school authorities with a clear objective whichwill almost certainly be exceeded in most States.

(2) Commonwealth and State Financial Assistance to StudentsRemaining at School after Year 10

Since 1987 Commonwealth financial assistance has been providedthrough AUSTUDY, a benefit available to full time students aged16 or more undertaking approved courses at schools, TAFEcolleges, universities etc. AUSTUDY subsumed previous financialassistance arrangements. Assistance is subject to parentalincome testing and equivalent to the Job Search Allowance (alsosubject to parental income testing), thus removing the financialincentive under earlier arrangements for young people to leaveschool and obtain Unemployment Benefit. Higher rates are payablefor students who have to live away from home in order to continuetheir studies. ABSTUDY operates on similar principles and istargetted to Aboriginal students.

Most States have established schemes to help low income familiesmeet the costs of keeping children at junior secondary and seniorsecondary schools, although rates of payment and eligibilitycriteria vary. In the Australian Capital Territory, for example,an education allowance of up to $500 per year is payable toeligible 15 year olds. In Queensland a text book allowance ispaid to all students in years 8-12. In addition, students incountry areas may be eligible for living away from home andtravelling allowances.

1. All figures relate to the apparent retention rate, which excludesstudents repeating a year of education, interstate movements,part time students and other net changes to the schoolpopulation.

- 3 -

(3) Abolition of Unemployment Benefit for People aged 16 and 17

In June 1988 the Government replaced Unemployment Benefit forpeople aged 16 and 17 with the Job Search Allowance, which issubject to parental income testing. As noted above, this removedthe financial incentive for young people to leave school andobtain Unemployment Benefit.

(4) High Youth Unemployment

Although this is undoubtedly a significant factor for some, itsimportance should not be overestimated. During the 1970s, forexample, Year 12 retention rates increased slowly despite highyouth unemployment from 1975 whereas since 1984 retention rateshave increased more rapidly whilst youth unemployment hasfallen steadily. There appears to be an increasing recognitionamong students and their parents of the shrinking opportunitiesfor permanent, full time work for young school leavers and thishas also contributed to higher school retention.

Increasing retention rates have necessitated major changes toschool curricula and assessment procedures. These are among themost important issues facing education authorities and schools inevery State and they will be considered later in the paper.

Higher retention rates in Years 11 and 12 have coincided, in mostStates, with decreasing enrolments, especially in governmentprimary schools. This has been caused partly by a fall in thebirth rate and partly by the drift to private schools. It hasresulted in major changes to school population profiles in manyareas and necessitated significant organisational changes. Thesewill also be discussed in greater detail later in the paper.

- 4 -

INCREASING RETENTION RATES - BY STATE AND TERRITORY

New South Wales

In New South Wales retention rates have been consistently lowerthan in most other States, increasing from 37.5 per cent in 1983to 54.4 per cent in 1989. The rates are lower than the nationalaverage for both government and non government schools.

Victoria

In Victoria retention rates for Year 12 students increased from38.8 per cent in 1983 to 60.5 per cent in 1989, one of thelargest percentage increases of any State. The biggest increasewas in the western metropolitan area. Retention in country areaswas significantly lower than in the metropolitan area. Thispattern is consistent in all States and Territories.

Queensland

Queensland has had consistently high retention rates (47.2 percent in 1983 to 69.7 per cent in 1989) compared with the otherStates and Territories, which the Government attributes to thewide subject choice available to students in Years 10 -12. Itmight also be influenced by high youth unemployment rates.

South Australia

Retention rates in South Australia are similar to those inQueensland (rising from 47.6 per cent in 1983 to 66.7 per cent in1989). In all States, but not the Territories, retention ratesare significantly higher in non government schools. Thedifference between government and non government retention ratesis most marked in South Australia where, in 1988, it was 59 percent in government schools and 95.7 per cent in non governmentschools.

Western Australia

In Western Australia retention rates increased from 40.4 per centin 1983 to 61.8 per cent in 1989, which is close to the nationalaverage.

Tasmania

Retention rates in Tasmania have been consistently lower than thenational average, ranging from 24.7 per cent in 1983 to 39.7 percent in 1989. These figures reflect the geographically dispersedpopulation and the lower than average incomes in that State.Both factors have a significant impact upon retention rates inall States and Territories.

- 5 -

Northern Territory

In the Northern Territory retention rates have traditionally beenlower than the national average but the rate of increase has beensignificantly greater than elsewhere. Retention rates increasedfrom 20.6 per cent in 1983 to 42.7 per cent in 1989. TheNorthern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory werealone in recording higher retention rates in government than innon government schools, a development which can be attributed atleast in part to the more innovative approach to the organisationof post compulsory schooling, for example through theestablishment of secondary colleges.

Australian Capital Territory

The ACT has historically had the highest retention rates in thecountry, reflecting its high socio-economic status and urbannature (as well as the limited number of job opportunities forunskilled workers). Retention rates increased from 72.8 per centin 1983 to 85.6 per cent in 1989. In government schools in 1988the rate was 86.3 per cent, compared with 71.8 per cent in nongovernment schools.

- 6 -

CHANGES TO THE CURRICULUM - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Changes to the curriculum are taking place in every State andTerritory. The issue is a contentious one, with different andsometimes contradictory approaches being adopted in the differentStates. Although curriculum change has implications for everylevel of schooling, debate has focus sed on post compulsoryschooling (Years 11 and 12). A number of interrelated factorsare responsible for the current preoccupation with curriculumchange. At the national level (and reflected to varying degreesin the States and Territories) these include:

(1) Increasing Retention Rates

Changes to the curriculum in Years 11 and 12 are both a cause andan effect of increasing retention rates. On the one hand thechanges represent a deliberate attempt to make the curriculummore interesting and more relevant and thus to persuade even more16 - 18 year olds to remain at school. On the other hand, thechanges can be seen as a response to the needs of a larger andmore diverse post compulsory school population, many of whom haveneither the ability nor the desire to undertake tertiary studies.Much of the debate therefore centres around the need to develop acurriculum which meets the needs of this group while maintainingintellectual content and standards in subjects required fortertiary entrance. The related issues of assessment andcertification are considered separately.

(2) The Drift to Private Schools

As with retention rates, changes to the curriculum are both acause and an effect of the drift to private schools, with someeducationalists seeing the changes as an attempt to halt thedrift and others viewing them as a contributing factor asstudents move to the supposedly more traditional curriculumoffered in the private schools. This issue is considered ingreater detail elsewhere in this paper.

(3) National Collaboration in Curriculum Development

Federal Government scope for involvement in primary and secondaryeducation is limited by the fact that it is funded primarily byState governments. Nevertheless, Federal Government influence isincreasing.. Nowhere is this more evident than in the curriculum·debate. The Federal Government favours the adoption of anational curriculum to promote a greater degree of nationalcohesion and consistency across States, to benefit those studentstransferring between States and to ensure that Australian schoolsare providing an education which will enable the country tocompete effectively into the next century. The AustralianEducation Council (AEC) is currently mapping curriculumdevelopments across Australia and developing guidelines as thefirst step in this process. The process has been supported by theStates, with varying degrees of enthusiasm.

- 7 -

(4) Debate about Declining Standards, especially of Literacy andNumeracy

Perceptions among employers and tertiary institutions, frequentlyreferred to in the media, are that educational standards arefalling and that increasing numbers of school leavers are failingto reach acceptable levels of numeracy and literacy. TheAustralian Army claimed recently, for example, that the number ofapplicants rejected because of inadequate literacy andcomprehension levels doubled between 1985 and 1990 (to 12 percent of male applicants and 4 per cent of females) although thetests have remained constant. 2 Claims such as these are disputedby teachers and many academics. They cite, for example, theresults of a series of national sample surveys conducted by theAustralian Council for Educational Research (ACER) since 1975 onthe literacy and numeracy skills of 10 and 14 year olds, whichconcluded that there had been no overall decline in standardsduring this period. A recently released ACER report entitled'Primary Schooling in Victoria' also found that literacy andnumeracy skills in Victorian primary schools had not declinedbetween 1983 and 1987. This debate has influenced a number ofcurriculum developments in the States, most notably the movesaway from broad, school based curricula towards a State basedcore curriculum with emphasis on numeracy and literacy skills anda return to external assessment.

(5) Attempts to Improve the Links between Employment, Educationand Training

The most obvious manifestation of the attempt by the FederalGovernment to improve links between employment, education andtraining was the merging of the departments of Education andEmployment in 1987. Since then a number of initiatives havereinforced these links. These include current moves to develop,jointly with State education departments, a national data base ofjob and course information. In some States this policy has had adirect impact on the curriculum, with accreditation of TAPEcourses and work experience as part of the assessed curriculum.

2. Major John Dodd, reported in The Canberra Times of 20/4/90.

- 8 -

CHANGES TO THE CURRICULUM - BY STATE AND TERRITORY

New South Wales

New South Wales was the first State to produce a comprehensiveplan for restructuring its curriculum and to support theCommonwealth's move towards development of a national curriculum.The plan is enshrined in the Educational Reform Act whichrecently was adopted after prolonged discussion in both Houses ofParliament and the inclusion of 91 amendments. The Actestablishes a Board of Studies to be responsible for curriculumdevelopment in all schools. It will have considerable power overthe curriculum. It will, for example, select a list of Englishtexts from which schools can choose a number of titles. Atpresent, selection from the list provided by the Board ofSecondary Education (the forerunner to the Board of Studies) isnot mandatory, except for students in Years 10 - 12.

The Act stipulates a common core curriculum for all students inprimary and secondary schools. Primary schools will be requiredto place greater emphasis on the basics. Students in Years 7 - 10will be required to study subjects in six of eight key learningareas. All eight will be compulsory by 1995. Those preparing forHigher School Certificate (HSC) will be required to select fromthree key areas: English; maths, science and technology; andhumanities. From 1991 every child will be required to study alanguage for at least one year between Years 7 and 10.

This is the first time in New South Wales, and possibly inAustralia that specific details of school curricula have been soclearly defined in ~n Act of Parliament. It will thus be muchmore difficult and cumbersome a procedure to change thecurriculum in response to changing requirements. The Act willalso give the Minister very considerable power over syllabuses,assessment and certification.

Under the new curriculum plan the number of elective courses(called Other Approved Studies - OAS) offered by the schools willbe reduced. Many will be replaced by one and two unit courses,the content of which has been approved by the Board. .

Victoria

Since the 1970s the curriculum in Victoria has becomeprogressively more school based, a trend evident in a number ofStates but in the process of reversal elsewhere. In Victoria theprovision of school based curricula has been assisted through theMinistry of Education publications Curriculum Frameworks, whichprovide guidance for schools in planning and reviewing theircurricula as well as sample courses in nine broad areas of studyfrom Year 1 through to Year 12. 3 The frameworks are advisory

3. Curriculum Frameworks P- 12. An Introduction, Ministry ofEducation Victoria, 1985.

- 9 -

rather than prescriptive but can be expected to enhance the roleplayed by individual schools in planning their curricula.

Current curriculum debate in Victoria is inextricably linked tothe Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE), due forintroduction in 1992 to replace the HSC. The parameters of thedebate were established by the Blackburn Report of 1985 which,althoug~ it focus sed on post compulsory schooling, hadimplications for all areas of the curriculum with its emphasis onthe role of schools in redressing inequities and providing parityof esteem and of outcomes among students. 4 Blackburn stressedthe importance of the learning process rather than the content ofthe courses offered and her views have influenced recent attemptsto broaden the curriculum and make it more accessible to a widerrange of students.

Queensland

Curriculum debate for the compulsory years of schooling hasfocus sed in Queensland on the advantages and disadvantages of acontinuous curriculum for Year 1 through to Year 10. Thisapproach was favoured by the Department of Education discussionpaper entitled Education 2,000, published in 1985, as a means ofbreaking down what it considered unnecessary barriers betweenprimary and secondary education. 5 It advocated a more flexibleapproach to early education, with children progressing accordingto ability rather than age in non graded, activity-based groups.The emphasis was on the acquisition of skills, concepts andattitudes rather than specific subject content. In line withthis approach, the document also advocated changes to teachertraining so that teachers acquired general skills rather thanspecia1isations.

For post compulsory schooling the "Education 2000" Report and theBassett Report which followed it both sought to delay earlysubject choice and to make the curriculum more relevant to thelarge number of students completing Year 12 who do not proceed totertiary studies. (This group is larger in Queensland than in anyother State). In 1988 the Queensland Government abolished theBoard of Secondary School Studies and replaced it with twoorganisations - the Board of Senior Secondary School Studies,responsible for curriculum development in Years 10-12 and theMinisterial Consultative Council, responsible for curriculumdevelopment in Years 1-10. Teacher representation was reduced onthese boards, which are now much more directly responsible to theGovernment.

4. Ministerial Review of Postcompulsory Schooling, vols. 1 & 2,Ministry of Education, Victoria, 1985.

5. Education 2000: Issues and Options for the Future of Educationin Queensland, Department of Education, Queensland, 1985.

- 10 -

South Australia

Until the early 1970s the curriculum in South Australia wascentrally developed by the Department of Education and followedby all teachers in government schools. During the 1970s thissystem changed and by 1980 the curriculum was generally schoolbased around eight curriculum areas such as health and personaldevelopment, human society etc. There were problems with thisapproach because teachers lacked time for, and expertise in, thedevelopment and production of curriculum materials and schoolslacked resources to buy externally produced materials. TheDepartment of Education established a Curriculum Directorate withresponsibility for producing materials but it failed to meet thedemand.

Curriculum issues were reviewed by a Committee chaired by Dr JohnKeeves, which reported in 1982. 6 The Committee claimed thatState mechanisms for monitoring and reviewing curricula wereinadequate, with the result that standards varied enormouslybetween schools. Keeves recommended the imposition ofprescriptive, State wide, sequentially organised, subject-basedlearning focus sed on four core areas. These were: Englishlanguage; natural sciences; maths and social learning. They wereto be supplemented by a subsidiary group of subjects, such ashealth and physical education, as well as some elective subjects.However, the four core or foundation areas were to account fortwo-thirds of the timetable in secondary schools. The emphasison core subjects in primary schools was reiterated by Denis Ralphin his Report on the Primary Education Review of SouthAustralia, published in 1988.} These documents have formed thebasis of recent curriculum changes in primary and junior primaryschools in South Australia.

For Years 11 and 12, a similar emphasis was evident in theGilding Report of 1988 entitled Report into Immediate PostCompulsory Education in South Australia. 8 The Report recommendeda 22 unit curriculum based on subjects in the three broad areasof: English/arts/humanities; social and cultural studies;maths/science/technology. As in New South Wales, there is a movefor Year 11 and 12 students to select subjects from broad"essential ,areas" rather than from an indiscriminate range ofsubject options.

6. Education and Change in South Australia, Committee of Inquiryinto Education in South Australia, 1982.

7. Directions: Report of the Primary Education Review of SouthAustralia, Denis Ralph, 1988.

8. Report into Immediate Postcompulsory Education in South Australia,Kevin Gilding, 1988.

- 11 -

Western Australia

A range of measures was introduced into Western Australianschools in 1987 based on the recommendations of the BeazleyCommittee, which reported in 1984. 9 As a result, each childundertaking compulsory education in Western Australia wasrequired to study subjects in seven curriculum areas. Althoughthe material was sequential in nature, children could work attheir own pace and might, for example, complete a Year 9 unitwhen in Year 8 etc. Some of these measures were opposed byteachers and parents, who considered they did not place enoughemphasis on core subjects and provided insufficient preparationfor students wishing to proceed beyond Year 10. Many of thesestudents, when faced with a choice between core and moreperipheral subjects such as personal and vocational education,opted for the latter.

These measures were therefore modified in 1988, followingpublication by the Education Department of Guidelines on the UnitCurriculum. The Guidelines basically limited choices of studentsbelow Year 10, ensured that all students selected at least onesubject from all seven curriculum areas and provided advice toschools on appropriate time to be spent in the acquisition ofliteracy and numeracy skills.

A Joint Government Schools/TAPE Ministerial Post-CompulsoryEducation Task Force was established in 1989 ·to consider a rangeof issues impacting upon retention and participation in WesternAustralia. In particular, it will consider curriculum structuresin post compulsory school and TAPE courses, accreditationprocesses and career education. The Task Force is shortly torelease a Discussion Paper which will form the basis ofconsultations with interested groups in Western Australia, andcan be .expected to result in significant changes in thecompulsory school curriculum and to links between school and TAPEcourses.

Tasmania

Following concerns expressed in the 1980s about the emphasis inTasmanian schools on the development of skills at the expense ofsubject content the Government in 1986 introduced a prescriptive,centrally developed core syllabus in all subjects to ensurecomparable standards between schools and the maintenance ofadequate standards of numeracy and literacy.

The planned introduction of the Tasmanian Certificate ofEducation in 1992 is already having a major impact uponcurriculum development. Although the changes are generallysupported by teachers, many have expressed concern both about thesignificantly increased work load associated with development ofa new curriculum and a more comprehensive reporting system andabout the speed with which curriculum and assessment changes arebeing introduced.

9. Education in Western Australia, Report of the Committee ofInquiry into Education in Western Australia, 1984.

- 12 -

Northern Territory

Between 1974 and 1978, Northern Territory education wascontrolled by the Commonwealth. During this period, and for someyears after control passed to the Northern Territory Government,individual schools exercised significant control over thecurriculum, which differed markedly between schools. Since theearly 1980s however, the Government has tried to centralise andstandardise the curriculum because of concerns that some schoolswere not devoting sufficient attention to basic skills and toassist the 10 per cent of Northern Territory students who changeschools each year. These moves were reinforced when a 1980 ACERtest of the literacy and numeracy skills of Northern Territoryprimary school children revealed that they performed less wellthan their State counterparts. Following release of the results,pressure mounted for the introduction of a core curriculum.

Since that time, the Education Department has had responsibilityfor developing, directing and co-ordinating the core curriculum,which has expanded over the years and now covers six key subjectareas in primary schools and eight in secondary schools.Curriculum moderation by teachers and curriculum staff ensurescomparability of courses throughout the Territory, in the sameway as assessment moderation ensures that comparable standardsare applied in marking students' work.

Debate on the curriculum is continuing in the Northern Territoryand focus sed most recently on the Northern Territory Board ofStudies proposal (1989) to compel high schools to devote aspecified minimum time to core subjects in every quarter - a moveopposed by school councils and teachers but supported by theNorthern Territory Government and employers.


From its inception in 1974, the ACT Schools Authority hassupported the development of school based curricula in theTerritory, subject to guidelines devised by the Authority onassessment and reporting procedures.

Because of the separation of high schools and colleges in theAustralian Capital Territory and the lack of externalexaminations at the end of Year 10, the high schools are freedfrom any major concerns with preparing students for tertiaryentry. (The colleges impose no prerequisites on Year 10 studentsentering the colleges, although there is some competition betweenstudents for courses and colleges in greatest demand.). Manyhigh schools have used this freedom to offer a large number.ofdisparate short courses which, critics claim, may inhibit theconsistent development of skills and key concepts.

- 13 -

In the secondary colleges, teachers develop curricula, which arethen submitted for accreditation to the Schools Authority.Accredited courses for which Tertiary Entrance Scoreclassification is sought are forwarded to Canberra University forfurther consideration. In addition, colleges offer registeredcourses with a cultural/recreational/general interest focustargetted primarily to students not planning to continue studiesat the tertiary level.

The reliance in the ACT school system on internal assessment(there are no external examinations) and the wide curriculumchoice, especially in colleges, are said by their supporters toaccount for the high retention rates in ACT government schools.Other factors are also important however, such as the higher thanaverage education and income levels of ACT parents and the lackof job opportunities for unskilled workers.

- 14 -

ASSESSMENT AND CERTIFICATION - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

One of the major debates in primary and secondary schooleducation today concerns the usefulness, relevance andappropriateness of traditional methods of assessment andcertification. As with debate on curriculum change, to which itis closely linked, discussion has focussed on post-compulsoryschooling, although in some States it is also conducted as partof the debate on standards. At the national level a number ofinterrelated factors can be identified as contributing to thecurrent debate on assessment. The same factors operate in theStates and Territories. The most significant factors include:

(1) The Changes in Composition and Aspirations of Year 12Students

Until the 1970s, students completing Year 12 were a veryhomogeneous group. Overwhelmingly middle class and Anglo Saxon,the majority hoped to go on to tertiary study. To this end theytended to select academic, core subjects and to aim for highgrades in the HSC (or its equivalent) on which university andcollege selection was based.

Increasing retention rates have changed all this. Students nowcompleting Year 12 come from very varied backgrounds and have awide range of abilities and career aspirations. Fewer than halfof them proceed from school to tertiary studies. Many are unableor unwilling to attempt the rigorous academic study traditionallyassociated with preparation for the HSC. Others see it asirrelevant to their chosen careers. Given that the HSC wasdeveloped primarily as a selection tool for higher educationalinstitutions, especially universities, its relevance andusefulness are being increasingly questioned in some States. Inothers, it has been significantly modified in recent years. Itscritics also point to its complexity, claiming that many parents,employers and students are confused about the way in which finalscores are calculated.

(2) A Common Approach to Assessment

To complement moves towards national collaboration in curriculumdevelopment, the Federal Government also supports the adoption ofa common approach to school assessment. One of its eventualobjectives here is to establish portability of qualificationsbetween States so that, for example, a tertiary institution inWestern Australia or an employer in New South Wales will be ableto assess the value of a certificate issued in Victoria andcompare it with one issued elsewhere.

- 15 -

To assist children moving between school systems, and theirteachers, the Commonwealth and States are considering thedevelopment of student information portfolios with a commonstructure designed to provide the new teacher and the new schoolwith a record and description of a student's past achievementsand skill levels. In addition, the Federal Government isencouraging a common approach to benchmarks for assessing schoolperformance and for reporting on this to parents and to thecommunity generally. This objective is closely linked to thedebate on educational standards. The development of informationportfolios and benchmarks is now being considered by WorkingParties of the AEC.

(3) The Debate on Educational Standards

As noted earlier, one of the most contentious current issues ineducation in every State concerns educational standards, withopinion divided on whether standards are falling. Critics ofcurrent standards favour the introduction of formal, standardisedtesting at set intervals throughout the compulsory school years,particularly for literacy and numeracy skills. A number ofStates have recently introduced such tests although opinion isdivided on their value. Supporters claim that the results willindicate - to students, parents, employers and the communitygenerally - the success or failure of current teaching practicesin imparting these basic skills. They will also enable them tomake comparisons between schools and over time. Opponents claimthat the tests categorise large numbers of students as failuresand reinforce the disadvantage of those from non mainstreambackgrounds. Furthermore, opponents consider the test process isoften counter productive because it encourages teachers toconcentrate their efforts on narrow, test-related tasks. Testsare said to threaten retention rates because they discourage lowachievers from remaining at school.

(4) Educational Issues in the Debate on Assessment andCertification

A number of conflicting views have emerged which have influencedthe course of debate on assessment and certification in everyState and Territory. The first of these, which has arisen inparticular in relation to the Year 12 certificate, concerns thedangers inherent in the early subject specialisation required ofstudents undertaking the traditional HSC. Critics of earlyspecialisation favour the adoption of a more general curriculumapproach in Years 11 and 12, with concomitant changes inassessment and certification procedures. Others argue thatspecialisation and in depth study are necessary prerequisites forthose proceeding to tertiary education and that the HSC gradingsystem should reflect this, with fine distinctions recorded foreach subject studied.

- 16 -

Wide differences of opinion are also evident in discussions onthe relative merits of internal and external examinations, and ofassessment versus examinations. Those who oppose reliance onexaminations point to the artificiality and risk involved injudging two years' work on performance in a three-hourexamination, with undue emphasis placed on speed and memory.They argue, as noted, that teachers may narrow the focus of theirteaching to maximise examination scores, and that examinationsstigmatise low achievers.

Those who favour examinations claim that it is impossible toestablish compatibility between results based on schoolassessment or to rule out the possibility of bias. They arguethat both employers and tertiary institutions need and want toknow the relative academic achievements of their applicants andthat publicising results is one way of rewarding and valuingacademic excellence.

In most States there was a move away from examinations towardsschool based assessment during the 1970s and early 1980s. Thistrend is now being reversed in most States.

- 17 -

ASSESSMENT AND CERTIFICATION - BY STATE AND TERRITORY

New South wales

Recent and planned changes to assessment and certificationprocedures in New South Wales have focus sed on the introductionof a basic skills testing program and changes to the Year 10 andYear 12 certificates.

In 1989 New South Wales introduced a basic skills testing programto measure numeracy and literacy skills. All Year 6 pupils ingovernment schools (approximately 60,000) were required toundertake two, one-hour tests. A sample of Year 3 pupils(approximately 3,000) completed two, half-hour tests. The testswere developed by ACER. They are not intelligence tests but areintended to be used as a diagnostic tool, enabling schools toidentify those pupils requiring additional assistance andenabling the educational authority to identify schools with ahigh proportion of pupils in this category. In the longer termthe results can be expected to influence the distribution ofstaff and resources between schools. Results of the tests willnot be published, except for the average mark for the State, butparents will be informed of their children's results and schoolswill be advised how their students' performed in comparison withthe State average. The tests have bipartisan support.

In April 1990 the New South Wales Government announced majorchanges to the Year 10 Certificate. It is to be based on schoolassessment, with external examinations for maths, science andEnglish. Gradings are to increase to five - A to E - and are toappear on the cert±ficate, a move welcomed by employers butopposed by teachers, both because of the work load involved andbecause of its identification of a proportion of students - thosewith low grades - as failures.

New South Wales has also introduced major changes to the HSC.These will come into effect in 1992. External examinations areto be maintained, in conjunction with school based assessment, .each of which will contribute 50 per cent of the total score. Allstudents will be required to study English, a humanities subjectand a science or maths subject. (Previously only English wascompulsory). The related and controversial issue of TertiaryEntrance Scores (TES) is still unresolved. Under the previousGovernment the TES, based on aggregate HSC results but weightedin favour of academic subjects and used as the basis ofadmittance to tertiary institutions, was provided to studentsseparately from their HSC results. Since then it has beenincluded on the HSC statement, a move opposed by teachers and bythe Carrick Review because of its failure to disclose the fullrange of students' achievements through disregard for OtherApproved Studies (OAS). It means in effect that students whochoose predominantly OAS courses receive no TES scores on theircredentials. Dispute on this issue illustrates the divergentviews in New South Wales (as elsewhere) on whether the purpose ofthe HSC is primarily to measure and rank academic achievement orto record completion of courses and the acquisition of skills.

- 18 -

Victoria

In Victoria debate on assessment and certification has focus sedon the VCE, which was first proposed in the Blackburn Report of1985 and is to be phased in by 1992. The intention of theBlackburn Committee was to broaden the curriculum in Years 11 and12, to make it more accessible to a wider range of students andto place much less emphasis on external examinations. Inparticular, the Committee sought to end the distinction in theHSC between group 1 subjects - generally academically oriented,externally examined and used as the basis for tertiary entry and group 2 subjects, which were less academic, were schoolassessed and were generally considered lower status. Group 2subjects expanded rapidly during the 1980s and were considered asignificant factor in increasing retention rates. The VCE, asenvisaged by Blackburn, was to introduce greater coherence toassessment and certification by adopting the same assessmentprocedures for both groups of subjects.

Since 1985, some of the Blackburn Report's proposals have beenmodified but the general approach remains similar to the oneadvocated in that Report. VCE students will have a choice of 44fields of study and must complete 16 (including units in English,Australian studies, science/maths/technology andarts/humanities). Most assessment will be internal and based oncommon assessment tasks (CATs) which will be graded from A plusto E. Other work will be graded only satisfactory orunsatisfactory. Most fields will have one externally examinedtask although some, especially sciences and languages, will havetwo. No sUbject will have entirely school based assessment.

Supporters of the VCE argue that it increases the range ofoptions open to Year.11 and 12 students, which is an importantconsideration given the diversity in ability and background ofthose remaining at school until Year 12. They claim that themixture of course work and internal and external examinationswhich contribute to final scores in the VCE give a much morebalanced view of a student's abilities than did the HSC, and willthus be far more useful as a selection tool for tertiaryinstitutions and employers. (Many institutions dispute thisclaim. They are currently pressing for an expansion in the numberof VCE grades from five to ten, or possibly to fifteen).10

Opponents of the VCE argue that the new system is basicallyflawed and that it seeks to equate CAT scores obtained inintellectually challenging sUbjects such as physics with thoseobtained, for example, in dance, and performance in an externalexamination with performance in a group project. Furthermore, itis impossible to ensure comparability between schools for gradesgiven for CATs. According to opponents of the VCE, the major aimof its supporters is to encourage more students to complete Year12 and to abolish any aspects of certification which might

10. Agreement was reached on 16 May 1990 to a ten point score.

- 19 -

encourage them to leave, such as the possibility of failure. Inthis view, the VCE is designed to ensure that all studentssucceed. Success is not established primarily through gradedperformance as in the old HSC but by being at school andcompleting the work requirements. It has led to the wateringdown of course content and the devaluing of traditionalmainstream subjects.

The irony, for opponents, is that if the VCE fails as acreditable assessment system so that employers and tertiaryinstitutions can no longer rely on grades obtained to assessability, as some of them are claiming will be the case, they willbe forced either to set their own examinations or to pay greaterattention to the schools attended by applicants, thus increasingrather than decreasing social injustice and negating one of themain objectives of the Blackburn Committee. Where research workand group projects form a significant component of assessmentthis will in any case advantage children from privilegedbackgrounds with access to resources and expertise and strongparental support. As in other States, opinion is divided onwhether it is possible to design an instrument which serves onthe one hand as an award marking completion of secondaryeducation and on the other as a means of selecting for tertiaryentry.

In Victoria State wide, standardised testing of basic skillsalong the lines recently introduced in New South Wales is opposedby teacher unions and by the Government. They claim thatinformation collected from tests of this kind in the past hasbeen misused to attack public schools, that it categorises somechildren as failures and that it would not provide teachers withany new information. In recognition of the fact that parents maywant more information on the progress of their children theMinistry of Education is phasing in a more detailed reportingsystem to complement the traditional school report card. Underthis sys·.tem, children's literacy skills will be marked accordingto seven basic levels of reading, called a student's profile.This system was trialled in 1989 and will be extended to maths,science and social science. In addition, regular ACER testing ofsamples of schools are being conducted as a means of monitoringstandards of numeracy and literacy. The most recent of these,conducted in 1988 on 3,000 students in Years 5 and 6 in 54schools, found no decline in standards.

Queensland

Queensland issues certificates at the end of Year 10 (the JuniorCertificate) and the end of Year 12 (the Senior Certificate). TheJunior Certificate is issued centrally and regularly monitored toensure that standards are maintained and to minimisediscrepancies across the State. It is an important asset for the40 per cent of students who do not proceed to Years 11 and 12 andis generally well accepted by teachers, parents and employers.

- 20 -

Debate on assessment in Queensland, as elsewhere, has focus sed onthe Year 12 Certificate. Matriculation by external examinationwas abolished in Queensland in 1971. It was replaced by schoolbased assessment monitored by the Review of School BasedAssessment (ROSBA) system. In this system each student isassessed in each subject against set criteria, with a five pointrange of scores possible for each criterion. Criteria forEnglish literature, for example, include planning andorganisation of work, and clarity and effectiveness ofexpression. Students completing Year 12 obtain a certificaterating performance in the five to six subjects completed. Theyare not rated against other students.

While this system has the advantage that students know from theoutset exactly what is required of them it has been criticised onthe grounds that it places an excessive work load on teachers,can bring them into conflict with students who perceive theirmarking as biased and focuses teaching and learning on theaccumulation of high scores rather than the acquisition of abroad subject knowledge. The Senior Certificate is usedprimarily by students entering the work force on completion ofYear 12.

While the Junior and Senior Certificates are relatively noncontroversial, debate in Queensland has centred on the systemused to determine Tertiary Entrance Scores (TES). These scoresrank every Year 12 student's performance in every subject againstthose of other students of the same school. The school'sassessment of each of its students is then adjusted by means ofthe Australian SCholastic Aptitude Test (ASAT) to moderate eachschool's performance. The system is very complex and generallymisunderstood. Some students obtaining reasonably high scoresare denied places at tertiary institutions (simply because demandexceeds supply), which leads to disappointment and resentment.The TES is also used by some employers, although it was notdesigned for this purpose and is a less reliable guide to aperson's overall abilities, efforts and capacities than is theSenior Certificate.

To allay the concerns of parents and employers about a perceivedfall in standards in basic skills, Queensland is soon tointroduce testing of spelling, punctuation and mental arithmeticfor students in Years 5, 7 and 9 at a representative sample ofschools throughout the State. If successful, testing will beextended to cover reading, writing and basic calculation.

- 21 -

South Australia

In South Australia, as elsewhere, there has been a move away fromassessment by external examination. Until the early 1970sexaminations were held at Year 10 (for the IntermediateCertificate), Year 11 (the Leaving Certificate) and Year 12(Matriculation). Now only the Year 12 assessment remains. Thisis the South Australian Certificate of Education, which hasreplaced matriculation. In addition, school leavers are given aportfolio of documents which includes a number of reportsrelating to their general school career, for example, positionsand responsibilities held and samples of work undertaken.

The focus of the South Australian Certificate of Education haschanged from that of the matriculation certificate, which wasvery closely associated with the universities and designedprimarily for students seeking entry to tertiary institutions.In response to the demands of a more diverse student group theSouth Australian Certificate is more broadly based than was thematriculation certificate. Students are examined on work in the22 units studied in Years 11 and 12, including compulsory unitsin English, Australian society, maths and science/technology.Assessment for all units is uniform, consisting of 50 per centexternal examination and 50 per cent school assessment.Previously there was a greater reliance upon externalexaminations, at least for academic subjects.

The South Australian Certificate of Education is used both byemployers and by tertiary institutions and, in order to try andincrease its usefulness to both groups, each 'student receives twoscores on the Certificate for each subject studied. One is theSubject Achievement Score, used by employers, and the other isthe Scaled Score, used for tertiary entry and developed by theuniversities to give fairer treatment to all students regardlessof their subject choices. The system has been criticised for itscomplexity and for the confusion caused to students and parentsand is currently being reviewed.

Western Australia

All students completing Year 10 in Western Australian schoolshave, since 1975, been awarded the Certificate of Lower SecondaryStudies. Those completing Year 12 have been awarded theCertificate of Secondary Education. This serves both as a recordof school achievement and as the basis for admission to tertiaryinstitutions. As in other States where one credential has beenrequired to serve more than one purpose, its critics claim thatit has failed adequately to fulfil either function.

- 22 -

Initially, students in Year 12 were able to select fromapproximately 60 subjects, all of which could contribute to theirCertificate of Secondary Education but only about half of whichthe A list subjects - were externally examined for entry totertiary institutions. Students planning to continue theirstudies beyond Year 12 normally selected six core, academicsubjects which they studied for the last two years of school. Onthe basis of these subjects they were awarded the Certificate ofSecondary Education and undertook Tertiary AdmissionsExaminations.

With the change to the post compulsory school population, moreand more students who were not planning to continue tertiarystudies nevertheless selected A list subjects because of theirgreater status, through parental pressure or because they saw itas a way of keeping their options open. As a result they wereoften forced to make early, binding and often inappropriatesubject choices in what was essentially a university dominatedcurriculum.

In an attempt to make Western Australian schools more responsiveto the changed needs of their Year 11 and 12 students the McGawReport of 1984 recommended that the traditional six sUbjectsrequired for tertiary entry be reduced to three, with thebalance made up of the less academic B list subjects. llFurthermore, each subject was to extend for a maximum of oneyear, thus giving students greater flexibility to change subjectsat the end of Year 11. The McGaw recommendations weresubsequently adopted and appear to have had the effectanticipated, with increasing retention rates and more studentsreducing their A list subjects. This development has generallybeen opposed by the tertiary institutions, which claim that ithas caused a decline in academic standards. They argue that,although it may have increased retention rates, questions remainabout the value of the education received by many of the studentswho now complete Year 12. Similar concerns have been expressedin other States.

The Certificate of Secondary Education gives aggregate marksbased on external examinations and school based assessment, witheach component contributing 50 per cent. Selection for highereducation is based solely on scaled examinations, with no schoolcomponent.

The Western Australian Government has recently introduced aMonitoring Standards in Education Program which will provideinformation about the educational standards in English and mathsof a random sample of students in Years 3, 7 and 10. Theirperformance will be measured against clearly defined benchmarksor standards. The Program will provide a 'snapshot' of thesystem. It is not designed to compare individual students,teachers or schools.

11. Assessment in the Upper Secondary School in Western Australia,Report of the Ministerial Working Party on SchoolsCertification and Tertiary Admissions Procedures, 1984.

- 23 -

Tasmania

As in other States, Tasmania responded to increased retentionrates by increasing the options available to students in Years 11and 12. Tasmanian schools offered subjects at three levels.Level II subjects were assessed by the schools and formed thebasis of the HSC, which reported all subjects passed. Level IIIsubjects were assessed by the school (for 25 per cent to 50 percent of the total mark) and by external examinations and wereused as the basis for tertiary entry. Students were required toobtain passes in four, level II subjects. Level I subjects werenot assessed.

By the mid 1980s a number of problems had been identified withthe HSC, most of them common to assessment procedures elsewhere.Critics alleged that the division of subjects into two levels hadfailed because most students opted for level 11 subjects, evenwhere they were clearly inappropriate. They also claimed thatthe broadening of the curriculum had led to an overemphasis onthe development of skills at the expense of subject content.

To overcome these problems a new Tasmanian Certificate ofEducation (TCE) is being introduced progressively from 1990.This will be issued to all students completing Year 12 and showresults obtained during the previous four years of school, thusreducing the gap which currently exists between school andcollege courses. It will replace the School Certificate and theHSC. Young people who leave school early will be issued with acertificate recording the subjects they have completed. The TCEwill be backed by a prescriptive core syllabus in all subjectsdesigned both to assist students transferring between schools, inline with Commonwealth policy, and to ensure comparable standardsbetween schools.

The new TCE curriculum will offer three types of course. Thosein group A will be internally assessed and cover short coursessimilar to those now offered in high schools. Group B subjectswill have greater depth but will also be internally assessed.Group C subjects will have a significant external assessmentcomponent and will form the basis of tertiary selection.Students between Years 9 and 12 will be able to undertake coursesfrom each of the groups if they have the ability to do so,although it is anticipated that group C subjects will be studiedpredominantly by Year 11 and 12 students planning further study.This more flexible approach to senior schooling is both aresponse to the changing nature of the post compulsory schoolpopulation and an attempt to boost school retention rates. TheTCE will be supplemented by individual records of achievementdesigned to provide employers with a more comprehensive profileof each student.

In Tasmania, the Education Department has carried out periodictesting of literacy and numeracy skills among 11 and 14 year oldssince 1975. The results of the most recent of these werereleased in 1988. They showed no change in numeracy skills overthe period in question, and significantly improved literacyskills. Diagnostic testing is widely used in Tasmania both inprimary and secondary schools.

- 24 -

Northern Territory

Debate on assessment and certification in the Northern Territoryhas focus sed on the Year 10 Certificate, the Junior SchoolCertificate. Since 1989 this has had an externally examinedcomponent in English and maths which contributes 30 per cent tothe final result. Remaining marks are based on internalassessment. The Government had originally intended theexternally examined component to account for 50 per cent of thefinal mark, but this was reduced in the face of opposition byteachers, parents, unions and the Opposition. Employers are nowdemanding that the two components of the final results beseparately identified, which in turn threatens to downgrade thevalue of the school assessment component, at least in the view ofthe Northern Territory Teachers' Federation. The Government iscommitted to a review of the percentage of the final result to beobtained through external examination.

The Government has introduced tests of literacy and numeracy forstudents in Years 5 and 7 (the Northern Territory StudentAssessment Program) and plans to extend the maths test beyond thebasic core curriculum.

Northern Territory students leaving school at the end of Year 12are awarded the Senior Secondary Studies Certificate accreditedby the Northern Territory Department of Education. This showsachievements on a five point scale based on school assessment.It also lists any Matriculation courses studied. Those planningfurther studies sit for Matriculation, which is awarded by theSenior Secondary Assessment Board of South Australia.


The ACT Year 12 Certificate is issued in government schools andall but one of the non government schools in the Territory. (Inone private school students continue to sit for the New SouthWales HSC.) The Certificate consists of two sections - theSecondary College Record and Supplementary Information forTertiary Entrance. The Secondary College Record is given to allstudents who complete one or more units of study. Assessment isschool based and recorded on a five point scale. It covers thestudent's level of performance in all registered and accreditedunits completed in Years 11 and 12. The section on SupplementaryInformation for Tertiary Entrance includes, for each classifiedcourse, the course score and an adjusted score (based on theAustralian Scholastic Aptitude Test) which moderates assessmentsbetween subjects within schools and aggregates between schools.

As in Queensland, which employs a similar system, concern hasbeen expressed about the complexity of the system and itspossible bias in favour of some groups, such as males andstudents of maths and science. There is also opposition in somequarters to the ACT's total reliance on internal assessment.

To date, standardised testing of literacy and numeracy skills hasnot been introduced into ACT schools, although the currentGovernment is considering introducing skills testing for studentsin Years 5 and 9, based on the New South Wales model.

- 25 -

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Major changes in the structure, organisation and operation ofschools are evident in a number of States. Most are movingtowards greater decentralisation and devolution in decisionmaking on administrative and funding issues while attempting tointroduce greater centralisation of the curriculum. Some areexperimenting with different school structures, such as secondarycolleges, and most are attempting to increase communityparticipation in the the running of schools. There are closeparallels with the Local Management Scheme now being piloted inthe United Kingdom. This devolves funding and administration toindividual schools.

In all of these developments the Federal Government has only aperipheral involvement. Although many of the changes reflect theideological or philosophical perspectives of the governments andeducation departments implementing them, and are therefore Statespecific, a number of more general factors can also be identifiedas contributing to these changes. These are:

(1) Impact of Increased Retention

We have already noted the impact of increased retention oncurriculum, assessment and certification. It has also influencedschool structures and organisation. In Tasmania, the AustralianCapital Territory and the Northern Territory, for example,separate institutions have been established to cater for theexpanding post compulsory school population - the secondarycolleges. In every State and Territory, although to varyingdegrees, new arrangements are being developed to foster closerlinks between Year 11 and 12 courses and TAFE courses, and toencourage students to move between them. Work experience schemesand other links between school and industry are also expanding.In some States, for example, attempts are being made toincorporate part time work into accredited school activities.All of these measures are supported by the Federal Government,which is encouraging closer links between school, TAFE, industryand other forms of training. They are also reflected in changesto the curriculum, as discussed earlier.

(2) Declining School Enrolments

At the same time as retention rates are increasing in the finalyears of schooling, enrolments are falling in primary schools.This is partly because of a drop in the birth rate, partlybecause of the drift to private schools and, in some States,because of a population movement to other States. The extent ofthe decline varies between States but is universal (see Appendix1) .

- 26 -

The decline in enrolments has evinced a variety of responses.These include school closures, composite classes, amalgamationsand multi campus schools. Although such developments have beenconcentrated in primary schools to date they can be expected toaffect secondary schools within a few years and are alreadyinfluencing decisions on secondary school organisation in someStates, especially in inner city areas where secondary schoolpopulations are already declining.

(3) parental/Community Dissatisfaction with Existing SchoolOrganisation and Structure

Critics of government schools allege that parentaldissatisfaction with school organisation and structures and theirlack of influence over the way in which schools are run are majorfactors in the drift to private schools (discussed later in thepaper). At a time of shifting social values and uncertain futuredirections it is perhaps not surprising that education systems,the modern society's tool of socialisation, are subject to aconfusion of pressures. Whether or not parental dissatisfactionis as great as critics allege, the perception that it is appearsto have influenced some education departments to increase therole of parents and the community generally in the running ofschools. This has been done in a number of ways, such asincreasing the power of school councils, dezoning so that choiceof schools is increased and establishing more selective schools,which are said to be supported by many parents. In some States,notably New South Wales, support has been given to parentsfavouring non traditional schooling such as home based education.

- 27 -

ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE - BY STATE AND TERRITORY

New South Wales

Planned changes in New South Wales have been designed todecentralise the organisation of education generally but tomaintain strong central control of the curriculum. Department ofEducation staff numbers are to be reduced, its buildings sold andabout 1,000 staff relocated to the ten regions. All seniorpositions in the bureaucracy were restructured and advertised,with occupants being required to reapply. These m9ves have beenopposed by the teachers, who favour school based curriculumdevelopment and testing and strong central control of budgetingand personnel, such as decisions about appointment, promotion andsalaries of teachers. Teachers views' are therefore diametricallyopposed to those of the Government on these issues. TheGovernment sees its devolution strategy as a means of overcomingthe alienation of parents, teachers and the community generally,induced by the previously highly centralised and unresponsivebureaucracy.

The current Government in New South Wales has made a number ofdepartures from the comprehensive model of school organisation inthat State. Twenty-five high schools have been designatedtechnology high schools with extensive sponsorship from industry.Their existing links with TAFE have been strengthened. Theseschools have taken the lead in developing joint HSC-TAFE courseswith dual accreditation, an initiative being·followed by otherschools and now involving almost every TAFE in the State. Thetechnology high schools are not selective. The Government hasmoved to create a number of selective high schools, all dezoned.Fifteen are currently operating and more are planned. In 1988 itintroduced dezoning for all secondary schools. In its first yearof operation, 2.5 per cent of students applied to schoolsoutside their catchment area.

Both the Carrick and the Scott reports recommended significantdevolution of administration to schools and enhanced powers for'school councils. 12 13 The Scott recommendations in particular wepremised on the view that the school not the system was the keyelement in education and that schools should be granted greaterindependence of action, within general guidelines provided by thebureaucracy. In line with this suggestion the Government, inApril 1990, issued Guidelines for School Councils. Once inoperation, school councils will have 11 members consisting of theprincipal, ·three teachers ,two community representatives and fiveparents. Their powers are to be substantially enhanced. Theywill, for example, be able to assess the school's finances, setbudget parameters and advise the principal on the implementationof the school bUdget. Furthermore, they will be able to provide

12. The Report of the Committee of Review of New South Wales Schools,Sir John Carrick, 1989.

13. Schools Renewal, Dr. Brian Scott, 1990.

- 28 -

advice on all issues related to the operation and management ofthe school, except for the appointment of staff, which will nowrest with school principals rather than with the bureaucracy.School councils will be able to advise on the content of the FairDiscipline Code for New South Wales Schools promulgated in 1989and covering discipline, school uniform, the playing of thenational anthem and the flying of the flag, among other issues.They will also be able to participate in decisions on theschool's non-core curriculum.

While these changes have been generally welcomed, by parents' andcitizens' groups if not by teachers, some disquiet has beenexpressed that they may exacerbate differences between schools inhigh socio-economic areas and those in disadvantaged areas whereschool councils may be weaker and less well organised. The ScottReport suggestion that parents be encouraged to donate to taxfree building funds for schools would also have this effect.

Victoria

Until the early 1970s Victorian education was very highlycentralised. Public discontent with its large bureaucracy led toa series of changes during the late 1970s and the 1980s designedto devolve decision making to schools and to increase communityparticipation. School councils were given additional authorityand now generally have more power than councils in other States.For example, they have primary responsibility for the educationalpolicy and curriculum of their school, subject to centrallydetermined guidelines, and participate in the selection of schoolprincipals. Community representatives are also included on theRegional Boards of Education and on the State Board of Education.

The document prepared by the Ministry of Education in 1986entitled Taking Schools into the 1990s proposed to increase theauthority of school councils still further4 to enable them forinstance to appoint and dismiss teachers. 1 This proposal wassubsequently abandoned because of widespread oppositionthroughout the community. Other recommendations, however, arebeing implemented. These include a further reduction in the sizeof the central administration, with a concomitant increase in theresponsibility both of regional offices and of school councils.They will, for instance, have increased financial control.Instead of the 30 different grants previously available toschools, the Ministry will distribute funds to schools in blockgrants twice a year. Guidelines have been drawn up to assistcouncils in the ways in which they spend their grants.

The grants are based on enrolments (with additional funding fordisadvantaged schools) and any further funds must be raised bythe schools themselves. Critics of the system claim that it hasled to a preoccupation among school councils with funding, to thedetriment of the wider educational issues and that it reinforces

----------_.14. Taking Schools into the 1990s, Ministry of Education,

Victoria, 1986.

- 29 -

the distinctions between rich and poor schools. They alsoconsider that it increases the accountability of schools togovernment and that what is being devolved is in the fact theresponsibility for determining priorities with shrinkingresources. Some have suggested that, while the changes haveincreased the work loads of school councils, power remains withthe central bureaucracy, which still sets financial allocationsand staffing levels.

In response to declining enrolments in Victorian governmentprimary schools, local planning committees were established in1986 to advise the Minister on appropriate responses. Theplanning committees consisted of parents, teachers and othercommunity representatives. They recommended a range of schoolmodels to meet the changing enrolment pattern. These include, aswell as amalgamation and closure: the establishment of singleschools catering for children from preparatory class to Year 12;clusters of voluntarily co-operating schools and multi campusschools with a single council and principal. Both the clusterschools and the multi campus schools would have separate Year11-12 colleges catering to mature age students as well as thoseundertaking post compulsory schooling.

These models were envisaged as encouraging the sharing of scarceresources and specialist teachers and giving children in all theparticipating schools access to a wider subject choice than wouldotherwise have been possible. Multi campus schools were notfavoured by parents because they were thought to distance parentsand children from the schools' administration. Furtherrefinements to these models can be expected to result from the'audit of the curriculum' now under way in each school district.This will provide information, by school, on the curriculumoffered, number of students enrolled, time spent on each subjectetc. This information will establish whether each school is ableto offer a comprehensive curriculum. Where they are not, it isanticipated that new arrangements will encourage students totravel to other schools for courses not offered in their ownschool, and specialist teachers to offer courses in more than oneschool. School mergers are one option being considered as ameans of broadening curriculum choice.

Queensland

In Queensland, as in New South Wales, recent reorganisations haveresulted in the centralisation of some functions, particularlythose related to curriculum development, and the devolution ofothers. The Department of Education discussion paper of 1985entitled Education 2,000 advocated a diminished role for theBoard of Secondary School Studies, the Board of Teacher Educationand the Board of Advanced Education. 15 All of these Boards wereabolished in subsequent changes to the Education Act and replacedby smaller councils with fewer representatives from the educationsector and closer links with the Department.

15. Education 2000: Issues and Options for the Future of Educationin Queensland, Department of Education, Queensland, 1985.

- 30 -

In 1988 the Queensland Government began moves to devolve controlof school budgets and school staffing to school councils. Eachschool now receives a single block grant related to itsenrolments and has considerable authority over the way it isspent. The school principal and council are accountable toRegional Directors for the expenditure of funds. Supporters ofthis move claim that it has returned decision making from thebureaucrats to the schools.

Teachers have generally opposed it because of the extra workrequired to implement it, the speed with which it is beingintroduced and because it changes the role of principals.Effectively they become managers rather than educators underthese arrangements. No training is provided for members ofschool councils. Opponents of devolution of decision making toschools suggest that, where funding is inadequate, giving schoolsa block grant allows the central department to pass the buck.Schools will have no power to determine their resources, but onlyto choose how scarce resources will be allotted.

South Australia

In South Australia the Department of Education has moved towardscentralisation of some functions, notably curriculum development,in order to standardise its content, at least in core subjects,and to maintain comparability in standards between schools.Other functions have been devolved to regional or school level,particularly those relating to budgeting and staffing. The sizeof the central bureaucracy has been reduced as school enrolmentshave dropped.

South Australia has witnessed a significant decline in primaryschool enrolments everywhere and in secondary school enrolmentsin some areas. In response, it has developed a number of newschool models. These include the cluster model, whereneighbouring schools share subjects and children travel betweenthem. Multi campus schools are also being considered, with amature entry stream and close links to TAFE. Some neighbouringschools have combined their Year II and 12 courses as a means ofmaintaining adequate subject choice. Others have beenrestructured so that they accept only students from a limitednumber of years. In some cases, resource teachers and seniorteachers are shared between a group of local schools with commoninterests. Closures and amalgamations have proved inevitable.

There has been a gradual move to develop greater communityparticipation in South Australian schools. This started in the1970s when there was an attempt to replace parents' associations,whose role had been restricted to fund raising and other noneducational functions, by school councils which advise on theeducational direction of the school, for example the subjectchoice offered there. (This was one of the recommendations ofthe Keeves Report of 1982). These councils have prospered in thehigher socio-economic areas but languished elsewhere. To assistthe weaker councils the South Australian Education Department in1987 introduced and funded training and support for councilmembers through the Parent Participation Centre.

- 31 -

Other initiatives have included the "Year of Parents and Childrenin Schools Program" of 1986, designed to further parentalinvolvement; the Learning Assistance Program, in which parentsand other volunteers work in the classrooms, under the directionof the teacher, to assist an individual student who has fallenbehind in his/her studies and; the establishment in 1988 of theEducation Review Unit. This Unit includes educators, parents,teachers and local community leaders. It visits each schoolevery three or four years, assesses its performance and reportsits findings to parents and the community generally - a movedesigned to overcome the perceived lack of information andunderstanding in the community about what is happening inschools. The Unit has no power to allocate resources to thoseschools at which performance is identified as unsatisfactory.

Western Australia

A major reorganisation of the education system is under way inWestern Australia following a 1986 review by the Government'sFunctional Review Committee. The recommendations of thisCommittee were outlined in the publication Better Schools inWestern Australia - a Program for Improvement and these form thebasis of the reorganisation. I6 Its major objective is toincrease the responsiveness and flexibility of the educationsystem, through a program of devolution.

This reorganisation, which is being carried out progressivelybetween 1987 and 1993, will give individual schools a high degreeof control over budgeting and staffing. A formal decision makinggroup, with representatives from the community and staff, will beset up in each school. In this system the school principal willhave greatly increased powers. Principals will, for example,have responsibility for the deployment and work loads of bothteaching and non teaching staff. The decision making group,working with the principal, will be responsible for allocatingthe school's principal grant, selecting teachers and preparing anannual school development plan, designed to assess the school'sperformance both against centrally established standards andgoals and against its own performance plan.

The devolution of major administrative responsibilities to theschools is being accompanied by a restructuring and diminution ofthe educational bureaucracy. Staff numbers at central office areto be halved by the end of the reorganisation. Claims thatdecision making groups and principals lack the administrativeexperience necessary for performance of their enhancedadministrative role have been acknowledged by the Government,which is developing training programs to assist them and a newsystem of district support staff for schools. As in other Stateswhere school based decision making is being introduced, concernhas been expressed that country schools and those in low socioeconomic areas may be disadvantaged by these moves.

16. Better Schools in Western Australia: A Program for Improvement,Ministry of Education, Western Australia, 1987.

- 32 -

Tasmania

primary and secondary schools in Tasmania are administered on aregional basis. The secondary colleges, which have traditionallyenjoyed a large measure of autonomy, are also to be administratedby the region in which they are located. The secondary collegeconcept was pioneered in Tasmania in the 1960s and has since beenadopted in the Northern Territory and the Australian CapitalTerritory.

In an effort to overcome the limited subject choice available topost compulsory students in rural areas, Tasmania has adopted anumber of other novel approaches. In some country high schools(Years 7-10), for example, senior secondary courses have beenintroduced. In others, a Year 11-12 annex has been added, withclose links to a secondary college. (These are confined to cityareas in Tasmania). In some cases Year 11-12 students have beenintegrated into TAFE. In others, their subject choice has beenenhanced through the School of Distance Education. Tasmania hasresisted any moves to re-introduce selective schools, preferringto educate gifted children within the comprehensive system.

With declining enro1ments and budgeting pressures the TasmanianGovernment had planned (in 1989) to close 25 schools but wasforced to back down in the face of community pressure andopposition in Parliament. This was the second recent occasion inwhich parents and teachers had combined to bring about a majorchange to government policy. Earlier in 1989 the Government hadbeen forced to withdraw a proposal to cut teacher numbers. Itappears that both issues will resurface in discussions on theState Budget. The Government has also indicated that jobs to theeducation bureaucracy will be considered at that time.

Northern Territory

One of the most influential documents in the Northern Territorydebate on the merits and disadvantages of decentralisation is thereport entitled Towards the 90s prepared by the EducationAdvisory Council and the Department of Education in 1987. 17 Thefirst volume of this Report strongly favoured increaseddecentralisation of school administration to individual schoolcouncils, going so far as to suggest that disincentives beimposed on schools which were slow in adopting the increasedpowers proposed for them. In subsequent discussions on theReport's recommendations it became evident that, while there wasgeneral support for greater devolution, many people hadreservations about the extent of the proposed decentralisation.Volume 2 of the Report, therefore, gave greater flexibility toindividual schools to decide the extent of their council'sinvolvement in administration. Those demonstrating an abilityand willingness to accept greater responsibility will be givensubstantial control of school finances, receiving their total

17. Towards the 90s. Excellence, Accountability and Devolutionin Education for the Future, vols 1 and 2, Department ofEducation, 1987 and 1988.

- 33 -

funding as a direct grant paid twice a year. They will also havean input to the selection of principals and staff. Schoolcouncils are also being encouraged to develop and implementschool improvement programs, setting out goals and objectivesover a three year period. The Education Department will retaincontrol of broad educational policy, curriculum, assessment andcertification, major resource allocation and audit procedures.

Secondary colleges were established in the Northern Territoryfrom 1987 following recommendations in a 1985 Report to theMinister of Education on High Schools and Secondary Colleges inthe Northern Territory.18 Because of its scattered population anrelatively high proportion of Aboriginal students, the NorthernTerritory has developed a number of specialist services such asthe Secondary Correspondence School, specific programs in anumber of schools targetted to Aboriginal students, the BilingualEducation Program and the provision of residential colleges forisolated secondary school students.


Until 1974 education in the Australian Capital Territory wasadministered from New South Wales. Its administration washighly centralised and rigid, with little opportunity forcommunity participation. In reaction to the inadequacies of theNew South Wales system a campaign developed in the 1960s for aseparate educational system for the Territory. A series ofreports followed, culminating in the establishment of the InterimSchools Authority in 1973 and the Schools Authority in 1987.

One of the principal objectives of the Schools Authority was thedecentralisation of decision making and the involvement ofparents, teachers and the community in the decision makingprocess. In fact, however, a number of constraints curtailed thepowers of the school boards, as originally envisaged. One ofthese was their lack of control over funding. Another was thepower exercised by the ACT Teachers' Federation (formerly abranch of the NSW Teachers' Federation) to ensure that choice andallocation of school staffs remained centralised, as in New SouthWales, rather than being devolved to the schools. Nevertheless,school boards have considerable autonomy and an input to allpolicy affecting their school, including curriculum issues. Inaddition to representation on school boards, parents were alsorepresented on the Schools Authority.

With self government in 1989 a new ACT Department of Educationwas established. Critics claim that the participative nature ofACT education has since been eroded, with power centralised to agreater extent than formerly with the Chief Education Officer andthe Minister for Industry, Employment and Education. However,school boards continue to determine curriculum and studentdiscipline, oversee the management of finance and assist in the

18. High Schools and Secondary Colleges in the Northern Territory,Department of Education, Northern Territory, 1985.

- 34 -

choice of principals. The Government has announced its intentionto launch a pilot program to extend school based control, givingschools the power to hire and fire staff and to control theirbudgets, as in New South Wales. Both principals andparent/teacher groups have reservations about this proposal,fearing that it could be the forerunner of funding cuts, that itmay not be fully evaluated before being more widely implementedand that it would place excessive work loads on board members.

The Department has also instituted a program of school reviewsunder which every ACT public school will be evaluated one year inevery five, starting with 25 schools in 1990. The reviews areintended to provide information for school development andplanning, to satisfy accountability requirements and to enhancepublic confidence in schools.

Faced with falling enrolments in many primary schools,fluctuating enrolments in some secondary schools (there are13,000 vacant places this year) and an educational revenueshortfall of $6m, the ACT Government is planning to close between15 and 25 schools. It is also looking at models of schoolorganisation adopted in other States in similar circumstancessuch as amalgamations, widespread use of transportable classroomsand expanded school hours for consolidated secondary colleges.Amalgamations are to be planned so that primary schools have aminimum of 400 students and secondary schools a minimum of 800,undermining the neighbourhood school concept which has generalcommunity support in the Territory. Because of their greateroperating costs, secondary colleges in their present form arealso at risk. The alternative to these rationalisations ishigher taxes for the ACT population generally or school fees,however described. All of these options are currently beingconsidered, and the Government has stressed that cuts will applyto both government and private schools.

- 35 -

THE DRIFT TO PRIVATE SCHOOLS - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

The drift to private schools has been a significant factor in allStates and Territories at all levels of schooling during the1980s. Enrolments at non government primary schools increasedsubstantially in every State and Territory between 1980 and 1988,despite falls in total school enrolments during the same period.(See Appendix 2). This development was most marked in Victoriaand South Australia. In Victoria one of the highest increases innon government school enrolments coincided with one of thebiggest decreases in overall school enrolments. At the secondaryschool level the drift to private schools was generally evidentin every State and Territory also but the extent of the drift wasmore uniform between States (see Appendix 3).

A number of factors, operating to varying degrees in all Statesand Territories, have influenced the drift to private schools.These include:

(1) Parental Dissatisfaction with Government Schools

Whether justified or not, parental dissatisfaction withgovernment schools appears to be a major factor in the drift toprivate schools. It is based on parents' perceptions that thequality and dedication of government school teachers has fallen,that educational standards have dropped and that disciplineproblems threaten academic achievement. The perceived socialbenefits of private school education are also a factor for someparents. Such views are not universally held and areenergetically contested by many parents, but nevertheless theyappear to be gaining credence in every State and Territory. AnAge poll conducted in 1986, for example, found that 38 per centof those surveyed favoured government schools, 20 per centfavoured Catholic schools and 34 per cent favoured other privateschools.

A survey undertaken in three States by the Australian Teachers'Federation in 1987 also found dissatisfaction with some aspectsof government schooling. A majority of those polled believedthat private schools provided better preparation for the HSC andbetter discipline. Two-thirds stated that government primaryschools provided an insufficient grounding in basic skills. Themost telling finding was that many more people would,send theirchildren to private schools if they could afford it.

(2) Parental Preference for Religious or other Special Education

Although a significant proportion of parents choose privateschools on religious grounds, this does not explain theaccelerated drift to these schools during the 1980s. Indeed, itis evident 'that a significant number of the children recentlyenrolled at private schools do not share the religiousaffiliations of the school concerned'. Furthermore, the number ofpriests and nuns employed as teachers in Catholic schools felldrastically during the 1970s and 1980s. In Victoria in 1988 only10 per cent of teachers in Catholic schools were members of

- 36 -

religious orders. By the early 1980s about a third of theteachers em~loyed in Catholic schools in Australia were not evenCatholics. 1 For many parents, therefore, the factors outlinedelsewhere in this section are more important determinants ofschool choice than religious affiliation.

The closure of single sex government schools has also alienatedsome girls' parents. A number have chosen to send theirdaughters to private girls' schools rather than countenance theirattendance at mixed schools. A recent trend, most evident in NewSouth Wales and Victoria, is the growth of private schools fordifferent nationalities, religions and cults.

(3) Improved Federal Government Funding for Private Schools

Federal Government funding to private schools began in the late1960s and expanded greatly after 1973 following the Report of theKarmel Committee, which recommended that funding for privateschools should be linked to need, and that disadvantaged privateschools should receive substantially increased funding. Allprivate schools continue to receive recurrent grants from theCommonwealth, which now spends more than $1 billion a year onprivate schools. State governments spend half as much again.

State school supporters argue that as governments increasefunding to private schools these schools attract more studentsand the more students they attract, the more governments have tospend on them. In effect, the government is funding two systemsof education, which increases both costs and inequities. Privateschool supporters respond that in fact, parents who pay fees forprivate school education and, through their taxes, support thegovernment system do in fact subsidise the state education systemand should not be further penalised by the withdrawal ofgovernment funding from private schools.

The impact of government funding as a factor in the drift toprivate schools is clearly significant. In the period between1955 and 1977 when the costs to parents of private education wererising (parents met about 90 per cent of the running costs in1968-69, for example), enrolments fell strongly. During the late1970s and the 1980s there has been a marked drop in the costs toparents of private school education (it was about 30 per cent in1983) and a concomitant rise in enrolments. (Study by Dr TrevorWilson of ACER, 1987). This is certainly one of the mostimportant factors influencing the drift to private schools. Itis inextricably linked to the shift of opinion in the communitygenerally away from support for government services financed bytaxation and in favour of private service provision and privateeffort.

19. Hedley Beare, reported in the Age of 25/10/88.

- 37 -

THE DRIFT TO PRIVATE SCHOOLS - BY STATE AND TERRITORY

New South Wales

Dr Metherell has attributed the drift to private schools in NewSouth Wales to public perceptions of government schools aslacking discipline, lacking attention to basic skills, lackingcommitment by teachers, and teachers' generally negativeattitudes and militancy and their "ethics morals value cluster".He also considers that government schools have been generallyunresponsive to the wishes of parents. He has been careful todifferentiate between perceptions and reality however, stating:"I think private schools are better at marketing than they are ateducation. Government schools are better at education and bloodylousy at marketing. ,,20 His stated aim is to halt the drift toprivate schools by providing within the public sector what hebelieves people are seeking outside it.

A number of recent changes to the education system in New SouthWales have been introduced, at least in part, in an attempt tomodify parental perceptions. It is now easier to suspend andexpel pupils at government schools and the Fair Discipline Codewill involve parents in setting standards of discipline atindividual schools. Curricula changes will place greateremphasis on basic skills, which will be assessed in State widetests. Parental choice has been enhanced through theintroduction of dezoning, an increase in the number of selectiveschools and the establishment of technology high schools andcentres of excellence. Teacher recruitment and promotion onmerit rather than seniority is also to be encouraged. However,the recent reduction in teacher numbers (by 2,000 in 1988/89) hasresulted in bigger classes, composite classes and increasedteacher militancy and has united teachers and parents against theGovernment in defence of government schools. It appears,therefore, that the changes will have a mixed impact on parents'perceptions of government schools and, consequently, on thepattern of enrolments at private schools.

Victoria

A school's responsiveness to parental wishes is said to be one ofthe major factors influencing parental choice of school. InVictoria, parents have traditionally had more input togovernment schools than parents elsewhere because of the greaterpower vested in school councils. These powers were significantlyincreased during the late 1980s but the drift to private schoolscontinued during the same period, although the latest Ministry ofEducation figures suggest that the movement has slowed. AMinistry report on student movements published in 1989 showedthat a greater proportion of students in Catholic and independentschools transferred to state schools than at an~ time since 1982,when the first movement surveys were conducted. 1 Some

20. Reported in Sydney Morning Herald of 8/4/89.21. Report in the Age of 20/7/89.

- 38 -

metropolitan private schools are also reporting a drop inenrolments for the first time and are advertising for students.Some Catholic schools are sharing facilities with governmentschools.

The Victorian Government has attributed the drift to privateschools to the increased affluence of parents rather thanincreased discontent with government schools, but the speed ofchanges to the curriculum, assessment and organisation inVictorian schools during the 1980s can be expected to havecontributed to parents' concerns.

Queensland

In the per{od 1980-1988 Queensland and the Northern Territoryexperienced the smallest drift to private schools of any part ofAustralia. In other respects too, the pattern in Queensland isdifferent from elsewhere. Queensland was the only State wherethere was a movement away from Catholic schools, (it was 1.9 percent in the period 1970-86), while nationally the Catholic sectorincreased its share of enrolments from 17.8 per cent to 19.4 percent during the same period.

South Australia

The drift to private schools has been more marked in SouthAustralia than in any other State, both at primary and secondarylevel. This is despite a significant decrease in overall schoolenrolments at the primary school level. As in most other States,the biggest increas~ in enrolments has been at private,non-Catholic and non-Anglican schools.

Western Australia

The drift to private schools has been significant in WesternAustralia and higher at secondary school level than at primarylevel, which is the reverse of the situation elsewhere. It hasbeen attributed, by the Opposition, to parental concern aboutdiscipline, educational standards and curriculum priorities ingovernment schools and, by the Government, to increasedgovernment funding of private schools. The biggest growth hasbeen in low fee community schools set up by the Anglican andCatholic churches in lower socio economic areas.

Tasmania

The drift to private schools is close to the national average inTasmania and is more marked at primary level, given that overallenrolments in all primary schools have dropped significantly inthat State.

- 39 -

Northern Territory

The percentage of Northern Territory children attending privateschools is significantly lower than in any other State (18 percent for primary school and 15 per cent for secondary school) andhas remained static during the 1980s whereas in every other Stateand Territory it has increased. A number of factors account forthis difference. These include: lower average incomes; the smallnumber of private schools within the Territory so that parentschoice is limited, unless they are able to meet the additionalcosts associated with educating children outside the Territory;and the fact that residential and other facilities are providedby the Government for students who need to travel to urbancentres to complete their education.


ACT schools are often said to be the best in the country whenjudged on a variety of criteria such as expenditure per pupil,time allowed to teachers for preparation, physical condition ofbuildings and services. Furthermore, the government educationsystem offers greater parental choice than is available in manyof the States, both because of the range of philosophicalapproaches adopted in the various schools and because of theoption to send children to schools outside their neighbourhood.The ACT also has the highest percentage of students in privateschools, at both primary and secondary level. Since it hashigher than average family incomes, this would appear to lendweight to the view that parental income is a major determinant ofthe drift to private schools. A unique feature of the ACTsituation is the number of students moving from private togovernment schools at Years 11 and 12. In 1986 approximately 20per cent moved to secondary colleges from private schools whichdid not offer Year 11 and 12 courses and another 9 per cent leftprivate schools which did. 22

22. Reported in The Canberra Times of 2/4/87.

- 40 -

THE POSITION OF TEACHERS - THE NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

One of the most persistent and highly publicised issues ineducation concerns the position of teachers. Debate has ragedfor years, in the media and outside it, on how to recruit goodteachers, how to train them, how to retain them, and whether ornot teaching standards are falling. The related issues ofteachers' pay and conditions, militancy, levels of stress, workloads and dedication (or lack of it) are frequently highlightedin the media of every State and Territory. Current debatefocuses on:

(1) Teacher Numbers

During the 1960s and early 1970s the teaching professionexpanded, in line with increases in enrolments and in a concertedeffort to reduce class sizes. During the 1980s however, schoolenrolments have declined, with a corresponding drop in demand forteachers. Decreased demand has not, as might have been expected,resulted in an over-supply of teachers. In fact, risingresignation rates and falling recruitment have created criticalshortages in some areas, despite historically low entryrequirements for teacher education. This trend is evident in allStates and Territories. It is concentrated among teachers ofscience, maths and computing, who find it easiest to obtainemployment elsewhere, but affects teachers of all subjects, atall levels. A number are moving from government to privateschools, which can offer above award salaries, but the majorityleave the profession entirely. 'In 1989 the national teachingforce was approximately 200,000 full time equivalent and nationalresignation/retrenchment rates approximately 8 per cent.

Poor pay and conditions and low morale are not the only factorsinfluencing the decline in the number of students applying forteaching courses and their poorer academic performance. At onetime teachers were drawn from the bright children of families ~ho

could not afford university fees. Increased access to universityand college has meant that people who once had little choice butteaching now have the opportunity to enter a range ofprofessions, and teaching has suffered accordingly. The same istrue for many women, who once saw teaching as one of the few waysto enter a profession but now have a broader range of options.

(2) Teaching Conditions

Teachers attribute the movement out of the profession todeteriorating pay and conditions. On the one hand, they claim,their role has expanded over the years, as has their work load,without a corresponding increase in pay. Their salaries have notkept pace with those of other professionals with equivalentqualifications and promotion prospects are limited. For example,in 1977, four-year certificated trained teachers in their firstyear earned the equivalent of average male earnings. By 1989their salaries had declined to approximately 83 per cent ofaverage male earnings.

- 41 -

In addition, teachers are increasingly expected to performfunctions formerly considered the responsibility of the familyand, in some cases, to deal with discipline problems withoutadequate support. For all of these reasons, stress levels arehigh and appear to be increasing. All State education systemshave undergone rapid changes in organisation, curriculum andassessment which can be expected to have contributed to teacherstress, and certainly to work loads. All of these factors helpto explain both the growth in union membership among teachers andincreased union militancy.

Although few people would now say, pointing to teachers'supposedly short hours and long holidays, that a teacher's job isan easy one, critics of union militancy in particular claim thatteachers are more concerned with improving their own conditionsthan assisting the children they teach. They point to fallingentry requirements for the profession, the allegedly pooreducational standards of many teachers and their efforts, throughthe unions, to abolish independent evaluation of the profession,for example through visits by school inspectors. Lack of publicrecognition of the value of teachers, at least in some quarters,has contributed to low morale in the profession.

(3) Teacher Training

A series of inquiries and reviews into teacher training conductedduring the .1980s reached similar conclusions. These included:the need for improved standards in maths, science and English forall primary school teachers; the need for improved preparation ofteachers working in schools with a mixed ethnic and/or aboriginalpopulation; the need for intensive in service training for allteachers, but especially those in disadvantaged areas, and theneed for greater emphasis on the practical aspects of teaching.The most recent report on teacher quality was published by theSchools 'Council earlier this year. It endorsed the findings ofearlier reports and, in addition, suggested trade unions,employers and higher education institutions should workco-operatively to improve the quality of teacher education. Iturged the Federal Government to encourage the States, in the.context of award restructuring, to increase teachers' salariesand provide better career structures in a bid to improve moralein the profession and to attract better students to it. Acting onthe advice of the Schools Commission Report, the FederalGovernment is to convene national negotiations on the quality ofteachers in an effort to reach national agreement on thedevelopment, training and employment of the Australian teachingforce. Items for discussion include pre service and in serviceeducation, teacher mobility, the responsibilities of the proposednew category of advanced skills teacher, and internships fortrainee teachers.

- 42 -

(4) Federal Government Initiatives

The Federal Government has expressed concern both about thenumber of teachers leaving the profession, (especiallymaths/science/computing teachers) and about the quality ofteachers in schools. In order to support the States in effortsto deal with these questions the Government has proposed thatnationally standardised higher pay rates should be linked to anexamination of work practices in teaching, as part of the awardrestructuring process. In particular, the Commonwealth ispressing for a teaching award that, through uniform pay,portability of superannuation and other benefits, would increaseteacher mobility. National recognition and portability ofteaching qualifications between States would also contribute toteacher mobility. The inclusion of an advanced teacher categoryin the award would allow the best teachers to remain in theclass-room rather than moving to administration. Finally, theCommonwealth would like to link the new award to improvedpreparation and in service training to raise teaching standards.

Debate is continuing on the extent of Commonwealth financialassistance to the States as they negotiate with the unions onnational benchmark rates but, with the exception of New SouthWales, State governments and teacher unions have accepted thebroad outlines of the Commonwealth position. Coinciding withmoves towards a national salary and career structure, teachers'unions in both the government and private sectors and in allStates and Territories are for· the first time moving towards theestablishment of a single umbrella organisation to representtheir interests.

- 43 -

THE POSITION OF TEACHERS - BY STATE AND TERRITORY

New South Wales

The State's failure to attract highly qualified graduates intothe teaching profession, or to retain them in sufficient numbers,has long been recognised as a problem in New South Wales. Boththe Carrick and Scott reports addressed this issue. Carrickrecommended increased financial compensation for teachers inisolated areas and redress of the comparative decline inteachers' pay. Scott recommended that the recruitment, promotionand payment of teachers should be made on the basis of meritrather than seniority (contrary to established practice in NewSouth Wales) and that a new classification of teacher, which hecalled leading teacher, should be created and appropriatelyrewarded to encourage gifted teachers to remain in the classroom.

Attempts to address these issues in the mid 1980s through the NewSouth Wales Quality Education Teacher Efficiency Review weredropped, following adverse reactions from teachers. Some recentattempts have been more successful. Some recruitment is now tobe on merit, with highly qualified graduates given preferenceover more experienced but less qualified casual teachers, a moveopposed by the unions because it does not accord with theirpolicy of giving preference in employment to union members. Theyclaim that abolition of the points system, under which teachersin isolated or disadvantaged schools accumulated additionalpoints towards transfer to their preferred area, has removed anincentive for enthusiastic teachers to work in these schools.The Government is, however, considering financial incentives forteachers taking up appointments there.

Between 1989 and 1993 New South Wales intends to create 200leading teacher positions, with the status and salary of deputyprincipal, for large high schools or those with low retentionrates. Both Carrick and Scott expressed concern about teacherquality and the need not only to reward good teachers but topenalise poor ones. Carrick, for example, suggested that theprocedure for removing inefficient teachers who did not respondto counselling and training should be speeded up while Scottrecommended that promotion should be linked to performanceappraisal. The Government is proposing to link the fast trackingof teachers up the promotion scale to performance appraisal andwould like to introduce annual teacher assessment. Periodicperformance appraisal will be trialled with school principals.It will be introduced for deputy principals in 1991 and forteachers in 1993 and may be linked to fixed term, renewablecontracts.

- 44 -

It is too soon to know whether these measures alone will besufficient to halt the movement of teachers out of theprofession. Based on current resignation rates, the Governmenthas predicted a shortage of 1,300 teachers by the mid 1990s. Itis now seeking to recruit teachers from overseas and isconsidering paid overtime for teachers in schools where staffshortages are most severe. Much will depend on the outcome ofcurrent negotiations between the unions, (representing governmentand non government teachers) the Government, and the nongovernment employers on pay and conditions.

On another front, the New South Wales Government is currentlyconsidering a range of options to improve teacher training. Oneof these, proposed by the University of New South Wales, is toinclude a year's internship spent teaching in schools as anessential prerequisite for qualification as a teacher. Thissuggestion is not popular with the unions because of disagreementon the pay, conditions and status of participants.

Victoria

In Victoria, as elsewhere, significant numbers of teachers areleaving the profession and fewer students are attracted into it.The number of teachers resigning is growing. It is now about 4per cent a year and, as elsewhere, is concentrated in maths,science and computing.

Conditions of service are better for teachers in Victoria thanfor those in most other States. Face to face teaching hours aremore limited and classes are smaller than the national average.The unions have negotiated the abolition of limited tenureemployment and the introduction of flexible part time workarrangements and seven years unpaid family leave. In otherrespects, however, their situation is similar to that of teacherselsewhere. In addition, secondary teachers are coping with extraduties resulting from implementation of the VCE and a majorreorganisation of the school system.

After protracted negotiations and industrial unrest the unionsand Government in Victoria have recently reached agreement on anew salary and career structure which introduces promotion onmerit across the system and establishes an agreed process forworking towards national benchmark salary rates. All principalsare to be appointed on fixed, seven year terms with reappointmentconditional on the results of periodic performance reviews,although the Government failed in its attempts to extend theseprovisions to the general teaching profession.

- 45 -

Queensland

Teaching conditions in Queensland compare unfavourably with thosein other States (although significant pay rises are likely to beawarded there). Class sizes are larger and promotionopportunities more limited than the national average. Theproportion of teachers denied any relief from face to faceteaching for preparation and correction is much higher inQueensland (82 per cent in 1988) than the national average of 19per cent. A survey carried out by the Queensland Teachers' Unionin 1986 concluded that one in five primary school teachers andone if four secondary school teachers are very to extremelystressed by their jobs. Recent changes to the promotion systemhave further eroded teaching conditions. Since 1987, forexample, any teacher applying for promotion has had to agree toserve wherever vacancies occur. At the same time, unionrepresentation on selection panels was abolished.

South Australia

The teaching profession in South Australia is contracting as aresult of declining enrolments. Staff reductions have generallybeen accomplished by natural attrition rather than redundanciesbut this has resulted in a mismatch between the subject and levelof teachers required and those available so that some teachershave been required to teach in subjects in which they have noqualifications. To some extent this problem has been overcomethrough extensive use of contract teachers (employed for up to ayear) in addition to relief teachers.

A further effect of declining enrolments is the reduction inpromotional opportunities. In addition, recent changes haveobliged teachers to teach in country schools if required to doso, and.to undertake in service training during school holidays.A survey conducted in 1984 by the South Australian Institute ofTechnology found that full time teachers in South Australiaworked an average of 44 3/4 hours per week. Figures are notavailable for all other States but this would seem to suggest acomparatively heavy work load. In some respects however,teaching conditions in South Australia compare favourably withthose in other States. For instance, South Australia has one ofthe lowest student:teacher ratios. In recent moves towards theestablishment of a new career structure, merit has replacedseniority as the key criterion in the selection of senior staffand it is likely that this principle will be extended in time tocover all teaching positions.

- 46 -

Western Australia

Causes of dissatisfaction with working conditions in WesternAustralia closely parallel those in other States and focus inparticular on poor promotion opportunities and low pay, highlevels of stress and poor living conditions in country areas.

One of the most comprehensive surveys of teacher stress wasconducted in Western Australia in 1984. 23 It was commissioned bythe Ministry of Education. It concluded that severe psychologicaldistress (as measured by the General Health Questionnaire - astandardised form of health testing) was experienced by about onein five teachers in Western Australian schools and colleges. Itfound the most significant work related contributors to stresswere: student behaviour; time pressures; relationships withcolleagues and the community; lack of promotional opportunitiesand opportunities for alternative paths of employment and poorphysical working conditions.

In response to these problems, a Ministerial Task Force wasestablished in December 1989 to investigate the condition andstatus of teaching in Western Australia. It will report directlyto the Education Minister. Preliminary recommendations alreadyapproved by the Minister include: reinstatement of permanentstatus for women teachers who were forced to resign on marriage;a broad based education campaign aimed at enhancing the image ofteaching as a profession; an industry access scheme offeringshort term release of long serving teachers to other workcontexts and a TOPS (Teachers on Professional Study) schemeenabling teachers to travel overseas or interstate forprofessional study during school breaks.

Tasmania

Tasmanian teachers are experiencing similar problems to teacherselsewhere. In some respects their conditions compare favourablywith those of teachers in other States. Tasmania has the highestteacher-student ratio in the country, and the highest level ofper capita expenditure. On the other hand, Tasmanian teachersare among the lowest paid in the country and will be adverselyaffected by the very significant cuts to the education budgetplanned by the current Government. These cuts follow thesubstantial decline in education funding experienced in Tasmaniaduring the 1980s - from 26 per cent of the total budget in1981-82 to 22 per cent in 1989. 24 As elsewhere, the difficultiesof attracting and retaining teachers is most marked in maths andscience.

23. Teacher Stress, Report of the Joint Committee of Inquiry intoTeacher Stress, 1984.

24. From the Australian of 11/11/89.

- 47 -

Northern Territory

The Northern Territory has always had greater difficulty thanother States in attracting and retaining teachers, partly becauseof its isolation, partly because of the absence until recently ofany teacher training institution within the Territory and partlybecause of the relatively small size of the teaching force andits consequently limited promotion opportunities. Incentivessuch as subsidised housing, tax concessions and subsidised airfares have partly compensated for these disadvantages but inrecent years their value has been eroded, along with similarconditions of service for all public servants in the Territory.

To overcome teacher shortages the Northern Territory hasrecruited numbers of new graduates (especially from SouthAustralia) unable to find permanent positions in the States.When they secure permanent positions elsewhere, they leave. In1984, for example, the Northern Territory had a resignation rateof 16 per cent. 25 A 1989 survey showed that 20 per cent of mathsteachers in Northern Territory schools were unqualified.

To assist in overcoming these problems the Northern TerritoryGovernment is proposing to expand the existing Master Teachersystem and introduce a four tier promotion and allowancestructure, with progression dependent on rigorous assessment.This proposal is similar to award restructuring proposalsdeveloped by the Northern Territory Teachers' Federation. TheGovernment is also considering contract appointments and improvedin service training. All of these proposals closely parallelthose being developed in other States and their objectives areidentical - to attract more people to the profession, improvetheir skills and increase retention rates.


Government teachers in the ACT are members of the CommonwealthTeaching Service and many of the conditions governing theiremployment parallel those in the Australian Public Service. In'1987, for example, changes to the ACT Teaching Service Actabolished seniority as a factor in promotion, which now dependssolely upon merit and efficiency. Similar changes to promotionwithin the Public Service were introduced shortly before this.

Teachers' conditions in the ACT are comparatively good but theTeaching Service is experiencing some difficulties in retainingyoung staff. (In 1988, for example, 8.2 per cent of all teachersleft the profession). This is reflected in the ageing of theteaching force. In 1987 only 11.5 per cent of ACT teachers wereunder 30 and 24.8 per cent under 35. More highly paid work inthe Public Service is a factor contributing to the movement outof the teaching profession, as is the compressed promotionstructure.

25. From the Northern Territory News of 27/10/84.

ACERAECASATCATsHSCOASROSBATCETESVCE

- 48 -

ACRONYMS USED IN TEXT

Australian Council for Educational ResearchAustralian Education CouncilAustralian Scholastic Aptitude TestCommon Assessment TasksHigher School CertificateOther Approved StudiesReview of School Based AssessmentsTasmanian Certificate of EducationTertiary Entrance ScoreVictorian Certificate of Education

- 49 -

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NATIONAL

1. Patterns of Retention in Australian Government Schools,John Airley, Margaret Batten, Hilary Miller, ACER ResearchMonograph No 27, 1984.

2. Making the Future. The Role of Secondary Education inAustralia, Commonwealth Schools Commission, 1986.

3. In the National Interest. Secondary Education and YouthPolicy in Australia, Commonwealth Schools Commission, 1987.

4. Strengthening Australia's Schools. A Consideration of theFocus and Content of Schooling, Hon. J.S. Dawkins MP,Minister for Employment, Education and Training, 1988.

5. National Schools Statistics Collection, Australia, AustralianBureau of Statistics, 1988.

6. The Restless Years. An Inguiry into Year 12 RetentionRates. Report of the House of Representatives StandingCommittee on Employment, Education and Training, 1989.

NEW SOUTH WALES

1. The Report of the Committee of Review of New South WalesSchools, Sir John Carrick, 1989.

2. Excellence and Equity. A White Paper on Curriculum Reform inNew South Wales Schools, Issued by Dr. Terry Metherell MP,Minister for Education and Youth Affairs, 1989.

3. Schools Renewal, Dr. Brian Scott, 1990.

VICTORIA

1. Ministerial Review of postcompulsory Schooling, (B1ackburnReport) Volumes 1 and 2, Ministry of Education, Victoria,1985. (A Discussion Paper on the same subject was publishedin 1984.)

2. Curriculum Frameworks P-12. An Introduction, EducationDepartment of Victoria, 1985.

- 50 -

3. Future Directions in Post Compulsory Schooling, a Statementby the Hon. Ian Cathie MP, Minister for Education, Victoria,1986.

4. Taking Schools Into the 1990s, Ministry of Education,victoria, 1986.

QUEENSLAND

1. Education 2000: Issues and Options for the Future ofEducation in Queensland, Department of Education, Queensland,1985.

2. Report of the Committee of Review: Education 2000Submissions, Department of Education, Queensland, 1986.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

1. Into the 80s, Our Schools and Their Purposes, Department ofEducation, South Australia, 1981.

2 Education and Change in South Australia, (Keeves Report)Committee of Inquiry into Education in South Australia, 1982.

3. Report into Immediate Post Compulsory Education in SouthAustralia, Kevin Gilding, 1988.

4. Directions: Report of the Primary Education Review of SouthAustralia, Denis Ralph, 1988.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

1. Assessment in the Upper Secondary School in WesternAustralia (McGaw Report). Report of the Ministerial WorkingParty on Schools Certification and Tertiary AdmissionsProcedures, 1984.

2. Education in Western Australia (Beazley Report). Report ofthe Committee of Inquiry into Education in Western Australia,1984.

3. Better Schools in Western Australia: A Program forImprovement, Ministry of Education, Western Australia, 1987.

4. Teacher Stress. Report of the Joint Committee of Inquiryinto Teacher Stress, 1987.

- 51 -

TASMANIA

1. White Paper on Tasmanian Schools and Colleges in the 19805(Holgate Report). Education Department, Tasmania, 1981.

2. Secondary Education: The Future, Education Department,Tasmania, 1986.

NORTHERN TERRITORY

1. High Schools and Secondary Colleges in the NorthernTerritory, Department of Education, Northern Territory, 1985.

2. Towards the 905. Excellence, Accountability and Devolutionin Education for the Future, Volume 2 1988.

AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY

1. The Challenge of Change: A Review of High Schools in theACT (Steinle Report), ACT Schools Authority, 1983.

2. Our Public Schools. Report to the Canberra Community, ACTSchools Authority, 1984.

3. Choice of Schools in the ACT, Parents have their Say, ACTSchools Authority~ 1985.

4. Community Schools for Canberra, 1982-2000. ACT SchoolsAuthority, 1988.

I

I

I

I

I

II

I

I

I

I

I

I

II

I

I

I

I

I

II

Appendix 1

CHANGING ENROLMENTS IN GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS

PRIMARY SECONDARY

1980 1988 change 1980 1988 change

NSW 515,618 439,437 -15% 283,686 318,484 +12%

Vic. 374,676 297,602 -21% 231,471 234,615 +1%

Q1d. 274,351 237,309 -14% 106,050 143,011 +35%

S.A. 142,290 113,658 -20% 76,392 71,108 -7%

W.A. 141,701 135,479 -4% 64,933 76,604 +18%

Tas. 44,820 37,256 -17% 27,512 28,148 +2%

N.T. 16,782 18,041 +8% 5,527 8,233 +49%

A.C.T. 24,801 22,515 -9% 14,467 18,203 +26%

Aust. 1,508,039 1,301,297 -14% 810,038 896,406 +11%

Note. Students in special schools or special classes who were not reported as either primary orsecondary level have been shown as primary in both the 1980 and 1988 statistics.

Source: National Schools Statistics Collection, Australia, 1988, ABS

The drop in primary school enrolments, which is having a significant impact onthe organisation of primary school education, has yet to flow through to secondary schools.

Appendix 2

DRIFT TO PRIVATE SCHOOLS - PRIMARY

Non Govt Whole school Non Govt Non Govt Whole school Non Govt1980 population enrolment as 1988 population enrolment as

1980 % of whole. 1988 % of whole.

N.S.W 133,277 648,895 21 147,222 586,659 25

Vic. 117,313 491,989 24 128,154 425,756 30

Qld. 55,478 302,829 18 61,058 298,367 20

S.A. 23,347 165,637 14 29,912 143,570 21

W.A. 25,855 167,556 15 34,088 169,567 20

Tas. 8,227 53,047 16 9,553 46,809 20

N.T. 3,152 19,934 16 3,964 22,005 18

ACT. 9,406 34,207 27 10,440 32,955 32

Aust. 376,055 1,884,094 20 424,391 1,725,688 25

Note. Students in special schools or special classes who were not reported as either primary or secondar]level have been shown as primary in both the 1980 and 1988 statistics.


Appendix 3

DRIFT TO PRIVATE SCHOOLS SECONDARY

Non Govt. Whole school Non Govt. Non Govt. Whole school Non Govt1980 population enrolment 1988 population enrolment

1980 as % of 1988 as % ofwhole whole

N.S.W. 97,107 380,793 26 133,387 451,871 30

Vie. 98,812 330,283 30 128,558 363,173 35

Q1d. 41,696 147,746 28 61,702 204,713 30

S.A. 17,769 94,161 19 25,333 96,441 26

W.A. 20,740 85,673 24 31,242 105,846 31

Tas. 6,393 33,905 19 8,242 36,390 23

N.T. 953 6,480 15 1,499 9,732 15

A.C.T. 6,960 21,427 32 10,272 28,475 36

Aust. 290,430 1,100,468 26 400,235 1,296,641 31


The Research Se1Vice provides the Parliament and its Memberswith original written and oral advice on issues of national concern.

The Research Service is organised around eight groupsThe Bills Digest ServiceThe Defence Research GroupThe Economics and Commerce Research GroupThe Education and Welfare Research GroupThe Foreign Affairs Research GroupThe Law and Government Research GroupThe Science, Technology and Environment Research GroupThe Statistics Research Group

Most of the Research Service's work is prepared in confidence for individualSenators and Members.

From time to time Background Papers are prepared on broader issues. Thesepapers are available to Senators and Members on request.

Editorial comment on this paper is welcome and may be addressed to the authoror to the Head of the Research Service, Department of the Parliamentary Ubrary,Parliament House, Canberra 2600.

Documents

Research Service Background Paper