Research Scientist: A Concentration on Carbon 14

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English IV Honors 1st Period

While spelunking Professor Lee Berger discovered what he believes to be

an archaeological breakthrough. His find, an almost complete skeleton of a child,

is believed to be two million years old. Scientists speculate that it is Homo

habilis, the first species of an advanced human. Who will go about determining if

this information is accurate? How will they go about this? Research scientist will

extract and examine microscopic evidence, primarily carbon 14 in order to

acquire the relative age of the specimen (Fossil May Be ‗Missing Link‘ in Human

Evolution 1).

What is a research scientist? Scientists are naturally inquisitive. Research

science requires methodical skills and an interest in details. They must design

repeatable procedures and record results precisely (How to Become an Education

Research Assistant 1). Research scientists must be resourceful, creative, possess

advanced research skills, and have technical knowledge (Research Scientist —

Central Intelligence Agency 1). According to Professor John Wakeman of

Louisiana Tech University, scientists must be able to ―remove bias, use multiple

replicates and controls, and by use of appropriate statistical tests‖ produce error

free results (Wakeman 1).

In order to become a research scientist, persons interested in research as a

career pursue a degree in biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, or other

relevant scientific field (Research Scientist — Central Intelligence Agency 1).

Most research scientists complete post graduate degrees in their field. They often

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hold positions at colleges or universities and, generally, have a Doctorate of

Philosophy (PhD). In some cases, Masters Degrees are permissible (How to

Become an Education Research Assistant 1).

As with most professions, the level of education of the candidate often

determines the position for which the scientist is eligible. Scientists holding only

bachelors or masters degrees are expected to have more opportunities in

nonscientist jobs related to biology, in areas such as sales, marketing, publishing,

and research management. Also, scientists without a graduate degree may

become high school biology teachers, technicians, and medical health

technologist. Graduate degree holders are expected to face competition for basic

research in academia (Biological Scientists 1).

Depending on the scientist‘s individual major, it is possible to earn the

following; biochemists and biophysicists earned 82, 000 dollars during the year of

2008. Zoologists and wildlife biologists earned 55, 000 dollars annually; and

microbiologist earned 62,000 dollars per year (Biological Scientists 1).

Research scientists direct and oversee research across multiple programs

through one or more projects. This includes the development and execution of

original conjectures, while performing investigative and practical research. They

provide operational and technical guidance to a variety of disciplines such as the

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Smithsonian, National Aeronautical Space

Association (NASA), and the military to name a few (Research Scientist —

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Central Intelligence Agency 1).

One of the best aspects of being a research scientist is that no two days are

the same. Researchers investigate numerous areas, such as ―understanding the

molecular processes of life, making advances in medical science, understanding

the origins of life, and understanding how animals have adapted to their

environments‖ (Wakeman 1). Whereas one day may require compiling

information at the library, the next day may require working at the laboratory.

Research scientists typically like to discover new things (Research Scientist

Career Information 1).

Though rewarding, research can also be very confusing and stressful. To

help alleviate the complexity associated with research, a method has been

developed. This method helps organize thoughts and procedures and allows for

scientists to be confident in the information that they find (The scientific method

1).

The universal method scientists use to research is called the scientific

method. Scientists start with a problem. A vital part of research, this question,

defines exactly for what scientist are searching. The entire experiment is meant to

answer this question (Science Stuff: Scientific Method 1).

After the question is formed, a hypothesis is produced. This is an

educated guess that the scientists assume will be the outcome. The hypothesis is

based off previous knowledge and information gained by other scientists during

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experiments and recorded in databases and professional journals (Science Stuff:

Scientific Method 1).

After forming the hypothesis, the scientist then develops an experiment

that will test the conjecture. During this step, scientists will make observations,

record data, and often journal over a span of time what is developing within the

experiment (Science Stuff: Scientific Method 1). To help observe this data,

scientist must utilize different tools. These items can range from a voltmeter, an

instrument used to measure electrical potential, to a pyranometer, used to measure

solar radiation from the sky‘s hemisphere. It can also be simple tools such as a

ruler (Chrisomalis 1).

After the experiment is completed, the scientist will analyze the results.

The observations and data are organized and ready to be evaluated. Frequently,

the scientist who conducted the experiment will have another scientist help him

review the data. Also, most scientists will discover during this step that their

hypothesis is erroneous. They then use this information to construct a new

hypothesis and begin the method all over again (Steps of the Scientific Method 2).

Finally, scientists draw their conclusions. As a rule, scientists compile a

paper reporting their results. This paper will include the original hypothesis, any

revised hypotheses, all experiments conducted along with their results. Scientists

will then present this information to and consult with other scientists.

Considering the new knowledge gained from colleagues, the scientist may choose

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to design a new experiment (Steps of the Scientific Method 2).

Some issues that are continually being scrutinized by researchers are

global warming, carbon-14 and energy sources. The controversies surrounding

these issues increase the demand for research. To further understand the vocation

of a research scientist, examining how the scientist would carry out the work is a

fundamental concept (The scientific method 1).

How does a scientist apply the scientific method to carbon-14? Carbon-

14, as aforementioned, is a controversial issue receiving much attention in the

scientific realm. Scientists are researching this system of dating because of the

precision it offers. Carbon dating is a method used today to date fossils, rocks,

and plants. Scientists commonly accept that all radiocarbon dating is constant.

This concept is relied upon, for example, when anthropologists use carbon-14 to

date ancient artifacts; and when doctors determine the proper dose of radioactivity

to treat a cancer patient (Stober 1). Fossils that have been dated by carbon-14 are

believed to be millions of years old. Until recently, scientists have not

recognized that radioactivity could have an outside force acting on it, altering the

rate of decay, thus, marring its accuracy as a dating method (Stober 1).

Scientists recognize that carbon-14 has a half life of 5, 730 years. The

fossils that have been dated are allegedly millions of years old, yet still possess

carbon-14. Anything over 100,000 years old should have no trace of carbon-14

whatsoever. If the fossil in question is believed to be millions of years old, then

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how can it still contain carbon-14? Fossils are not the only focus, diamonds and

minerals also play a major role in the carbon-14 debate (Brain 1).

Diamonds are believed to have formed in the upper mantle, deep

underground. Diamonds that occur naturally are believed to be millions of years

old. If carbon decays at a constant rate, all carbon-14 older than 100,000 years

should not be detectable. Diamonds have been discovered with carbon-14 still

present. There are two possibilities. The first is that carbon-14 is not uniform; it

does not decay at the same rate. The second is that the diamonds may be younger

than originally thought. Both are plausible explanations (Diamonds and Strata

Have Too Much Carbon 14 1).

To understand this argument, one must first understand what carbon-14 is.

This element occurs naturally in nature (Carbon 14 1). The upper atmosphere of

the earth is constantly being bombarded by cosmic rays. This produces fast

moving neutrons (Doesn‘t Carbon-14 Dating Disprove the Bible 1). Neutrons

originating from these cosmic rays combine with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.

Plants naturally absorb carbon dioxide, which contains carbon-14, and the plant

incorporates the carbon-14 into its plant fibers by the process of photosynthesis.

All animals eat plants, thus, carbon-14 is constantly present in all living

organisms (Brain 1).

When a living organism ceases to exist, the intake of carbon-14

diminishes. Every organism, at the time of death, has the same ratio of carbon-14

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to carbon-12. Carbon-12 does not deteriorate away. To determine the age of a

fossil, rock or plant, research scientists compare the amounts of carbon-12 to

carbon-14. They also compare the levels of carbon-14 in the remains of a dead

animal with the levels found in a living organism of the same family (Brain1).

One of the largest mysteries of radioactivity is how the sun may alter the

results. On December 13, 2006 the sun released a solar flare that sent a stream of

particles and radiation towards the earth. While measuring the decay rate of

manganese-54, engineer Jere Jenkins noticed that the decay rate dropped slightly

during this solar flare. The decay rate aberrations that Jenkins noticed occurred

during the middle of the night; this means that something was produced by the

sun that traveled through the earth to reach Jenkins detectors. Scientists believe

that solar neutrinos are the culprit behind this phenomenon. Solar neutrinos are

the almost weightless particles that fly at the speed of light. Scientists found that

these strange decay fluctuations were in synch with the earth‘s elliptical orbit.

The decay rate appeared to oscillate as the earth comes closer to the sun, where

there are copious amounts of neutrinos, and then moves away (Stober 1).

As the sun revolves, the amount of neutrinos racing towards the earth

varies according to the intensity of solar flares on the region currently pointing

towards the earth. He accepts that the intensity of the onslaught of neutrinos

varies, but doubts that this fluctuation greatly alters radiocarbon dating.

Questioning if this fluctuation was real or just an experimental error, Stanford

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professor emeritus, Peter Sturrock, decided to examine this occurrence (Stober 1).

As researchers pored through published data on specific isotopes of

carbon-14, they found many discrepancies in the measured decay rates. This was

abnormal for assumed physical constants. The scientist came to the conclusion

that the sun is communicating with radioactive material on earth which is altering

its radioactive decay (Stober 1).

How will all of this help scientist determine if the fossil found by

Professor Lee Berger is a Homo habilis? The dating of bones using carbon-14 is

one of the most difficult tasks for carbon dating and requires the most care

because of the carbonaceous material. This is mainly due to the nature of bone,

which is a porous material. After meticulously removing the purified bioapatite,

total organics or collagen, scientists measure the amounts of carbon-14 located

deep within the bone (Carbon Dating of Fossils 1).

There are two types of carbon 14 dating technologies. The original method

is a multistep process and requires sample sizes of several grams. The newer

method utilizes the "Accelerator Mass Spectrometer" (AMS technology) and

requires smaller sample sizes. This updated method involves fewer steps and

decreases the likelihood of errors. The latest technology (AMS) involves actually

counting the carbon 14 atoms as they are separated from the sample. The

equipment accelerates streams of charged atomic particles to high velocities in

order to sort and analyze them. This newer method can provide dates going back

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to 100,000 years at best. Generally dates older than 70,000 years are considered

approximate ages. Regardless of which method the scientists choose, carbon-14

will help assist in the authentication of the bones and determine if they are truly a

Homo habilis (Carbon Dating of Fossils 1).

In conclusion, research scientists have a demanding job; researching

information from the mundane to the complex. Perhaps through the diligent work

of research scientists a more reliable dating method will be discovered to

authenticate archaeological finds. Even if scientists do not alter the method of

radiocarbon dating, ―[their research] will continue to make our lives better, just

as life is better and [the] human life span is longer than it was for people who

lived just a few hundred years ago‖ (Wakeman 1).

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List of Works Cited

"Biological Scientists." U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 11 Apr. 2011

<http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos047.htm>.

Brain, Marshall. "HowStuffWorks "How Carbon-14 Dating Works""

Howstuffworks "Science" 11 Apr. 2011

<http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/carbon-

14.htm>.

"Carbon 14." Argonne National Laboratory. Aug. 2005. 9 Apr. 2011

<http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/carbon14.pdf>.

"Carbon Dating of Fossils." Fossil Carbon Dating and Paleochronology. 11 Apr.

2011 <http://www.dinosaurc14ages.com/carbondating.htm>.

Chrisomalis, Steve. "Word List: Definitions of Scientific Instruments." The

Phrontistery: Obscure Words and Vocabulary Resources. 11 Apr. 2011

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<http://phrontistery.info/instrum.html>.

"Diamonds and Strata Have Too Much Carbon 14." Institute for Creation

Research. 9 Apr. 2011 <http://www.icr.org/carbon-14/>.

"Doesn‘t Carbon-14 Dating Disprove the Bible? - Answers in Genesis." Answers

in Genesis - Creation, Evolution, Christian Apologetics. 12 Apr. 2011

<http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/nab/does-c14-disprove-the-

bible>.

―Fossil Find May Be ‗Missing Link‘ in Human Evolution – FoxNews.com.‖

FoxNews.com – Breaking News, Latest News, Current News. 4 Apr.

2010. 11 Apr. 2011.

<http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2010/04/04/fossil-missing-link-human-

evolution/?cmpid=cmty_email_Gigya_Fossil_Find_May_Be_‘Missing_Li

nk‘_in_Human_Evolution>.

"How to Become an Education Research Assistant." Degrees, Schools, Online

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Courses and Careers - Education-Portal.com. 21 Apr. 2007. 11 Apr. 2011

<http://educationportal.com/articles/How_to_Become_an_Education_Res

earch_Assistant.html>.

"Research Scientist Career Information." Job Reviews - Salary, Interviews and

Career Information. 26 June 2010. 11 Apr. 2011

<http://www.careerleak.com/jobs-and-education/research-scientist-is-it-in-

you.html>.

"Research Scientist — Central Intelligence Agency." Welcome to the CIA Web

Site — Central Intelligence Agency. 21 Apr. 2007. 11 Apr. 2011

<https://www.cia.gov/careers/opportunities/science-technology/research-

scientist.html>.

"Scientific Method." Science Fair Projects - Winning Science Fair Project Ideas.

2007. 11 Apr. 2011

<http://sciencefairproject.virtualave.net/scientific_method.htm>.

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"Science Stuff: Scientific Method." Science Stuff :: Educational Science Supplies,

Toys, Games and Kits. 11 Apr. 2011

<http://www.sciencestuff.com/nav/Scientific_Method.html>.

"Steps of the Scientific Method." Science Fair Project Ideas, Answers, & Tools.

2002. 11 Apr. 2011 <http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-

projects/project_scientific_method.shtml>.

Stober, Dan. "The strange case of solar flares and radioactive elements." Stanford

News. 23 Aug. 2010. 11 Apr. 2011

<http://news.stanford.edu/news/2010/august/sun-082310.html>.

"The scientific method." Science projects, ideas & topics - science fair projects -

easy kids science projects & experiments, science articles. 2006. 11 Apr.

2011 <http://www.sciencemadesimple.com/scientific_method.html>.

Wakeman, John. Personal Interview. 12 April 2011.

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Research Scientist: A Concentration on Carbon 14