Research Proposal

INFLUENCE OF CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENTS ON COLLEGE STUDENTS 1

Influence of Celebrity Endorsements on College Students’ Purchase Intentions

Melissa Martinez & Kayle Vitek

University of Illinois at Chicago


Abstract

In a high consumer society such as the United States, celebrity endorsements are widely used by

corporations as a strategy to increase consumption. In this research proposal, we attempt to

investigate the influence of celebrity endorsements on college students. The research question is

as follows: How do celebrity endorsements influence college students’ intent to purchase

products? We hypothesize that celebrity endorsements increase college students’ intention of

buying the products being advertised (H1). We also hypothesize that celebrity endorsements

influence college students’ perceptions of products that are advertised, whether it be in positive

or negative ways (H2). We apply a mixed-methods approach by implementing content analysis,

surveys, and interviews to further examine the influence of celebrity endorsements on college

students’ purchase intentions. We found from a sample of 100 celebrity-endorsed advertisements

that corporations are more likely to use celebrities that are portrayed as physically attractive and

lack imperfections. Furthermore, we found from surveying and interviewing students at the

University of Illinois at Chicago, that college students are more likely to purchase products that

are endorsed by celebrities that they admire. Moreover, prominence, recognizability, and

believability are likely to influence college students’ perceptions of products in some way.


Introduction

Celebrity culture plays a prominent role in the culture of the United States as a whole.

There is a growing concern regarding the extent to which celebrities influence the behavior of

others. For the purpose of this research proposal, the term “celebrities” refers to individuals who

are well-known or have achieved fame. Because celebrities are often idolized and admired, they

play a particularly important role in consumer societies. Celebrities frequently become endorsers

of a particular brand or product in an attempt to promote sales. A celebrity endorsement is

defined as “a form of brand or advertising campaign that involves a well-known person using

their fame to help promote a product or service” (Celebrity Endorsement). College students, as

consumers, are surrounded by influences that may affect their purchase intentions. Celebrity

endorsements, therefore, may play a role in their desire to purchase products. The influence of

celebrities as endorsers is an interesting phenomenon to study because of the influence that

celebrities hold over others. In this paper, we attempt to investigate the influence of celebrity

endorsements on college students. The research question is as follows: How do celebrity

endorsements influence college students’ intent to purchase products?

We hypothesize that celebrity endorsements increase college students’ intention of

buying the products being advertised (H1). We also hypothesize that celebrity endorsements

influence college students’ perceptions of products that are advertised, whether it be in positive

or negative ways (H2). We will apply a mixed-methods approach in order to further examine the

influence of celebrity endorsements on college students’ purchase intentions. The results of

content analysis, surveys, and interviews will be explored in order to attain a comprehensive

understanding of this phenomenon. A literature review on the information that is already known

on the topic of celebrity endorsement and consumerism can set the groundwork for further

research on what is not known.

Literature Review

Celebrity endorsements are widely used by corporations as a strategy to increase

consumption. The more prominent a celebrity is, the more likely it is that he or she will attract

attention to the product being advertised. The United States, in particular, is known as a high

consumer society, and 25% of all advertisements in newspapers and magazines use celebrity

endorsers (White, 2000). Prior research has been done to show that celebrity endorsements

influence consumer behavior; the following sources provide some background to this research

and provide the foundation for this research paper.

In their research, Nelson, Tunji and Gloria (2012) note the drastic increase in the use of

celebrity endorsement in advertising in the past several years, and that its use has expanded to all

sectors of the economy. There is no doubt that celebrity endorsement is a very important element

in advertising. There are also several benefits to celebrity endorsement; celebrities can make

advertisements believable and create positive attitudes toward a brand (Kamins, 1989). The use


of a celebrity in an advertisement can help increase the recall value of a brand, and this is a major

reason why the use of endorsers is a common marketing strategy. Kamins (1989) also found that

celebrity-endorsed advertisements are more appealing than other types of advertisements.

However, for this to be effective, researchers Nelson, Tunji and Gloria (2012) suggest that

source credibility is of high importance. Source credibility is derived from three components:

knowledge or expertise, trustworthiness, and appearance or attractiveness (Nelson, Tunji &

Gloria, 2012). All three of these elements work to create the credibility of a celebrity-endorsed

advertisement. There is also a direct correlation between believability and the overall

effectiveness of the advertisement, as measured by purchase intentions (Kamins, Brand, Hoeke,

& Moe, 1989).

In their research, Hung (2014), Thomson (2006), and Carroll (2009) found a relationship

between celebrity endorsement and consumerism. Although they each approach this

phenomenon in different ways, their research shows that celebrity endorsements have an

influence on consumers. These authors believe that understanding the effect that celebrities have

on consumers is important because celebrities play a key role in engaging the attitudes of

consumers, which has great economic value. After close examination of two studies in which

the attitudes of both fans and non-fans of celebrities were examined in China, Hung (2014) found

that in both cases, “celebrity-induced entertainment experiences enhance endorsed brand

attitude” (p. 155). Furthermore, Thomson’s (2006) research shows that understanding

consumers’ attachment to celebrities can offer considerable insight as to why people are more

likely to be influenced by the human brand. His findings indicate that stronger attachments to

celebrities occur when celebrity branding increases consumers’ feelings of relatedness and

autonomy to the celebrity and avoids feelings of suppressed competence. When the attachment

that consumers feel toward celebrities is strong, celebrity endorsements become an effective

strategy for marketing (Thomson, 2006). Carroll (2009) particularly focuses on the ways in

which celebrity endorsement is used for fashion marketing. Brands have evolved to “become

embedded in the consumer psyche and offer consumers the opportunity for self-expression, self-

realisation, and self-identity” (Carroll, 2009, p. 146). After examining a wide range of literature

involving celebrity endorsement, branding, and fashion marketing, Carroll (2009) found that

brand owners have shifted toward the use of visual images as opposed to verbal cues in order to

allow messages to stand out and attract attention. Because of this shift, using celebrity

advertising requires a different approach than traditional campaigns because the meaning that

celebrities hold in relation to brands can be more ambiguous (Carroll, 2009). The fact that

celebrities are always in the spotlight, however, means that their fashion choices are likely to be

highly observed and imitated. As these three researchers have shown, celebrity endorsements

influence the ways in which consumers perceive advertised products. The research of Hung

(2014), Thomson (2006) and Carroll (2009) reveals important implications for corporations who

seek to use celebrity endorsements when advertising their products.


By examining the immediate and delayed effects of celebrity endorsements on consumer

behavior, Eisend and Langer (2010) also provide research that can reveal significant implications

for corporations who strategically use celebrity endorsements to pitch their products. Researchers

have had a tendency of studying the immediate effects of celebrity endorsement, while paying

less attention to the delayed effects (Eisend & Langer, 2010). Both immediate and delayed

effects are important to consider because they provide evidence of how consumers are likely to

react to celebrity endorsements. Through experimentation, Eisend and Langer (2010) found that

celebrity attractiveness was more likely to produce immediate effects, while celebrity expertise

contributed to delayed effects. They found, in particular, that high expertise was more effective

when the celebrity was also high in attractiveness (Eisend & Langer, 2010). The key findings

here imply that celebrity attractiveness is an important strategy for influencing the choices of

consumers.

The above research indicates that using a celebrity as an endorser in an advertisement can

be a very beneficial marketing strategy. However, Okorie (2010) notes that brands need to

consider several important aspects in the use of celebrity endorsement. Brands must maintain

consistency between the endorser and the brand, and celebrity endorsement deals should be

viewed as long-term, strategic decisions. There should be a strong match between the brand and

the endorser, to ensure that they can be influential in the thought processes of consumers.

Finally, they should also constantly monitor the behavior, conduct, and public image of the

endorser to minimize negative publicity (Okorie, 2010). However, there are indeed times when a

celebrity endorser is involved in a scandal, and it may potentially damage the image of the brand.

Research has been conducted in order to examine the impact of celebrity scandals on

consumer choices. Celebrity scandals are a frequent occurrence, so it becomes interesting to see

how they influence consumers’ perception of advertised products. Carrillat, D’astous, and Lazure

(2013) found that completely revoking an endorsement “is suboptimal with respect to brand

attitude and purchase intention” (p. 15). They also found that denying the scandal hurt

consumers’ attitudes and intention of purchasing products because it lowered the trustworthiness

of the endorser (Carrillat et al., 2013). Till and Ship (1998) conclude that negative publicity

about a celebrity scandal can have an unfavorable effect on the product being endorsed. This

effect is usually strengthened when a celebrity is highly associated with the product. However,

the effect is dependent on whether endorsers are perceived to be responsible for the situation that

they are involved in (Louie & Obermiller, 2002). These findings offer potential strategies when

thinking about the most effective course of action for endorsers during a scandal. For example,

Louie and Obermiller (2002) sought to determine what companies should do if endorsers of their

campaign are involved in a scandal. They found that the best strategy for companies in this

situation is to dismiss existing endorsers with high-blame and keep those with low-blame for

negative events. Companies that hire low-blame candidates are perceived more favorably (Louie

& Obermiller, 2002). A survey conducted by Bailey (2007) found that media exposure has an

important impact on whether or not consumers will pay attention to scandals involving celebrity


endorsers. This survey found the intensity of media coverage to be influential on consumers’

attention to negative information about celebrity endorsers, not how recent the coverage is

(Bailey, 2007).

Past literature has shown that celebrity endorsements do, in fact, have an influence on

consumer behavior. The use of a celebrity endorser can have an important impact on consumers’

opinions of products and brands. To be effective, a celebrity-endorsed advertisement should

exhibit knowledge or expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. Brands should strategically

choose their endorser, and select a celebrity that matches the image of the brand; this will ensure

that the consumers feel an attachment toward the celebrity and therefore, the brand. Companies

need to be aware of the possibility of a celebrity scandal and know what effect it may have on

the image of the brand.

College students make up a significant portion of the consumer population; therefore it

would be interesting to see how celebrities influence the consumer choices of college students.

Celebrities often dominate a variety of media outlets, and the number of outlets available to

college students have greatly expanded in recent years. Because the U.S. is a high consumer

society, it would be interesting to see the ways in which the consumer choices of college students

are directly related to celebrity endorsements. The research compiled in this literature review is

helpful background information as we conduct our study to determine how celebrity

endorsements influence college students’ intent to purchase products.

Methodology

In this research project, we implemented a sequential mixed-methods design which

allowed for a greater understanding of the phenomenon of celebrity endorsement. We primarily

took a quantitative approach with content analysis and surveys and used the qualitative method

of interviews to further triangulate our results. Each individual method had its own strengths and

weaknesses. Collectively, these three methods offered valuable information that would have

otherwise been excluded had we only focused on one of these methods. We employed content

analysis first in order to attain detailed descriptions of the kinds of patterns and strategies used by

corporations when endorsing celebrities within their advertisements. Although content analysis is

an unobtrusive method, its findings alone did not offer insight as to how likely celebrity

endorsements are to influence college students’ purchase intentions. Therefore, surveys were

essential to allow us to understand the attitudes of college students regarding celebrity

endorsements. Surveys, however, reflected our point of view as researchers because the majority

of our questions had closed-ended responses that may have guided the participants’ answers.

Interviews served as a way of letting the participants voice their opinions in their own

perspectives. We conducted interviews with the purpose of understanding the perception that

college students have regarding celebrity endorsements on a deeper level. This allowed for

college students to give detailed explanations about the aspects of celebrity endorsements that

draw their attention. By combining all three methods, we explored different angles related to this


phenomenon. We compiled a sample of ten magazines from the list of top 100 magazines in the

U.S., and we used a convenience sample of college students from the University of Illinois at

Chicago for surveys and interviews.

Content Analysis

When conducting content analysis, the universe of texts that we explored include ten

magazines from the list of top 100 magazines in the U.S. in terms of circulation. These

magazines include the November 2014 issue of People, Maxim, Cosmopolitan, Glamour, InStyle,

Redbook, Men’s Health, Women’s Health, Elle, and US Weekly. We did not choose the top ten

magazines in a sequential order because among the list of top 100 magazines, magazines such as

AARP Bulletin, The Costco Connection, and Better Homes and Gardens did not contain many

celebrity-endorsed advertisements. We chose magazines which had sufficient celebrity-endorsed

advertisements and were readily accessible. Some magazines did not contain as many celebrity-

endorsed advertisements as others, so we coded ten celebrity-endorsed advertisements from each

magazine. Because we used magazines from the list of top 100 magazines in the U.S., we had

access to the most common advertisements that most people, including college students, are

likely to encounter. We were unable to find a list of top 100 magazines for millennials in the

U.S. In choosing the advertisements to analyze, we used a convenience sample by flipping to a

random page in each magazine. If that page contained an advertisement with a celebrity

endorsing a product or service, we coded that advertisement. If the page did not contain a

celebrity-endorsed advertisement, another page was chosen.

The units of analysis and observation, in this case, are celebrity-endorsed advertisements.

We analyzed physical coding units within these advertisements. These units refer to the number

of times the variables “aesthetic appeal,” “product placement,” and the theme of “celebrity as

flawless” were present within the celebrity-endorsed advertisements. “Aesthetic appeal” refers to

the physical attractiveness of the celebrity as well as the ways in which the celebrity presents the

product in an appealing manner. We measured this variable by the physical attractiveness of the

celebrity, in terms of attractive, somewhat attractive, and not attractive, and how that celebrity

made the products that he/she was advertising look visually pleasing. We assigned attractive

celebrities with a number 1, somewhat attractive with a number 2, and not attractive with a

number 3. The level of celebrity attractiveness may indicate a stronger desire to make the

product more appealing. “Product placement” refers to how the products that celebrities are

advertising are placed in proportion to them. We measured this variable by whether celebrities

were holding the products, wearing them, or whether the products appeared in the background.

We assigned celebrities who were wearing the product with a number 1, celebrities holding the

products with a number 2, and celebrities that appeared with the product in the background with

a number 3. Numbers 1 and 2 may signal a stronger attachment between celebrities and products.

“Celebrity as flawless” refers to a recurring theme in advertisements that characterizes celebrities

as being the “perfect” beings devoid of imperfections. These imperfections include visible marks

on the skin such as wrinkles, scars, or acne, “abnormal” body types, such as overweight figures


or disproportionate features, and untidy hair or clothing. We measured this variable by how often

celebrities were presented as having superior characteristics such as flawless skin, body types,

and well-polished clothing. We assigned celebrities portrayed as flawless with a number 1,

celebrities portrayed as somewhat flawless with a number 2, and celebrities portrayed as not

flawless with a number 3. The frequency with which this theme occurs may signal a desire to

make advertised products appear perfect.

In order to ensure internal validity, two coders operationalized the nominal variables

discussed above in a systematic manner, paying close attention to each definition. To ensure

internal reliability, two coders coded a portion of the advertisements together in order to reach an

inter-coder agreement. We first went through a training process for the two coders involved. Ten

advertisements were coded during the training process. Once we determined that we had a high

inter-coder reliability coefficient, which will be discussed in greater detail, two coders coded

twenty advertisements together. Each coder then coded 40 advertisements individually.

Surveys

While content analysis allowed us to focus solely on strategies used within celebrity-

endorsed advertisements, we conducted surveys to gauge the attitudes and intentions of college

students when purchasing products that are celebrity-endorsed. Our theoretical population is

college students, and our study population is University of Illinois at Chicago students. We

obtained the sampling frame from a list of student email addresses in our perspective classes that

we compiled from the University of Illinois at Chicago Blackboard Learn site. Using an online

Qualtrics survey, we asked students from the sampling frame questions about when they

encounter celebrity endorsements, how they feel about them, and the importance of a celebrity

endorsement. 30 students began the survey, but only 26 completed it. We used the 26

successfully-completed surveys as our sample.

The survey incorporated both open-ended and close-ended questions, as well as a

composite measure question. We identified the variables celebrity endorsement, negative

attitudes toward celebrity endorsement, and college students’ intent to purchase. To measure

negative attitudes, we asked questions about how students view an endorser that has been

involved in a scandal. We asked the questions that required the most thoughtful responses first to

ensure that informants would contribute their full attention to these questions. We asked

demographic questions at the end of the survey to gain a better understanding of the sample.

These questions were asked last because they required the least amount of effort.

We incorporated surveys because they protect the privacy of the participants, and they

can be easily analyzed through statistics. To ensure the privacy and safety of the students, the

participants signed an informed consent form, which then let them enter the survey. All

participants’ identities were anonymous aside from the participants who opted-in to being

contacted again for an interview. The participants used a link provided via email to take the


survey, and the answers were recorded using numbers rather than a name or email address. We

think that this encouraged the participants to answer more honestly, but we were still conscious

to avoid questions that were too personal or uncomfortable. We allowed participants to complete

the survey at their own pace, and opt-out of any questions they did not feel comfortable

answering. However, we did find several limitations of our use of surveys, which we will discuss

later in this paper.

Interviews

Interviews allow for the opportunity to fine-tune the questions for every individual,

unlike a survey that is strictly question and answer. The interviews we conducted in this research

study explore the nominal variables of positive and/or negative attitudes toward celebrity

endorsement, college students’ intent to purchase, and overall influence of celebrity

endorsement. These interviews were semi-structured, and there was a set of predetermined

questions, but conversations varied with each individual interview. We started each interview

with descriptive questions that asked for details of the types of celebrity-endorsed advertisements

that participants encounter, and what aspects of the advertisements draw their attention. Then we

followed with a few structural questions; for example, one structural question that we asked was

who are some celebrities that you admire? Lastly, we asked contrast questions to determine how

the informant views products and advertisements endorsed by celebrities as opposed to those that

are not. We showed each informant several hardcopies of advertisements containing both

celebrities and non-celebrities. The goal of conducting these in-depth interviews is to reveal if

there is a link between attitudes toward celebrity endorsements and purchase intentions, and to

allow the informants to elaborate on the issues that they believe have the most importance.

We obtained a sample of five college students from the University of Illinois at Chicago

from a sample of survey-takers that indicated that they would be willing to be contacted again for

an interview. Of eight students that agreed to be interviewed, five students responded to an email

to schedule an interview. Three of these students were female and two were male. All interviews

took place on the University of Illinois at Chicago’s campus, between November 17 and

November 20, 2014. Before conducting the interviews, we thanked the informants for

participating and explained the purpose of the interview. We told all informants that their

answers to all questions were confidential, and their names would not be published; to protect the

identity of informants, we use aliases instead of their real names within this research proposal.

Once the informants understood that each interview would only be used for the purpose of this

research project, we gave them a copy of an informed consent form for them to sign. We

informed students that their participation was entirely voluntary, and they were free to choose to

not answer any question, or leave at any time if they desired. Informants consented to the use of

video recording during the interview as well.

To ensure that these interviews were credible, we asked clear questions and made sure

they were not biased or leading so that the findings would “ring true” to the informants. We


conducted in-depth interviews to fully understand the students’ intent to buy a celebrity-endorsed

product, and ensured that the questions measured the nominal variables of positive and/or

negative attitudes toward celebrity endorsement, college students’ intent to purchase, and overall

influence of celebrity endorsement. To guarantee confirmability, we made the interview process

track-able. We kept detailed notes of the interviews, as well as audio records and transcriptions.

Lastly, we provide enough detail for this study to be transferable. We make sure to relay our

findings in a detailed manner to allow other researchers to determine whether our findings can be

applied to other settings. To do this, we organized our findings in tables according to themes that

emerged from our interviews. The following section discusses the findings of the three methods

that we implemented for this study, including content analysis, surveys, and interviews.

Findings

Together, these three research methods led to unique findings on the use of celebrity

endorsements and their influence on college students’ purchase intentions. Content analysis

provided information about the appearance of celebrity-endorsed advertisements. Surveys

offered insightful information about the demographics of our sample, as well as information

concerning how participants feel about celebrity endorsements and their importance. Lastly,

interviews revealed important trends and themes related to celebrity endorsements and their

effects on purchase intentions.

Content Analysis

As previously stated, two coders coded ten celebrity-endorsed advertisements during the

training process of content analysis. We selected these advertisements from Cosmopolitan

because this magazine contained an overabundance of celebrity-endorsed advertisements. When

we analyzed our data, we found that there was only one value that we disagreed upon for one

advertisement. Due to this one value, our inter-coder reliability coefficient was 0.785 for these

ten advertisements. We determined that our reliability coefficient was relatively strong

considering that we had assigned the same values for all variables except for one instance, so we

moved on to coding the sample of 100 celebrity endorsements. The results of the training process

are not included in the results for this study. The same two coders then coded ten celebrity-

endorsed advertisements from People and ten celebrity-endorsed advertisements from Maxim.

Our inter-coder reliability coefficient for these 20 celebrity-endorsed advertisements reached

0.929. This inter-coder reliability coefficient was higher than that of the training process because

we coded twice as many advertisements. When we compared our data, both coders had assigned

similar values for all three variables –aesthetic appeal, product placement, and celebrity as

flawless. We discussed the values that we disagreed upon and reached an agreement after careful

deliberation. We divided the remaining 80 advertisements evenly among both coders.

We found that among the 100 celebrity-endorsed advertisements that we coded, 83% of

the celebrities were portrayed as attractive, 17% were somewhat attractive, and 0% of celebrities


were unattractive (Figure 1). In terms of product placement, 70% of celebrities were wearing the

product, 19% of celebrities were holding the product, and 11% of celebrities appeared with the

product in the background (Figure 2). Finally, when analyzing the variable of “celebrity as

flawless,” we found that 85% of celebrities were portrayed as flawless, 15% were portrayed as

somewhat flawless, and 0% of celebrities were portrayed as not flawless (Figure 3).

Surveys

After analyzing a few strategies used within celebrity-endorsed advertisements, we

conducted surveys to gain a better understanding of the influence of celebrity endorsements on

college students’ purchase intentions. 61% of our participants were seniors and 91% were

female. When we analyzed the survey data, we decided to omit the two male responses to avoid

skew-ness in the data. 65% of the participants were between the ages of 18-21. 91% of

participants claimed that they encounter celebrity endorsements on social media sites, 83%

encounter them on television, and 70% encounter them within magazines (Figure 4).

To measure negative attitudes toward celebrity endorsement, we asked participants how

likely they are to purchase a product endorsed by a celebrity involved in a scandal. 57% were

undecided, but only 4% were somewhat likely to purchase a product. No participants reported

being likely or very likely (figure 5).

We asked participants to report whether they had purchased a celebrity-endorsed product

within the past month, and 65% stated probably yes. Of the participants who said yes, eight out

of eleven reported their purchase to be a cosmetic product (Figure 6). A significant proportion of

participants (35%) indicated that it was neither important nor unimportant to them if a product is

endorsed by a celebrity. 43% reported that it was not at all important (Figure 7). However, 78%

of participants stated that they are more likely to recognize a product that is endorsed by a

celebrity (Figure 8).

The correlation between how likely students are to purchase cosmetics endorsed by

celebrities and how likely students are to purchase brand clothing endorsed by celebrities is

.659238. This shows a weak but positive relationship between how likely college students are to

purchase cosmetics and brand clothing. The correlation calculated between the importance of

celebrity-endorsed products and whether participants have purchased a product endorsed by a

celebrity in the past month is .547814. This correlation is also weak yet positive and does not

indicate a very strong relationship between the importance of celebrity endorsement and the

purchase of a celebrity-endorsed product in the past month.

Interviews

We conducted in-depth interviews to further explore the relationship between celebrity

endorsement and intention to purchase a product. Several major themes emerged from the

interview process. These interviews revealed that informants are most exposed to celebrity-


endorsed advertisements on social media and on television (Figure 9). We asked questions to

gauge where college students were encountering celebrity endorsement. 80% of informants

stated that Instagram is the most frequent media outlet that exposes them to celebrity

endorsement. This exposure occurs in two ways: advertisements that celebrities post on their

personal account, and promoted advertisements that appear whether a user follows the account or

not. A similar type of exposure occurs on Facebook as well. One informant, Clara, said, “The

majority of ads I pay attention to are probably on my Instagram or Twitter.” Secondly, television

was another media platform for exposure of celebrity endorsements. All informants recalled

celebrity-endorsed advertisements on television. This does not, however, indicate that they

listened to or watched these advertisements. One informant, Emily, said, “I really only notice ads

when I watch TV. I don’t really pay attention to them and I’ll usually just tune out on the

commercials… On TV I’ll hear their voice and sometimes it makes me watch.” Magazine

exposure was the least common media platform, with 60% of informants indicating that they see

celebrity-endorsed advertisements in magazines.

To measure positive attitudes toward celebrity endorsement, we asked students to

describe the reasons they admire certain celebrities. Fashion/style, personality, and talent

emerged as three main themes (Figure 10). In our interviews, we found that there was a

difference between males and females. All three female informants indicated fashion/style as a

reason they admired their specified celebrities. Emily said, “I’m really into fashion, so a lot of the

celebrities I admire are fashion icons.” Both male informants identified comedians as celebrities

they admire, and did not indicate fashion or style as a factor. To assess negative attitudes, we

asked informants to discuss how a celebrity scandal would affect their opinion on a celebrity-

endorsed product. Informants agreed that a scandal would not improve their perception of an

endorser. We determined, however, that we could not conclude that a scandal would drastically

change informants’ opinions. One informant, Ben, addressed the scandal involving Tiger

Woods. He says, “To me that didn't really matter. He is always wearing Nike, but that didn't

change what I thought of the brand. I don’t think that particular scandal really says anything

about Nike as a brand.”

In our interviews, we sought to measure the students’ intent to purchase a product. This

question raised two major themes (Figure 11). 100% of the informants indicated that they would

be likely to purchase a product if they believed the endorser truly uses it. We knew from

reviewing literature that there would be a direct correlation between believability and the overall

effectiveness of the advertisement, as measured by purchase intentions (Kamins, Brand, Hoeke,

& Moe, 1989). Secondly, 40% of informants added that celebrity-endorsed advertisements act as

a “reminder,” and seeing a familiar celebrity endorse a product reminded them about a product.

For example, recognizing a celebrity in an advertisement might prompt the student to seek out a

certain product or brand. Laura said, “Whenever I see Amy Poehler in those Old Navy ads, it

makes me want to go to Old Navy.”


Interviews also provided insight on the overall effectiveness and influence of celebrity

endorsement. We asked informants what makes a celebrity-endorsed advertisement effective,

and two main themes emerged from this question (Figure 12). 100% of informants mentioned

that an advertisement that portrays the celebrity as attractive is effective. Also, 80% of

informants mentioned “believability,” meaning that the most effective type of advertisement is

one that is believable. If the consumer truly thinks the celebrity uses that product, it is an

effective advertisement. One male informant, Brian, said, “If I see an ad with a celebrity using a

product, I have to really believe that they actually use it for it to have any effect on me.” As these

excerpts show, informants each had valuable opinions, and we analyzed our transcripts carefully

to honor their integrity. In the following section, we will collectively analyze our three methods

and discuss what they tell us about celebrity endorsement.

Analysis

In response to H1, a large portion of survey participants indicated that it is unimportant to

them whether or not a product is endorsed by a celebrity. Our interview findings, however,

reveal that college students are more likely to purchase products that are endorsed by celebrities

that they admire. Additionally, more than half of our survey respondents indicated that they have

most likely purchased a celebrity-endorsed product within the past month. Their reason for

purchasing that product could relate to their admiration for the celebrity-endorser. This could

imply that celebrity endorsements can sometimes increase a college student’s intent to purchase

products if college students are fond of the celebrities that endorse those products.

In terms of H2, an analysis of content analysis, surveys, and interviews shows that

celebrity endorsements influence college students’ perceptions of advertised products in some

way. Our interviews reveal that college students are more likely to view advertisements as

effective if they contain attractive celebrities. Similarly, our analysis of 100 advertisements

shows that the majority of celebrities used in advertisements are attractive as opposed to

somewhat attractive or not attractive. The majority of celebrities in advertisements are also

portrayed as being flawless, otherwise lacking any imperfections. Corporations, therefore, are

likely to use celebrities that are portrayed in this way as a method of increasing consumption.

This information tells us that the representation of a celebrity in an appealing manner is related to

an advertisement’s effectiveness. Moreover, the majority of survey participants agree that they

are more likely to recognize a celebrity-endorsed product, which indicates that a celebrity

endorsed advertisement is also more effective than one that is not. A celebrity’s attractiveness

and recognizability, therefore, somewhat influences the perception that college-aged consumers

have concerning the product that is advertised.

Regarding celebrities endorsing products, their level of believability also influences

college students’ perceptions of advertised products. Interviews reveal that an advertisement with

a high level of believability has a greater influence on the way college students view products.

The majority of celebrities in our content analysis were found to be wearing or holding the


product. Our findings imply that if a celebrity is seen wearing or even holding the product, they

have a stronger connection to the product, therefore making the advertisement more believable.

An analysis of our findings suggests important implications about the phenomenon of

celebrity endorsement. The goal of this research proposal is to discover whether celebrity

endorsement influences college students’ intent to purchase products. We hypothesized that these

endorsements would have an influence, and our findings somewhat support this. We conclude

that some college students may be more inclined to purchase products endorsed by their favorite

celebrities. We also hypothesized that celebrity endorsements have an influence over how

college students perceive certain products. Similarly, this hypothesis is somewhat supported. A

celebrity’s prominence tends to affect whether college students are likely to recognize a product.

If celebrities are thought to actually use the products they endorse, college students’ perceptions

of those products are also affected. Overall, celebrities do play a salient role in our consumer

society.

Limitations and Future Research

Although this research provides insightful information about celebrity endorsement, there

are several limitations that should be addressed when thinking about future research. In terms of

content analysis, we chose to analyze a sample of celebrity-endorsed advertisements within

magazines. This can be problematic because not all college students read magazines. The

advertisements presented in magazines may differ from advertisements shown on other

platforms. This could affect the generalizability of our findings. Because we chose a sample

within the top 100 circulated magazines in the U.S., however, it is likely that these

advertisements commonly reflect the framing strategies used within celebrity-endorsed

advertisements found on other platforms. In the future, coding celebrity-endorsed advertisements

from other platforms that are more salient to college students will widen the scope of our

findings. These platforms could include television commercials and advertisements on social

media sites, seeing as how our interview and survey participants noted that they are more likely

to encounter celebrity endorsements from these media outlets. Threats to internal validity arise

because we did not select a random sample of magazines from the list of top 100 magazines in

the U.S. Based on a convenience sample, we chose the magazines that we felt contained a

sufficient amount of celebrity endorsements and were the most accessible. We also used a

convenience sample when we chose the celebrity-endorsed advertisements that we coded. We

flipped through the magazines manually to find these advertisements. For the purpose of future

research, we will use a simple random sample to select magazines as well as the advertisements

within those magazines. This will strengthen our internal validity.

The majority of our limitations are reflected in our surveys. Concerning internal validity,

our surveys were not conceptualized nor operationalized correctly. We encountered difficulties

when attempting to determine how our questions were operationalized because we did not

conceptualize our three variables from the beginning. This is directly tied to the problems we


encountered with measurement reliability and measurement validity. Participants’ responses

were not consistent within the surveys because we did not operationalize our questions to reflect

what we intended to measure. We were unable to calculate the correlation between celebrity

endorsement and college students’ purchase intentions because not only were the questions

unable to measure these variables, but the scales used within the questions were inconsistent.

Another limitation relates to the generalizability of our survey findings. These findings cannot be

generalized to all college students because of our limited sample size. Only 26 participants

completed our questionnaire. Furthermore, we did not have an equal balance of male and female

participants. In planning for the future, we will first conceptualize three variables to include their

precise nominal definitions. Our survey questions will then be operationalized to measure these

variables. Operationalizing our questions will strengthen our measurement reliability and

measurement validity. To ensure that our questionnaire is generalizable to all college students,

we will obtain a larger sample frame of University of Illinois at Chicago students. Having a

larger sample frame will increase our chances of having an equal balance of male and female

participants.

Regarding the trustworthiness of the interview process, we identified a few limitations of

the use of this method. An extensive review of existing literature on the topic of celebrity

endorsement provided us with background knowledge on this phenomenon. However, this

knowledge may have influenced the way we interpreted the interview findings, and is a possible

threat to the credibility of our qualitative research. In future research, it will be beneficial to have

more than one researcher analyze the interview findings. Doing this would help us to ensure the

credibility of the interview analysis. Another limitation comes from the small sample of students

that we interviewed, which is a possible threat to the transferability of our research. Even with a

“thick description” of our analysis, having a larger sample size will allow our findings to be

more generalizable to other settings, people, times, and places.


References

Bailey, A. A. (2007). Public information and consumer skepticism effects on celebrity

endorsements: Studies among young consumers. Journal of Marketing Communications,

13(2), 85-107. doi:10.1080/13527260601058248

Carrillat, F. A., d'Astous, A., & Lazure, J. (2013). For better, for worse?: What to do when

celebrity endorsements go bad. Journal of Advertising Research, 53(1), 15-30.

doi:10.2501/JAR-53-1-015-030

Carroll, A. (2009). Brand communications in fashion categories using celebrity endorsement.

Journal of Brand Management, 17(2), 146-158. doi:10.1057/bm.2008.42

Celebrity Endorsement [Def. 1] (n.d.). In BusinessDictionary.com. Retrieved November 23,

2014, from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/celebrity-endorsement.html

Eisend, M., & Langner, T. (2010). Immediate and delayed advertising effects of celebrity

endorsers' attractiveness and expertise. International Journal of Advertising, 29(4), 527-

546. doi:10.2501/S0265048710201336

Gloria, A., Nelson, O. & Tunji, O. (2012). The dysfunctional and functional effect of celebrity

endorsement on brand patronage. Online Journal of Communication and Media

Technologies, Volume 2, Issue 2

Hung, K. (2014). Why celebrity sells: A dual entertainment path model of brand endorsement.

Journal of Advertising, 43(2), 155-166. doi:10.1080/00913367.2013.838720

Kamins, M. A. (1989) Celebrity and non-celebrity advertising in a two-sided context. Journal of

Advertising Research, 29(3), pp. 34–42.

Kamins, M., Brand, M., Hoeke, S. & Moe, J. (1989). Two-sided versus one-sided celebrity

endorsements: The impact on advertising effectiveness and credibility. Journal of

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Louie, T. A. & Obermiller, C. (2002) Consumer response to a firm’s endorser (dis)association

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Okorie, N. (2010). Celebrity advertising and its effect on brand loyalty. Interdisciplinary Journal

of contemporary research in business, 1(4), 72-85

Thomson, M. (2006). Human brands: Investigating antecedents to consumers' strong attachments

to celebrities. Journal of Marketing, 70(3), 104-119. Retrieved from

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live

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information. Journal of Advertising, 27, 67-82.

White, R.(2000). Advertising. Cambridge, Britain: Pearson Education ltd.


Appendix

Figure 1:

Figure 2:

Figure 3:

70%

19%

11%

Product Placement

Wearing theProduct

Holding theProduct

Product in theBackground

85%

15%

Celebrity as Flawless

Flawless

Somewhat Flawless

Not Flawless


Figure 4:

Figure 5:

# Answer

% 1 Very Unlikely

13% 2 Unlikely

9%

3 Somewhat Unlikely

17%

4 Undecided

57%

5 Somewhat Likely

4%

6 Likely

0% 7 Very Likely

0%

Total 100%

Figure 6:


Figure 7:

Figure 8:

# Answer

% 1 Yes

78% 2 No

22%

Total 100%

Figure 9:


Figure 10

Figure 11:


Figure 12:

Coding Scheme

Variable Nominal Definition Operational Definition

Aesthetic Appeal Aesthetic appeal refers to the

physical attractiveness of the

celebrity as well as the ways

in which the celebrity presents

the product in an appealing

manner.

Aesthetic appeal would be

measured by the physical

attractiveness of the celebrity,

in terms of attractive,

somewhat attractive, and not

attractive, and how that

celebrity makes the products

that he/she is advertising look

visually pleasing. Attractive

will be assigned number 1,

somewhat attractive will be

assigned number 2, and not

attractive will be assigned

number 3. The level of

celebrity attractiveness may

indicate a stronger desire to

make the product more

appealing.

Product Placement Product Placement refers to

how the products that

celebrities are advertising are

placed in proportion to them.

Product Placement would be

measured by whether

celebrities are holding the

products, wearing them, or

whether the products are just


in the background. Celebrities

wearing the products will be

assigned number 1, celebrities

holding the products will be

assigned number 2, and

celebrities that appear with the

product in the background will

be assigned number 3.

Numbers 1 and 2 may signal a

stronger attachment between

celebrities and products.

Celebrity as flawless Celebrity as flawless refers to

a reoccurring theme in

advertisements that

characterizes celebrities as

being the “perfect” beings

devoid of imperfections.

Celebrity as flawless would be

measured by how often

celebrities are presented as

having superior characteristics

such as flawless skin, body

types, and well-polished

clothing. Celebrities portrayed

as flawless will be assigned

number 1, celebrities

portrayed as somewhat

flawless will be assigned

number 2, and celebrities

portrayed as not flawless will

be assigned number 3. The

frequency with which this

theme occurs may signal a

desire to make products

appear perfect.

Survey Questionnaire

Informed Consent Form

You are being asked to take part in a research study of celebrity endorsements’ influence on

college student’s intent to purchase a product.

What the study is about:

The purpose of this study is to learn how celebrity endorsements influence a college student’s

intent to purchase a product.


What we will ask you to do:

If you agree to be in this study you will take part in a survey about celebrity endorsements and

influences on purchasing products. The survey will take about 10-15 minutes to complete.

Risks and benefits:

Since we will be talking about celebrity endorsements, you may find some of the questions to be

sensitive. I do not anticipate any risks to you participating in this study other than those

encounter in day-to-day life. There are no benefits to you other than participating interview to aid

in the research of celebrity culture.

Compensation:

There will be no financial, course credit or compensation for your participation in this study.

Your answers will be confidential and anonymous:

We want to assure you that your responses are completely anonymous. Responses to anonymous

surveys can't be traced back to the respondent. No personally identifiable information is captured

unless you voluntarily offer personal or contact information in any of the comment fields. In any

such case we will not publicly identifiable information. In addition, no reports of the study are

meant to be made public outside UIC. In any sort of class presentation your responses will be

reported in aggregate with that of many others.

Taking part is voluntary:

Taking part in this survey is completely voluntary. You may skip any questions that you do not

want to answer. If you decide not to take part or to skip some of the question it will not affect

your current or future relationship with UIC. If you decide to take part, you are free to withdraw

at any time.

If you have questions:

The researchers conducting this study Rebecca Primak ([email protected]), Melissa Martinez and

Kayle Vitek. If you have concerns about this study, you may contact the instructor of the Fall

2014 section of COMM 30 Dr. Dmitry Epstein ([email protected]).

Statement of Consent:

I have agreed to the above information, and have received answers to any questions I may have

to take part in the study.

I have read, understood, and printed a copy of, the above consent form and desire of my own free

will to participate in this study.

Yes

No

1) How do you define celebrity endorsement?


2) How often do you encounter celebrity endorsements?

Never

Less than Once a Month

Once a Month

2-3 Times a Month

Once a Week

2-3 Times a Week

Daily

3) Where do you see celebrity endorsements? Check all that apply.

Television

Magazine

Social Media

Other

4) Are you more likely to recognize a product if it is endorsed by a celebrity?

Yes

No

5) Have you ever sought out a product seen in a celebrity-endorsed advertisement?

Yes

No

6) How important is it to you that a product is endorsed by a celebrity?

Extremely Important

Very Important

Somewhat Important

Neither Important nor Unimportant

Somewhat Unimportant

Very Unimportant


Not at all Important

7) How often does familiarity influence your decision to purchase a product?

Never

Rarely

Sometimes

Often

All of the time

8) How do you define celebrity trustworthiness?

9) To what extent do you agree with the following statements?

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

a. I am more likely to buy cosmetic products if they have been endorsed by celebrities

b. A celebrity’s trustworthiness influences my perception of the product he/she is

endorsing

c. I am more likely to buy brand clothes that have been endorsed by celebrities as opposed

to non celebrities

10) In the past month, have you purchased a product that was endorsed by a celebrity?

Definitely yes

Probably yes

Probably not

Definitely not

11) If yes, which celebrity or celebrities endorsed the product and what was the product

12) How likely are you to purchase a product by a celebrity involved in a scandal?

Very Unlikely

Unlikely

Somewhat Unlikely

Undecided

Somewhat Likely

Likely


Very Likely

13) How old are you?

0-17

18-21

22-24

25 or older

14) What is your gender?

Male

Female

I choose not to answer

15) What is your class standing?

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Other

16) I will be willing to be contacted after this survey to participate in a face to face interview

Yes

No

17) If yes, please provide your email address

Interview Guide

1. Describe for me the kinds of celebrity-endorsed advertisements you encounter on a

typical day.

What stands out to you about them?

2. Who are celebrities that you admire?

Describe for me why you admire them.


What kinds of products do they advertise?

How likely are you to purchase one of their products?

3. Has there ever been a time when an advertisement with celebrity endorsement has made

you want to buy something that you wouldn’t normally buy?

Can you give me an example?

4. Has there ever been a time when a celebrity endorsement has made you not want to buy a

certain product?

How or why did it have a negative influence on your opinion?

5. Are there different types of celebrity advertisements that you find more appealing?

Can you give me an example?

6. How important is celebrity endorsement for you when you are shopping?

7. Do you think that celebrity endorsement plays an important role in advertising?

If so, how strong do you think that role is?

8. Would you ever spend more money on a product that was celebrity-endorsed versus a

similar product that wasn’t?

9. Which is more effective, an advertisement with celebrity endorsement, or an ad with no

celebrity?

Why do you think so?

10. How do you view the products of celebrities you admire?

11. How do you view products advertised by celebrities involved in a scandal?

Documents

Research Proposal