Research Problems!

04/20/23 Dr. Yousaf Hayat 1

Advanced Research Methods


Research is an art of scientific investigation which refers to a search

for knowledge.

Systematized effort to gain new knowledge is also called research

(Redman and Morey, 1923).

Research is an academic activity and should be used in technical

sense. Research comprises defining and redefining of problems,

formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,

organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching

certain conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to

determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis (Clifford

Woody).

MEANINGS OF RESEARCH


Research is a movement i.e. movement from the known to

unknown. Research is actually a journey of discovery.

Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of

knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of

truth with the help of study/investigation, observation,

comparison and experimentation. In short, the search for

knowledge through objective and systematic method of

finding solution to a problem is research.



The systematic approach concerning generalization and the

formulation of a theory is also called research. “As such the

term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of

identifying the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting

the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching to a certain

conclusions either in the form of solution(s) toward the

concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some

theoretical formulation”.



Following are the significance of conducting a research:

1. Research includes scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of

logical habits of thinking and organizations.

2. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.

Through research, one can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the

consequences of each of these alternatives.

3. Decision making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the

decisions of the policy makers.

4. In the context of government, research as a tool of economic policy has three

distinct phases of operation viz (i) investigation of economic structure through continual

compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the

forces underlying them; (iii) the prediction of future developments (called the prognosis).

Significance of Research


Following are the significance of conducting a research:

5. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and

planning problems of business and industry. Operational research refers to

the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the

solution of business problems of cost minimization or of profit maximization

or what can be termed as optimization problems.

6. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social

relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. Because of

its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked to for practical guidance

in solving immediate problems of human relations.

Significance of Research


In addition to above, the significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:

(i). To those students who are to write a master’s or PhD thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.

(ii). To professionals, research may mean a source of livelihood.

(iii). To philosophers and tinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights.

(iv). To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work.

(v). To analyst and intellectuals, research may mean the generalization of new theories.

Thus, research is the foundation of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables to understand the new development in one’s filed in a better way.

Significance of Research***


It is often asked that why the peoples conduct research? This question is

of fundamental importance and some of the possible motives of

research may either be one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree (certificate) along with its

consequential benefits.

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems i.e.

concern over practical problems initiates research.

3. Desire to get intellectual joy.

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH


4. Desire to be of service to society

5. Desire to get respectability

However, this is not a complete list of factors motivating people

to undertake research studies. Many more factors such as

directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity

about new things, desire to understand casual relationships,

social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well

motivate people to perform research operations.

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH


The basic types of research are as follow:

1. Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

2. Applied vs. Fundamental Research

3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

4. Conceptual vs. Empirical Research

5. Business and Social Research

6. Other Types of Research It includes the following:(a). Laboratory research or filed setting research or simulation research(b). Clinical or diagnostic research(c). Historical research etc.

TYPES OF RESEARCH


Broad Categories of Research:

(1) . Theoretical Research and

(2) . Applied Research

Theoretical research is based upon the development of new theory or

methods, needs simulations for verification of the methodology and

convergence of the model parameters with respect to the pre-set

values, requires computer codes (program) for its application. It is

also called basic or pure research. On the other hand, applied research

is based upon the collected data by using the existing methods of data

analysis, test the hypothesis related with the required objectives.

TYPES OF RESEARCH


Descriptive research includes surveys and facts-finding enquiries of

different kind. The major purpose of descriptive research is description

of the state of affairs as it exists at present. It is also called “Ex post

facto” research for descriptive research studies. Most Ex post facto

research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher

seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,

preferences of people, or similar data. Descriptive research also

includes survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and

correlational methods

Descriptive vs. Analytical Research:


Analytical Research

A type of research in which a researcher has to use facts or

information already available, and analyze these to make a

critical evaluation of the materials. Generally it is based

upon the secondary data and information available in the

printed shapes.

Descriptive vs. Analytical Research


Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (basic or pure)

research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate

problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.

Whereas, fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and

with the formulation of a theory. Simply, “gathering knowledge for knowledge’s

sake is called ‘pure or basic’ research; while research concerning some natural

phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental

research.

Similarly, research studies concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make

generalizations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental

research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a

concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.

Applied vs. Fundamental Research


Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e. a

phenomenon relating or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research

includes, word association tests, sentence completion tests, story

completion tests, perception of peoples towards like and dislike of any

brand, and similar other projective techniques.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research


Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It

is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new

concepts or to reinterpret the existing ones.

Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often

without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,

coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by

observation or experiment. Empirical research is appropriate when

proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some

way.

Conceptual vs. Empirical Research


Business Research

Social Research

Historical Research

Action Research

Policy Research

Experimental Research

Medical Research

Other Types of Research


Research methods may be understood as those methods/techniques that are used

for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to

the methods the researchers use in preferring research operations. Research

methods can be put into the following three groups:

1. It includes those methods which are concerned with the collection of data.

2. It consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing

relationships between the data and unknowns.

3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the

accuracy of the results obtained.

The research methods falling in group 1 and 2 are generally called the analytical

tools of research.

Research Methods versus Methodology***


Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It provides the way to conduct a scientific research step by step. It is incumbent for the researchers that he/she must know about the methods and methodology. (Logic behind the methods is generally called methodology).

Research Methods versus Methodology


The following criteria are needed (more or less) for conducting a good research.

The purpose of a problem under study should be clearly defined and unambiguous as

possible.

The research procedures used for conducting a study should be clearly

defined/described in detail to allow other researchers to repeat the same research for

verification of the existing theory/theories or to include other factors for checking their

usefulness.

The procedural design should be carefully planned so as to get the results that are as

objective as possible. It can also be stated that “the procedural design should yield the

results according to the specified objectives”.

The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and

estimate their effects upon the findings.

Criteria for a Good Research


The researcher should use appropriate method for data analysis, and the

analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance.

The researcher should completely report the limitations and advantage

associated with the procedural design and the methods used for data analysis.

Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research

and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

The researcher should be an experienced person and have full background

knowledge of the problem under study. In addition, to have a good reputation

in research and is a person of integrity.

Criteria for a Good Research


A detail outline that how research/investigation will take place is called research design.

Following are the components (more or less) of a research design:

Define the problem carefully.

Define clearly the information which will be needed to solve the problem (to

conduct a research).

Design the exploratory, descriptive and/or casual phases of the research.

Specify the measurement and scaling procedures.

Prepare a questionnaire according to the objectives of a research and pretest it

before data collection (i.e. conduct a pilot survey).

Specify the universe of the study, sampling frame, sampling procedure and sample

size such that a representative sample can be selected for obtaining the required

objectives of the research.

Develop a plan for data analysis.

Components of a Research Design


DEFINING THE RESEARCH

PROBLEM


We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:

(i). There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the

problem.

(ii). There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one

cannot have a problem.

(iii). There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the

objective(s) one wishes to attain.

(iv). There must remain some doubt in the mind of researcher with regard to the

selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question

concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.

Research Problem and Its Components


(v). There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains. Thus, a research

problem is one which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for the given

problem i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained

optimally in the context of a given environment.

There are several other factors which may result in making the problem complicated. For

instance, the environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the courses of

action or the values of the outcomes; the number of alternatives courses of action may

be very large; persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and

react to it favorably or unfavorably, and similar other factors. All such elements or at

least the important once may be thought of in the context of a research problem.

Research Problem and Its Components


The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is

too difficult, although it may not appear to be so. A research guide can at

the most only help a researcher to choose a subject for research purpose.

However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in

selecting a research problem or a subject for research.

(i). Subject which is overdone should not be normally selected because it will be difficult to throw any new light in such a case.

(ii). Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.

(iii). Too narrow or too vague problem should be avoided.

(iv). The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

Selection of Problem***


(v). The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the cost

involved, and the time factors are few other criteria that must also be considered in

selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem, a researcher

must ask himself of the following:

(a). Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?

(b). Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?

(c). Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate

in research as subject.

If the answers to all these questions are in affirmative, one may become sure so far as the

practicability of the study is concerned.

(vi). The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Selection of Problem


A proper definition of the problem will enable the researcher to be on the track

whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like:

What data are to be collected?

What characteristics of the data are relevant and need to be studied?

What relations are needed to be explored?

What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and

similar other questions like that in the mind of researcher can help him in

planning a strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the

research problem has been well defined.

Necessity of Defining the Problem


(i). Statement of a problem in general way

(ii). Understanding the nature of the problem

(iii). Surveying the available literature

(iv). Developing the ideas through discussions

(v). Rephrasing the research problem into a working

position

Techniques involved in defining a problem


In addition, the following points must also be observed while defining a

research problem:

(a). Technical terms and words or phrase with special meanings used in

the statement of the problem should be clearly defined.

(b). Basic assumptions (if any) relating to the research problem should

be clearly stated.



(c). A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e. the

criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.

(d). The suitability of the time-period and the sources of the data available

must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.

(e). The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to

be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research

problem.



RESEARCH DESIGN


Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning

an inquiry or a research study constitutes a research design. OR

Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose

with economy in procedure. In fact, the research design is the conceptual

structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the blueprint

for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. More explicitly, the

design decisions happen to be in respect of:

Meaning of Research Design


(i). what is the study about?

(ii). why is the study being made?

(iii). where will the study be carried out?

(iv). what type of data is required?

(v). where can the required data be found?

(vi). what periods of time will the study include?

(vii). what will be the sample design?

(viii). what techniques of data collection will be used?

(ix). how will the data be analyzed?

(x). in what style will the report be prepared?



Keeping in view the above (i) to (x), one may split the overall research design into the

following parts:

(a).The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed

for the given study;

(b).The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the

observations are to be made;

(c).The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be

observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and

(d).The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures

specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.



Important features of a research design are:

1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

relevant to the research problem.

2. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering

and analyzing the data.

3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done

under these two constraints.

In sum up, a research design must at least contain a clear statement of the

research problem, procedures and techniques used for gathering

information/data, the population to be studied, and the methods to be

used in processing and analyzing the data.

Important Features of Research Design


Before going to conduct a research, a research design is needed because it

facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,

thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal

information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.

For example, to construct an economical and attractive construction of a

house, one should consult an architect or an expert for making a map

so that all the necessary things for its construction are highlighted.

Similarly, we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection

and analysis methods for research project keeping in view the

objectives, time and labours required.

Need for Research Design


Therefore, “Research design stands for advance planning of the

methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the

techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the

objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and

money”. The research design helps the researcher to organize his

ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him/her to look for

flaws and inadequacies. Without proper and accurate research

design, it will be difficult to provide a comprehensive review of

the proposed study (research).

Need for Research Design


Following are the features of a good research design:

1. Flexible 2. Appropriate 3. Efficient 4. Economical and so on

Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the

collected data and analyzed is considered a good design. The design which

gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in

many investigations.

Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity

for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most

appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.

Features of a Good Design


An appropriate research design for a particular research problem

usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

the means of obtaining information

the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any

the objectives of the problem to be studied

the nature of the problem to be studied

the availability of time and money for conducting a research

Features of a Good Design


Arrangement of ideas in the form of an experimental plan is called a research plan. Research plan

contains the following prerequisites:

Research objectives should be clearly stated in line.

Stated the problem explicitly so that one may know what information is to be obtained for

solving the problem.

Each major concept which a researcher wants to measure should be defined in operational terms

in context of the research problem.

The plan should contain the methods to be used in solving the problem.

The plan must contain the details of the techniques to be adopted. For example, if interview

method is used for data collection it should be written as such. Procedure for quantifying the data

must also be given.

Universe of the population, sampling plan, selection of appropriate sample size etc should be

selected in such a way that all these are feasible.

Processing of data should also be a part of the sampling plan.

Results of the pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the research project

should also be prepared and laid down in the plan.

Developing a Research Plan


Before starting the research design, it would be appropriate to explain various concepts

for easy understanding relating to design. It includes the following:

Dependent and independent variables:

Extraneous variable:

Research hypothesis:

Experimental and non-experimental testing of hypothesis:

Experimental and Control groups:

Treatments:

Experiment:

Experimental unit

Sampling Unit

Important Concepts Relating To Research Design


Two-sample t-test:

Comparison of two means from independent populations

Paired-samples t-test for dependent samples:

Information/data are collected from the same individual of a population i.e. before

training and after training etc.

Chi-square test for association:

To develop a relationship between two or more qualitative variables.

Regression and Correlation techniques:

To establish a relationship between dependent and independent variable(s)

(Regression); to establish a relationship between random variables in terms

their degree of measurements (the variables under study are quantitative in

nature).

Types of Research Design


One-way ANOVA or Completely Randomized Design (CRD):

This design is used for comparison of more than two population means with the

condition that all the units of an experiment are homogeneous.

Two-way ANOVA or Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD):

This design serves the same purpose like CRD but here the experimental units are

grouped into units having similar characteristics and there exist one source

of variation in the experimental units. For example, comparison of average

monthly sales of stores located at different cities.



Three-way classification research design (Latin Square Design):

If there exist two sources of variations in the experimental units then this

design is preferred for mean comparison of different population

(treatments/practices etc).

Factorial Designs:

If multiple factors are involved in the experiment and one is interested to

compare the main effects of the factors involved and their

interactions, then factorial design is used for comparison.



Definition of Various Concepts used in Research

Variable

Qualitative Variable

Quantitative Variable

Discrete Variable

Continuous Variable


Variable:

Any characteristic of interest which takes on different values is called variable. For

example: production, cost, temperature, sale of a market, consumption, price of

a commodity at different locations etc.Variable is broadly divided into

qualitative and quantitative variables.

Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

A variable is defined to be qualitative which is not capable of numerical measurement

but one can feel the presence or absence of a particular phenomena. For

example, honesty, beauty, race, like and dislike, pass or fail, gender

classification etc.

A variable is defined to be quantitative which is capable of numerical measurement.

For example, cost of production, price of a commodity, monthly consumption of

households etc.



Discrete and Continuous Variables

A variable is said to be discrete if it takes isolated integral values or a

variable which take the values on jumps is called a discrete

variable. For example, number of rooms in a house, number of

students in the class, number of Banks in different cities, size of a

household, number of shops in a market etc.

A type of variable which takes all possible values with in a given

interval/range (a, b). For example, consumption, production,

temperature, monthly sale of a market, height, weight and age etc.



1. Dependent Variable

2. Independent Variable

3. Moderating Variable

4. Intervening Variable

5. Dummy Variable/Categorical Variable etc.

Other Variables in Research


Dependent and Independent Variables

A type of variable which is influenced by other variable/variables is called

dependent variable. It is also called random or stochastic variable. OR

A variable which depends on one or more other variables is called dependent

variable. OR

A variable of primary interest that lends itself for investigation as a function of

other cause variables is known as dependent variable.



For example, in economics, consumption of a commodity (say apple)

depends upon the income, household size, and price etc of the

commodity.

In this example, consumption of apple is a dependent variable which

will vary from one family to other family; while the other variables

like income, household size and price are independent variables.

A variable which influence a dependent variable in either direction

(positive or negative) is called independent variable.



Moderating Variable:

A variable which modify the original relationship is called moderating variable.

Or

A variable that has a strong contingent or contributory effect on the relationship

between dependent and independent variables, is called moderating

variable.

For example, Amount of study in terms of study hours affect the grades,

however, those student consulting quality information for the purpose may

even perform much better as compared to others students. In this example,

it is evident that quality information is a moderating variable which is not

considered in the research study but have contributory effect on the final

grades, so called moderating variable.



Moderating Variable:

A variable which modify the original relationship is called moderating variable.

Or

A variable that has a strong contingent or contributory effect on the relationship

between dependent and independent variables, is called moderating

variable.

For example, Amount of study in terms of study hours affect the grades,

however, those student consulting quality information for the purpose may

even perform much better as compared to others students. In this example,

it is evident that quality information is a moderating variable which is not

considered in the research study but have contributory effect on the final

grades, so called moderating variable.

Other Variables in Business Research

Final grade/Test score

(Dependent var.)

Amount of study hours

(Independent var.)

Quality Information

(Moderating var.)


Intervening Variable:

A variable that surfaces between the time the independent variable starts

operating to influence the dependent variable and its impact is felt on it, is

called intervening variable.

Final grade/Test score

(Dependent var.)

Amount of study hours

(Independent var.)

Input KnowledgeIn Memory

(Intervening var.)



Daily Life measurements:

1. Height, Weight, Financial assets etc. (physical object)

2. Motivation, like a song, a painting or the personalities of our

friends (abstracts).

By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects

or observations, the level of measurement being a function of the

rules under which the number are assigned.

properties like weight, height etc can be measured directly with some

standard unit of measurement, but it is not that easy to measure

properties like motivation to succeed, ability to stand stress and the

like.

Measurement in Research


Different measurement scales are used measurement but most widely

used scales are:

(a) Nominal Scale

(b) Ordinal Scale

(c) Interval Scale

(d) Ratio Scale

Measurement Scales


(a) Nominal Scale

Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order to label

them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball

players in order to identify them. Nominal scales provide convenient ways of

keeping track of people, objects and events. The number assigned can not be

summed, neither be averaged, neither be compared with other groups.

In case of nominal scale, the counting of members/individual is the only possible

arithmetic operation. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for

nominal scale but mode can be used as a measure of central tendency. Chi-square

test is the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for

the measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked out.

Measurement Scales


Nominal variablesNominal variables

Nominal Variables = Data values represent categories with no order

sequence of categories is arbitrary -- ordering has no meaning in and

of itself:

e.g. country of origin: Pakistan, India, USA, Japan, Germany…

e.g. make of car: HONDA, NISSAN, DAIHATSU, …..

e.g. job category

Nominal variables can be either string (alphanumeric) or numeric

values that represent distinct categories (e.g., 1 = Male, 2 = Female).


(b) Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scale and are frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. For example, if student-A position in the class is 5 and that of student-B is 30, it can be said that student-A position is 6 times as good as that of student-B. Ordinal scale only permit the ranking of items from lowest to highest or highest to lowest. Ordinal scale has no absolute zero and the real differences between ranks may not be equal.

The use of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘ greater than’ or ‘less than’ without our being able to state how much greater or less. The real difference between rank 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between 5 and 6. Since, the data in ordinal scale is based on ranks, so the appropriate measure of central tendency is the median while measure of dispersion can be computed by using percentile or quartile measure. Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of statistical significance are restricted to the non-parametric methods.

Measurement Scales


Ordinal variablesOrdinal variables

Values fall within discrete but ordered categories or Data values represent

categories with some intrinsic order:

i.e. the sequence of categories has meaning

e.g. education categories:

1 = primary 2 = secondary

3 = college 4 = university undergraduate

5 = university postgraduate master

6 = university postgraduate MS

7 = university postgraduate PhD

e.g. Economic status of a respondent:

1 = Very poor, 2 = poor, 3 = good, 4 = very good


Ordinal variables = Data values represent categories with some

intrinsic order:

(e.g., low, medium, high; strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly

disagree).

Ordinal variables can either be string (alphanumeric) or numeric

values that represent distinct categories (e.g., 1= low, 2 =

medium, 3 = high).


Statistical Tests and Ordinal Variables

Appropriate measure of central tendency is the median.

Measure of dispersion can be computed by using percentile or

quartile measure.

Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods.

Measures of statistical significance are restricted to the Non-

parametric Methods.


(c) Interval Scale

In case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule that has been established as a

basis for making the units equal. Interval scale can have an arbitrary zero, but not an absolute

zero or the origin. The primary limitation of interval scale is the lake of a true zero; it does not

have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a characteristic or trait.

The Fahrenheit scale is an example of interval scale and shows similarities in what one can and can

not do with it. For example, one can say that an increase in temperature from 300 to 400

involves the same increase in temperature as an increase from 600 to 700, but one cannot say

that the temperature of 600 is twice as warm as the temperature of 300 because both numbers

are dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the temperature of the

freezing point of water. The ratio of 30 and 60 degrees means nothing because zero is an

arbitrary point.

Mean, SD, Correlation coefficient, t-test and F-test can be applied for the statistical significance.

Measurement Scales


(d) Ratio Scale

Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. One can

conceive of an absolute zero of length and similarly of absolute

zero of time. For example, the zero point on a centimeter scale

indicates the complete absence of length or height. But an absolute

zero of temperature is unobtainable and it remains a concept in the

researcher mind.

Ratio scale represents the actual amount of variables. Measures of

physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance etc are

examples of ratio scale. Generally, all statistical methods can be

applied with ration scale. Also the numbers of ratio scale can be

manipulated like that of real numbers.

Measurement Scales

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Research Problems!