Research Paper Tips

1. RESEARCH QUESTIONThe role of theory

2. DEFINE YOUR TERMSindustry v. cultural practicecredible comparisons

3. IUCAT

4. PEER-REVIEWED JOURNALS:Popular MusicPopular Music and Society

5. BUSINESS PRESS

6. TRADE JOURNALS

7. CHASING REFERENCES

Popular Radio: Programming

•ASCAP demands for compensation for radio “replays” begin in 1922

•BMI is formed in 1937 (in operation by 1940) to provide competition for ASCAP: began with marginal musics such as C&W and “race” records.

•AFM fights any use of recordings in radio. Lea Act (1946) eliminated union demands for hiring unneeded musicians, union rules that did not permit amateur musicians and the use of transcriptions (recordings of programs

•1940s: First disk jockey programs (lack of musicians): Make Believe Ballroom

Popular Radio: Technology to present

•Frequency Modulation (FM) invented by Edwin Armstrong (1933): reduced static and regularized channel size; eventually allows for easy adoption of

•Stereo for FM broadcasting (1962).

•Transistor (1947): Radio becomes portable

•Satellite delivery (NPR, 1972) allows for increased ease of national program networking and syndication

•Digital Audio Broadcasting (1990s): Digitized signals deliver “CD quality” sound.

Popular Radio: Programming

1. Localization of programming: use of recorded music and disk jockeys; local news predominates.

2. Localization of advertising: National ads went to television.

3. Top 40 formats: Limited playlists (replicates a juke box).

4. Rock ‘n’ Roll and the youth market

5. Discovery of FM (1967, Non-duplication).

6. Specialization in formats, daypart (mornings and afternoons), new forms of networking (limited).

7. Rebirth of national programming (1980s): Satellite delivery to provide programs for smaller markets; esp., Talk radio, sports

8. Internet radio (radio station-based and free-standing

UNDERGROUND FM

Bob Fass with Abbie Hoffman on Radio Unameable (WBAI-FM)

80s Hits New AC (NAC)/Smooth JazzActive Rock New CountryAdult Contemporary (AC) News/Talk/InformationAdult Standards/MOR NostalgiaAlbum Adult Alternative (AAA) OldiesAlbum Oriented Rock (AOR) OtherAll News Pop Contemporary Hit RadioAll Sports ReligiousAlternative Rhythmic Contemporary Hit RadioChildren’s Radio Rhythmic OldiesClassical Soft ACClassic Country Southern GospelClassic Hits Spanish ContemporaryClassic Rock Spanish News/TalkContemporary Christian Spanish OldiesContemporary Inspirational Spanish ReligiousCountry Spanish TropicalEasy Listening Spanish VarietyEducational Talk/PersonalityEthnic TejanoGospel Urban ACHot AC Urban ContemporaryJazz Urban OldiesMexican Regional VarietyModern AC

Radio Formats

Alternative Radio

•National Public Radio

•Community Radio (Pacifica, KRAB Nebula)

•Low Power FM Radio (LPFM)

•Pirate Radio

Popular Radio: Current Trends

1. Ownership limits lifted (F.C.C. and Telecommunications Act of 1996 encourages concentration locally and nationally: Clear Channel)

2. Programming homogenization: Increased specialization within a few popular formats (rock, country, etc.) leads to little overall diversity in available music and informational programming.

3. Satellite Radio: Will this form of signal delivery (better sound at increased use of electromagnetic spectrum) lead to the death of local radio broadcasting?

4. Digital Audio Broadcasting