Research Paper - Mini Tesis

Landmark, Spatial Cognition and Space Syntax | Nik Mohamad Faris bin Mohd Fauzi 2008215784

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LANDMARK, SPATIAL COGNITION AND

SPACE SYNTAX

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

NIK MOHAMAD FARIS BIN MOHD FAUZI 2008215784

ARK 597 RESEARCH PAPER BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONS.)(ARCHITECTURE)

FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, SHAH ALAM


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SEPTEMBER – DECEMBER 2012

LANDMARK, SPATIAL COGNITION AND SPACE

SYNTAX

NIK MOHAMAD FARIS BIN MOHD FAUZI

2008215784

ARK 597 RESEARCH PAPER BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONS.)(ARCHITECTURE)


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FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND SURVEYING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA, SHAH ALAM

SEPTEMBER – DECEMBER 2012

LANDMARK, SPATIAL COGNITION AND SPACE

SYNTAX

This report has been submitted to the Department of

Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, to fulfil the requirement of JSB 467/ARK 557

RESEARCH PAPER course.

Prepared by: Name : NIK MOHAMAD FARIS BIN MOHD FAUZI UiTM No. : 2008215784 Programme : BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE

(Hons.) Year/Semester : 08 Session : Faculty : Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying


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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this research paper and the research to

which it refers are the product of my own work and that any ideas or

quotations from the work of other people, published or otherwise are

fully acknowledged in accordance with the standard academic

practices.

Name : NIK MOHAMAD FARIS BIN MOHD FAUZI UiTM No. : 2008215784 This research had been checked by: Supervisor : Assoc. Prof. Nakiah Md. Amin Course Coordinator : Mimi Zaleha Abdul Ghani

_____________________________

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Signature of Supervisor Date:

_____________________________

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Signature of Supervisor Date:


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express the sincerest

appreciation to my advisor, Assoc. Prof. Nakiah Md. Amin who

made the research possible through the guidance and

discussion held to clarify the research aims and at handling the

research issues. Through this research is , I have managed to

broaden my knowledge and understanding on various aspects of

urban design especially the legibility of an area. I also learn in

depth one of the elements in the legibility, the landmark and how

to create and understand a good quality landmarks.

Also, I would like to extend my gratitude to the course

coordinators, Mimi Zaleha Abdul Ghani and Azman Hassan for

introducing me to the methods of conducting the research as

well as the formality of it. Not to forget, my course mates and my

friends for their support and concern about my studies and my

research.

Last but not least, my family that I keep close to my heart

for everything they have done for me.


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List of Contents

Acknowledgement

List of Contents

Abstract

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background of Study

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Objectives

1.4 Scope of Study

1.5 Methodology

1.5.1 Mental Mapping

1.5.2 Figure Ground Study

1.5.3 Identifying Landmarks

1.5.4 Serial Vision

1.5.5 Topography

1.5.6 Space Syntax

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Legibility


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2.3 Landmark

2.3.1 Definition of Landmarks

2.3.2 Function of Landmarks

2.3.3 Characteristic of Landmarks

2.4 Cognitive Maps

2.5 Space Syntax Analysis

2.6 Conclusion

Chapter 3: Case Study UiTM Campus Shah Alam

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Mental Mapping

3.3 Figure Ground Study

3.4 Identifying Landmarks

3.5 Serial Vision

3.6 Topography

3.7 Space Syntax

3.8 Conclusion

Chapter 4: Summary

Chapter 5: Conclusion

References


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Abstract

The study is built on the understanding of the landmark, one of

the elements in the legibility. It focuses on the potential and quality of

the landmark in Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). The quality of the

landmark can be measure using the cognitive mapping and the

computer generated of the axial map to determine the suitability of the

landmark location. The qualities of the landmark are based on the

definition, characteristic and function of the landmark. There are a few

external factors such as the topography and the visibility of the

landmark that will influence the quality of the landmarks. Mental

mapping used to indicate the higher degree of landmark quality impact

in their mind and cross references with the data of the observation on

the possible landmarks at UiTM. The idea and perception on current

landmarks whether do they need degree of changes to help them

function as landmark that helps in wayfinding and point of references?

The strength and weakness of the current setup of landmarks in UiTM

analyzed and refer to the studies on the quality of a landmark. I also

intend to propose the suitable location of a landmark for the new future

development that fit the definition, characteristic and function of

landmark with respect of the UiTM typology and views from the current

roads and paths.


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Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background of Study

Landmark is one of the elements in the legibility introduced by

the Kevin Lynch at 1960. The introduction of the legibility was made

after his experiment on the mental mapping that leads to the publication

of the “Image of The City”. In the book Lynch break down the elements

that made up the legibility of a certain place. The elements are the

districts, paths, nodes, edges and landmarks. The whole mental

mappings are shaped based on these five elements.

The legibility studies on the mental maps are two dimensional on

a paper. Cullen introduces the serial vision focus on the 3 dimensional

as a pedestrian at 1976. It complements the weakness of the mental

maps and improves the understanding of the context. The buildings

volume and topography can only be visualising in 3 dimensional or eye

level perspective.

Space syntax originates with the work of a research team led by

Bill Hillier at the University of London in the 1970s and 1980s. Hillier’s

The Social Logic of Space (co-authored with Julienne Hanson) and

Space is the Machine, published in 1984 and 1996 (Cambridge

University Press) are the seminal references.


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1.2 Problem Statement

Landmark is that of an object or structure that marks a locality

and is used as a point of reference. The concept is bound to the

prominence or distinctiveness of a feature in a large-scale environment

or landscape in a city. University Teknologi MARA (UiTM) a district that

have specific function as an educational hub. The district usually made

up of several smaller districts differentiates by their own function On

every district there will be individual landmark. The scale of the district

will indicate the scale of the landmark. UiTM have landmark, while

smaller district inside UiTM compound also have landmark with smaller

scale suitable with the size of the district.

The paths, edges, nodes will influence the position of landmark

in the district. Do location of the landmark is it justifies being a quality

landmark? Does it serve the purpose if a landmark in wayfinding? Do

the pedestrian can views the landmark from the eye-level? Do people

relate the landmark with the surrounding or it stand alone as a single

form hold by other landmark? The definition, characteristics and

function of the landmark help to enhance the role as landmark and are

they familiar with the landmark?


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1.3 Objectives

The aim of the study is to investigate how the effectiveness of

the current set up of the landmark. The position of the landmark plays

roles in the impact on the cognitive maps. The effectiveness of the

landmark itself is closely related with the definition, characteristic and

function of the landmark. These studies are using the studies, cognitive

map and the serial view to understand the quality of a landmark. The

objectives of these studies are:

• To understand the landmark in the district with the help of

the nodes, edges, and paths.

• To find out the effectiveness of the landmark on eye view

using the serial vision.

• To find out if landmark play roles in their cognitive maps

and are they using the landmark as a references points for the

surrounding building.

• To find out the aspects of a good quality landmark for

future guidelines on how to improve the landmarks.


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1.4 Scope of Study

Scopes of these studies are limited to the landmarks and the

relationship between landmarks, spatial cognition and space syntax.

The relationship between the landmarks and spatial cognition are

measured by the landmarks that have impact on the mental mapping by

translating their mental map into drawings. The drawing important to get

the information how is the impact of the landmark on the user’s mental

map. The users targeted are with the three or four years’ experience

with the context. The mental mapping is not an exact measurement, but

rather a calculation based on the frequency of the landmark closer to

the real location on map. The landmark must be in the same breath as

the definition, characteristic and function of the landmark.

The series of views is the views that limited on the path only.

Series of photos will be taken from the path leading to the landmark.

The points where the landmark visible to the pedestrian will be marked

and the range of the visibility area marked. The space syntax

programmes are using the axial maps only to analyses the axial lines

and junction syntax. The result will indicate the suitability of the current

landmark’s location with the eyes-level perspective and legibility study

of the whole campus UiTM Shah Alam.


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1.5 Methodology

1.5.1 Mental Mapping

Mental mapping is the experience and what we see form an

image of the experience in the mental map. A mental map is a unique,

personal and selective representation of reality. The concept of

a mental map may refer to a person's personal point-of-view perception

of their own world. Mental mapping are based on the Kevin Lynch

method of interpreted the whole mental mapping to conclude on the five

basis that made up the mental mapping. Mental mapping method is not

practically precise but it represents the way peoples see the urban

structure in their mind. The elements of the mental mapping are paths,

nodes, districts, edges and landmarks.(Lynch 1960)

The mental mappings are closely related with the cognitive

maps. There are problems with this methodology, such as the artistic

ability, perception on the task and willingness to draw. The upside of

this methodology is the reveals the level of strength of certain elements

in the mental mapping that have the strong impact to the mental maps

of the peoples. The mental mapping method conducted using the maps

of the location with path drawn. The participants must draw and indicate

the landmark that they familiar and recognized. It will indicate on the

level of the impact of the buildings as a landmark.


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1.5.2 Figure Ground Study

Figure-ground diagram is a two-dimensional map of an urban

space that shows the relationship between built and empty spaces. It is

a common tool to understand about the contextual analysis of urban

design and planning. It is generally a tool for contextual analysis

mapping. The public spaces both within and outside buildings and also

the block pattern. The classification of the spaces into respective group

will make the context easier for understanding. It can be produced as

the negatives of black and white represent the built and empty spaces

in the context.

The figure ground study helps to define the void between

buildings, and emphasis their existence as defined objects as itself.

The form and space are the basis of the figure ground study. The

typical figure ground study can also present in reverse figure –ground

diagram, where the buildings are white and empty spaces are black.

The figure-ground study emphasizing a two dimensional representation

of the structures of the space and illustrate the mass-to-void

relationship. It analyses the identity of the fabric of urban structures. It

helps to understand the urban context better and with the graphic

representation of the area.


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1.5.3 Identifying Landmark

Identifying the existing landmark is based on the quality of the

landmark. Identifying a landmark will be based on several aspect of the

landmark itself. The definition of the landmark, the function of the

landmark and the characteristic of the landmark will help to identify the

landmarks. There are weightage on every landmark, based on the

quality of the landmark. The quality of the landmark closely related with

the familiarity of the landmark to the people and the outstanding

differences from the surrounding context. The landmark is special or

famous buildings that possess the distinctive features compare to the

surrounding building. (Raubal and Winter 2002).

The buildings that possess claimed as high quality landmarks

are usually the one that fit the bill on every aspect of the landmark.

There are several types of landmarks on several scales of spaces. The

large scale development such as city and town possesses their own

landmark as much as the small space in the office. In small spaces

there are varieties of feature landmarks, including a bookcase or a

colored wall. (Ratliff and Newcombe 2007). The built form that match

the aspects as landmarks will have a deeper impact on the mental

mapping as they are using the landmark as the navigational point for

the surrounding context.


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1.5.4 Serial Vision

Serial Vision is the series of what we see as we walk on a

direction towards something. The vision will change as we walk

because of the distance that we covered exposed us to the new built

form in front of us. This series of vision is also means the series of

experience. The contrast experiences such as shaded area, exposed

by sun, noise from plaza or marketplace and silent in the prayer house.

These experiences are the result of the different material, pattern,

spaces and form of the fabric in the city, along the path taken. Slightest

deviation in alignment and quite small variations in projections or

setbacks on plan have a disproportionally powerful effect in the third

dimensions.(Cullen 1976)

The approach of Cullen in Concise Townscape is focusing more

on the 3 dimensional views of the city. It is all about the views as the

pedestrian at eyes level looking at the city’s built forms. These

approaches help in visual dimension and perceptual dimension of the

city. The identities of the places are related with the views of the

pedestrian as they experience the spaces. The lines were drawn first

before the journey and the picture was sketch by Cullen. The vision

then taken from points along the trail. The points where we see the

landmark is the visibility range of the landmark quality applied.


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1.5.5 Topography

Visibility is the main word for the topographical advantages. The

built forms that are located at the higher points usually have the

advantage as it can be viewed from far. The advantages may help

people navigating and use that as point of references for the area.

Despite the advantages of the topography there are disadvantage in

term of the visibility. A large hill will block the views of the building

behind the hill. The advantage of the topography can only be if the build

form located at the higher point on the topographical maps. Christ

Redeemer is the perfect example of a landmark that located at a high

point. This topography has an important role in the quality of a

landmark.

The topography also acts as a natural landmark. It can act the

same function as the built forms landmark. The natural landmarks such

as river, hill, mountain, cliff and forest can help in wayfinding. The

example of the natural landmark are at London where, Thames River

separating the city into two part. The other example is the Central Park

at New York, it becomes the barrier and references to the people of

Upper East Side, Upper West Side and Harlem.


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1.5.6 Space Syntax

Space syntax analysis is the computer generated analysis of the

space and form. It analyses the density of the usage based on the

specific calculation and visualized in the graphic manner. The space

syntax research on the computer will reveal the spatial configuration,

represented and measured in a specific manner. It explains a variance

in the human movement’s rates in different location in the urban

context. It is a basic identification about movement on the 2

dimensional graphic representations always seemed problematic since

the analysis contains no explicit representations of either motivations or

individual cognition. (Penn 2001)

The axial analysis maps are is a technique for representing the

analysis on the urban spatial structure. The issue on the axial maps is

the reliability as it is just plain 2 dimensional and comparability when

using dealing with two different typological contexts. An axial map is a

representation of the continuous structure of open space. The idea of a

'fewest line' axial maps was presented in the introduction of Hillier and

Hanson's 'Social Logic of Space' as some minimal set of the fewest and

longest lines of sight that cover some set of the "fattest convex spaces"

in terms of their area perimeter ratio.(Hillier and Hanson 1984)


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Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The literature review of this research covers the understanding

on the legibility of an area to get the whole idea about the subject

landmark. This literature review then continue with the in depth study on

the landmark, especially the aspect of the definition, functions and

characteristics of the landmarks. The impacts of the landmark then

investigate using the cognitive maps on the manual method and space

syntax using the computer generated maps. The literature reviews then

summarizes the whole understanding on the concepts and application

of the landmarks, spatial cognition and space syntax.

2.2 Legibility

Legibility is essentially to ease people to understand the layout

of a place. This idea by Lynch was able to isolate distinct features of a

city, and see what specifically is making it so vibrant to remember, and

attractive to people as they have the strong impact in the mental

mapping. To understand the layout of a city, people first and foremost

create a mental map. The mental maps are created based on the


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experience passing through spaces and views of the surrounding.

Mental maps of a city are mental representations of what the city

contains, and its layout according to the individual.(Sundilson 2011)

These mental representations, along with the actual city, contain many

unique elements, which are defined by Lynch as a network of paths,

edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks.(Lynch 1960)

First, paths are space by which people move along in their

travels. Examples of paths are roads, trails, and sidewalks. The second

element, edges, is all other lines not included in the path group.

Examples of edges include walls, and seashores that define the

differences between the path and the edges. Next, districts are sections

of the city, usually relatively substantial in size, which have an

identifying character about them that differentiate them from the other

part of the city. A wealthy neighbourhood such as Beverly Hills is one

such example that has their own identity as they are the only one there.

The fourth element, nodes, is points or strategic spots where there is an

extra focus and congested with density, or added concentration of city

features. The examples of nodes are a busy intersection or a popular

city centre and the business district. Finally, landmarks are external

physical objects that act as reference points. Landmarks can be a store,

mountain, school, or any other object that aids in orientation when way-

finding. (Sundilson 2011)


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Imageability, another term introduced by Lynch, is the quality of

a physical object, which gives an observer a strong, vivid image. The

image that appeared very clear in the mental mapping of the

participants. The legibility element is part of the significant of the

Imageability because they possess the strong and distinctive

characteristics. Elements such as landmark must have the quality that

can impress and impact on the mind of the participants to be

considered having a good Imageability. The legibility of the place is

closely related with the familiarity of a person with the surrounding with

respect to the elements that influence the imageability. Imageability in a

city maybe said to be more a perceptual concept than a physical or

visual entity. It is the interpretation of various layers of a city’s images -

its form, profile and experiences over a period of time.(Jadon 2007)


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2.3 Landmark

2.3.1 Definition of Landmark

Landmark in the modern term includes anything that is easily

recognizable such as monument, building or structure. The meaning of

landmark is that of an object or structure that marks a locality and is

used as a point of reference. It can be categorized them based on the

physical features or historical significant. The landmark exist in may

form and scale, as the big city have their own monumental landmark

small spaces such as a house also have their own landmark. The

landmark exists in every scale of spaces, from the small corner of a

building to a city size. Among the different meanings of landmark is that

of an object or structure that marks a locality and is used as a point of

reference.(Merriam-Webster 2001) The concept is bound to the

prominence or distinctiveness of a feature in a large-scale environment

or landscape.(Fellbaum 1998; Golledge 1999)

The landmark in the city such as parks, fountain and monument,

while in the house the landmark is in a smaller scale such as the

fireplace or living area. The landmark is special or famous buildings that

possess the distinctive features compare to the surrounding building.

(Raubal and Winter 2002).


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2.3.2 Function of Landmark

Landmark is use as a guidelines or point of references to the

people. It can be both to guide when move around or use as a

references when giving direction. Landmarks can serve as either an

organizing concept for space or as a navigational aid (Golledge 1999).

Landmark is one of the elements in the built environment that people

remember. The distinctive features of the landmark will help us to

recognize the landmark from a distance.

The landmark as a references point will increase the legibility of

the area. The legibility of the area and the importance of the landmark

as a main focus point and contribute to the development of the area

due to the attraction increase the density of the peoples. Kevin Lynch

defines landmarks as external points of reference points that are not

part of a route like the nodes in a travel network. (Lynch 1960)

In the built environment, landmark is one of the elements that the

people remembers and refers to when they move around the spaces.

The position of the surrounding building and space will refers to the

landmark. The spatial reference points form another kind of organizing

landmark in that objects are often recalled as being near a reference

point and not vice versa. Such reference points have been shown to be

defined by a combination of features, including greater familiarity, visual


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dominating nearby locations, visible from a distance, and of greater

cultural importance (Sadalla, Burroughs et al. 1980) .The expressions

such as right of that building and in front of the building are the normal

when giving out direction. It proved that the landmark is used in mental

representations of space. (Siegel and White 1975). The whole

experience as a person passes through space or sees the landmark is

generated as a mental mapping.

Mental mapping generated in the brain remember selected and

distinctive features of the places. It is important as the references point

to help them navigate into the spaces. The local of a certain area will be

familiar with his surrounding because their mental map is advance and

they remember more distinctive features and landmark. A study has

shown that mapped routes enriched with landmarks at decision points

lead to better guidance, or less wayfinding errors. It is different than

routes without landmarks. (Deakin 1996)

Landmark also acts as the organizing concept rather than just as

the navigational point. Organizing concept is the symbolic

representation of by the landmark, and another one the reference point

representation that help in wayfinding. One of the examples is the Eiffel

tower represents the whole Paris as the building becomes the main

icon and brand of the city, it is considered as the symbolic landmark.


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2.3.3 Characteristic of Landmark

Landmark can be categorized into visual (visual contrast),

structural (prominent location), and cognitive (use, meaning) ones,

depending on their dominant individual quality. (Sorrows and Hirtle

1999). Each of the landmarks has their own dominant quality, the tower

for examples possess the quality of the visual contrast. The visual

contrast may differ from one landmark to another. It can be in different

shape, size, color and even the architectural characteristic.

The quality of the landmark it’s by their singularity, where

singularity is bound to a clear form, contrast to the background, and a

prominent location. The principal factor is the figure-background

contrast. (Wertheimer 1925; Metzger 1936). The singularity of a form

will attract the attention and thus making it a very dominant quality. It

related with the function of the landmark as the references points of

people to navigate, as the alien form will be much easier to spot rather

than the monotypes form.

Prominence is the second characteristic that contributes to the

definition of a landmark. Prominence is the spatial location where the

landmark possesses the great visibility and connectivity. The landmark

becomes the nodes of the area. Quality landmarks become prominence

because they have many links to be followed, allowing the user to start


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there for many different actions.(Sorrows and Hirtle 1999) The visibility

is another element that contributes to the prominence of the landmark.

The visibility of the landmark holds the key for the nearby building

legibility. The landmark must be visible as the people will use it as the

reference to organize their mental map. This fit the description that

landmark function as the organizing concept. (Sorrows and Hirtle

1999).The legibility of the area increase as the person move towards

the landmark because of the view become clearer and mental map

become organizes. A quality landmark can be the datum for set of

buildings around it and wrapped all of it into single unit reference.

Accessibility is another characteristic of landmark in the built

environment. Accessibility is also a characteristic of landmarks in the

city, a building or object located at an intersection of multiple roads (e.g.

near a rotary or roundabout), or even the intersection itself may be a

landmark because it is easily accessible from multiple paths.(Sorrows

and Hirtle 1999). The landmark that located at better connected roads

will have a better quality compared to the landmark that has a poor

accessibility. The road usage density will play roles in suggesting the

quality of the landmark that located at the high accessible location. High

density road have a high number of users that view the landmark. This

action will increase the quality of the landmark and their legibility of

cognitive map.


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2.4 Cognitive Maps

Cognitive mapping refers to the process of forming mental

representations of one’s spatial environment. (O’Laughlin and Brubaker

1997). Cognitive map also known as invisible map that we can carry at

all-time anywhere we go. Unlike the normal map the cognitive map was

stored in the brain. It is the result of the whole experience when we

pass through the spaces. It was generated to the brain along with a few

key points to unlock it. One of the points to unlock the whole experience

is the landmark.

Landmark will trigger the brain to unlock the experience to be in

the mental mapping, the image of the experience and also known as

the cognitive map. The whole area around the landmark will be

generated with reference to the landmark. The normal expression of

this building behind that landmark or that school located two blocks

from the landmark, this expression prove the importance of the

landmark as the reference to the surrounding building. Rather than

giving an exact location such as the coordinates, it conveys the location

to the reference point.

The cognitive map is a flashing of the images and the spatial

environment in the brain hold by the cognitive landmark. It tend to be

more personal and can be missed by those not familiar with the


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environment, unless they have some distinguishing markings.(Sorrows

and Hirtle 1999). The cognitive landmark values are based on the

importance and function of the spaces even on the monotypes form.

Cognitive perspective closely related with the judging of

distance. The distance between nearby landmarks appears relatively

larger than the distances between faraway landmarks, though it is

difficult to make adequate compensation for that statement. (Tversky

1993). The distance relatively larger due to our brain can generate most

of the form and spaces because we just experience it. It is different with

the faraway landmark, our brain will generate as far as we can

remember and experienced then it will skip to the landmark. It leave a

blank gap that the brain unable to generate the form and space.

The cognitive map only generated after the brain become

familiar with the surrounding. The brain can map the form and spaces

of the built environment. If people experience a new unfamiliar area, the

brain can only map the spaces that he already experienced. It will be

stored as the cognitive collages. This collages is the part of the whole

experience, there are missing links between the mapped and

unmapped area. Collages are thematic overlays of multimedia from

different points of views. They lack the coherence of maps, but do

contain figures, partial information, and differing perspectives. (Tversky

1993)


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2.5 Space Syntax Analysis

The space syntax general idea is that spaces can be broken

down into components, analysed as networks of choices, and then

represented as maps and graphs that describe the relative connectivity

and integration of those spaces. The space syntax can visualize the

density of the road system by using the lines as the result will determine

the straight line and possible path. Space Syntax’s is based on the

representation and quantification of environmental characteristics of the

built environment, with the aim to use them as independent result for a

statistical analysis of observed behavioural pattern (Penn 2001) as

routes and flows. Space syntax has three popular understanding of the

street networks, the integration, choice and depth distance.

The integration is the calculation on how may turn in the street

segments one have to experience by using the shortest path. The

amount of the turns and density of the usage will be analysed in a

radius. The most continues street segment and linked with the most

junction considered as the most integrated street and usually

represented using the colour red. The red colour also indicate that the

road have most intersection. Colouring the street segments line from

red for high potential movement through to blue for low potential

movement.


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The integration is different for the curve street compared to the

linear street. The curved street will be counted as a few segments and

that will influence the integration value of the streets. Space Syntax

measures are configurationally, rather that attraction-based, in that they

calculate relationships between each space in a system (Hillier and

Stonor 2010). The usual configuration in the space syntax is distance:

shortest path distance, fewest turns distance and least angle change

distance.(Hillier and Stonor 2010) The space syntax ignores the

importance of the spaces function, it only calculate the density of

intersection on the lines that represent the roads.

Understanding the space syntax by numbers and figures are not

the only way to learn about it. Space syntax can be easily understood

by using the comparison of the water flow. A drop of water in the centre

and it will flow to fill the empty space nearby. That is why the most

connected street will appear to be in red colour because that space

filled with water faster compared to the area with only one connection

from the main network system. Connectivity is a measurement that

takes into account relationships between a space and its immediate

neighbor spaces. Streets with high connectivity values will be more

accessible from different directions and give people more possible

choices. These streets, in turn, are expected to be used more often

than others and it will be red coded. (Long, Baran et al. 2007)


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The red coded lines indicate that the path most integrate and

high connectivity. It is possible to assume that there are physical

elements such as landmarks and nodes that located at the path. It is

the product of their cognitive maps, which contribute to people legibility

and wayfinding of the area.(Long, Baran et al. 2007) The link between

the space syntax and spatial cognition of the landmark are inevitable. It

is also the main reason why most of the landmark located at the most

connected and linked street. Arc de Triompe at Paris is the perfect

example of the landmark that located at the most linked and connected

part of the city. It linked with 12 roads and surrounded by a roundabout.

An axial map is a visualization of the continuous links of open

space. The lines on the axial map are short and segmented because it

is easier to analyses the lines and not curve. The measure of spatial

integration for each line is of the mean depth of that line from all other

lines within some defined number of steps (or radius). Thus the

measure is not one of the roles of that line on a single specific route,

but of its role on all routes from all lines to all other lines in the system

(Long, Baran et al. 2007). The axial analysis connected to form a vast

complex network system. On the system, the intersection will be a

nodes indicating that the intersection will accommodate people on hold

before switching direction. Area that has more nodes will be denser due

to the junction located closer to each other.


32

2.6 Conclusion

Landmark is one of the important parts of the image of a city or

district. It acts as the key that hold the district by giving the perception

and references to the building. The landmark is use as a guidelines or

point of references to the people as they navigate or giving out

direction. It is another clear indication of the level of familiarity of the

area with references to the landmark. People will familiar with his

surrounding because their mental map is advance and they remember

more distinctive features of the context that relate to the imageability of

the landmark. Landmark can be categorized into visual, structural, and

cognitive ones, depending on their dominant individual quality. (Sorrows

and Hirtle 1999)

Landmark will trigger the brain to convert experience into mental

mapping, the image of the experience and also known as the cognitive

map. The whole area around the landmark will be generated with

reference to the landmark. The impact of the landmark can be

measured with the frequency of the landmark referred as the references

points. The suitability of the landmark’s location can be measure using

the space syntax axial maps analysis on 2 dimensional with respect to

the topographical advantages to the peoples. The landmark qualities

are depend on the landmark characteristic, function location and impact

on mental mapping on the peoples.


33

Chapter 3: Case Study UiTM Campus Shah Alam

3.1 Introduction

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) located in a secured

area within fences with 4 entrances. The entrances of UiTM located at 4

different places and 2 of them are the main entrances. The main

entrances can be access from two different locations, Seksyen 7 and

Seksyen 2 of Shah Alam.

The whole complexes of UiTM located in a hilly area and

uneven topology. The typology influenced the configuration of the

complexes and divided the whole complexes into several district and

defined the edges of the districts. The typology also influences the

planning and the pattern of development in UiTM. UiTM sustain a

number of populations and the population are divided between

population at collages and population that rent houses around UiTM.

The whole complexes formed a district of Shah Alam.

The case study covers the understanding on the legibility of an

campus to get the better undertanding about the landmark located at

the campus. This case study then continue with the in depth

observation on the landmark, especially the aspect of the definition,

functions and characteristics of the landmarks.


34

The impacts of the landmark on the campus then investigate

using the cognitive maps on the manual method by doing the mental

mapping and space syntax using the computer generated maps. The

understanding on landmarks, cognitive maps and the space syntax will

be summarize by creating the understanding guidelines on how to

produce a good quality landmark using the UiTM campus as the case

study for the research.


35

3.2 Mental Mapping

Template for investigating the frequency of landmark mentioned.

First step to investigate the landmarks of UiTM. Using the mental

mapping with 30 numbers of participants the result of the frequency of

the landmark mentioned are tabulated in the Table 1.1. The whole area

are divided and differentiated into 6 districts. Every district has their own

specific landmark that mentioned the most and noticed by the

participants. The table also indicate that there are buildings that have a

deep impact on the participant’s mental map. The buildings such as the

Dewan Agong Tuanku Canseleri, Menara Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah and

Bangunan Canseleri are the most noticed and mentioned the most by

the participants during the mental mapping process.


36

No Building Frequency

1 District 1

1.1 Pusat Pengajian Antarabangsa 6

1.2 Kolej Mawar 3

1.3 Menara S&T 2

1.4 Pusat Bahasa 4

1.5 Pusat Kesihatan 11

2 District 2

2.1 Padang Kawad 6

2.2 Dewan Agong Tuanku Canseleri 20

2.3 Kompleks Sukan and Stadium UiTM 18

2.4 Kolej Perindu 8

2.5 Palapes 3

2.6 Kolej Kenanga 2

3 District 3

3.1 PTAR 1 Library 5

3.2 Dewan Seri Budiman 2

3.3 Menara SAAS 20

3.4 FSSR 5

3.5 Kolej Cempaka 3

4 District 4

4.1 Bangunan Canseleri 23

4.2 Kolej Seroja 4

4.3 Pusat Islam and Mosque 9

4.4 Fountain 3

5 District 5

5.1 Menara Berkembar Kejuruteraan 17

5.2 Fakulti Pergigian 5

5.3 Dataran Cendikia 3

5.4 Kolej Melati 2

6 District 6

6.1 Kolej Delima 3

6.2 Nursery 3


37

Frequency of the landmark mentioned:

Relationship of landmark with entrances:


38

3.3 Figure Ground Study

Analysis on Figure Ground Study

The figure ground study indicates that the distribution of the form

is heavily on two part of the campus. The large scale buildings are

located at the North West and South East of the campus. The

organization of the planning are clustered at a few points on the map.

The path or the road usually creates the edges of the district but not for

some area due to the influences of the topography. The South East

area are more organized and well planned compared to other part of

the campus. There are empty or undeveloped area at the campus

compared with the build forms.


39

3.4 Identifying Landmark

Location of landmark on each of the districts:

The campus was divided by district to simplify the method of

identifying the landmarks for UiTM. Every district on UiTM possessed

their own landmark that control the spaces or sense of entering an area

what we called as district. The district 4 have the most mentioned and

noticed buildings selected by the participants, Bangunan Canseleri.

Menara Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah and Dewan Agong Tuanku Canseleri is

the next most noticed and mentioned while Menara Berkembar

Kejuruteraan, Pusat Kesihatan UiTM and Kolej Delima less noticed and

mentioned. This is the first step identifying the landmarks of UiTM.


40

Study on Landmarks


41

1- Pusat Kesihatan

Definition

Pusat Kesihatan does not fit the definition as a landmark

because of the built form is not easily recognizable. The building

is a small and low rise.

Function

It is one of the most important buildings for the population of

UiTM. It is one and only health care building in the campus. The

specific function impact the participant’s mental map.

Characteristic

It is easily access from the main road system of campus. The

building has non dominant quality and dull appearance. It blends

with the surrounding and do not have a vertical features.


42

2- Dewan Agong Tuanku Canselor

Definition

It suits the definition of a landmark because of the size of the

buildings and easily recognizable. The form and scale are unique

and huge. It also possesses the distinctive features compare to

the surrounding building.

Function

The buildings functions as a landmark of wayfinding for the

surrounding buildings. It functions as the main hall and events

and graduations took place here. It contribute to the

Characteristic

The buildings are made up of the forms that are unusual at the

campus. It adopts the disk type form on a huge scale that covers

a cliff area between to different levels of soil.


43


44

3- Menara Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah

Definition

The tower is used as a guidance and point of references and it

suit with the function of the building as landmark. It visible from

distance and it possessed a vertical focal point.

Function

The buildings act as the point of wayfinding from distance area

around the campus. The buildings impacts on the mental maps

are closely related with the importance as the location on top of

the hill.

Characteristic

The building forms that have the vertical advantages with the

help of its location improve the visibility. The building’s façade

and materials further enhances the individuality of the form.


45

4- Bangunan Canseleri

Definition

It defined by the purpose of the buildings. It is a symbolic

landmark rather than the landmark that act as the wayfinding. It

still used as the point of references for a smaller scale area

around the buildings.

Function

The buildings functions as the indication that they entered the

campus. The building located near the main gate and it portrays

the first image of UiTM for anyone who entered the campus.

Characteristic

The building possessed the modern architectural characteristics

with the materials such as steel and glass. The bright green

glass panel, increase the visual impact to the parson passing by

the buildings. It reflects the monumental impact to the

surrounding.


46


47

5- Menara Berkembar Kejuruteraan

Definition

The buildings are defined by the two towers located at both end

of the form. The two towers are separated with the functional and

transition space. It also visible from outside of the UiTM, and it

increase the impact on the mental maps.

Function

It functions as the building that accommodates the student of

Engineering. The location of the building near the collages and

shops increase the impact on the mental maps as users always

refer to the buildings to orientate themselves.

Characteristic

The characteristics of the building are the special twin towers.

The two towers create an empty space in between the two

towers. The void is another part of the building’s image on the

mental map that differentiates from the context


48

6- Kolej Delima

Definition

The buildings do not fit the description as a typical landmark,

where people use as the help in wayfinding and point of

references. It is the transition references to the location of the

collage in the middle of the campus.

Function

It’s a collage that accommodates students that live in the

campus. The buildings support a population of student that have

the facilities around the area. They don’t need a significant

landmark to help them orientate around the area.

Characteristic

The characteristics of the buildings are simple and monotypes. It

made up of concrete and has the identity of the development in

the campus. The users recognize the space by the function

rather than the visual attractiveness.


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3.5 Serial Vision

Landmark Position and Mapping of Trails

The trail was drawn on the map to guide the mapping of the

serial vision. The serial visions are taken at certain points at the map.

The photos are taken according to the journey and at certain point

photos will captured to give the sense of wayfinding to the users. The

trails are to covered all 6 landmarks of UiTM. One each trails there will

be two landmarks. Four photos will describe the journey and it will

emulate the sense of wayfinding and the quality of the landmark


50

Trail 1


51

Trail 2


52

Trail 3


53

3.6 Topography


54

Analysis on The Context’s Topography

The most mentioned landmark 4 located at a higher ground on

the topography. The landmark 3 also located at a high ground but the

landmark 3 despite listed among the most mentioned landmark, it

located at lower ground. There are external factors involve in

contributing to the result as it do not have the topography advantages.

Landmark 1 located at a lower ground and along a continuous flat road.

It is one of the densest roads with traffic in the campus. Landmark 6 is

located at the same level as the landmark 2 and landmark 5, where it

located at the deeper in to the campus.

There are three zonings of topographical advantages on the

campus. The three zonings represent different levels of the land.

Landmark 1 is located at this zone. It is a flat land with a straight and

continuous street. The streets are surrounded with the development

because of the flat land.

The second zone or level of the topography consists of the

landmark 2, landmark 5 and landmark 6. These topography levels are

slightly higher compared with the first zone. The configuration of the

buildings position also scattered to adapt to the topography. The areas

around Pusat Sukan are depressed and the uneven topography.


55

The last zone or level of the topography is located at the south

east of the campus stretching to the north of the maps. There is no

landmark at this level of topography. These levels are the transition

level from the lower part of the land to a higher part of in the campus.

The landmark 4 and 3 located at a higher level, this gives the

landmark advantages. The built form that located in the higher place

has a better visibility area. The visibilities are important to the users to

refer and use as the point of references. This trend is related with the

proven number of mentioned of the landmark by the participants. There

are advantages from a position on a higher ground compared with the

lower part of the land. The location from the entrance of the campus

also plays part in contributing to the impact on the mental maps.


56

3.7 Space Syntax

The axial map you have drawn has 80 lines and 70 junctions.

This gives a ratio of 1.14 lines to junctions. To give an idea of what type

of map this is, had you drawn a completely linear axial map connected

as a circle, and then the ratio would be 1, with the same number of

junctions as the number of lines. So in this case, the map is .87 times

as dense in terms of junctions to lines as a map based on a string of

lines arranged in a circle. Very dense axial maps have a very large

number of junctions to lines but it is rare to find maps denser than the

number of lines/4; in this case, this upper ratio would be 40.


57

The size and weight of the lines generated by the space syntax

indicate the capability of the road to handle the traffic. The large size

lines on the generated map of the axial analysis indicate the capability

and suitability of the road to cater a larger number of traffic.

The whole systems of the roads are connected in a circular

manner. The circular loop road systems are interrupting by the access

points and the smaller road system inside the loop. The size of the

nodes also portrays the amount of turning that users have to deal with.

The nodes also indicate that the areas are suitable for open spaces

plaza or park that will provide the sense of transition.


58

The whole system of the space syntax especially the one

generated this images, the axial analysis on the maps provide the

information regarding the prime area that suitable for positioning of the

landmark. The streets that can support the large amount of users are

suitable to locate landmarks as it will provide a better exposure and

help in the wayfinding. The exposures are suitable if the locations of the

landmark are located at the entrance as they will experience the

building and mark the building as the point of references. The landmark

distance between landmarks will influence the classification of the

districts. The roads around the circular loop of the campus are less

congested compared to the entrance of the campus.


59

3.8 Conclusion

The case study on UiTM campus Shah Alam provide with

several new problem such as the landmark that have a huge scale but

located at lower level of land. The understanding of the landmarks

comes after the mental mapping process where the clearer indication

on what buildings is most memorized by the users. The evaluation on

every landmark for every district provides the elements and aspect that

are important to be a high quality landmark that server the purpose of

being a landmark and other functions.

The perceptions and the mental mapping are two manually

designed tests to prove the legibility of the area. The data-based maps

also generated to indicate the true capacity of the roads system that

cover and connect most of the district. Human travel on the surface but

views are travel in straight lines, this phrases prove the difficulties to

evaluate the axial map analysis because of the topography. The levels

of lands must be considered because it also limits the visibility of certain

part of the campus. The whole data and observation are recorded and

analyses to find the common ground between those three area, the

landmarks, cognitive maps and the space syntax axial lines analyses.


60

Chapter 4: Summary

Case Study Summary – Landmarks

No Landmark Advantages Disadvantages

1 Pusat Kesihatan - Function

- Location

- Wayfinding

- Scale

- Appearance

- Setting

- Symbolic

- Vertical Element

2 Dewan Agong Tuanku

Canseleri

- Scale

- Form

- Materials

- Function

- Wayfinding

- Appearance

- Symbolic

- Entrance

- Setting

- Location

3 Menara Sultan Abdul

Aziz Shah

- Function

- Scale

- Wayfinding

- Symbolic

- Setting

- Visibility

- Vertical Element

- Form

- Materials

- Accessibility

- Location


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4 Bangunan Canseleri - Function

- Scale

- Setting

- Location

- Form

- Materials

- Symbolic

- Accessibility

- Wayfinding

- Vertical Element

- Visibility

- Entrance

5 Menara Kejuruteraan - Function

- Scale

- Wayfinding

- Setting

- Visibility

- Vertical Element

- Accessibility

- Form

- Materials

- Symbolic

- Location

6 Kolej Delima - Function

- Setting

- Accessibility

- Scale

- Wayfinding

- Visibility

- Vertical Element

- Form

- Materials

- Symbolic

- Location


62

The urban context of campus UiTM Shah Alam is a complex

urban structure. The whole development is not a total planned but

individual development with the size of districts. The developments of

the districts are planned in the latter stage and as the expansion of the

current system.

The development also needs to adapt the context of the

surrounding. There are factors or parameters that will influence the

landmark quality and the impact to the users. The users may use the

landmark as point of references and guidelines in wayfinding.

The contextual of the landmark also play a vital role in the

effectiveness of the landmark. The suitability of the built form to help in

the wayfinding required specific type of landmarks. It required vertical

advantages, visibility from a distance and also the whole experience of

using landmark as the point of references are depend on the

appearance and physical of built form.

The external factors such as the topography advantages, the

entry point into the complexes increase the impact on the user’s mental

maps and the quality of the landmark. The other external factors are the

road system that connecting all the existing built form. The


63

Aspects of a Landmark Extract from the Case Study

No. Aspects Guidelines and Information

1 Function The function of the landmarks playing the roles

to help in determines the quality of the

landmark. Important buildings and spaces has

a better impact on the user’s mental mapping

as they must remember because of the

weightage of the spaces. The important and

vital landmarks are usually the basic need such

as the health care and the oil and gas station.

They are crucial because of their function,

giving the impression of the importance

regardless their form and spaces.

2 Setting The settings are the contextual of the place.

The surrounding built form, form and spaces

play role in reflecting on the quality of the

landmark. The landmark located in the dense

city play bigger role compared to the isolated

landmark on the suburb area. The setting also

includes the topography of the area. The

challenge facing with the hilly topography is the

planning configuration of the buildings. There

are some buildings are adapt to the slope while

some other are respect the slope orientate the

buildings to suit with the condition of the

ground. The setting also relate with the density

of the area and relation with the capacity. The

surrounding context is important to the

landmark as they will hold them as one single

unit or preferably a district that consist of the

whole built form around the landmark.


64

3 Accessibility The accessibility is relating with the approach

users to the landmark. There are some

landmarks that only function from a distance

and some others are able to provide both

ranges to the users. The landmarks that has

the vertical advantages but located in the

dense develop area only help in the wayfinding

for the people distance from the landmark. The

accessibility to be able to use the landmark in

wayfinding and point of references.

4 Scale The scale of the development is important to

determine quality of the landmark. The larger

scale of development provides a bigger

impression to the mental mapping. There are

landmark that reach the monumental scale.

The smaller scale suitable with the spaces. The

whole must be in balance according to the

respective contextual. The grand monumental

landmark is a wasted if it was constructed in a

denser area. It needs open spaces to help

improve the quality of the landmarks.

5 Wayfinding The wayfinding is the main important part of the

daily life. People tend to find their way through

the city every day, but they need references to

help them guide their way. This is where the

landmark is playing their roles. The landmark

helps in wayfinding. The landmark must in the

position to help the users and not avoiding

them. The landmarks features such as the

vertical elements, appearance and scale really

help to navigate the users, as they will refer to

as references or the target while navigating.


65

6 Visibility The visibility is the important part that will

determine the quality of the landmark. A good

landmark is visible from distance as they will

help in wayfinding. The visibility of the

landmark may limit and block by the man-made

and natural topography. The moment the

landmark appears is the point where landmarks

start influences the users to help them in

wayfinding. The visibility are relate also with the

topography of the context.

7 Vertical Elements The vertical element is important because the

presence of it is perpendicular with the horizon.

It will enhance the presence of something

important. The landmark usually applied these

vertical elements to help then in wayfinding.

The vertical elements is visible from a distance,

it will help to be the point of references as

users move around.

8 Form The form is the physical of the landmark. The

form must be alien to the site and surrounding

as they must be recognized the moment’s

users in around the area. The circular buildings

among the rectangular shape will easily

recognize.

9 Materials The materials also relate with the physical

appearance of the landmark. The different

materials from the typical surrounding materials

will help to differentiate the landmark and the

surrounding buildings. The materials also

closely related with the colour. The bright

colours are better as they provide the contrast

to the context and enhance the landmarks.


66

10 Symbolic The symbolic is the perception of the users

towards the buildings. It also relate with the

roles of the buildings, either it is functional or

rather just a symbolic landmark. The symbolic

landmark is the landmark created solely to

serve a landmark and not considering the other

functions. It also consider as the symbolic

landmark once the purpose of the construction

is to portray certain value and purpose.

11 Location The location of the landmark also play roles in

enhancing the quality if the landmark. The

landmark that located at a busy road will get

the attention and the impact on the mental

mapping rather than the landmark that locate at

the hidden places. The landmark location also

benefit if there are nodes around and the area

to hold the users and the location near the

entry points is best to provide the best

exposure to the users.

12 Entrance It is related with the point of access to the

area/campus. The entrance of the campus

sometimes does not reflect the real road

system that connects the district or areas. The

new entrance must be created to synchronize

with the road system. The new entrance will

respect the true capacity of the system and

benefits the landmarks in the wayfinding by

shifting the traffic to the area that can sustain

larger traffic.


67

Chapter 5: Conclusion

The conclusion of the study on the landmark, spatial cognition

and the space syntax is that everything is closely related. The spatial

cognition is measuring tools of the quality of landmark using the

memory of the users. The space syntax also serves the same function,

as the tools to provide the calculation and generation of maps by using

the data of axial lines analysis. The mental of human memory overlap

with the data-based computer generation maps. The result for both

methods compared to find the similarities and differences of the system.

The understanding about the landmark will provide the answers to the

differences and similarities between the two methods used.

The aspects of good quality landmarks were extracted from the

understanding of the literature review and the data from the case study

conducted. The aspects of the quality landmark are function, setting,

accessibility, scale, wayfinding, visibility, vertical elements, form,

materials, symbolic, location and entrance. These aspects applied

according to the guidelines as they are not applicable in all contexts. It

must suit with the site and purpose of the projects. This will improve the

landmarks and a good landmark can provide a good districts that

enhance the value of the place for future developments.


68

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