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FINAL REPORT ON

A Review of the concept “SONIC BRANDING” and techniques to measure its impact on Emotions, Brand Recall,

Brand Recognition and Purchase Intention.

By

(DARPAN JAIN, 07BS1675, IBS AHMEDABAD)

Welcome to the

World of

Music

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FINAL REPORT

ON

A Review of the concept “SONIC BRANDING” and techniques to measure its impact on Emotions, Brand Recall,

Brand Recognition and Purchase Intention.

By

(DARPAN JAIN)

(M.B.A. 2007-2009)

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of MBA Program

(Class of 2007-09)

ICFAI BUSINESS SCHOOL

AHMEDABAD

Submitted To,

Mrs. Kiran Rai

(Faculty Guide)

The Concept of Sonic Branding

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project report is an outcome of sincere efforts and cooperation of everyone who helped me. I conducted this project under the supervision of my respectful guide Prof. Kiran Rai (Faculty at IBS Ahmedabad).

I am very thankful for her insightful ideas which helped me to look at the project from not only just the academic point of view but also the commercial one. She did help me to pen my thoughts and visualize the big picture. I am also thankful to Prof. Toby Mammen and Prof. Amit Saraswat for sharing their special views on the topic and giving it a meaningful angle.

I would also specially like to thank Laura Strickland (Business Strategist, Sonic Id) and Noel Franus (Managing Director, Sonic Id). Laura Strickland has been kind enough to help me at every stage of the project. She has been sharing her knowledge from the time I started the project and it is due to her active dialogue with me that the project has been finally completed. Noel Franus has also been a source of inspiration for the project. Having a healthy discussion with him helped me gain a commercial understanding of the concept and at the same time a good knowledge of industry demand. It was due to his investing precious time in my project that helped me to frame the second phase of the project.

Signature of the Student

(DARPAN.L.JAIN)

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Table of Contents Table of Contents ...............................................................................................................................4

Abstract .............................................................................................................................................6

Introduction-I .....................................................................................................................................1

WHAT IS SONIC BRANDING? ............................................................................................................2

HISTORY:.....................................................................................................................................2

SONIC BRANDING CONCEPT: ........................................................................................................3

HOW TO LEVERAGE ON SONIC BRAND IDENTITY?..........................................................................7

Introduction-II ..................................................................................................................................14

Literature Review .............................................................................................................................17

Theories and Models.....................................................................................................................17

Attitude Theory .........................................................................................................................17

Classical Conditioning Theory .....................................................................................................18

Involvement Theory...................................................................................................................18

Music theory .............................................................................................................................19

Variables ......................................................................................................................................22

Independent Variables...............................................................................................................22

Dependent Variables .................................................................................................................22

Results .........................................................................................................................................26

Attitude Toward the Ad .............................................................................................................26

Ad Time ....................................................................................................................................26

Attitude Toward the Brand ........................................................................................................27

Brand Recall ..............................................................................................................................27

Pleasure and Arousal .................................................................................................................28

Purchase Intention ....................................................................................................................28

Content Analyses.......................................................................................................................28

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Future Research ...............................................................................................................................36

Advertisers and Academics ............................................................................................................36

Advertising and Popular Music.......................................................................................................36

Brand Image .................................................................................................................................37

Environments ...............................................................................................................................37

Fit and Indexicality ........................................................................................................................38

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................39

REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................................40

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Abstract

The research discusses the role of sound in branding with its usage in marketing communication. The impact of sound to create distinct and memorable long term image of the brand in the minds of target audience has been one of the most cited advantage of the concept “Sonic Branding”. The research paper explores the concept in terms of its history, how the concept grew, its utility, convergence of Sonic Branding with recent technologies and Sonic Branding in India.

The second part of the report concerns more on the measurement aspect and involves a critical examination of tools and techniques to measure the effect of music on emotions, brand recall, recognition and purchase intention. It summarizes the various methods applied by researchers all over the world and discusses in brief the outcomes of the research done by them.

The research is divided into two phases- the first phase deals with concept and the techniques to measure its impact. The second phase would deal with the application of the research techniques to understand its impact on the above mentioned parameters and would also discuss the results and insights that are generated from the research.

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Introduction-I

In recent years, marketing and branding practices have become increasingly complex and challenging. Getting the attention of consumers has become more difficult as the amount of marketing “noise” is blurring communication further. Until recently, brands have been communicated with a dominant emphasis on visual elements. Consumers are exposed to 3.000 advertisements every day, hence creating a strong need for more efficient and distinguishable communication by companies attempting to communicate to them. Brand effectiveness is an ideal searched for by many, but only achieved by few. This truth is reflected by the current state of the advertising industry today; a market saturated with adverts that are indistinct and ineffective. Coupled with a rise in the personalization of media, consumers now have the ability to sidestep advertising and have begun to invest their time more in platforms that have no established tradition of advertising such as mobile and broadband broadcast content. Avoidance of adverts is also causing levels of consumer interaction with brands to dramatically reduce in the sense that they feel little need to be involved with a brand they have no interest in. Reduced interest caused by a lack of brand distinction which is itself generated by ineffective management and presentation of bands by advertisers. If consumers can no longer identify brands as being distinct, then their constant presentation will cease to be of little value to consumers or advertisers. The perception of brands as being generic has lead consumers to direct their attention more on the content of the media they interact with and less on the advertising positioned around it. This in turn has simply encouraged advertisers to produce bigger, attention grabbing campaigns that cater more to the consumer eye than brand equity, and only act as red flags for the consumer –beginning the whole cycle once more. A strong, almost disproportionate, emphasis on the visual perception of consumers has lead to different advertisers treating different brands in the same manner and visual execution more than long-term brand impact has become the main drive behind advert presentation. This communication space is hence somewhat saturated, and companies must turn to other methods in order to communicate their brands through the filter. Sensory branding has been appraised as one of the characteristics of brand communication in the new millennium. Herein, sound is one of the main players, and it offers a considerable means for brands to enhance their image and consumer awareness. Companies are slowly realizing the potential of audio, however, the execution remains a somewhat untouched aspect. This field lacks management perspectives on how to create and implement audio elements as a prolongation of the visuals. The literature that exists within this developing field is vastly descriptive and draws upon examples from companies that have already implemented audio into their brand communication. In order for brands to benefit from audio, and perhaps achieve first mover advantage in relation to audio elements, it is essential that the academic field progresses and contributes with theoretical considerations that companies can utilize for the further development of brands. 1

1 Breaking the Silence- A managerial approach for companies to realize their audio potential, School of Economics and Management, Lund University (2007).

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WHAT IS SONIC BRANDING?

Before we define sonic branding, it’s important to define the concepts of brand and logo.

These may be generic terms that are used in everyday lingo, and that is exactly why they need a specific definition.

A brand as “an identifying mark burnt on livestock” was the original definition (Anonymous), and it has been extended to the field of marketing since the advent of packaged goods and the industrial revolution. Marketing guru Phillip Kotler defines brand as “a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of them intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or a group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competitors.” (Kotler, 2000)

According to Kotler, a logo is a vital part of the brand. It is the face of the company and “a graphic element, symbol or icon of a trademark or brand and its logotype, which is set in a unique typeface or arranged in a particular way (Kotler, 2000).”

HISTORY:

Jean Pierre Bacelon, a French radio producer turned airtime salesman has been credited with identifying the benefits of sonic branding on radio in the mid-1980s (Jackson, 2004). He coined the term “marque sonique” and after analyzing and categorizing radio commercials of his era, he concluded that radio advertising containing sonic branding elements achieved greater success in awareness, sale and repeat purchase. As Director of IP France, he started working closely with Media Sales and Marketing UK, which is when he created the English translation of his ideas – “sonic branding”. It was initially used by radio advertisers to pitch radio advertising and the use of sound as a powerful brand communication tool (Miller & Marks, 1992). In the UK, the Radio Advertising Bureau adopted the sonic branding sell to try and convince more advertisers to try out radio, during a time of lean growth for the industry. Growth in dotcoms and new media in the late 1990s enabled venture capital to be made available for sonic branding agencies (Jackson, 2004).

In the new millennium, every media platform has sound built-in. Sonic branding provides the opportunity for companies to extend a common identity across various platforms, whether as TV, Internet, radio, podcasts, ringtones, online navigational sounds, website sounds, tones at point of sale areas in retail stores, cinema, cash registers, stadium public address systems, or the “hold music” of the company’s customer service number. This has led to a phenomenal growth in the number of sonic branding agencies. In the US, establishment of sonic branding as a specialized field is much more recent as compared to the UK. In 2001, there was one company specializing in offering sonic branding services in the US, one in the

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UK, and one in the Switzerland. Today there are more than 50 companies in the world, 35 in Europe alone (Lamb, 2006). 2

SONIC BRANDING CONCEPT:

“The intentional use of music, sound, voice and silence to create rational and emotional connections between people and organizations.” (Sonic ID) People and nature have been using sonic branding since the world began. We talk, sing, hum and shake to our own tune and rhythm, using the sounds we make to differentiate ourselves from those around us and express how we feel. Humans use sound in an incredibly sophisticated way. From the cradle we use our primitive voice to express how we feel, what we need and whom we like. As we develop our voices and skills we use speech and song. In our characteristic way, we have developed tools for making sounds. Firstly percussive (drums) and latterly musical instruments and polyphonic synthesizers. We also value sound very highly – emotionally and financially. We buy recorded sounds and they form a soundtrack to our lives. We build concert halls, we cherish musicians and singers as central to our society. Sound is big news in all societies, everywhere. There is much yet to be discovered about the true relationship between sound and the brain. Some things we do know include the fact that sound is processed in both the left and right hemispheres, thereby appealing to our rational and emotional sides. Left Brain Right Brain Logical

Random

Sequential Intuitive

Rational Holistic

Analyses Synthesizes

Objective Subjective

Parts Wholes

We also know that sound and memory have very strong associations. We all have a great capacity for remembering voices, ambient sounds and especially music. Brand Experience

The idea of treating a brand as an entire experience is well established. The premise is that every time a person comes into contact with a brand physically, or through media the experience

2 The Sonic Boom- Effec t of Logo Presentation Style in Television Commercials on Memory for the advertised Brand

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should be distinct, consistent and positive. Back in the 1950s, companies like McDonalds first discovered the benefits of paying attention to all aspects of a brand experience – not just the product and packaging. These pioneers established the value of a distinct, positive and consistent retail environment, incorporating look, feel and sound. As media has proliferated, the brand experience can take place almost everywhere and at any time. Brand experience now incorporates every TV, radio, outdoor, cinema and press ad and editorial. It involves websites, WAP/3G, direct mail and shelf-wobblers. It involves telephone hold systems, call centers, IVRs, events and retail space. People have five senses. If a brand can establish a consistent approach to taste, smell, visuals, textures and sound then every part of the brand experience can be distinct, consistent and positive. Sonic Brand Expressions These range from corporate identity, Sonic Logos to three-hour symphonies composed to entertain guests at the summer party. Any expression of a brand starts with an understanding of what makes the brand distinct. The best consultants help brands draw honest conclusions that relate to the truth of the brand not just to the smokescreens of image, spin and PR. Once the essence of a brand is defined then all expressions, sonic or otherwise can be created to convey the brand in a consistent, distinct and positive way. Environment Sound is as integral a part of environment as materials and structure. As such, it has a huge role to play in delivering the brand experience for retailers, entertainment and service industries. Designing sound for environment involves the arts of acoustics and composition. In simple terms, acoustics involves deciding where to put what kind of speakers and how loud they should be. Huge strides have been made with speaker technology over the last 20 years with the development of new technology such as Dolby Surround and THX. The enhanced sound provides the ‘feel’ to go with the ‘look’ and that is the role it fills in retail and service environments. Many retail environments already have high quality speaker systems in place. Starbucks and Pottery Barn, for example, deliver hi- fi as part of their brand experience. Also from the States, FAO Schwartz toy stores have invested in good sound delivery. They use their system to play their own musical identity – a single piece of music that can also be heard in their ads, on the ‘phone and anywhere else they have sound-delivering capabilities. It is common knowledge that a busy sounding environment is more conducive to shopping. Research carried out at Leicester University indicates that the type of music played in a retail environment has a marked influence over a number of variables such as the propensity to return, to spend time and to spend money. For example, it was suggested by the findings of one study in one particular environment that classical music caused customers to spend more than easy listening. There is a trend amongst independent retailers to play a commercial radio station in-

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store. While this is better than no sound at all, it is less than ideal as the choice of music is taken out of the hands of the retailer. British Airways offers a fine example of how the right emotion expressed through music that ‘fits’ the environment can benefit the brand experience. Their use of Delibe’s Flower Duet from Lakme, played while awaiting take-off, creates a relaxing and soothing atmosphere. Indeed, that piece of music is such a good fit with the brand that it has been used as sonic branding in their advertising, on the ‘phones and in airport lounges for over ten years. Multimedia By multimedia I mean any medium that has the ability to use sound. (See Figure Below)

SOURCE: AN INTRODUCTION TO SONIC BRANDING, DANIEL JACKSON, MANAGING DIRCTOR, SONIC BRAND LTD. The scope for sonic branding through multimedia is huge and new technology is being developed all the time to put sound capabilities in more and more things: from greetings cards to handheld devices, supermarket till dividers and even product packaging. Defining the sonic branding for each application or context requires a flexible approach. Each medium is consumed in a different way by a different audience. The challenge is to maintain the ‘fit’ with the environment whilst retaining the emotional values of the brand. For many years, Renault was a great example of how music can be subtly altered to fit context. Having decided to use Robert Palmer’s Jonny & Mary for all its corporate communications,

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Renault created over 150 variations on the theme. Each fitted its context beautifully, had a recognizable melody and maintained its distinctive and positive elements. Music Music is the most sophisticated form of sonic branding. It is also the most powerful for generating memorability and distinctiveness – two of the holy grails of the communications industries. Technology has made it possible to create and record new music incredibly quickly. The total amount of music created each year is growing exponentially as more people find they have the tools – a computer and some software – to create bedroom symphonies. With increased ease come lower cost and the chance for brands to create wholly original music that exactly fits the emotions of the brand and context. Original music ensures a fit with brand essence and also, because of copyright law, allows true distinctiveness in a way that licensing existing music cannot. Back to British Airways. Their corporate music is a classical piece that is out of copyright. This allowed Ford to use the same piece, along with airline imagery, for the launch of the Galaxy people carrier. Most people we talk to believe there must have been a tie-up brand promotion; there was no such thing. It was just a company taking someone else’s logo without permission and using it as an endorsement (except this was legal). Original music means this cannot happen. Voice There are at least twenty-five variables that can be used to describe a voice excluding accent! As with music, we are incredibly sensitive to these variables and able to differentiate between countless numbers of voices. Using the Speech font™ system, it is possible to choose a voice, the quality of which matches the emotional essence of the brand. If the perfect voice is then used consistently, the sonic branding effect from voice can be very powerful. The finest example of this in recent years has been Orange, the mobile communications company. They have used the same authoritative, friendly, voice since launch and now, whatever he says in commercials, it is always stamped with the Orange brand essence. Ambience Any sound that cannot be described as music or voice comes under the banner of ambience or sound effects (sfx). Natural ambient sounds can be very useful in stressful office environments. We have used the sound of a gentle summer breeze to free the minds of Reuter’s staff and enable them to think more creatively. Many restaurants use water features as much for the relaxing sound they make as much as for the visual effect.

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Sound effects can be incorporated into Sonic Logos, too. The re-arranged excerpt of Bach’s Air on the G String, which has been used for many years by Hamlet Cigars in their advertising, incorporates the sound of a match being struck. Sony Playstation uses the same sfx for its advertising sonic logo as it does for its start-up noise. In this case it is a distinct analogue ‘noise’ that perfectly matches the dark, hedonistic nature of the brand. Why Music as a source of Brand Element? Music: it can express that which has no other means of expression. Music listening seems to encourage the release of endorphins which in turn elicit emotional responses. “Our Neuroimaging studies show Amygdala activation to music...repetition, when done skillfully by a master composer, is emotionally satisfying to our brains, and makes the listening experience as pleasurable as it is.” Daniel Levitin “Music doesn‘t represent any tangible, earthly reality. It represents things of the heart, feelings which are beyond description, beyond any experience one has had. The feeling of the holy, the sacred, the wonderful, the mystical...is conveyed very powerfully in music.” Oliver Sacks

HOW TO LEVERAGE ON SONIC BRAND IDENTITY?

Based on a British consumer research programme of 50 leading brands and their experiences in the audio branding-industry, Jackson provided four key-lessons for successful audio branding. These are:

1. Be frequent or consistent over a long period 2. If you want people to remember your brand name when they hear your audio branding, make sure you

say the name 3. Link your audio branding to a benefit of your brand 4. Be creative, be distinct and remember that nobody is listening!

For the first point, a good example of a consistent use of audio branding would be Nestlé’s Kit Kat, which has used a consistent sound image (the chunkiness of the product) since the 1950’s. Examples of audio branding efforts that have been successful due to their frequency are Carphone Warehouse's landline product Talk Talk and McDonald’s “I’m lovin’ it” campaign. Secondly, Intel’s sonic logo is one of the most successful and most quoted examples of audio branding. However, in his studies Jackson found out that although 90% of the respondents were familiar with the sound only 38% could identify the name of the brand. This underlines the second key-lesson in Jackson’s studies. In order to make sure that the recipient connects the sound with the right product it is beneficial to cite the name of the product simultaneously to the visual representation.

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Thirdly, by linking the benefit of the brand to the sound of the brand, consumers are brought closer to the actual brand identity that the company wants to portray. Cadillac enhanced its luxurious image by succeeding to acquire a very limited licensed Led Zeppelin’s song “Rock and Roll” in its advertising campaigns. Starbucks emphasizes the benefit of its brand, a warm and cosy atmosphere, with “easy listening, slightly jazzy, soulful tunes” in its outlets.

Finally, in audio branding, like in all branding activities, being creative is vital for success. The promotion of Audi TT Roadster for women in France was successful because of the creative use of music. To portray the feeling of actually driving the car, the advertising agency compiled a soundtrack of cover-songs (e.g. "Riders on the Storm" with a hip-hop flavor) that was sent to subscribers of French Elle. This compilation gave the listeners an overall experience of the feeling to drive the Roadster. The importance of being distinct is also emphasized in research by North & Law. Their survey showed that “Ads with music that 'fits' the brand are 96% more likely for the ad claim to be recalled than those with non-fit music and 47% more than ads with no music”. This could also be interpreted as a warning sign for companies getting into audio branding. The choice of music must be evaluated extremely carefully because non-fit music causes a deeper decrease in recall than not using music at all.

The final point that Jackson makes in his key-lessons is that nobody is really listening. Because consumers are constantly surrounded by various commercial stimulants, getting the message through is quite difficult. Arnold illustrates this problem by referring to the passivity of the recipient in relation to TV-advertisements: “Statistics show that 50% of people are in a way, occupied while the TV is on. That figure jumps to 85% when a commercial kicks in…”. A solution to this problem offered by Jackson is to use more complex and melodic audio messages. This causes the recipients to shift from passive hearing into active listening.

Brand awareness To support Jackson’s criterion of frequency and consistency for audio brands, it is essential to put emphasis on creating and sustaining brand awareness. At present, the majority of organizations use traditional marketing methods as a way of creating brand awareness. However, it seems that the concept of audio branding can generate the same brand recognition as a visual identity brand identity alone. Studies have shown that sound and memory have strong associations52. Sound can be considered to be an integrated part of our everyday life and culture. Hence, it can play an immense part in delivering the brand experience both for retailers, and in the service and entertainment industries. However, many companies fail to recognize this opportunity and focuses mainly on the visual identity of the brand.

In the increasingly competitive business environment, consumers are faced with too much information, which makes it difficult for companies to differentiate. Hence, instead of focusing merely on the visual identity companies should look elsewhere to enhance their brand identity. In relation to this, the strategic use of sound to create memory and experience can prove a strong brand differentiator.

A number of research surveys have indicated that sound has a strong ability to enhance brand recall. From a company perspective, this knowledge is vital as the use of sound elements to communicate a brand can be used to enhance the brand’s identity. If sound or music is played while creating a memorable interaction with the consumer, the possibility of internalizing this experience into the memory which would easily be recalled in the future is more likely. Hence, brand managers are increasingly using in-store music strategically, as it has the capability to increase sales by 38.2 %. However, companies have numerous interaction points (touch points) with consumers, from the logo to the experience of the product itself. By extending audio branding into the different touch points, such as products, services and promotions, companies have more ways to grow brand value and increase brand awareness.

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Touch Points Having outlined the different means of achieving brand awareness, the catalysts for creating consistency, namely the touch points, will be elaborated. The increasing focus on touch point is a rather new phenomenon, which is likely to have emerged as a sub category to Customer Relationship Management (CRM)56. There are various definitions of the constituents of touch points, however, in this paper the concept will be referred to as the various situations in which the consumer encounters a brand. In order to increase awareness and brand preference, it is crucial that companies exploit their various touch points. The amount of touch points varies from company to company as well as the industry they operate in. Jackson brings forward an outline of the various touch points57. Due to the scope of the paper, all of them will not be dealt with separately in this chapter. As an alternative four main categories constituting the majority have been identified and serve as a generic overview of the touch points that many companies have (figure given below) . These categories encompass 1.) The product/service 2.) Media communication 3.) Retail 4.) After sales/IVR, and 5.) Web. It is hence acknowledged that the following framework is by no means exhaustive; however it should serve its purpose of clarifying the relation between the different touch points and the various factors that influence and shape them.

SOURCE: Breaking the Silence, School of Economics and Management, Lund University

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The Audio Strategy in Practice In addition to creating a strong correlation between the existing brand identity and the audio identity, as described in an earlier chapter, it is essential for companies to have specific guidelines for the type of audio used and how. The audio strategy serves a crucial role in implementing and utilising audio. It is prepared by identifying the core elements of the brand or corporate identity with the use of audio identity triangle as described in the previous chapter. However, due to the fact that audio as a strategy is a rather new phenomenon, companies adopting an audio strategy are currently opting for audio branding consultants. Sonic Branding creates the audio branding strategy through interaction with managers and employees for the purpose of revealing the true core of the brand identity. The strategy often covers various touch points and companies develop an audio manual, in which the core of the strategy is described. For instance, if the core identity of the brand is tradition and royalty, then the audio strategy should encompass these elements and make them transferable to the various touch points. Hence the audio strategy represents both an extended identity of the current brand identity. In addition, the audio strategy also comprises its own core in which the touch points are extensions. As the dotted line in figure 6 illustrates, there is a dynamic correlation between the brand identity and the brand image. This implies that the audio might affect the brand image and subsequently possibly cause alterations of the brand identity if beneficial.

Inevitably, the touch points also have an effect on each other, although not illustrated. As an example, when audio is implemented into the product, the sound that is used in marketing communication should be similar in order for the audience to connect the commercial to the brand. Naturally, the process might skip some of the various touch points, however what remains of importance is that all touch points used share the same core.

1. The Product/Service

As described in a previous chapter, the sound logo is connected to the core of the brand. It is often used for intangible products by brands such as Intel, in which case it seeks to make the brand memorable as the consumer is not likely to remember the actual product. Sound is also implemented in actual physical products. Several car manufacturers have developed and implemented specific “click” audio elements when the car door is closed. The purpose is to illustrate the quality of the car, as studies have shown that consumers expect the “click” sound for a quality car. A different example is the Tic Tac mints, which heavily focuses on the sound of the product. The different commercials present the recognizable feature of Tic Tac’s; the click of opening as well as the shaking of the plastic container59. The essence of these brands is that the sound reflects the core identity. In the case of Tic Tac, the sound is the main characteristic of the product and the sound will be recognized by other users, hence optimizing the visibility of the product in the market. Thus, it is essential for brands to reflect the core identity as elaborated in a previous chapter. In order to be successful and gain recognition and recall, the sound should remain stable over time. 2. Media Communication In addition to staying tuned to the core identity as described above, the brand can epitomize various extended identities through media communication60. This umbrella term covers the various communication channels that the brand uses to communicate with its audiences. Examples of these are

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TV/cinema commercials, radio spots, conferences and various PR events61. Oftentimes these channels serve to increase consumer awareness and additionally to enhance the consumer perception of the connection between brand values and brand offering. 3. Retail This element refers to the various instances when the consumer is in direct contact with the brand by an intention to buy or gain more information. Often this will be in a retail setting, and there is a paradox found herein, as not all brands have the opportunity for exploiting this channel. Not many brands have own stores in which they can fully implement their audio logo and identity. The majority of brands are available in retail settings that contain many different brands. Oftentimes the audio used in these settings will consist of music, which in general reflects the identity of the retail change and not the specific brands. The individual brands can make use of this channel by using TV’s and product demonstrations including sound in the retail setting. The risk by doing so, however, as Jackson points out is that staff and consumers oftentimes spend a considerable amount of time in store and hence find the use of repetitive audio a nuisance62. A means to avoid this factor is to use subtle audio both in relation to volume and length of piece of audio clip. In other words, the constant repetition of the sound logo in this setting fosters irritation rather than desired recognition and perception. Brands opting for this channel should hence aim for utilization of their audio identity (theme) as it conveys the identity without displeasing the various stakeholders. 4. After Sales / IVR In order to exploit the brand audio in a long-term perspective, companies should strive to implement the audio in IVR (Interactive Voice Response) and other channels that the consumer might encounter after purchasing the product or service. According to Sonic Branding, most companies have not realized the importance of creating telephone profiles that reflect the identity of the brand. This becomes an obstacle in that it fails to communicate the values of the company, and consequently some of the credibility is lost or damaged. Often for IVR it is recommended to use a voice of a person external to the company63 as it makes it possible to create a consistent voice identity, which is a feature that consumers or clients appreciate. In addition, it is equally important not to utilize the voice of a person that is used by many companies as it does not appear authentic. This concerns both the IVR and general media communication. 5. Web One of the most important touch points is the Internet. This channel is interrelated to media communication; however in the above illustration it has been separated in order to stress its importance. This touch point represents both the brand web site and advertisements on the net. The majority of brands, at least the higher-involvement, have a web site to communicate its values and other information. Presently, many companies operating online fail to exploit this channel in relation to audio64. In addition to being a crucial point for communication, web sites are limited in their sensory appeal. Sound is in fact the only additional appeal that can be implemented and should hence be exploited to the extent possible. This can be done through regular background music, such as heard on the Finlandia web site as well as playing the audio logo in order to create a stronger connection to commercials in which the audio logo is used.

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A recent trend is for brands to place their sound logos as POD (Play-On-Demand), which brand devotees download and use as ring tones for their mobile phones or MP3 players. A company that has already exploited this new channel is Coca Cola. The sound logo can be downloaded and used for the mobile. Moreover, the company offers its own “coke music”, which users can engage in like a regular radio channel65. Undoubtedly, the majority of companies will not be able to implement such an extensive service, yet most companies will benefit from using their sound logo and sound profile as much as possible through this channel.

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Tools and Techniques to measure the Concept “SONIC BRANDING”

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Introduction-II

It is almost impossible to turn on the radio or the television, or walk into a retail

establishment and not witness the marriage of art and commerce. Even before the days of media

and malls, music was a major force in consumer marketing. Without exception, music plays a

vital role in the interactive process of consumer behavior. The commercial uses of music in

marketing account for billions of dollars nationwide. Not surprisingly, this area of study has

received considerable attention primarily focused on the impact of music on consumer responses

to commercial advertising.

There are many stimuli, or environmental cues, that retailers use to affect consumer behavior

including music, color, scents, etc. Music is considered to be the most commonly studied

stimulus variable (Turley & Milliman, 2000). Most retailers would agree that music is one of

their most important considerations and expenses (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993). Billions of

dollars are spent worldwide on music in the retail environment (North & Hargreaves, 1998). Past

reviews of experimental evidence in this area have included music as part of a larger review of

atmospheric effects (Lam, 2001; Turley & Milliman, 2000), and more narrowly focused on just

its effect on shopping behavior (Allan, in press).

There are also many stimuli, or executional cues, that advertisers use to affect consumer

response to commercials including music, spokespersons, animation, etc. Music is also

considered to be the most used executional cue in commercials (Yalch, 1991). Dunbar (1990,

p. 200) argued that “music makes you watch or listen [to advertising] in a different way” than

commercials without music and adds an emotional dimension to the consumer response to the

brand.

While it should not be surprising that the effect of music on advertising has been

extensively researched, it should be surprising that a current, comprehensive, and critical review

of the literature has not been completed. Bruner (1990) provided an early collection of relevant

research involving music and advertising as part of the literature review for his “Music, Mood

and Marketing” but that is now more than a decade old. North and Hargreaves (1997) updated

the list as part of a larger chapter (“Music and Consumer Behaviour”) on the commercial and

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industrial uses of music (advertising, shops and the music industry) in The Sociology of Music.

This article then, has three purposes. First, it is a review of the most important studies involving

music and advertising beginning with the most relevant definitions (Table 1). Second, it is a

synthesis and comparison of variables and results. Third, based on what has been done and how

it has been executed, it is a foundation and facilitation for future research.

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Table 1

A Summary of Relevant Definitions Definition__________________________ Citation__________________

Fit The music’s relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message. MacInnis & Park (1991)

Indexicality The extent to which the music arouses emotion- laden memories.

MacInnis & Park (1991)

Jingle Unique, novel lyrics written for a particular advertisement. Wallace (1991)

Modality A pitch-related variable that is the configuration of intervals between notes in the scale such as major and minor modes.

Kellaris & Kent (1991)

Mood A fleeting, temporary feeling state, usually not intense and not tied to a specifiable behavior.

Gardner (1985)

Music A complex chemistry of three main controllable elements (time, pitch and texture).

Bruner (1990)

Needle drop Music that is prefabricated, multipurpose, and highly conventional.

Scott (1990)

Placement The position of the music in the advertisement. Brooker & Wheatley (1994)

Popular Music

Music that is “well- liked” by “ordinary people” (Shuker, 1994) that has had wide exposure and appeal but usually for a fixed period of time.

Shuker (1994)

Tempo A time-related variable that controls pace. Kellaris & Kent (1991)

Texture Comprised of timbre and orchestra. Kellaris & Kent (1994)

Tonality The configuration of intervals between pitches on a scale. Kellaris & Kent (1994)

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Literature Review The review of literature is divided into two parts. The first part is a discussion of the most

cited theories and models including the terms and concepts. The second part is an analysis of the

most relevant empirical studies of the effects of music on advertising. A summary table follows

each section.

Theories and Models Advertising and music have been investigated through many variables with a wide range of

outcomes. An analysis of these studies begins with a discussion of the most relevant theories and

models. These theories and models provide the foundation of music in advertising

experimentation and include attitude theory, classical conditioning theory, involvement theory

especially the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), and music theory.

Attitude Theory. Fishbein’s (1963) attitude theory, that a person’s attitude is a function of

his salient beliefs activated from memory at a point in time in a given situation, is the primary

consideration with all research dealing with attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand.

As will be apparent in the results section, many researchers have studied music’s effect on

attitude toward the brand in regard to product preference (Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982;

Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt, 1988; Zhu,

2005) and purchase intention (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). Others have

also considered attitude toward the ad and product preference (Macklin, 1988; Shen et al., 2006)

and purchase intention (Morris & Boone, 1998; North et al., 2004). The music variables with

regard to attitude toward the brand and the ad that have been most studied are indexicality, or

“the extent to which the music arouses emotion- laden memories,” and fit, or “the music’s

relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message,” and its effect on the processing of the

commercial (MacInnis & Park, 1991).

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Classical Conditioning Theory. Pavlov’s classical conditioning, as it relates to

advertising, suggests that positive attitudes towards an advertised product or a conditioned

stimulus, usually the brand, might develop through its association in a commercial with stimuli

that are reacted to positively, such as music, celebrities, or color. But, research has produced

conflicting results. Gorn (1982) concluded that positive attitudes towards an advertised product,

in this case colored pens, might develop through its association in a commercial with other

stimuli like music (he used the theme from “Grease” and classical Indian music). The results of

two experiments supported the notion that the simple association between a product and another

stimulus such as music can affect product preferences as measured by product choice.

Furthermore, an individual who is in a decision-making mode when exposed to a commercial is

more affected by the information therein than an individual who is not in a decision-making

mode. Many researchers have attempted to extend Gorn’s study but have been unable to replicate

his findings (Allen & Madden, 1985; Alpert & Alpert, 1990, Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt &

Abratt, 1988). As it stands, classical conditioning appears to occur unreliably (Kellaris & Cox,

1989) and then only in case of low involvement consumers.

Involvement Theory. Involvement Theory in general, and the Elaboration Likelihood

Model (ELM) in particular, have been suggested as keys to understanding how music affects

responses to advertising. Krugman (1965) defined involvement as “the number of conscious

bridging experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes

between his or her own life and a stimulus” (p. 356). Salmon (1986) added that “involvement, in

any form, seems to mediate both the acquisition and processing of information through activating

a heightened state of arousal and/or greater cognitive activity in an interaction between an

individual and a stimulus” (p. 264). Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) concept of elaboration

likelihood refers to “the likelihood one engages in issue-relevant thinking with the aim of

determining the merits of the arguments rather than the total amount of thinking per se in which

a person engages” (p. 674). ELM assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing

begins. Depending on the personal relevance of this information, the receiver will follow one of

two “routes” to persuasion: “central” and “peripheral.”

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When the consumer gives the message a high degree of attention, there is high involvement and

thus a central (active) processing route. When the consumer gives the message a low degree of

attention, there is low involvement and a peripheral (passive) processing route. Petty and

Cacioppo suggested that high involvement was the result of a message with high personal

relevance. Researchers that have studied involvement with regard to advertising and music have

found that it can positively affect message processing in low involvement conditions (MacInnis

& Park, 1991; Park & Young, 1986).

Music theory. The idea that music has the potential to enhance attention (stimulate awareness)

and memory (recall) has been widely speculated and researched (Adorno 1941, 1976; Bartlett &

Snelus, 1980; Bower & Bolton, 1969; Galizio & Hendrick, 1972; Hecker, 1984; Macklin, 1988;

Rothschild, 1987; Rubin, 1977; Schulkind et al., 1999; Wallace, 1994).

Macklin (1988) found that messages that were sung in a produced, original jingle that

sounded like a nursery rhyme produced the same recall from children as spoken messages.

Bartlett and Snelus (1980) found that cued recall of lyrics of popular songs from 1921 (“When

Francis Dances With Me”) to 1974 (“Morning Has Broken”) was higher in response to melodies

than in response to titles. Schulkind, Hennis, and Rubin (1999) observed a correlation between

music, emotion and autobiographical, long-term memory of older adults and songs from their

youth when testing the Top 20 from 1935 (“On Treasure Island”) to 1994 (“That’s The Way

Love Goes”). Some researchers have also observed the enhancement of recall by music. Rubin

(1977) found that recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known

song (“Star Spangled Banner”). Wallace (1994) found that the melody of a song (using three

ballads from “The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore) could facilitate recall

of text by providing it with musical structure for learning and remembering. Serafine, Crowder,

and Repp (1984), Serafine, Davidson, Crowder, and Repp (1986), and Crowder, Serafine and

Repp (1990) suggested an integration effect where the melody or text of a song (using folksongs

from Erdei) is better recalled with original text than with different text.

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These results suggest that music in ads has the potential to stimulate emotion, attention and

recall but not all studies support this theory. Galizio and Hendrick (1972) did not observe that

memory for verbal information was enhanced by presenting the information in the form of a

song (the musical accompaniment of a guitar). A summary of the most cited theories and models

including terms and concepts can be seen in Table 2.

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Table 2

A Summary of Relevant Theories and Models

Theory____________________________________________________ __ Citation________________

Attitude Theory

Suggests that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change and that a person’s attitude is a function of salient beliefs at a particular moment.

Fishbein (1963)

Classical Conditioning

The process of behavior modification by which a subject (dog) comes to respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus (bell) that has been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (food) that elicits the desired response.

Pavlov (1927)

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing begins. When the consumer gives the message a high degree of attention because it is relevant there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing route. When the consumer gives the message a low degree of attention because it is not relevant, there is low involvement and a peripheral (passive) processing route.

Petty & Cacioppo

(1986)

Hierarchy of Advertising Effects

The processes of attending to a commercial, learning and remembering its content, developing attitudes, and generating conative [tendency to move towards] responses occur in a sequential causal chain.

Thorson et al. (1992)

Involvement The number of conscious bridging experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes between his or her own life and a stimulus.

Krugman (1965)

Music Theory The recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known song. The melody of a song can facilitate recall in certain environments. There is a correlation between music, emotion and memory.

Rubin (1977) Wallace (1994) Schulkind et al. (1999)

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Variables While the amount of consumer behavior theories and models used in the investigation

and explanation of music’s effect on advertising may be relatively few, the variables have been

many and varied. The following is a summary of the most widely observed independent and

dependent variables including a continuum, followed by a comprehensive review of the results of

the interaction of these variables.

Independent Variables. The impact of music on advertising has been observed with a

variety of behaviors when mediated either individually or through the interaction of certain

variables. Music appeal (like or dislike) has been observed in relation to product preferences

(Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The effect of

music arousal or mood (a temporary feeling or state) was studied with purchase intention (Alpert

& Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Music fit has been observed in

relation to message processing (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).

Different types of music placements/treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, etc.) and recall

have been researched (Allan, 2006a; Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). Music

presence has positively affected product preference and purchase attention when interacting with

attitude (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986;

Wheatley & Brooker, 1994) and recall (Macklin, 1988; Olsen, 1995; Wheatley & Brooker,

1994). Finally, music tempo (speed or pace), texture (timbre and orchestration), modality

(intervals between notes), and tonality (intervals between pitches in a scale) have been shown to

have the potential to enhance pleasure and arousal resulting in a greater purchase intention

(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991, 1994; Kellaris & Rice, 1993).

Dependent Variables. When mediated with the above variables, the effect of music in

advertising on a variety of consumer responses has also been observed. Attitude toward the ad

can be positively influenced by the presence of music (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998;

North et. al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006). Perception of ad time can be decreased by arousing music

(Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Attitude toward the brand can be improved by appealing music (Allen

& Madden, 1985; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Kellaris &

Rice, 1993; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt,

1988; Zhu, 2005). Brand recall can be increased by personally relevant and significant music

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(Allan, 2006a; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris et. al., 1993; Macklin, 1988; MacInnis &

Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Olsen, 1995; Roehm, 2001; Shen et al., 2006; Wallace, 1991,

1994; Yalch, 1991; Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). Music attitude can be positively affected by

tempo (Kellaris & Rice, 1993; Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Pleasure/arousal can be affected by not

only the tempo but the tonality and texture of the music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Finally,

purchase intention can be affected by interaction of music and mood (Alpert & Alpert, 1990;

Alpert et al., 2005; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991; Morris & Boone, 1998;

North et al., 2004). A continuum of dependent variables and the corresponding independent

variables that have been observed can be seen in Figure 1.

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Figure 1

DV/IV Continuum

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Attitude Toward →→ → Ad→→→ Attitude Toward →→ Brand→→→ Pleasure/ → →→ Purchase the Ad Time the Brand Recall Arousal Intention

Music fit Music arousal Music appeal Music fit Music tempo Music fit Music presence Music melody Music texture Music melody Music presence Music tonality Music modality Music tempo Music mood Music placement Music presence

Music tempo

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Results Much has been learned about music and advertising since it was first used in commercials

in the early days of radio. Through a survey and analysis of experimental literature and a content

analyses of experimental results and their theoretical underpinnings, a better understanding of the

interaction of independent and dependent variables or more conversationally, how music affects

the processing of the ad, and how much it is being used in advertising, has been achieved. What

follows is a discussion of the results.

Attitude Toward the Ad

Shimp (1981) argued that attitude toward the ad (ATTA) is an important mediator when a

consumer makes a choice. Since then, music’s potential to affect the consumer’s ad attitude has

received some attention with conflicting results. The presence of music was shown to affect how

a viewer feels when looking at print ads (Morris & Boone, 1998). Musical fit resulted in a better

attitude toward the ad (North et al., 2004; Shen & Chen, 2006). Brooker and Wheatley (1994),

however, reported no effect of music placement on attitude toward the ad. Likewise, Macklin

(1988) reported no effect of music presence on attitude toward the ad with children.

Ad Time

It has been argued that, under some circumstances, there is a disparity between objective

time and perceived time of the ad and that the latter is affected by external stimuli like music

(Kellaris & Mantel, 1994; 1996). While not a lot of attention has been given to perceived ad

time, it is still worth mentioning. Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus

congruity on perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration

estimates among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music (Kellaris & Mantel,

1996). The implications of objective time versus perceived time involve the potential benefits to

the advertiser of increasing memory for the ad while reducing its length (60-second versus 30-

second commercial).

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Attitude Toward the Brand

Mitchell and Olson (1981) argued that a consumer’s attitude or “internal evaluation” of a

brand has always been an important consideration in marketing research. It is not surprising then,

that a considerable amount of investigation into music’s effect on attitude toward the brand

(ATTB) has been undertaken with a variety of variables and results. Gorn (1982) observed that

hearing liked or disliked music can affect product preferences but his results were never

replicated (Allen & Madden, 1985; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The presence of

music (Blondie’s “Tide Is High”) had a facilitative effect on brand attitude (shampoo and their

functional performance) in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the

cognitive involvement condition (Park & Young, 1986). Music presence was also shown to have

either no effects (Morris & Boone, 1998) or negative effects (Shen et al., 2006) on attitude

depending on its fit. As to how the process of attitude change toward the brand occurs, it has

been suggested that it might be a belief-based rather than an affect-based change (Middlestadt et

al., 1994). Brooker and Wheatley (1994) reported no effect of placement on attitude toward the

brand. Macklin (1988) reported no effect of the presence of music on attitude toward the brand

with children.

Brand Recall

Recall of the brand is obviously a primary consideration in the evaluation of the

effectiveness of music in advertising. When the music fit, the message processing of the ad was

enhanced (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004). Different music treatments (original and

altered vocals, instrumentals, jingles, silence) did affect recall differently under varied conditions

(Allan, 2006a; Olsen, 1995: Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). The presence or

absence of music was shown to be both attention-getting (Park & Young, 1988) and distracting

(Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). The placement (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994) or the presence of

music (Macklin, 1988) was not observed to affect recall. Musical fit, however, was shown to

stimulate better recall of brands (North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).

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Pleasure and Arousal

It has been argued that music is an especially powerful stimulus for affecting moods

(Bruner, 1990). Thus, it is maybe a bit surprising that music’s potential to affect moods primarily

through pleasure and arousal garnered a significant amount of attention in the 1990’s but not

much since. During that time, it was observed that arousing music was found to produce greater

degrees of mood enhancement thus positively affecting purchase intention (Alpert & Alpert,

1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996; Morris & Boone, 1998). Music tempo (fast)

was shown to have positive effects on behavioral intent (Kellaris & Kent, 1991).

Purchase Intention

Since purchase intention or conation was first defined as “behavior directed toward

action” (Shanteau & Ptacek, 1983, p. 149), it has been one of the most difficult advertising

effects to research but arguably the most important. With regard to purchase intention and music,

the results varied with some observing significant effects (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al.,

2005; Kellaris & Kent, 1991) and some observing no significant effects (Brooker & Wheatley,

1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). The placement of music was shown to invite attention to the

message and motivating consumers to process the message and facilitate the potential to

purchase (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994). The combination of music with silence also has been

shown to be attention-getting resulting in the enhancement of purchase intention (Olsen, 1995).

The effect of music tempo was shown to have had contradictory results with some reporting a

passive effect on purchase intention (Kellaris & Kent, 1991), and some reporting no effect

(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998).

Content Analyses

Only a few studies have dealt with the amount of commercials on television and radio with

music. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) found music featured in slightly more than 40% of 1000

television commercials they studied, but that only 12% of those used lyrics to directly convey the

advertising message. Similar frequencies were obtained in a follow-up study (Stewart & Koslow,

1989, p. 29). Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) analyzed international commercials and found

music in 89% of their sample (p. 237). Allan (2006b) analyzed commercials in prime-time

television and reported that 86% of the unique ads contained some type of music.

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A summary of the most relevant qualitative and quantitative studies on the effects of music on

advertising can be seen in Table 3.

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Table 3 Summary of Relevant Effectual Research Involving Advertising and Music___________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

Gorn 1982 244 undergraduates

Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product can directly affect product preferences.

Allen & Madden (1985)

60 undergraduates Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product did not directly affect product preferences.

Park & Young (1986)

120 women Music presence/absence, Involvement (high/low) (TV ads)

Brand attitude/information Music had a facilitative effect on brand attitude for subjects in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the cognitive involvement condition.

Sewall & Sarel (1986)

200 mall shoppers/ 832 radio ads

Music background

Brand recall Background music had no significant effect

Pitt & Abratt (1988)

172 undergraduate students

Music appeal Brand attitude Hearing liked or disliked music while being exposed to a product did not directly affect product preferences.

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Table 3 (continued)________________________________________________________ Citatio Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results___________________________

Macklin (1988) 75 preschoolers Music background Presence

Ad attitude Brand attitude Brand recall

Music did not enhance outcomes.

Stout & Leckenby (1988)

1498 mall shoppers/ 50 TV ads

Music tempo; mode; volume; presence

Cognitive/ Affective responses

Music had only minor effects.

Kellaris & Cox (1989)

302 undergraduates Music appeal Brand attitude No evidence that product preferences can be conditioned through a single exposure to appealing or unappealing music. (Classical Conditioning)

Alpert & Alpert (1990)

48 undergraduate students

Music Mood Purchase intention

Music had a significant effect on moods and purchase intention.

Kellaris & Kent (1991)

180 undergraduates Music tempo/ modality

Music evaluation Purchase intention

Tempo and Modality influenced arousal and intent.

MacInnis & Park (1991)

178 undergraduate women

Music fit/ indexicality (TV ads)

Message processing Indexicality and fit affect the processing of both high- and low-involvement consumers, influencing message- and non-message-based processing.

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Table 3 (continued)____________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_______________________

Wallace (1991) 120 subjects Music placement- Sung/ spoken words (jingles/ ballads)

Brand recall Music provides a retrieval cue. Music acts as a frame which the text is tightly fit.

Yalch (1991) 103 undergraduates Music placement- slogans with and without music (jingles)

Brand recall Music enhances memory for advertising slogans when the slogans were incorporated into an advertisement in the form of a jingle or song.

Kellaris & Rice (1993)

52 undergraduates Music tempo, Loudness, Gender

Music responses Gender moderates the influence of loudness resulting in females responding more positively to music at lower volumes

Kellaris et. al. (1993)

231 undergraduates Music-message fit, Attention-gaining value

Brand recall/ Recognition of brand name and messages

Increasing audience attention to music enhances message reception when the music evokes message-congruent thoughts.

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Table 3

_________________________________________ (continued)__________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results_____________________

Brooker & Wheatley (1994)

100 participants Music tempo/ placement (radio ads)

Ad attitudes Brand attitudes Purchase intention Brand recall

Tempo had effects on perception of music but no effect on DV’s. Placement had a stronger effect on DV’s.

Kellaris & Kent (1994)

288 undergraduates

Music tempo/ Tonality/ Texture

Pleasure/Arousal Tempo affected pleasure and arousal. Tonality affected pleasure and surprise. Texture moderated tempo and tonality on pleasure.

Middlestadt et al. (1994)

97 undergraduates Music presence Brand attitude Belief-based change

Wallace (1994)

64 undergraduates

Music melody

Brand recall

Text is better recalled when it is heard as a song rather than as speech, provided the music repeats so that it is easily learned.

Wheatley & Brooker (1994)

144 undergraduate students and their parents

Music presence/absence Spokespersons (radio ads)

Brand recall Cognitive response

Music hindered message recall and did not enhance attention.

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Table 3 (continued)_________________________________________________

Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

Olsen (1995) 144 undergraduate students

Music presence/absence (music/silence)

Brand recall/ attribute importance

Silence effectively increases listener retention of ad information especially when the highlighted information was the last item of a series.

Kellaris & Mantel (1996)

85 undergraduate students

Music arousal/ congruity (radio ads)

Ad time Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus congruity on perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration estimates among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music.

Morris & Boone (1998)

90 undergraduates Music presence/absence (print ads)

Emotional response Brand attitude Purchase Intention

Music affected emotional response of print ads. No effect on brand attitude or purchase intention.

Roehm (2001) 48 MBA students/44 community people

Music placement versus vocals (radio ads)

Brand recall Instrumentals produced greater recall of the message if the individuals knew the song. Vocals produced greater recall of the lyrics if the individuals did not know the song.

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Table 3 (continued)____________________________________________________ Citation Sample Independent Variables Dependent Variables Results______________________

North et. al. (2004)

162 participants Music/voice fit Attitude toward the ad Brand recall Purchase Intention

Musical fit resulted in better recall of products, brands, and claims, attitude toward the ad, and purchase intention. Voice fit resulted in better recall of claims, attitude toward the ad, and purchase intention.

Alpert et. al. (2005)

75 undergraduate students

Music mood

Purchase intention When music is used to evoke emotions congruent with the symbolic meaning of product purchase, the likelihood of purchasing is enhanced.

Zhu, Rui & Meyers-Levy, Joan (2005)

77/109 undergraduates

Music meanings (embodied/referential)

Brand attitude Intensive processors are sensitive to music meanings.

Shen & Chen (2006)

130 students Music fit Ad attitude When the music does not fit (music incongruity) it can have an adverse effect on attitudes toward the ad.

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Future Research It’s been over twenty years since Hecker (1984, p. 7) called music “the catalyst of advertising.”

He suggested that “researchers can better understand and use this magic if they understand that music is

too important to be wasted on amorphous, irrelevant, or inappropriate goals.” While much has been done,

there is still great “potential for real research into music’s effectiveness” (Dunbar, 1990). Bruner (1990, p.

102) reinforced in his review of literature that the relevant body of research was indeed still “meager” and

North and Hargreaves (1997, p. 282) concluded that the “field is [still] under-investigated.” A number of

the studies reviewed have suggested additional research that either has not been undertaken or needs

additional investigation. These include more collaboration between the private and academic sectors, a

longitudinal study on the amount of music in advertising, more attention to the effect of music on brand

image, the use of different experimental environments, and finally a richer investigation of the effect of

music fit and indexicality on advertising.

Advertisers and Academics Alpert and Alpert (1991, p. 236) called for more “cooperative efforts between academic

researchers and industry practitioners applying musical theories to advertising executioners.” Too often

the efforts remain separate with the industry findings unavailable. Joint efforts would benefit both parties

to better understand “when and why music works in advertising” (p. 236). Many advertisers use popular

music in their advertising especially The Gap and Old Navy. The Gap primarily uses original lyrics with

Old Navy utilizing altered lyrics. Since they are both owned by the same parent company, it would be

beneficial to not only conduct an academically-based effectual study as well as to correlate the findings

with sales results during the campaign. At the very least, private research should be made available to the

academic community to verify the results and provide a practical basis for the use of music in advertising.

Advertising and Popular Music It is clear that there is a need to more consistently quantify and trend the use of music, especially

popular music, in advertising. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) lamented the absence of its systematic

measurement and set out to provide such documentation. In a later report, Stewart, Farmer, and Stannard

(1990) recommended that additional research was needed in this area. Nonetheless, only Appelbaum and

Halliburton (1993) and Allan (2006b) heeded this recommendation by analyzing international

commercials. A longitudinal investigation of the amount of music in advertising, especially popular

music, should be conducted to track its proliferation and progression.

Since the use of popular music in advertising continues to prosper, more needs to also be known about

the effects. In fact, Kellaris and Kent (1991, p. 248) suggested further study into the effects of musical

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components on the processing of verbal material (e.g., song lyrics, advertising messages). More needs to

be done with popular music and altered lyrics (e.g. eBay, Old Navy). This could include more diverse

demographics and “the role of listener characteristics in shaping responses to music (Kellaris & Kent,

1994, p. 397). Additionally, while comparisons have been made between some placements/treatments

(vocals/instrumentals, etc.), a larger study needs to be done comparing all possible treatments (vocals,

instrumentals, jingles, altered vocals, and a control treatment of silence). Also apparent is the need for

further research into the role of background music (Alpert & Alpert, 1990, p. 130). It is also clear that we

need further “investigations of advertisements with songs that represent varied styles of popular music”

(Roehm, 2001, p. 57).

Finally, McChesney (2001) called popular music and advertising the “bankruptcy of culture” and

Burns (1996) called it “disturbing and even shocking.” Advertisers who use it consider it a “marriage of

art and commerce” and Allan (2005) suggested that the combination of popular music and advertising

creates “a new cultural product.” Clearly, more attention needs to be given to the social and ethical

implications of the use of popular music and advertising. This can be done as part of a longitudinal study.

Brand Image Stout and Lechenby (1988, p. 223) called for more research into “the contribution made by music

to brand image.” It is clear that many advertisers are using music to create an image (e.g., iPod). What is

not so clear is music’s effectiveness or the implications for the music and/or artists (e.g., U2). A related

area of consideration is the use of music in the imaging of a brand as a distribution channel (e.g.,

Starbucks). Each of these areas of research is certainly underdeveloped and warrants further investigation.

Additionally, some popular music and artists are actually being exposed and “branded” through

advertising (e.g., Modest Mouse) and placement in television shows (e.g., Grey’s Anatomy). The effects

of advertising and media on popular music could also be investigated.

Environments Scott (1990, p. 234) argued that “we must not let our methods drive our theories but must instead

design our methods in a way that can encompass whatever theory seems articulate enough to fully

describe the phenomenon.” Studies need to be conducted under more realistic viewing and listening

conditions. Bruner (1990) agreed and called for the raising of “level of experimental sophistication” (p.

100). Far too many studies continue to be done in isolated lab environments. One possible idea would be

to observe and survey customers in The Gap or Old Navy when their respective advertisements are played

in the store. Additionally, due to their growing distribution of music, Starbucks provides a potentially

effective field experiment location.

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Fit and Indexicality More studies need to further investigate fit (a person’s perception of the music’s relevance) and

indexicality (a person’s emotion-laden memories). This research can be expanded to look at various

genres and eras of music with special attention given to the personal relevance of the music/effect of

processing (ELM). Additionally, more focus needs to be given to “the study of executional cues and their

processing implications for high- and low-involvement consumers’ ad processing” (MacInnis & Park,

1991, p. 172). It may be that music can influence a person’s involvement with advertising due to some

conceptualization of involvement (Zaichkowsky, 1986) such as personal, object, or situational

characteristics. A great deal of contemporary advertising utilizes classic rock music evidently targeted

towards 25-54 males, yet some teenagers are also listening to this genre of music from the 1970s. It may

certainly be involving to both demographics with much different indexicality, not to mention fit. Further

investigation must be conducted to determine the consequences.

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Conclusion

The research suggests that music is more likely to positively than negatively affect the consumer’s

response to your advertising. That’s the easy part but not very helpful to an agency trying to advise an

advertiser on whether or not to use music and what music to use. The use of music in general, and the

type of music in particular, must be carefully chosen with the target audience and the desired outcome

driving the selection. It is clear from this review that music has been shown to both positively and

negatively stimulate a variety of responses including attention, mood, attitude, and purchase intention.

The stimulation of these responses is different based on various characteristics of the music itself

including its appeal, presence, tempo, background or foreground, etc. In the case of its appeal, different

genres of music from different eras affect different demographics of consumers differently. So it’s

complicated. What we do know from this overview of research on music and advertising is that, when

used effectively, it can be effective. That “sounds” rather trite but it’s true. An advertiser should not just

use any music in a commercial just for the sake of using music. It should be carefully chosen and tested to

predict its potential to stimulate a positive response for the brand and/or the ad with the ultimate goal of

branding and purchase. There is a substantial amount of research out there to guide the advertiser and this

review provides the foundation for that process. There is also much research that needs to be done and

this review also provides direction and motivation.

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