Research Methods in Psychology Parts of a Research Paper

Research Research Methods in Methods in PsychologyPsychology

Parts of a Research PaperParts of a Research Paper

APA FormatAPA Format

The primary source for style requirements The primary source for style requirements and format when writing reports of and format when writing reports of psychological research is the sixth edition of psychological research is the sixth edition of the the Publication ManualPublication Manual (2010) of the (2010) of the American Psychological Association (APA).American Psychological Association (APA).

Psychology students should Psychology students should notnot submit class submit class research projects for publication unless research projects for publication unless supervised by an instructor or research supervised by an instructor or research mentor.mentor.

An online resource for APA format and An online resource for APA format and guidelines is available at: guidelines is available at: http://www.apastyle.org

Guidelines for Effective Guidelines for Effective WritingWriting

Know Your Audience.Know Your Audience. If you assume your readers know more If you assume your readers know more

than they actually do, they’ll be confused.than they actually do, they’ll be confused. If you underestimate your readers, they’ll If you underestimate your readers, they’ll

be bored with unnecessary details.be bored with unnecessary details. Err on the side of underestimating your Err on the side of underestimating your

readers.readers. Identify Your Purpose.Identify Your Purpose.

Research manuscripts use expository Research manuscripts use expository writing. writing.

The principal purposes of a research The principal purposes of a research manuscript are to describe and to manuscript are to describe and to convince.convince.

Guidelines Guidelines (continued)(continued)

Write clearly.Write clearly. Use economy of expression (i.e., Use economy of expression (i.e.,

be concise).be concise). Be precise.Be precise. Follow grammatical rules.Follow grammatical rules.


Be concise.Be concise. Say only what needs to be said.Say only what needs to be said. Short words and short sentences are easier to Short words and short sentences are easier to

understand.understand. Write several drafts of your manuscript; Write several drafts of your manuscript;

decrease wordiness as you edit your drafts.decrease wordiness as you edit your drafts. Be precise.Be precise.

Choose the right word for what you want to say.Choose the right word for what you want to say. Follow grammatical rules.Follow grammatical rules.

Failure to adhere to grammatical rules distracts Failure to adhere to grammatical rules distracts the reader and introduces unnecessary the reader and introduces unnecessary ambiguity.ambiguity.

Grammatical errors decrease the credibility of Grammatical errors decrease the credibility of your persuasive argument.your persuasive argument.


Write fairly.Write fairly. Choose words and sentence constructions Choose words and sentence constructions

that avoid bias on the basis of gender, that avoid bias on the basis of gender, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, sexual orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or age.disability, or age.

Describe persons at the appropriate level of Describe persons at the appropriate level of specificity (e.g., describe specificity (e.g., describe men and women men and women participants rather than the generic term participants rather than the generic term manman when referring to human beings). when referring to human beings).

Be sensitive to labels used to describe Be sensitive to labels used to describe racial and ethnic groups.racial and ethnic groups.

Avoid the term “subjects” when describing Avoid the term “subjects” when describing human participants.human participants.


Write an interesting report.Write an interesting report. Present ideas and findings directly, but Present ideas and findings directly, but

in an interesting and compelling in an interesting and compelling manner that reflects your involvement manner that reflects your involvement with the research problem.with the research problem.

Strive to tell a good story about your Strive to tell a good story about your research.research.

Structure of a Research Structure of a Research ReportReport

A research report consists of the A research report consists of the following sections (the main body of following sections (the main body of the report is in the report is in boldbold):):

Title PageTitle Page ■■ References References AbstractAbstract ■■ Appendixes Appendixes IntroductionIntroduction ■■ Author Note Author Note MethodMethod ■■ Footnotes Footnotes ResultsResults ■■ Tables (if any) Tables (if any) DiscussionDiscussion ■■ Figures (if any) Figures (if any)

Structure of a Research Report Structure of a Research Report (continued)(continued)

Title pageTitle page The title page contains the title of the The title page contains the title of the

research, the authors’ names, where the research, the authors’ names, where the research was done (i.e., the authors’ research was done (i.e., the authors’ affiliation), a brief heading to describe the affiliation), a brief heading to describe the subject of the research (the “running head”), subject of the research (the “running head”), and a short title (the first 3 words of the and a short title (the first 3 words of the title) with the page number.title) with the page number.

The title should be a concise statement of The title should be a concise statement of the main topic of the research and should the main topic of the research and should identify the variables or theoretical issues in identify the variables or theoretical issues in the research.the research.


AbstractAbstract The abstract is a one-paragraph The abstract is a one-paragraph

summary of the content and purpose of summary of the content and purpose of the research report.the research report.

The abstract should be 100-200 words.The abstract should be 100-200 words. Four main elements should be Four main elements should be

included:included: The problem under investigation,The problem under investigation, Highlights of the experimental method,Highlights of the experimental method, The main findings, andThe main findings, and The conclusions and implications of the The conclusions and implications of the

findings.findings. Write the Abstract last!Write the Abstract last!


IntroductionIntroduction The three primary objectives of the The three primary objectives of the

introduction are:introduction are: to introduce the problem being studied and to to introduce the problem being studied and to

indicate why the problem is important;indicate why the problem is important; to describe the theoretical implications of the to describe the theoretical implications of the

study and to summarize briefly the relevant study and to summarize briefly the relevant background literature related to the study background literature related to the study (including appropriate citations);(including appropriate citations);

to describe the purpose, rationale, and design to describe the purpose, rationale, and design of the present study with a logical of the present study with a logical development of the predictions or hypotheses development of the predictions or hypotheses guiding the study.guiding the study.


Introduction, Introduction, continuedcontinued You should be able to answer the following You should be able to answer the following

questions questions before beginningbefore beginning to write the to write the introduction:introduction:

Why is this problem important?Why is this problem important? How do the hypothesis and the experimental How do the hypothesis and the experimental

design relate to the problem?design relate to the problem? What are the theoretical implications of the What are the theoretical implications of the

study, and how does the study relate to study, and how does the study relate to previous work in the area?previous work in the area?

What are the theoretical propositions tested, What are the theoretical propositions tested, and how were they derived?and how were they derived?

((Publication Manual,Publication Manual, p. 16) p. 16)

Structure of a Research Report Structure of a Research Report ((continued)continued)

MethodMethod The purpose of the Method section is to The purpose of the Method section is to

describe, in detail, how the study was describe, in detail, how the study was conducted. Based on the Method conducted. Based on the Method section, a reader should be able to section, a reader should be able to replicate the study.replicate the study.

The three most common subsections of The three most common subsections of the Method section are: the Method section are: Participants,Participants, Materials (or Apparatus),Materials (or Apparatus), Procedure.Procedure.


Method, Method, continuedcontinued Procedure:Procedure: This is the most critical This is the most critical

component of the Method section.component of the Method section. Describe what happened from the Describe what happened from the

beginning to the end of the sessions in beginning to the end of the sessions in which you tested your participants.which you tested your participants.

Include enough detail so that a Include enough detail so that a researcher could replicate the essential researcher could replicate the essential aspects of your study.aspects of your study.

Structure of a Research Report Structure of a Research Report ((continued)continued)

Method, Method, continuedcontinued Participants: Participants: When humans are the participants, When humans are the participants,

report:report: the procedures for recruiting and compensating the procedures for recruiting and compensating

them, them, major demographic characteristics (e.g., major demographic characteristics (e.g.,

gender, age, race/ethnicity), gender, age, race/ethnicity), total number of participants, total number of participants, the number assigned to each condition of the the number assigned to each condition of the

experiment, and experiment, and describe any attrition.describe any attrition.

Materials:Materials: Describe any materials that are critical Describe any materials that are critical to the design and implementation of the study to the design and implementation of the study variables; be sure to cite other researchers variables; be sure to cite other researchers appropriately.appropriately.


ResultsResults The results section contains the climax The results section contains the climax

of the report — the actual findings of of the report — the actual findings of the study.the study.

Answer the questions raised in the Answer the questions raised in the introduction, but “stick to the facts” — introduction, but “stick to the facts” — leave any interpretation of the findings leave any interpretation of the findings for the Discussion section.for the Discussion section.


Results, Results, continuedcontinued The structure of a typical paragraph The structure of a typical paragraph

in the Results section is as follows:in the Results section is as follows:

1.1. State the purpose of the analysis.State the purpose of the analysis.

2.2. Identify the descriptive statistic to be Identify the descriptive statistic to be used to summarize the results.used to summarize the results.

3.3. Present a summary of this descriptive Present a summary of this descriptive statistic across conditions in the text statistic across conditions in the text itself, in a table, or in a figure.itself, in a table, or in a figure.


The structure of a typical paragraph The structure of a typical paragraph in the Results section is as follows in the Results section is as follows (continued):(continued):

4.4. If a table or figure is used, point out the If a table or figure is used, point out the major findings on which the reader should major findings on which the reader should focus.focus.

5.5. Present the reasons for, and the results of Present the reasons for, and the results of confidence intervals, effect sizes, and confidence intervals, effect sizes, and inferential statistics.inferential statistics.

6.6. State the conclusion that follows from State the conclusion that follows from each test, but do not discuss implications. each test, but do not discuss implications. These belong in the Discussion section.These belong in the Discussion section.


DiscussionDiscussion The Discussion section includes:The Discussion section includes:

A clear and concise statement of the A clear and concise statement of the essential findings.essential findings.

A clear presentation of how the findings A clear presentation of how the findings support or refute the hypotheses.support or refute the hypotheses.

A description of how the results are A description of how the results are similar to or different from previous similar to or different from previous research.research.

Limitations or problems in the research.Limitations or problems in the research. Specific ideas for additional research Specific ideas for additional research

based on the findings.based on the findings.


ReferencesReferences The References section includes the The References section includes the

complete citation for each source cited complete citation for each source cited in the research manuscript.in the research manuscript.

References are listed in alphabetical References are listed in alphabetical order according to the last name of the order according to the last name of the first author of each source.first author of each source.


Examples of Reference CitationsExamples of Reference Citations References to References to journal articlesjournal articles include the include the

authors’ last names and initials, the year of authors’ last names and initials, the year of publication, the title of the article, the name publication, the title of the article, the name of the journal, the volume number, and the of the journal, the volume number, and the page numbers. Note punctuation, font, and page numbers. Note punctuation, font, and capitalization.capitalization.

Hollon, S. D., Thase, M. E., & Markowitz, J. C. Hollon, S. D., Thase, M. E., & Markowitz, J. C. (2002). Treatment and prevention of (2002). Treatment and prevention of depression. depression. Psychological Science in the Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 3,Public Interest, 3, 39-77. 39-77.


Examples of Reference Citations, Examples of Reference Citations, continuedcontinued References to References to booksbooks include the authors’ last include the authors’ last

names and initials, the copyright date, the names and initials, the copyright date, the title, the city in which the book was title, the city in which the book was published, and the publisher.published, and the publisher.

Posavac, E. J., & Carey, R. G. (2003). Posavac, E. J., & Carey, R. G. (2003). Program Program evaluationevaluation (6(6thth ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Prentice Hall.


Examples of Reference Citations, continuedExamples of Reference Citations, continued The reference for a The reference for a chapterchapter in an edited volume in an edited volume

includes the authors’ last names and initials, the includes the authors’ last names and initials, the year of publication, the chapter title, the editors year of publication, the chapter title, the editors of the book, the title of the book, page numbers of the book, the title of the book, page numbers of the chapter, the city of publication, and the of the chapter, the city of publication, and the publisher:publisher:

Buchanan, T. (2000). Potential of the Internet for Buchanan, T. (2000). Potential of the Internet for personality research. In M. H. Birnbaum (Ed.), personality research. In M. H. Birnbaum (Ed.), Psychological experiments on the InternetPsychological experiments on the Internet (pp. (pp. 121-139). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.121-139). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.


Examples of Reference Citations, Examples of Reference Citations, continuedcontinued The citation for an The citation for an electronic journal electronic journal

identifies the specific Internet address:identifies the specific Internet address:

Kirsch, I., & Sapirstein, G. (1998). Listening Kirsch, I., & Sapirstein, G. (1998). Listening to Prozac but hearing placebo: A meta-to Prozac but hearing placebo: A meta-analysis of antidepressant medication. analysis of antidepressant medication. Prevention and TreatmentPrevention and Treatment [On-line serial], [On-line serial], 1.1. Available: Available: journals.apa.org/prevention/volume1/pre001journals.apa.org/prevention/volume1/pre0010002a.html.0002a.html.


AppendixesAppendixes Although appendixes are rare in Although appendixes are rare in

published research reports, they may be published research reports, they may be required by instructors for class required by instructors for class research projects.research projects.

An appendix is sometimes used to An appendix is sometimes used to provide a verbatim copy of instructions provide a verbatim copy of instructions to participants or a copy of particular to participants or a copy of particular materials used in a research study.materials used in a research study.


Author NoteAuthor Note The author note includes:The author note includes:

Any sources of financial support for the Any sources of financial support for the research,research,

Acknowledgment of people who Acknowledgment of people who contributed to the research project,contributed to the research project,

Contact information should an Contact information should an interested reader desire more interested reader desire more information,information,

The name and departmental affiliation of The name and departmental affiliation of each author.each author.


FootnotesFootnotes Footnotes are rare in research Footnotes are rare in research

manuscripts.manuscripts. There are two types of footnotes:There are two types of footnotes:

Copyright permission footnotes that Copyright permission footnotes that acknowledge a source of a quotation (when acknowledge a source of a quotation (when copyright permission must be acknowledged).copyright permission must be acknowledged).

Content footnotes that supplement or expand Content footnotes that supplement or expand on the text materialon the text material

Note that footnotes appear on a separate Note that footnotes appear on a separate page near the end of the manuscript, page near the end of the manuscript, notnot at the bottom of a text page.at the bottom of a text page.


Tables and FiguresTables and Figures Any tables or figures cited in the text Any tables or figures cited in the text

are attached at the end of the research are attached at the end of the research manuscript.manuscript.

Place only one table or figure on a page.Place only one table or figure on a page. If figures are included, a separate If figures are included, a separate

“Figure Captions” page precedes the “Figure Captions” page precedes the figures; the titles of the figures are figures; the titles of the figures are presented on the page.presented on the page.

Research Proposals Research Proposals (continued)(continued)

The written research proposal follows the The written research proposal follows the general format of the research manuscript:general format of the research manuscript: IntroductionIntroduction MethodMethod Expected Results and Proposed Data Expected Results and Proposed Data

Analysis PlanAnalysis Plan ConclusionsConclusions ReferencesReferences AppendixAppendix Information for Institutional Review Information for Institutional Review

Board (IRB)Board (IRB)

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Research Methods in Psychology Parts of a Research Paper