Research Methodology.doc

7/27/2019 Research Methodology.doc

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OM Institute of technology and Management

Hisar , Harayana

Department of Electrical Engineering

Research methodology

Meaning of Research:

The term research refer to the systematic method, consisting of

enunciating the problem, formulating the hypothesis, collecting the facts

or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in

the form of solution(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain

generalizations for some the theoretical formulation .

Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating

hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating

data, making deductions and reaching conclusions, and at last carefully

testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating

hypothesis.

Objectives of Research.


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The purpose of research is to find out the solutions of problems through

the application of scientific methods and procedures, however the

following are same of the objectives of research.

1. To attain new insights in to a phenomenon. Any research study

carried on with this objective is known as exploratory or

formulating research study.

2. To find out accurately the characteristics of a particular individual

or a group or a situation. The studies with this object in view are

called descriptive research studies.

3. To find out the frequency with which some thing occurs or with

which it is associated with some thing else. (Studies with object in

view are known as diagnostic research studies).

4. To test the hypothesis or a casual relationship between variables

(such studies are known as hypothesis testing research studies)

Motivating in research.

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential

benefits.

2. Desire to face challenge in solving the unsolved problem.

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.

4. Desire to be of service to society.5. Desire to get respectability.

Types of Research.

1. Descriptive and Analytical Research.


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Descriptive research is based on surveys and fact finding enquires

of different kinds. It studies the description of the state of affairs as

it exist today. Here the researcher has no control over the

variables.

In analytical research, the research has to use facts or information

already available. The information or facts are analyzed by the

researcher to make a critical appraisal of the material.

2. Applied and fundamental Research.

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate

problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.

Fundamental research is mainly concerned with the generalization

and the formulation of theory.

3. Quantitative vs Qualitative .

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or

amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in

terms of quantity. Qualitative research in concerned with

qualitative phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For

instance we are interested in inventing the reasons for human

behaviors i.e. why people think, or do certain things.

4. Conceptual or empirical.Conceptual research is that related to some abstract ideas or theory.

It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new

concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical research relies


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on experience or observations alone, often without due regard for

system and theory.

5. Historical Research

One time research.

Research approaches.

There are two basic approaches viz. quantitative approach and the

qualitative approach. Quantities approach involves generalization

of data in quantitative term which can be subjected to rigorous

quantitative analysis. Quantative research is of two types.(i)

Inferential (ii)Experimental and simulation approach

In inferential approach the purpose is to form a data base from

which to infer characterastics or relationships of populations. This

usually means survey research where a sample of population is

studied to determine its characteristics and it is then inferred that

population has the same characteristics.

Experimental

Approach is characterized by much greater control over the

research environment and in this case some variables are

manipulated to observe their effect on others variables.

Simulation approachInvolves the construction of an critical environment with in which

relevant information and data can be generated.

Qualitative


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Approach is concerned with the qualitative phenomena i.e. relating

to or involving quality or kind. For example when we are

interested in investing the reasons for human behavior (i.e. why

people think or do certain things). Such an approach to research

generates results either in the non-quantitative form or in the form

which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.

Research Methods

May be understood as all those methods / techniques that are used

for the conduction of research.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the

research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying

how research is done scientifically.

Research Process: Consists of series of action or steps necessary

to effectively carry out the research and the desired sequencing of

these steps.

1. Formulating the research problem.

2. Extensive literature survey.

3. Development of Hypothesis

4. Preparing the research design

5. Determine the sample size.6. Collection of data.

7. Execution of the project.

8. Analyzes of the data.


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9. Hypothesis testing

10. Generalization and interpretation.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis.

Research Problems. The research problem is one which require a

researcher to find out the best solution for the given problem i.e. to

find out by which course of action the objective can be attained

optimally in the context of a given environment. There are several

factors which may ressult in making the problem complicated. For

instance environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the

courses of action or the values of the out comes, persons not involved

in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it favorably

or unfavourably. All such elements may be thought of in context of

research problem.

Selecting the Problem.

A research guide can be helpful to choose a subject. However the

following points may be observed while selecting a problem.

1. Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, as

it will he difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.

2. Controversial subject should not become the choice of

average researcher.3. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.


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4. The subject selected for research should be familier and

feasible so that the related research material or sources of

research are with in ones reach.

Research should contact a Professor or his guide who is

already engaged in research.

5. The importance of the subject, the qualification and the

training of a researcher ,the cost involved, time factor are few

other criterions which must he considered while selecting a

problem.

6. The selection of problem must be preceded by a preliminary

study,specialty when the field of enquiry is new.

2. Extensive Literature Survey.

Once the problem is formulated. The researcher should undertake

extensive literature survey connected with the problem. A good

library will be of great help to the researcher at this stage. Writing of

synopsis is compulsory for PhD students.

3. Development of working hypothesis

After extensive literature survey ,a researcher should state in clear

terms the working hypothesis or hypothesis. Working hypothesis isan assumption on the basis of which inferences are drawn and

tested logically. The tests and analysis of data dependent upon on


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such hypothesis. It should be very specific and limited to the piece

of research in which the research in engaged.

3. Preparing the research Design.

Once the research problem has been formulated in clear cut

terms, the research has to prepare a research design. The well

prepared research design will provide maximum information to the

researcher. It will provide a basis for collection of data with

minimum cost. Under controlled conditions we can use the

following designs.

(i) CRD (ii) RBD (iii) LSD (iv)Factorial designs (v) IBD (Vi)

BIBD, (Vii) PBIBD

5. Determine the sample size

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample . Let us

define the following.

Population:

Population is a group of items or subject which is under reference

of study.

Finite population.

Infinite population.

Steps in sample design

(1) Type of Universe

The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define

set of objects, technically called the universe to be studied. It may

be finite or infinite. For example population of the city, number of


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workers in the factory are the examples of finite population

,number of stars in the sky, listener of a specific radio

programmed, throwing a dice are the example of infinite universal.

(2) Sampling Unit

A decision has to be taken regarding a sampling unit before

selecting a sample. Sampling unit can be district, village, house or flat or

individual.

(3) Source list

It is known as sampling frame from which sample is to be drawn

contain the list of all items of the universe . Such list should be

comprehensive and appropriate.

(4) Size of the sample.

Number of item to be selected from the population. The size

should not be too large or too small. It should the optimum.

(5) Parameter of interest.

In determing the sample design one must consider the specific

population parameter which are of interest. For instance, we maybe interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some

characteristics in the population.

Budgetary constraints


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Cost considerations from practical point of view have a major impact

upon decisions related to the size of sample.

Sampling Procedure.

He must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for

the sample. There are many techniques of drawing a sample. Once must

select that design which for a given sample size and for a given cost has

a smaller sampling error.

Sampling error:

Inspite of the fact that one may used the best sampling method. The

estimate obtained of various characters of the population differ from the

population values obtained by census studies. Such discrepancies are

termed as sampling error. The sampling error can not be completely

eliminated but can he minimized. Choosing a proper sample of adequate

size and adopting suitable method or estimation.

Characteristics of a good sample design

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representativesample.

(b) Sampling design must be such which results in a small

sampling error.


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(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds

available for the research study.

(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be

controlled in a better way.

(e) Sample should be such that the result of the sample study

can be applied in general to the universe with reasonble

level of confidence.

Samples can be either Probablity samples or non- probability

samples.

Probability sampling

Simple Random sampling.

Stratified Sampling.

Systematic Sampling.

Cluster Sampling

Multistage sampling.

Sequential Sampling

Non Probablity sampling

Purposing, subject, Judgment sampling

In purposing sampling the selection of units entirely depends on the

choice of the investigator.This type of sampling is adopted when it is notpossible to adopt any random procedure for selection of the sampling

units. For instance a sample of patient suffering from TB has he drawn

since it is not possible to ascertain a population of TB patients so the


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persons turning to TB sanitoriums and havingTB are selected in the

sample.Such a method is called purposing , subjective,judgment

sampling.

Quota Sampling

This method of sampling is used in opinion pull survey and market

research. Here the population is divided in to number of strata whose

weights are obtained from a recent census or a large scale survey.

Interviewers are then assigned quotas for the number of interviews to be

taken from each stratum. For example an interviewer might he told to go

out and select20 adult men and 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10

teenage boys so that they could interview them about their television

viewing. The interviewer is free to choose his sample provided the quota

requirement are fulfilled. The main difference between quota sampling

and stratified simpling is that in quota sampling the selecting of sample

with in strata is not random. So sampling distributions of any statistics

are unknown.


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Methods of Data Collection

Primary data are those which are collected a fresh and for the first time

and thus happens to be original in character.

The secondary data are those which have been already collected by

some one else and which have already been passed through the statistical

process.

The researcher will decide which type of data will serve his purpose

Collection of primary data.

We collect primary data during the course of experiment in an

experimental research and in descriptive research we perform survey,

may be sample survey or censor survey.

Primary data can also the collected through direct communication

with respondent, or through personal interviews. Important methods are :

i. Observation method

ii. Interview method

iii. Through Questionaries

iv. Through schedules and other methods, like.

a. Warranty cards

b. Distributor auditsc. Pantry and its consumer panel.

d. Using mechanical devices,

e. Through projective interviews


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f. Through depth interview and content analysis.

Observation methods: the information is sought by way of

investigators own direct observation without asking from the

respondent. For example in a study of consumer behavior, the

investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the

respondent, may himself look at the watch. This method is

particularly suitable in studies which deals with subjects (i.e.

respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their

feeling for one reason or the other. It is an expensive method and the

information provided is very limited.

Personal Interview: under this method of collecting data there is face

to face contact will the person from which the information is to

obtained. The interviews ask them questions pertaining to the survey

and collect the desired information.

Advantage:

1. Response is more encouraging as most people are willing to supply

information when approached personally.

2. More accurate information can be obtained as the interviewer can

clear up the doubts of the respond about certain questions and thus

correct information.3. It is possible through personal interview to collect supplementary

information about the respondents personal characteristics and


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environment and such information is very useful while interpreting

the result.

4. The language of communication can be adopted to the status and

the educational level of the person interviewed, thus avoiding

inconveniences and misinterpretation on the part of the informat.

5. No response remains generally very low.

Limitations.

1. Costly, if the number of persons to be interviewed is

large and spread over a wide area.

2. Chances of bias are greater as compared to other

methods.

3. The interviewer have to be thoroughly trained

otherwise they will not able to obtain the correct information.

4. More time is required for collecting information under

this method.

Telephonic interviews: It is not widely used, but plays important part

in industrial surveys particularly in developed regions.

1. It is faster than other methods.

2. It is cheaper than in personal interview method.

3. Recall is easy; call backs are simple and economical.4. Generally higher rate of response.

5. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to the

responded.


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6. No fixed staff is required.

7. Representative and wider distributions of sample is possible.

Limitation: 1. Little time is given to the responded.

2. Survey is restricted to the respondent having telephone facilities.

3. Not suitable for intensive survey.

4. Questions have to be short and to the point.

Questionnaires:

Under this method a list of questions pertaining to the survey (as

questionnaire) is prepared and sent to various informants by post. The

questionnaire contains questions and provide space for answers. A

request is make to the informats through a covering letter to fill the

questionnaire and send it back in a specified time.

Merits: This method can be adopted where the field of investigation is

very vast and the information is spread over a large geographical area.

2. It is also relatively cheap.

Demerits:

1. Cooperation on the part of the information may be difficult to

presume.

2. The information provided by the informats may not be correct and it

may be difficult to verify the accuracy.3. It is suitable only the when the informats are literate people.


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Questinaries:Should be carefully constructed. If it is not properly set

up, then the survey is bound to fail.

Pilot Survey. It is always advisable be test the questionaries through

pilot survey. Weakness in the questionaries and the survey technique can

be find out. These can be rectified in the main survey.

Schedules: This method of data collection is very much like the

collection of data through questionnaire. Here the schedules are being

filled by the enumerators who are specially appointed for this purpose.

The enumerations along with schedules go to the respondent, put to

them the question from the Performa in the order the questions are listed

and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the performa.

Method is expensive and usually conducted by the Govt. or big

agencies.

Collection of the secondary data: It may be published or unpublished

data

Source of published data. Various publication of central, state, local

Govt, (b) publication from foreign Govt.,, international bodies, (c)

Technical and trade jouranls (d) Books, Journal, news papers (e) report

and publication of various associations (f) report prepared by research

scientist, Universities in different fields (g) public record and statistics,historical document, and other published information..


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Unpublished data. They may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished

biographies, autobiographies, research data available with scientist,

universities,trade associations etc.

Selection of appropriate method for data collection.

The following factors may be kept in mind

1. Nature, scope and object of inquiry.

2. Availability of funds.

3. Time factor

4. Precision required.

7Execution of the project.

The researchers should see that the project is executed in a systematic

manner and in time.

8. Analysis of Data:

Coding, tabulation, frequency distribution

1. Measurer of central Tendency

2. Measure of Dispersiones

3. Skewness and kurtosis.

4.Test of Hypothesis and Test of significance.

5. Correlating and recession studies.6. Fitting of Distribution.

9. Hypothesis testing

Z, t,F, chisquare test, Non parametric tests


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10. Generalization and interpretation.

11. Preparation of report.

Preparation of the report or the thesis.

Finally the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done

by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in

view the following.

1. The lay out of the report should be as follows.

a. Preliminary pages.

b. Main texts

c. The end matter.

In the preliminary pages the report should carry title and date

followed by acknowledgements and forward. Then table of contents

followed by list of tables and list of graphs and charts if any given in

the report.

Main texts of the report should have the following parts.

i. Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the

objective of the research and an explanation of the methodologyadopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study

along with various limitations should as well be stated in this

part.


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ii. Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a

statement of findings and recommendations in non technical

language. It the finding are extensive, they should he

summarized.

iii. Main report: the main body of the report should the presented

in logical sequence and broken down in to different chapters.

iv. Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher

should again put down the result of his research clearly and

precisely. Infact it is the final summing up.

At the end of the report: appendices should be inlisted in respect of

all technical data. Bibliography i.e. list of books, journals, reports etc.

consulted should he given in the end. Index should also the given

specially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple

language avoiding vague expressions such as it seems, there may

be, like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if

they present the information more clearly and forcibly


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Criteria of good research: What ever may be types of research

works and studies, they must satisfy the following criterias.

1. The purpose of the research should he clearly defined and common

concepts be used.

2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient

details to permit another researcher to repeat the research for

further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already

been attained.

3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned

to yield results that are as objective as possible.

4. The researcher should report with complete frankness,flaws in the

procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its

significance and the method of analysis used should be

appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be

checked carefully.

6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of theresearch and limited to those for which the data provide an

adequate basis.


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7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is

experienced has a good reputation in research and is a person of

integrity.

Problems encountered by Researchers in India.

Researchers in India are facing several problems.

1. The lack of scientific training in the methodology of research.

Most of the work which goes in the name of research is not

methodologically sounds. Research too many researchers and even

to their guides is mostly a scissor and paste job without any insight

shed on the collected material. Efforts should be mode to provide

short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement.

2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research

department on one side and business establishments, government

departments and research institutions on the other side. Efforts

should be made to develop satisfactory liaison among concerned

for better and realistic researches.

3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the

confidence that material supplied by them to researchers will not

he misused and as such they are reluctant to provide the neededinformation to the researchers. Thus there is the need for

generating the confidence that the information /data obtained from

a business unit will not the misused.


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4. Research studies over lapping one another are under taken quite

often for want of adequate information. This problem can be

solved by proper compilation and revision at regular intervals of a

list of subjects on which and the places where the research is going

on.

5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter

university and interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.

Hence there is need for developing a code of conduct for

researcher which if adhered sincerely can win oven this problem.

6. Many researchers in the country also face the difficulty of adequate

and timely sectarial assistance, including computrial assistance .All

possible efforts be made in this direction so that sectarial assistance

is made available to researchers and that too well in time.

7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many

places. Much time and energy is spent for tracing out the books,

Journals, reports etc.

8. There is also a problem that many of our libraries are not able to

get copies of old and new Acts/rules, reports and other

Governments publication in time. Efforts should the made for

regular and speedy supply of government publications to reach ourLibraries.


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9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data

from various Govt. and other agencies doing this Job in our

country.

Format of Research Report:

A. Preliminary Section

(1) Title page (2) Acknowledgement (if any)

(3) Table of contents (4) List of tables(if any)

(5) List of figures (if any) (6) Abstract

B. Main Body:

1. Introduction

a. Statement of the problem

b. Significance of the problem (and historical background)

c. purpose

d. Statement of hypothesis

e. Assumptions

f. Limitations

g. Definition of Terms.2. Review of related literature (and analyses of previous research)

3. Design of study

a. Description of Research design and procedure used


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b. Sources of data

c. Sampling procedure

d. Methods and instruments of data collection.

e. Statistical treatment

4. Analysis of data

a. Text with appropriate tables and figures.

b. Summary and conclusion

c. Restatement of problem

d. Description of procedures.

e. Major findings

f. Conclusions

g. Recommendation for further investigation.

Reference Section.

1. End notes (if in that format of citation)

2. Bibliography & Literature cited.

3. Appendics

A format for Research Proposal

Name, University name email address

Abstract : A paragraphs summarizing your topic of research, who orwhat will be the object of data collection, how the data will be

collected, how it will be analyzed and what result you expect

(possible out comes)


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The Problem: What problem do I want to address or what questions

do I want to answer? Elaborate on the variables and their relationship.

Body ground to the problems:

Why is this problem or question important who else has worked on

this or similiar problems what methods were used. What were the

results or conclusions of previous research?

In this section, show the relevance of your research to other research

that has been done.

Research Design: How will I limit my study?

What data do I need to collect

What methods will I use to collect the data and how I will justify

them.

Expected Results:

How will I analyze the data?

What results do I expect from my research?

In this section elaborate how you will use your data to answer your

research questions. To make generalization to defend assertions, to

examine possible alternative outcomes to construct a plausible

argument.Reference. Make sure there follows a recognized format and do so

consistently .


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