1

RESEARCH METHOD

By

Abuzar Asra

2

SESSION 5

STEP 6: ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

(Chapter 6 of Sekaran, 2000; Selltiz, 1976)

3

ISSUES IN RESEARCH DESIGN

Purpose for the study Type of study/investigation Extent of researcher interference Unit of analysis Time horizon

4

KINDS OF RESEARCH (1)(Sekaran, 2000 and Johnston, 1986)

• Basic/fundamental/pure research:

chiefly to enhance the understanding of certain problems and seek methods of solving them (i.e contribute to knowledge building in a certain area),

similar to

- Disciplinary research to improve a discipline, such as economics

5

KINDS OF RESEARCH (2)(Sekaran, 2000 and Johnston, 1986)

• Applied research:

applying the results of the findings to solve specific problems currently being faced,

similar to,

- Subject-Matter: multidisciplinary research on a subject of interest to a set of decision makers

facing a set of practical problems

or

- Problem-solving: To solve a specific problem for a specific decision makers

6

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY (1)(Selltiz, et al., 2000; Chapter 6 of Sekaran, 2000 )

Types of study, according to the purpose of the study and related to the stage to which knowledge about the research

topic has advanced:

• Exploratory or Formulative

• Descriptive

• Analytical (Hypothesis testing, Explanatory, Validation, Predictive )

• Case Study

7

EXPLORATORY (1)

Objectives:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it, help formulating a more precise research problem or to develop

hypotheses

8

EXPLORATORY (2)

Other Objectives:

(i) increasing investigators’ familiarity with the phenomenon to be studied further

(ii) clarifying concepts

(iii) establishing priorities for further research

(iv) gathering information about practical possibilites for carrying out research in real-life setting

9

EXPLORATORY (3)

Methods:

a review of the related science and literature

experience survey: a survey of people who had practical experience with the problem studied (individually or focus groups), and

an analysis of ‘insighting-stimulating’ examples

10

EXPLORATORY (4)

A review of the related science and literature

The focus:

hypotheses that may serve as leads for further investigation

11

EXPLORATORY (5)

The experience survey:

a survey of people who had practical experience with the problem studied (individually or focus groups)

Issues:

-Selection of respondents- The question of respondents

12

EXPLORATORY (6)

The analysis of ‘insighting-stimulating’ examples

An intensive study of selected selected examples, a fruitful method for stimulating insights and suggesting

hypotheses for research

13

Exploratory (7)

Example:

• A manager, curious to know, work ethic values, employees, certain ethnic groups, different from that of others.

Work ethic values?

• Quality of life, what does it mean?

14

DESCRIPTIVE (1)

Objective:

to portray and understand accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group or of the variables of interest in a situation

In sum, help to:

(i) understand the characteristics of a group in a given situation,(ii) think systematically about aspects in a given situation,(iii) offer ideas for further probe and research, and(iv) help make certain simple decisions

15

DESCRIPTIVE (2)

Steps:

•Formulating the objectives

•Designing methods of data collection

•Selecting the sample

•Collecting and checking the data

•Analyzing the results

16

DESCRIPTIVE (3)

Example:

A profile of the clients having loan payment outstanding for six months and more.

Characteristics:

• Average age• Sex• Earnings• Type of occupation• Employment status

17

HYPOTHESIS TESTING/ANALYTICAL

Objective:

•Test a hypothesis or explain the nature of e.g., relationship between variables and the differences among groups

•Develop new theories or use the existing theories to account for observations

• Validating and replicating existing research and theory. Using different samples, populations, research methods

• Prediction: ascertain the extent to which observations of ..... agree with what the theory specifies.

18

EXAMPLES

• Sales, increases, if advertisement doubles?

• Is working night shift related to marital status?

• Is education associated with the adoption of family planning program?

19

CASE STUDY

In depth, contextual analysis

20

TYPE OF INVESTIGATION

• Causal- To establish a definitive cause and effect relationship- To delineate the cause of one or more problems- E.g., Does smoking cause cancer?

• Correlational- To delineate the important variables that are associated with the problems- E.g., Are smoking and cancer related?

21

EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE WITH THE STUDY

Depend on -whether the study is correlational or causal

- the importance of establishing causal relationship beyond any doubt whatever

22

EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE WITH THE STUDY

Correlational study: in the natural environment, e.g., the study the factors influencing training effectiveness; develop a theoretical framework, collect the relevant data, and analyse them to come up with the findings

Causal study: manipulate certain variables so as to study the effects of such manipulation on the dependent variable of interest (and tightly controll certain other variables, as in a laboratory) – artificial lab setting

23

STUDY SETTING

Noncontrived:

‘normal condition’ (minimal interference), such as correlational/field studies

Contrived/Artificial:

causal studies (moderate interference) and lab experiments (excessive interference)

24

AN EXAMPLE (1)

• Correlational study, in some cases is called field study: noncontrived setting with minimal interference

- Emotional support in the system and the stress experienced by the nursing staff (say, using a questionnaire)

-Collect data on how much emotional support they get and to what extent they experience stress, and

-Then correlate the 2 variables.

25

AN EXAMPLE (2)

• Causal study, in some cases is called field experiment: noncontrived setting with moderate interference

-Having emotional support does indeed cause the nurses to experience less stress

- Experiment, 3 wards, before and after ‘treatment’ (emotional support)

- Before: measure the stress currently experienced in the 3 wards

26

AN EXAMPLE (3)

- Deliberately manipulate the extent of emotional support given to the three groups of nurses, say for a week, say 3 levels: - extensive support; moderate support; no support

-After: measure the amount of stress at the end of the period

- If the theory is correct, the difference in the stress levels before and after the one-week period should be greatest in the first ward, moderate in the second and nil for in the third

27

AN EXAMPLE (4)

• Lab experiment: Excessive interference, a contrived setting

-Create an artificial environment, close to laboratory setting

- Say, connection between interest rate and savings

- Recruits 40 students, business majors in the final year, same age

28

AN EXAMPLE (5)

-Split into 4 groups, give them chips that count for $1,000 for spending, saving, or both

- Manipulate the interest rates by offerring a 1% interest on savings for group 1; 6% group 2; 8% group 3; and 9% group 4.

- Do students who are offerred more interest are inclined to sava more?

29

UNIT OF ANALYSIS (1)

•Level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analyis stage

-Individual : e.g. Employees- Dyads : e.g. Husband-wife; supervisor-supervisee, as unit of analysis- Group: e.g. to study group effectiveness- Organization, etc etc etc

Data collection methods, sample size, the variables included in the framework are determined by the level at which data are aggregated for analyis

30

UNIT OF ANALYSIS (2)

Examples: • Individual:how many interested in joining the demonstration

• Dyad: what jointly mother and daughter perceive benefits of the program

• Group:Group of production, sales and operation personnells on using the new IT system

• Division:profit of each of divisions (soap, paper, oil, etc)

31

TIME HORIZON (1)

(i) Cross-sectional studies

Data are gathered just once (at one point in time), perhaps over a period of days or weeks, across unit of observation.

Example:A number of female students were interviewed in March 2010 regarding the brand of hair shampo used and ethnci background

32

TIME HORIZON (2)

(ii) Longitudinal/Time-Series studies

To study people or phenomena (unit of observation) at more than one point in time

(1) Prospective /cohort/forward looking study

(2) Retrospective /trohoc/’backward looking’/case history study:

33

TIME HORIZON (3)

Example:

Employees’ behavior before and after a change in the top management,

to study the effects of the change

34

TIME HORIZON (4)

Cause Outcome

Prospective: - Smokers- Non-smokers

Retrospective:• With disease • Without disease

35

TIME HORIZON (5)

(iii) Studies using pooled cross-section and time-series data

36

Exercises

Exercises 6.1 and 6.2 of Sekaran, 2000