Goal of research is to provide a body of abstract knowledge growing out of scientific research and logical analysis and capable of being translated to nursing practice.• Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena. Kerlinger, 1973

Definitions Systematic – follows certain steps Controlled – every step of the investigation is planned Empirical – evidence is on hand, there is confidence in the results• Research in its broadest sense is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation.

Treece and Treece, 1974• Nursing research is research for nursing. It includes the breadth and depth of the discipline of nursing: the rehabilitative, therapeutic, and preventive aspects of nursing, as well as the preparation of practitioners and personnel• involved in the total nursing• sphere.

• Nursing research is defined as a scientific process that validates and refines existing knowledge and generates new knowledge that directly and indirectly influences nursing practice.

Burns and Grove, 2005

Nursing Research is needed to generate knowledge about nursing education, nursing administration, health care services, characteristics of nurses, and nursing roles.Nursing Research is essential for the development of empirical knowledge that enables nurses to provide Evidenced-based Practice, to improved nursing care, patient outcomes, and the health care delivery system.

Sources of knowledge• Tradition: accepted as given on the basis of inherited customs• Authority: comes from people with expertise• Experience Trial and error

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IntuitionSources of knowledge• Logical reasoning: combines, intellectual faculties and formal system of thought

• Disciplined research: the most sophisticated method of acquiring knowledge.

Sources of the Problem:n Fields of specializationn Instructional programn Reading programn Organizational structuren Organizational policies n New technologiesn Conflicting ideas and idealsn Journals, books, theses, mass median Theories and principlesn Problem areas in nursing

Sources (CLIENT PROOF) of a good problem

C – On flicting ideas and ideals and conceptsL – Literatures

I – issues and instructional programE – Essays, journals, books and mass mediaN – New technologiesT – Theories and principles

Problem areas in nursing Reading program Organizational structure Organizational policies Field of specialization

Char of good problem (GRIFINS)

G – General applicability – result should be helpful or applicable to all.basic/ Pre – for personal knowledge

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Applied – focus is solving problems of others Re – researchable – collectable & abundant dataF – Feasible or measurable

TimeMoney/ costParticipantsInstrumentsExperienceProper ethics of good researcher

I – importantN – Novelty – original to avoid plagiarism.S – Significant

PURPOSE OF A SCIENTIFIC NURSING RESEARCHD – Descriptive purpose. Gain richer familiarity regarding a phenomenon.

Observation. 100% known to RN. E – Exploratory purpose. 50% still unknown to RN. E – Experimental purpose. Perform manipulation. Perform intervention. What to find out cause & effect.D – Developmental purposes. From improvement of system of care.

Purposes of Research 1. Describe 2. Explain 3. Predict 4. Control

Describe - involves identifying and understanding the nature of phenomena and sometimes the relationship among them.• Explain - It clarifies the relationships among phenomena and identifies the reasons why certain events occur. It could be the basis for conducting research for prediction and control• Predict - Through prediction, one can estimate the probability of a specific outcome in a given situation. However, predicting an outcome does not necessarily enable one to modify or control the outcome.• Control - If one can predict the outcome of a situation, the next step is to control or manipulate the situation to produce the desired outcome.

Nurses do research because…• Nursing is a profession

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• Nursing should contribute to the generation of new knowledge• Through research, nurses could evaluate and document their contributions to their clients’ health and wellbeing and to the health care delivery system

Cruz-Earnshaw, 2007

Nurses do research because…• RA 9173 Section 28 (e )states that: It shall be the duty of the nurse to: (e) Undertake nursing and health human resource development training and research which shall include, but not limited to the development of advance nursing practice;

Classifications of Research• According to level of investigation 1. Exploratory 2. Descriptive 3. Experimental

• According to approach 1. Experimental 2. Non-experimental

• According to measurement & data analysis 1. Quantitative 2. Qualitative• According to time frame 1. Longitudinal 2. Cross sectional• According to motive or objective 1. Basic research 2. Applied research

• According to time line 1. Retrospective 2. Prospective• According to research environment 1. Field 2. Laboratory

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Quantitative Research• Quantitative research is the investigation of phenomena that lend themselves to precise measurement and quantification, often involving a rigorous and controlled design.• Descriptive – provides an accurate portrayal or account of characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group.• Correlational – involves the systematic investigation of relationships/association between two or more variables• Comparative – used to describe the differences in variables in two or more groups in a natural settingQuantitative Research Methods• Quasi-experimental – causal relationships between two selected variables are examined through manipulation of the independent variable but without control or randomization.• Experimental – it is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena. Characteristics include manipulation, control, and randomization.• Ex post facto – the independent variable is not manipulated, either because it is inherently unmanipulable or because it occurred in the past

Qualitative Research• Qualitative research is the investigation of phenomena typically in an in-depth and holistic fashion, through the collection of rich narrative materials using a flexible research design.

Qualitative Research Methods• Phenomenological – describes an experience as they are lived by people

Qualitative Research Methods• Grounded theory – discovers what problems exist in a social scene and the process persons use to handle them

Qualitative Research Methods• Ethnographic – it is associated with anthropology and focuses on the culture of a group of people, with an effort to understand the world view of those under study.

Qualitative Research Methods• Historical – a narrative description or analysis of events that occurred in the remote or recent past.

Qualitative Research Methods5

• Philosophical inquiry – involves using intellectual analysis to clarify meanings, makes values manifest, identify ethics, and study the nature of knowledgeQualitative Research Methods• Case study – involves a thorough, in-depth analysis of an individual, a group, or an institution or other social units.

Qualitative Research Methods• Critical theory – an approach to viewing the world that involves a critique of society, with the goal of envisioning new possibilities and effecting social changeQualitative Research Methods• Feminist research – seeks to understand, typically through qualitative approaches, how gender and a gendered social order shape women’s lives and their consciousness.

Mixed Methods Research• TRIANGULATION – the use of multiple methods to collect and interpret data about a phenomenon, so as to converge on an accurate representation of realitySteps in the Research Process• Identification of problem • Review of related literature• Construction of a framework• Formulate the hypothesis• Select the research design • Select the sample• Collect the data• Analyze and interpret the data• Write the research report• Communicate the research report

Major Steps: Quantitative Study • Phase I: The Conceptual PhaseStep 1: Formulating and delimiting the problemStep 2: Reviewing the related research literatureStep 3: Undertaking clinical fieldworkStep 4: Defining the framework and conceptual definitionsStep 5: Formulating the hypothesis• Phase II: The Design and Planning PhaseStep 6: Selecting a research designStep 7: Developing protocols for interventionStep 8: Identifying the population to be studied

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Step 9: Designing the sampling planStep 10: Specifying methods to measure variablesStep 11: Developing methods to protect human/animal rightsStep 12: Finalizing and reviewing the research plan

Phase III: The Empirical PhaseStep 13: Collecting the dataStep 14: Preparing data for analysis Phase IV: The Analytic PhaseStep 15: Analyzing the dataStep 16: Interpreting the results• Phase V: The Dissemination PhaseStep 17: Communicating the findingsStep 18: Utilizing research evidence in practice

Activities: Qualitative StudyConceptualizing and planning a qualitative study• Identifying a research problem• Doing a literature review• Selecting and gaining entrée into research sites Designing qualitative studies Addressing ethical issues

Activities: Qualitative StudyConducting a qualitative study• Obtaining and analyzing qualitative data

Disseminating qualitative findings• Writing qualitative research

Thank you for your attention

The ProblemWhat is a research problem?• A problem is a condition requiring a solution.• In research, a problem statement is an expression of a dilemma or a disturbing situation that needs investigation.Sources of research problems• Personal experiences and observations

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• Readings • Conversations with peers, experts, clients Attendance in conferences, lectures Everyday occurrences Social and political issues affecting healthCharacteristics of a researchable problem• Interest• Usefulness• Novelty Feasibility of time and resources Ethical Availability of data Ability of the researcher Situations manifesting a problem• Absence of information• Incomplete information• Conflicting information A fact exists and you intend your study to explain it. There is a gap in knowledgeThe research question• The problem is specifically stated in the form of a research question.• The research question should be clear, concise, and stated in measurable terms specifically in quantitative research.The research question• Example What is the level of creativity among senior student nurses of a center of excellence college in Manila in terms of originality and flexibility?

The title• Functions of a title 1. It draws in summary form, the content of the entire investigation. 2. It serves as a frame of reference for the whole thesis. 3. It enables the researcher to claim the title as his own. 4. It helps the other researchers

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refer to the work.The title• Titles should be clear and specific.• It should include variables, relationships, target population, and setting. Ideally, it should have a maximum of 20 substantive words, with function words not included in in the counting.The title• Example The Effects of Home Visits of Public Health Nurses on the Dietary Compliance of Adult Diabetic Patients in Two Barangays in Quezon CityThe Variable• Variable – an attribute of a person or object that varies, that is, takes on different values. It is anything that is liable to change or likely to vary. Independent variable – cause Dependent variable – effect Extraneous variables – not studied but affects results The Variable• Intervening – comes between the dependent and independent variables. Ex. - stress, anxiety, motivation• Organismic – those that can not be changed through manipulation. Ex. – age, sex, race Confounding or interfering – interfere with the study design and the data gathering process by influencing the subjects or the dependent variable. Ex. – social support The Variable• Antecedent – occurs earlier than the independent variable and bears a relationship both to it and to the dependent variable. Ex.- poor health, superstitious beliefs

RANDOMIZATION is the best control over unknown variables.Significance of the study

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• Issues relevant in considering the significance of the study: 1. Implications for nursing practice – Is it able to produce evidence for nursing practice? 2. Extension of knowledge base – Is it able to produce new knowledge which is useful? Significance of the study3. Promotion of theory development – Is it able to test or develop a new theory?4. Correspondence to research priorities – Is it in line with research priorities of the country, profession, or funding institutions?Scope and Limitations• Scope defines where and when the study was conducted and who the participants (subjects) were. The scope sets the delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the study. Limitations – are the weaknesses and shortcomings of the study as acknowledged by the researcher.Definition of terms• Operational definition – description of how variables or concepts will be measured or manipulated in the study Conceptual definition – provides a variable with connotative meaning. It tells what the concept means.Assumptions• An assumption is any fact presumed to be true but not actually verified. It pertains to events or situations that seem so true that they are taken for granted. Unlike the hypothesis it does not need testing or confirmation.

Ethics in Research

ETHICS OF A PROPER RESEARCHER: (SCIENTIFIC)

S – scientific objective always (good faith)

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C – consent

I – integrity

E – equitable (appropriate acknowledgments) liable for

N – noble – Respect 3 basic rights of research sample

T – truthfulness

I – importance of topic to nursing profession

C – courage to look for data.

Legal owner of chart: Hospital

Legal owner of data in the chart: Patient

Plagiarism – illegal replication: no consent & acknowledge

Basic Rights• The right to protection from harm and discomfort. PRINCIPLE: Beneficence – imposes a duty on researchers to minimize harm and to maximize benefits. A related principle is nonmaleficence (avoid, prevent or minimize harm)• Right to full disclosure – means that the researcher has fully described the nature of the study, the subject’s right to refuse participation, the researcher’s responsibilities, and the likely risks and benefits that would be incurred.

PRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity

Basic RightsDebriefing is communication with subjects, generally after their participation has been completed regarding various aspects of the study.

Basic RightsCovert data collection or concealment is the collection of data without the subject’s knowledge.Deception can involve either withholding information about the study or providing subjects with false information.

Basic Rights

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Placebo is a medically harmless, ineffective substance that is usually used in testing a new drug when it is given to a control group. It is done to rule out any possible biases of subjects and investigators.

Basic RightsThere are two variations in the use of placebo• Single blind test design: it is one in which the evaluations of the results of a treatment are kept from the subjects who have received it.

Basic Rights2. Double blind test design: it is one in which the investigators and the subjects involved in the study are kept ignorant about the process – that is, they are not suppose to know who are receiving the treatment and who are not

Basic RightsRight to self determination means that the prospective subjects have the right to voluntarily decide whether or not to participate in a study, without the risk of imposing any penalties or prejudicial treatment.Basic RightsIt includes the right to decide at any point to terminate their participation, to refuse to give information, or to ask for clarification about the purpose of the study or specific study proceduresPRINCIPLE: Respect for human dignity

Basic RightsVulnerable subjects or persons with diminished autonomy are those who are less advantaged because of legal or mental incompetence, terminal illness, or confinement to an institution.Basic RightsThe right to full disclosure and the right to self determination are the two major elements on which informed consent is based

Basic RightsInformed consent means that the subjects have adequate information regarding the research; are capable of comprehending the information; and have the power of free choice, enabling them to voluntarily consent to participate or decline participation in the research study.

Basic RightsInformed consent involves the disclosure of the following information: subject status, study purpose, type of information to be obtained, nature of the commitment, sponsorship, subject selection, procedures, potential risks, costs, and

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benefits, confidentiality pledge, voluntary consent, right to withdraw, alternatives, and contact information. Basic Rights• Informed consent for children is called assent. The study must be explained within the child’s level of comprehension. Most assent are accompanied by parental consent.

Basic Rights• Right to fair treatment means that the subjects receive equitable treatment before, during, and after their participation in the study.

PRINCIPLE: Justice

Basic Rights• Right to privacy means that researchers need to ensure that their research is not more intrusive than it needs to be and that the subject’s privacy is maintained throughout the study

PRINCIPLE: Justice

Basic RightsAnonymity occurs when even the researcher can not link a subject with the information for that subject. The subjects remain unknown.

Basic RightsA promise of confidentiality to the subjects is a guarantee that any information that the subjects provide will not be publicly reported or made accessible to parties other than those involved in the research.

The IRBIRB stands for Institutional Review Board. This is a formal committee in most universities and hospitals where researches are conducted. They review proposals for its adherence to ethical standards.Basis for Ethical Standards• Nuremberg Code• Déclaration of Helsinki• CIOMS (Council for International Organizations of Medical Research)• Belmont Report• Professional Code of Ethics for NursesNuremberg Code• This ethical code of conduct contains rules that were developed to guide investigators in conducting research ethically w/c are:

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1. voluntary consent 2. withdrawal of subjects from studies 3. protection of subjects from physical and mental suffering, injury, disability, death 4. balance of benefits and riskDeclaration of Helsinki• Differentiated therapeutic from nontherapeutic research• Therapeutic research gives the patient the opportunity to receive an experimental treatment that might have beneficial results• Nontherapeutic research is conducted to generate knowledge for a discipline. Results of the study might benefit future patients but will probably not benefit those acting as research subjects.CIOMS• The CIOMS Guidelines, formally known as International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects, is a set of ethical principles regarding human experimentation. • Created in 1993 by the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) and updated in 2002, these 21 guidelines (15 in the original report) address issues including informed consent, standards for external review, recruitment of participants, and more. The Guidelines are general instructions and principles of ethical biomedical research Belmont Report• On July 12, 1974, the National Research Act (Pub. L. 93-348) was signed into law, there-by creating the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. One of the charges to the Commission was to identify the basic ethical principles that should underlie the conduct of biomedical and behavioral research involving human subjects and to develop guidelines which should be followed to assure that such research is conducted in accordance with those principles. Belmont Report considerations• (i) the boundaries between biomedical and behavioral research and the accepted and routine practice of medicine, (ii) the role of assessment of risk-benefit criteria in the determination of the appropriateness of research involving human subjects, (iii) appropriate guidelines for the selection of human subjects for participation in such research and (iv) the nature and definition of informed consent in various research settings. Code of Ethics for Nurses• The Code of Ethics for Nurses, revised in 2000, is a guide for action based on social values and needs. The Code has served as the standard for nurses worldwide since it was first adopted in 1953. The new version, revised for the first time in 27 years, responds to the realities of nursing and health care in a changing society.

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Review of Related LiteratureWhat is a literature review?• It is a collection of materials on a topic.

• It discusses published information in a particular subject area sometimes within a certain time period.

What is a literature review?• It can be a simple summary of sources but has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis.

Summary• A summary is a recap of the important information found in the literature.Synthesis• A synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling of information to: 1. Give a new interpretation of old materials 2. Combine new with old interpretations 3. Trace the intellectual progression of the field including major debates.Purpose• It is conducted to generate a picture of what is known about a particular situation and the knowledge gaps that exist in it.

Functions• Source for research ideas• Orientation to what is already known• Provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research• Provides information on research approaches and techniques.Kinds of literature• Research literature: refers to published reports of actual research studies done previously• Conceptual literature consists of articles or books written by authorities giving their opinions, experiences, theories,

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or ideas.

Sources for literature review• A primary source: is the description of an investigation written by the person who conducted it• A secondary source: is a description of a study or studies prepared by someone other than the original researcher

Where can literature be found?• Journal articles• Books• Conference proceedings• Government and corporate reports• Newspapers

Where can literature be found?• Theses and dissertations• Internet – electronic journals• CD – ROM• Magazines

Reading the literatures• Read the easier articles first• Scan the article – Read the abstract first.• Read for depth• Allow enough time• Do not put writing off until you have finished reading• Keep bibliographic information.Writing the literature review• The review is not just a list describing one published study after another but rather requires that the author critically analyze the available literature on the topic.• The review should be organized into sections that present themes or identified trends.• Revise…revise…revise

FrameworkDefinitions

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• A framework is the abstract, logical structure of meaning that guides the development of the study and enables the researcher to link the findings to nursing's body of knowledge.• It is the conceptual underpinnings of a study.

Definitions• Theoretical framework is based on theories.• Conceptual framework is rooted on specific concepts or conceptual model• Both provides the structure for examining a problem and serves as a guide to examine relationships between variables.The use of a framework• In quantitative research, the framework is a testable theory that may emerge from a conceptual model or may be developed inductively from published research or clinical observations• In qualitative research, the initial framework is a philosophy or a worldview. A theory consistent with the philosophy is developed as the outcome of the study.

The use of a framework• Worldviews are mental lenses or cognitive and perceptual maps that we continually use to find our way through the social landscape surrounding us.• They are extremely encompassing in content and pervasive in adherence.• They are composed of beliefs, belief systems and social values associated with them.Terminologies• A concept is a term that abstractly describes and names an object, a phenomenon, or an idea, thus providing it with a separate identity or meaning.• Constructs are concepts at very high level of abstraction and have general meaning• Variables are more concrete and are narrow in their definition.

Terminologies• Construct Emotional Abstract Responses

Concept Anxiety

Variable Palmar Concrete Sweating

Terminologies• A conceptual map is a strategy for expressing a framework. It diagrams the interrelationships of the concepts and statements.

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A conceptual map

HypothesisDefinitions• The hypothesis is a tentative, declarative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.• It is a tentative explanation for certain behaviors, phenomena or events which have occurred or will occur.• It is an educated guess which needs to be tested.Characteristics• It should be reasonable.

• It should state in definite terms, the relationship between variables.

• It should be testable.Sources• Observations of phenomena• Real life experiences• May be generated from relationships expressed in theories.• Literature review• Results of previous researchesTypes• Null hypothesis (Ho) is a statement of a no relationship, no difference, no effect or no interaction. It is tested with statistics.• Example There is no relationship between nursing admission test results and board examination ratings among the graduates of nursing schools in Manila.

Types• Alternative or research hypothesis (H1) is the expectation based on theory. This could either be:• Directional – specifies the direction of the relationship.• Non-directional – only specifies that there is a relationship. Types• Examples• Directional The higher the nursing admission test results, the higher is the board examination ratings.

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• Non-directional There is a relationship between nursing admission test results and board examination ratings among the graduates of nursing schools in Manila.

Types• Simple hypothesis has one independent and one dependent variable.• Example There is no relationship between nursing admission test results and board examination ratings among the graduates of nursing schools in Manila.

Types• Complex hypothesis has two or more independent and dependent variables• Example There is no relationship between nursing admission test results and grade point average to board examination ratings and CGFNS results among the graduates of nursing schools in Manila. Wording the hypothesis• Hypothesis should specify the independent and dependent variables and the relationship between them.• Hypothesis should be worded in the present tense• Hypothesis should be stated declaratively.Remember• Hypotheses are never proved through hypothesis testing rather they are accepted or supported or rejected. Findings are always tentative. If results are replicated in numerous investigations, greater confidence can be placed in the conclusions. Hypotheses come to be supported with mounting evidences.

Research Designs

Definitions• Research design is the plan, structure, and strategy of an investigation.

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• Research method is the totality of how the study is carried out. It includes the design, sample, setting, instruments, interventions, procedures, and data analysis.

Interrelationship: Design, Problem, Literature Review, Framework, and HypothesisQuantitative Designs• A descriptive design is used to identify a phenomenon of interest, identify variables within the phenomenon, event or group in real life situations for the purpose of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.

Quantitative Descriptive• Survey designs are employed to measure the existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists. The main intention is to use the data for problem solving rather than for hypothesis testing.

Quantitative Descriptive• Correlational designs help one determine the extent to which different variables are related to each other in the population of interest. The critical distinguishing characteristic is the effort to estimate a relationship as distinguished from simple description.

Quantitative Descriptive• Comparative designs examine and describe differences in variables in two or more groups that occur naturally in the setting. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses are used to examine differences between or among groups.

Quantitative Descriptive• Time dimensional designs were developed within the discipline of epidemiology where the occurrence and distribution of disease among populations are studied. These designs examine sequences and patterns of change, growth or change over time. The dimension of time becomes an important factor.

Quantitative Descriptive

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• Longitudinal designs examine changes in the same subjects over an extended period.• Cross sectional designs are used to examine groups of subjects in various stages of development simultaneously with the intent to describe changes in the phenomenon across stages.

Quantitative Descriptive• 3 Primary longitudinal designs 1. Trend studies: the general population is studied at different points over a long period of time. Participants are not the same at each period but they are representative of the population at that time.Quantitative Descriptive 2. Cohort studies: focus on the same specific population each time data are collected, samples may be composed of different subjects but with similar characteristics. 3. Panel studies: use the same respondents for each progressive time period that the data are collected. Characteristics of a True Experiment• Manipulation: the researcher manipulates i.e. provides intervention or treatment in the experimental group. The independent variable is manipulated to assess its effect on the dependent variable.

Characteristics of a True Experiment• Control: imposing of rules by the researcher to decrease the possibility of error and increase the probability that the study’s findings are an accurate reflection of reality.

Characteristics of a True Experiment• Ways of control: 1. Homogenecity: the researcher limits the subjects to only one level of extraneous variable to reduce the impact on study findings

Characteristics of a True Experiment2. Blocking: including the extraneous variable as part of the design3. Matching: it is used when a subject in the experimental group is randomly selected and then a subject similar in relation to important extraneous variables is randomly selected for the control group.

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Characteristics of a True Experiment• Randomization: each individual in the population should have a greater than zero opportunity to be selected for the sample. Random assignment is the assignment of subjects to treatment conditions in a manner determined by chance.

Quantitative Experimental• Pre-experimental design is a research design that does not include mechanisms to compensate for the absence of either randomization or a control group. Done as a preliminary study.Designs: Pre-experimental• One shot case study• Notation X O• Where: X – Treatment/intervention O - Posttest

Designs: Pre-experimental• Posttest only design with comparison group• Notation Experimental group X O1

Control group O2

Designs: Pre-experimental• One-Group Pretest Posttest Design• Notation: O1 X O2

• Where: O1 – Pretest X - Treatment/Intervention O2 - Posttest

Designs: Pre-experimental• Static Group Comparison• Notation: X O1 ------------------ O2

Where: X – Treatment/Intervention O1 – Experimental posttest

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O2 – Control posttest ---- - Non-random selectionQuantitative Experimental• True experimental designs possess the characteristics of a true experiment.True Experimental Designs• Pretest Posttest Control Group Design or Classical Experimental Design• Notation: R S O1 X O2

____________________

R C O3 O4

True Experimental Designs• Where: R – Random assignment O1 – Experimental pretest O2 - Experimental posttest O3 – Control pretest O4 – Control posttest X - Treatment/Intervention S – Study group C – Control group

True Experimental Designs• Solomon Four Group Design• Notation: R S O1 X O2

R C O3 O4

R S X O5

R C O6

Quantitative Experimental• Quasi-experimental designs are studies involving an intervention in which subjects are not randomly assigned to treatment conditions but the researcher exercises controls to enhance the study’s internal validity.Quasi-experimental Designs• Time series experiment O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

• Non-equivalent control group design O1 X O2 ---------------------

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O3 O4

Threats to Experimental Validity• Internal validity: refers to the condition that the observed differences on the dependent variable are a direct result of the manipulation of the independent variable, not some other variable

Threats to Experimental Validity• Threats to internal validity History effect: an event that is not related to the planned study but occurs during the time of the study and could influence the responses of subjects to the treatment

Threats to Experimental ValiditySelection threat is more likely to occur in studies in which randomization is not possibleMaturation is defined as growing older, wiser, stronger, hungrier, more tired, or more experienced during the study. Unplanned and unrecognized changes can influence the findings of the study.

Threats to Experimental ValidityMortality is due to subjects who drop out of a study before completion• External validity refers to the condition wherein the results are generalizable or applicable to groups and environments outside of the experimental setting

Epidemiological Designs• Two broad classifications 1. Observational studies – examine associations between risk factors and outcomes 2. Intervention studies – explore the association between interventions and outcomes Epidemiological Designs• Observational studies 1. Analytical – determinants and risk of disease 2. Descriptive – patterns and frequency of diseaseEpidemiological Designs • Intervention or experimental studies - provides the strongest clinical evidence. 1.) Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial (RCT) - A prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary data generated in the clinical environment.

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Individuals similar at the beginning are randomly allocated to two or more treatment groups and the outcomes the groups are compared after sufficient follow-up time. Properly executed, the RCT is the strongest evidence of the clinical efficacy of preventive and therapeutic procedures in the clinical setting.

Epidemiological Designs 2. Randomized Cross-Over Clinical Trial - A prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary data generated in the clinical environment. Individuals with a chronic condition are randomly allocated to one of two treatment groups, and, after a sufficient treatment period and often a washout period, are switched to the other treatment for the same period. Epidemiological Designs 3. Randomized Controlled Laboratory Study - A prospective, analytical, experimental study using primary data generated in the laboratory environment. Laboratory studies are very powerful tools for doing basic research because all extraneous factors other than those of interest can be controlled or accounted for (e.g., age, gender, genetics, nutrition, environment, co-morbidity, strain of infectious agent) Epidemiological DesignsObservational studies 1. Cohort (Incidence, Longitudinal Study) - A prospective, analytical, observational study, based on data, usually primary, from a follow-up period of a group in which some have had, have or will have the exposure of interest, to determine the association between that exposure and an outcome. Epidemiological Designs 2. Case-Control Study - A retrospective, analytical, observational study often based on secondary data in which the proportion of cases with a potential risk factor are compared to the proportion of controls (individuals without the disease) with the same risk factor. The common association measure for a case-control study is the odds ratio. Epidemiological Designs 3. Ecologic (Aggregate) Study - An observational analytical study based on aggregated secondary data. Aggregate data on risk factors and disease prevalence from different population groups is compared to identify associations. Epidemiological Designs 4. Cross-Sectional (Prevalence Study) Study - A descriptive study of the relationship between diseases and other factors at one point in time (usually) in a defined population Epidemiological Designs 5. Case Series - A descriptive, observational study of a series of cases, typically describing the manifestations, clinical course, and prognosis of a condition. Epidemiological Designs

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6. Case Report - Anecdotal evidence. A description of a single case, typically describing the manifestations, clinical course, and prognosis of that case. Qualitative Designs• Qualitative designs uses systematic, interactive approach which is used to describe life experiences and give them meaning.Qualitative Phenomenology• Phenomenological design is used to describe experiences as they are lived• Bracketing is the suspension of the researcher’s preconceptions, prejudices and beliefs so that they do not interfere with or influences their description of the respondent’s experience.

Qualitative Grounded Theory• Grounded theory provides a way to transcend experience – to move it from a description of what is happening to understanding the process by which it happens.Qualitative Ethnographic• Ethnographic design provides a mechanism for studying our own culture and that of others.

Qualitative Historical• Historical design is the systematic collection and critical evaluation of data relating to past occurrences. External criticism: authenticity and genuiness of data Internal criticism: worthiness or truthfulness of data

Qualitative Philosophical Inquiry• Philosophical inquiry considers an idea or an issue from all perspectives by extensively exploring the literature, examining conceptual meaning, raising questions, providing answers, and suggesting the implications of those answers. Qualitative Critical Social Theory• Critical social theory dares to question the unquestioned and uncovers injustice and inequity in the society.

Qualitative Feminist Research• Feminist research is based on the premise that gender is a central construct in a society that privileges men and marginalizes women. It seeks to equalize power relations by using a broad range of methodologies.Case Study

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• Involves an extensive exploration of a single unit of study, such as a person, family, group, community, or institution, or a very small number of subjects who are examined intensively. It may have both quantitative and qualitative elements. Used for rare, interesting, or representative cases

Triangulation• It is the combined use of two or more theories, methods, data sources, investigators, or analysis methods in the study of the same phenomenon.

RememberThe KEY in choosing the research design

The best research design is the one that is most appropriate for the problem and the purpose of the study.

SampleMa. Irma C. Bustamante, RN, PhD

Definitions• Sampling involves selecting a group of people, events, behaviors, or other elements with which to conduct a study.• Sampling plan defines the process of making the selection.• Sample defines the selected group of people or elements.• Population or target population is the entire set of individuals or elements who meet the sampling criteria.

Definitions• Sampling criteria list the characteristics essential for membership in the target population.• Accessible population is the portion of the target population to which the researcher has reasonable access.• Elements are the entities that make up the sample or the population

Definitions• Sampling frame is a list of all cases, objects, or groups of cases in the populations.• Generalizing means that the findings can be applied to the population.

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• Representativeness means that the sample must be like the population in as many ways as possible.

Categories of Sampling Plans• Probability sampling: a process in which each element of the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the sample. There is randomization.

• Non-probability sampling: elements are selected by non-random methodsSample SizeRULE: The larger the sample, the more representative of the population.• Minimum acceptable sample size 1. Descriptive: 10 – 20% of the population 2. Correlational: 30 subjects 3. Ex post facto: 15 subjects 4. Experimental: 15 – 30 subjects per group Gay and Diehl,1992

Sample Size• Slovin’s Formula n = N 1 + Ne2

Where: n = sample size N = population e = desired margin of error ( 0.05 or 0.01 )

Probability Techniques• Simple random: sampling by chance either by lottery or by the use of table of random numbersProbability Techniques• Stratified random: involves taking certain areas of the population, dividing the areas into sections, and then taking a random sample from each section.

Probability Techniques• Systematic sampling: every nth name from a roster of names can be taken as sample. K = N/nWhere: K = sampling interval N = population n = sample size

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Probability Techniques• Cluster sampling: sampling in groups

Probability Techniques• Multi-stage sampling: used for extremely large populations. It proceeds through a set of stages from larger to smaller sampling units.

Non-probability Techniques• Purposive or judgmental: subjects are hand picked to be included in the sample, based upon the researcher’s knowledge of the population.

Non-probability Techniques• Quota sampling: researchers identify strata of the population and then determine how many participants are needed from each stratum to meet a quota.Non-probability Techniques• Accidental, convenience, incidental: utilizes readily available subjects

Non-probability Techniques• Snowball or network: subjects act as informants who identify others for inclusion in the sample who in turn leads to more samplesSteps in Sampling• General outline of procedures 1. Identify the target population 2. Identify the accessible population 3. Decide the sample size and how the sample will be taken. 4. Recruit subjects according to the designated plan. 5. Obtain the subject’s cooperation.N.B. The steps may vary from one sampling design to another

Qualitative sampling• Sample size is not predetermined in qualitative research

• Saturation: is the point in data gathering where no new data emerge therefore sampling is stopped. There is data repetition.

Data CollectionGoal and Purpose• Goal – to collect data that are meaningful for the purpose of the study• Meaningful data depend on the quality of the instrument employed in the

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• No amount of sophisticated statistics can salvage a poor set of data gathered through defective instruments.

Questionnaire• Questionnaire: a paper and pencil instrument completed by the study

subjects

• Formats 1. Checklist 2. Multiple Choice 3. Rating Scales: list an ordered series of categories of a variable assumed to be based on an underlying continuum. A numerical value is assigned to each category.

Questionnaire Formats• Checklist• Multiple Choice• Rating Scale and Ranking Type

Interview• Interview involves verbal communication between the researcher and the

subject

• Interview structure is the amount of direction and restriction imposed by the interview situation

Interview Types• Structured: the interviewer has a list of prepared questions in the form of an

interview schedule

• Unstructured interview: more like a conversation. The interviewer uses an interview guide

Interview ToolsObservation• Observation: involves looking at the phenomenon• Used to study human behavior• Hawthorne effect: is the effect on the dependent variable caused by the

subject’s awareness that they are participants in a study

Types of Observation

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• Structured observation is one in which aspects of the phenomenon to be observed are decided in advance

• Unstructured observation is a nonselective description of the phenomenon to be observed

Types of Observation• Participant observation is done when the researcher is involved in the

setting with the subject• Non-participant observation is when the researcher is merely viewing the

situation

Records• Records are prepared and preexisting data• Selective deposit and selective survival are the two major sources of bias.• Records available for use may not constitute the entire set of all possible

data.

Physiologic Measurement• Physiologic measurements are techniques used to measure physiologic

variables either directly or indirectly. This is also called biophysiologic measures

• Used in clinical nursing studies • The choice of the physiologic measure is dependent upon its ability to yield

good information.

Physiologic Measurement Criteria for effective question• Clarity of language• Specificity of content and time period• Singleness of purpose• Freedom from assumption• Freedom from suggestion• Linguistic completeness• Grammatical consistency

Types of questions• Closed ended: respondents answer a number of alternative responses

1. Dichotomous: two response alternative 2. Multichotomous: multiple responses• Open ended: respondents are given enough flexibility to answer questions

or specify answers other than those found in the questionnaire

Characteristics of tools31

• Validity refers to the ability of a data gathering instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure and to obtain data relevant to what is being measured.

• Reliability refers to the ability to obtain consistent results when reused.

Data Analysis and InterpretationData Analysis• Data analysis is the systematic organization and synthesis of research data and, in most quantitative studies, the testing of the hypotheses using those data. Quantitative Analysis• The manipulation of numerical data through statistical procedures for the purpose of describing phenomenon or assessing the magnitude and reliability of relationships among them.

Quantitative Analysis• Purposes of statistics Summarize Organize Evaluate Numeric Interpret Information Communicate

Quantitative Analysis• Factors to consider in choosing the appropriate statistical test 1. Purpose of the study 2. Research questions 3. Number and measure of variables 4. Sampling technique and sample size 5.Availability of statistical software 6. Ability of the researcherQuantitative Analysis• Branches of statistics 1. Descriptive statistics used to describe and synthesize data obtained from empirical observations and measurements. 2. Inferential statistics: it is concerned with making decisions about a large body of data in the population of interest by using a sample of that universe.

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Quantitative Analysis• A set of data can be summarized in terms of 3 characteristics

1. Shape of distribution 2. Central tendency 3. VariabilityQUAN - Shape of distribution• Frequency distribution is a systematic arrangement of numerical values from the lowest to the highest, together with a count of the number of times each value was obtained.• A frequency distribution can be obtained graphically by means of a frequency polygon

QUAN - Shape of distribution• Scores in a pilot survey on patient satisfaction 1 4 3 4 3 3 2 2 5 1 3 2 2 3 4 31 = Very dissatisfied 4 = Satisfied2 = Dissatisfied 5 = Very Satisfied3 = A little satisfied

QUAN - Shape of distribution• Frequency distribution Frequency Table _________________________________ Score Frequency ( f ) Percentage 1 2 12.50% 2 4 25.00% 3 6 37.50% 4 3 18.75% 5 1 6.25% n = 16 100%

QUAN - Shape of distribution• Frequency polygon

QUAN - Shape of distribution• A distribution is said to be symmetrical in shape if when folded over, the two halves of a frequency polygon would be superimposed.

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Shape: Symmetrical DistributionsShape: Symmetrical DistributionsShape: Asymmetrical DistributionsPositively Skewed: Tail points to the rightShape: Asymmetrical Distributions• Example – Positively skewed distribution Personal income – most people have low to moderate income with very few at the tail end. The mean is larger than the median because there are so many low scores.Shape: Asymmetrical DistributionsNegatively skewed: Tail points to the leftShape: Asymmetrical Distributions• Example – Negatively skewed distribution Age at death – most people die when they are old, few die when they are young. The bulk of the people are at the upper end of the distribution. The median is larger than the mean because there are so many high scores.

Shape: Kurtosis• Kurtosis explains the degree of peakedness of the curve, which is related to the spread of variance of scores.• Extreme kurtosis can affect the validity of statistical analysis because the scores have little variationShape: KurtosisQUAN – Central Tendency• Mode – that numerical value in a distribution that occurs most frequently• Median – that point in a distribution above which and below which 50% of the subjects fall• Mean – the point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of scores divided by the number of scores. It is also known as average.

QUAN – Variability• Standard deviation (SD) captures the degree to which the scores deviate from one another. The SD tells us how much on the average the scores deviate from the mean. It also tells us the homogenecity or heterogenecity of the group.• Range is the highest score minus the lowest score.

QUAN – Measurement levels• Nominal – lowest level; name categories; assignment of numbers to simply classify characteristics into categories• Ordinal – attributes are ordered or ranked according to some criterion• Interval The distance between

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0 ≠ 0 any 2 numbers on the• Ratio – Highest scale are 0 = 0 of known and equal sizeQualitative Analysis• Qualitative analysis is the organization and interpretation of non-numerical data for the purpose of discovering important underlying dimensions and patterns of relationshipsQualitative Analysis Data analysis componentsQualitative Analysis• Categories are underlying regularities, concepts, and clusters of concepts.• Themes develop within categories of data. They emerge from the data. A theme is an abstract entity that brings meaning and identity to experiences and its variant manifestations. It captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole.

Qualitative Analysis Process• Comprehending – making sense of the data and learning “what is going on” and preparing a thorough description of the phenomenon.

Qualitative Analysis Process• Synthesizing – involves sifting of the data and putting pieces together. Researchers get a sense of what is typical with regard to the phenomenon and what variation is like.Qualitative Analysis Process• Theorizing – involves a systematic sorting of the data. Researchers develop alternative explanations of the phenomenon and then hold these explanations up to determine their fit with the data.Qualitative Analysis Process• Recontextualizing – involves the further development of the theory such that its applicability to other settings or groups is explored.

Writing the Research ReportPurpose in writing the report• To communicate in writing: the problem investigated, the methods used, the findings generated, the interpretation of results, the integration with the theory, what conclusions have been drawn at the end, and how the findings relate to past research.

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Writing the introduction and problem• Go directly into what the problem is investigating.• State the rationale.• Include key previous researches to strengthen the reason for the investigation.• Include the significance, scope and limitations, & definition of terms.Writing the literature review• Include conflicting viewpoints of various authors.• State how each literature relates to the topic under investigation.• Put together references saying the same thing.• Learn to choose ONLY relevant literature.Writing the methodology• Include the research design and the justification of why it was chosen.• Present the population and the sampling design, setting, and sample size.• Describe the tool used together with the validity and reliability testing.• Discuss how the data was analyzed.Writing the results & discussion • Present results in a logical order with the research question as guide.• Use tables, figures, and other devises to maximize the lucidity of the presentation.• Text should be followed by tables.• Consistency in style should be followed in writing the discussion.• RESULTS are data bound: DISCUSSION is data based Writing the summary• The summary puts together the highlights of the important findings of the investigation.• Look back at the questions and tie them up with the main findings.• Do not write everything in the findings in the summary.Writing the conclusions• REMEMBER: the conclusion is an abstraction drawn from the summary of findings and is tied from the question investigated.Writing recommendations

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• Recommendations should have a logical link with the data and the conclusions.• Recommendations are geared towards: education, practice, future research, population or institution if applicable.Characteristics of scientific writing• Simplicity• Conciseness• Straight forwardness• Consistency in the use of terms• Continuity through transitional sentences• Accuracy• Parsimony

Communicating Research• Communicating research findings, the final step in the research process, involves developing a research report and disseminating it through presentations and publications to audiences of nurses, health care professionals, policy makers, and health consumers.Advantages• Researchers are able to advance the knowledge of a discipline.• Researchers receive personal recognition and professional advancement• It promotes critique and replication• It helps identify additional problems• Promotes the use of research findings in practiceAvenues for communicating research• Publication in journals including on-line journals• Oral presentation in conferences• Poster presentation in conferences• Publication in conference proceedings• Publication in other sources e.g. books, newspapers, magazines

REMEMBER Genius is the ability to reduce the complicated to the simple.

C. W. Cheran

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