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Ethics and Politics of Ethics and Politics of ResearchResearch
Ethics deals with methods used in research. Ethics deals with methods used in research.
Politics deals with representation of Politics deals with representation of research.research. James Colemen and School Desegregation James Colemen and School Desegregation Eminent sociologist who found little difference in Eminent sociologist who found little difference in
the academic performance of African-Americans the academic performance of African-Americans in integrated vs. segregated schoolsin integrated vs. segregated schools
Instead family and neighborhood mattered most Instead family and neighborhood mattered most Controversy and misrepresentationControversy and misrepresentation
Ethics in Social Ethics in Social ResearchResearch
Voluntary participation.Voluntary participation.
No harm to participants.No harm to participants. Voluntary participation is based on a full Voluntary participation is based on a full
understanding of possible risks.understanding of possible risks.
Anonymity and confidentiality.Anonymity and confidentiality.
Ethics in Social Ethics in Social ResearchResearch
DeceptionDeception Needs to be justified by compelling scientific Needs to be justified by compelling scientific
or administrative concerns.or administrative concerns. Debriefing session or procedureDebriefing session or procedure
Analysis and ReportingAnalysis and Reporting Researchers must be honest about their Researchers must be honest about their
findings and research.findings and research.
Ethics in Social Ethics in Social ResearchResearch
Institutional Review Boards Institutional Review Boards Review research proposals involving humans Review research proposals involving humans
so they can guarantee the rights and interests so they can guarantee the rights and interests are protected.are protected.
Professional Codes of EthicsProfessional Codes of Ethics Most professional associations have formal Most professional associations have formal
codes of conduct that describe acceptable and codes of conduct that describe acceptable and unacceptable professional behavior.unacceptable professional behavior.
Ethical Controversy: Ethical Controversy: TearoomsTearooms
Study of homosexual behavior in Study of homosexual behavior in public restroomspublic restrooms
Lied to participants by telling them Lied to participants by telling them he was a “watchqueen”he was a “watchqueen”
Traced participants to their home and Traced participants to their home and interviewed them under false interviewed them under false pretensespretenses Invasion of privacy?Invasion of privacy? Deception of respondents?Deception of respondents?
Ethical Controversy: Ethical Controversy: MilgramMilgram
Study of human obedience.Study of human obedience.
Subjects had role of "teacher" and Subjects had role of "teacher" and administered a shock to "pupils".administered a shock to "pupils".
Pupils were actually part of the Pupils were actually part of the experiment.experiment. Act out the effects of progressively higher Act out the effects of progressively higher
“shocks”“shocks” Two-third continue to the highest levelTwo-third continue to the highest level ““teachers” express great discomfortteachers” express great discomfort
Group ExerciseGroup Exercise
Would you use research insights gained Would you use research insights gained from research conducted in violation of from research conducted in violation of ethical guidelines? ethical guidelines? Ex., Tuskegee Airman StudiesEx., Tuskegee Airman Studies Ex., Nazi War ExperimentsEx., Nazi War Experiments
Would you conduct a study that did not Would you conduct a study that did not get IRB approval if you thought the get IRB approval if you thought the topic was important?topic was important? Ex. Public responses to major news eventEx. Public responses to major news event Ex. Studying the health effects of an oil spillEx. Studying the health effects of an oil spill
Nature of InquiryNature of Inquiry
What question are you trying to answer?What question are you trying to answer? Pick the appropriate approachPick the appropriate approach
Do you want to explain one case fully or Do you want to explain one case fully or understand a class of cases?understand a class of cases? Different approaches with different goalsDifferent approaches with different goals
Idiographic vs. Idiographic vs. NomotheticNomothetic
Two ends of a continuum of inquiryTwo ends of a continuum of inquiry
The Idiographic OrientationThe Idiographic Orientation Unique characteristics of phenomena:Unique characteristics of phenomena:
Rich description of “idiosyncratic” featuresRich description of “idiosyncratic” features Intention is to explain one case fullyIntention is to explain one case fully
The Nomothetic OrientationThe Nomothetic Orientation Generating generalizable principlesGenerating generalizable principles
Establishing “trans-situational” lawsEstablishing “trans-situational” laws Intention is to explain a class Intention is to explain a class
Inductive ReasoningInductive Reasoning
Moves from the particular to the Moves from the particular to the generalgeneral
Observations lead to generalizationsObservations lead to generalizations
Exploratory investigationExploratory investigation
E.g., Identifying news frames through E.g., Identifying news frames through ethnographic study of newsroom ethnographic study of newsroom culture and news production practicesculture and news production practices Identifying frames as you encounter themIdentifying frames as you encounter them
Deductive ReasoningDeductive Reasoning
Moves from the general to the particularMoves from the general to the particular
General principles lead to expectations for General principles lead to expectations for empirical testingempirical testing
Theory testing investigationTheory testing investigation
E.g., Using theories of news production to:E.g., Using theories of news production to: Predict certain frames will occur more Predict certain frames will occur more
frequentlyfrequently Episodic over thematic framing (Iyengar’s Episodic over thematic framing (Iyengar’s
research)research)
Wallace’s Wheel of Wallace’s Wheel of ScienceScience
Theories
EmpiricalGeneralizations Hypotheses
Observations
INDUCTION DEDUCTION
CONCRETE
ABSTRACT
Creating ExplanationsCreating Explanations
Research often seeks explanations by:Research often seeks explanations by: examining relationships between variablesexamining relationships between variables E.g. Is gender related to party preference?E.g. Is gender related to party preference? E.g. Is education related to prejudice?E.g. Is education related to prejudice? E.g. Is political discussion related to civic E.g. Is political discussion related to civic
participation?participation?
Conditions of Conditions of Causality:Causality:
CovariationCovariation Correspondence between cause and effectCorrespondence between cause and effect Positive or negative covariationPositive or negative covariation
Time-orderTime-order Cause must precede effectCause must precede effect
Absence of third variablesAbsence of third variables Spurious relationshipsSpurious relationships
Spurious RelationshipsSpurious Relationships
Situations where X and Y appear to be Situations where X and Y appear to be related:related: But are really the function of third variable ZBut are really the function of third variable Z
1. Antecedent variable1. Antecedent variable Z causes both X and YZ causes both X and Y
2. Intervening variable2. Intervening variable X causes Z, Z causes XX causes Z, Z causes X
Causation is rarely as simple as X causing YCausation is rarely as simple as X causing Y Multitude of factors cause YMultitude of factors cause Y
Contribute in varying amountsContribute in varying amounts
Necessary & Sufficient Necessary & Sufficient CausesCauses
Necessary Cause:Necessary Cause: For Y to occur, X For Y to occur, X mustmust occur first occur first Just because X occurs, doesn’t mean Y will Just because X occurs, doesn’t mean Y will
occuroccur Other factors may have to occur tooOther factors may have to occur too To pass the test, you must take the testTo pass the test, you must take the test
Sufficient Cause:Sufficient Cause: If X occurs, Y will occurIf X occurs, Y will occur X determines Y, no contingenciesX determines Y, no contingencies Other factors may also have the effectOther factors may also have the effect If you skip an exam, you fail the examIf you skip an exam, you fail the exam