Research Article Spatial Distribution of Elephants versus ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ae/2016/8038524.pdf · Secondary forest, water availability, poaching activity, ... (GPS)

Research ArticleSpatial Distribution of Elephants versus Human and EcologicalVariables in Western Ghana

Emmanuel Danquah

Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources College of Agriculture and Natural ResourcesKwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Kumasi Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Emmanuel Danquah emmanueldanquahgmailcom

Received 28 June 2016 Accepted 17 November 2016

Academic Editor Daniel I Rubenstein

Copyright copy 2016 Emmanuel DanquahThis is an open access article distributed under theCreativeCommonsAttribution Licensewhich permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

An elephant survey was conducted in the Bia-Goaso Forest Block in westernGhana during the wet seasonmonth of November 2012to determine the distribution of elephants and assess the human and ecological variables that affect them One hundred and thirty1-kilometre transects were systematically distributed in three strata (high medium and low density) based on elephant dung piledensity recorded in an initial reconnaissance Elephant activity was concentrated in southern and mid-Bia Conservation Area thesouthern tip of Bia North Forest Reserve and eastern Mpameso Forest Reserve towards the adjoining Bia Shelter belt indicatinga clumped distribution Secondary forest water availability poaching activity and proximity to roads and settlements explaineda high proportion of variance in elephant distribution Given that the Bia-Goaso Forest Block forms an important biogeographiccorridor between Ghana and Cote drsquoIvoire more effort should be directed at mitigating the problems such as poaching activityvehicular traffic and impacts of settlements that hinder seasonalmovements of forest elephants betweenwesternGhana and easternCote drsquoIvoire

1 Introduction

Habitat encroachment by humans presents some of thebiggest problems confronting modern wildlife conservation[1] Present human population growth and its attendantincreasing demand for space and resources directly affectwildlife habitat quality [2]The outcomes of habitat encroach-ment include reduction in wildlife habitat which sometimeslead to local extinction of some species and human-wildlifeconflicts Many wildlife corridors connecting fragmentedhabitats are being cleared rapidly for human settlements [34] Large migratory mammals are especially at risk to thisfragmentation Reference [5] argued that human encroach-ment leading to wildlife habitat fragmentation may be one ofthe most serious threats elephants face in Africa

Because of the variation in ecological and administrativeboundaries large mammals often migrate outside the limitsof these protected areas [6] Consequently some large mam-mals particularly elephants may stray into adjacent commu-nity lands regardless of the security threats These contactswith community lands in elephant ranges in Africa andAsia have resulted in increased human-elephant conflicts

Generallymaturing crops in adjacent farms attract elephantswhich can lead to confrontations and the destruction ofthe whole annual produce of a farmer overnight Usuallythe farmer risks his personal safety in most times Avail-able records suggest that crop-raiding is common whereverhumans live in close proximity to elephants Within Asiacountries like India [7] Nepal [8] Sumatra [9] and Malaysia[10] have been affected by this problem Other areas wherethis problem persists include African countries like Ghana[11 12] Kenya [13] Mozambique [14] Rwanda [15] Benin[16] and Zimbabwe [17]

Elephant population increase in fragmented habitatsthat lack existing migratory routes can sometimes lead tosignificant pressure on local ecological resources which mayresult in serious destruction of wildlife habitat [18 19] Thisproblem has been a grave concern for wildlife managerssince the early 1960s because it mostly leads to decimationof woodlands by elephants [20]

Identifying the determinants of elephant dispersal in anarea is a necessary requirement for natural resourcemanagersand biologists to appreciate the intricacies between elephantsand their environment [1] Such information is important

Hindawi Publishing CorporationAdvances in EcologyVolume 2016 Article ID 8038524 8 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520168038524

2 Advances in Ecology

minus3∘00

998400

minus3∘00

998400

minus2∘30

998400

6∘00

9984006∘00

998400

5∘30

998400

N

0 2 4

(km)

Figure 1 Study area showing wildlife reserves forest reserves andshelterbelts

for prioritization of areas for elephant population protectionand to strengthen the argument for conservation of thosecritical areas [1] Conservation strategies that aim at the long-term protection of flagship species like elephant will not onlybenefit elephants but also safeguard other species within itsrange [21]

Ongoing studies have explored wildlife distributionsversus environmental factors based on time consumingground and expensive aerial surveys [1] Nevertheless a smallnumber of these studies have employed the use of existinggeographic information such as satellite images and GlobalPositioning System (GPS) location data into a GeographicInformation Systems (GIS) [1] This study recorded elephantincidents in spatial subdivisions of one ecosystem in the wetseason of 2012 The analysis is concerned with investigatingassociations with possible ecological and human explana-tory variables vegetation type altitude poaching activitylogging activity water sources fruiting trees and proximityto forest edge roads international boundary Wildlife Divi-sion (WD)Forestry Service Division (FSD) guard post andhuman settlement Regression analyses were used to inves-tigate which of the possible explanatory variables influenceelephant distribution in the Bia-Goaso Forest Block (BGFB)

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Area The study was undertaken in the forest zoneof western Ghana in the Bia-Goaso Forest Block (BGFB)TheBGFB comprises the Bia Conservation Area (Bia NationalPark and Bia Resource Reserve) and an extensive networkof 9 forest reserves (Figure 1) south of Sunyani and to thewest of the Tano River to the Ghana-Cote drsquoIvoire borderThe natural land cover corresponds to the tropical moist

minus3∘00

998400

minus3∘00

998400

minus2∘30

998400

minus2∘30

998400

6∘00

9984006∘00

998400

5∘30

9984005∘30

998400

N

0 2 4

(km)

High density stratumMedium density stratumLow density stratum

Figure 2 Study area showing distribution of strata

forest of the Guinea-Congolian forest vegetation At thenorth the vegetation is dry semideciduous however moresouthwards the vegetation changes to the moist decidu-ous vegetation type [22] Key commercial species of theseforests are Triplochiton scleroxylon Entandrophragma utileand E cylinderium with the climbing palms Ancistrophyllumsecundiflorum and Calamus deerratus being characteristicof swampy areas The mean elevation is 200ndash550m withgenerally undulating topography Mean annual rainfall is680ndash1450mmyear characterized by a bimodal wet seasonfromMarch to July and September to November and a majordry season from December to February

22 Reconnaissance (Recce) Survey A one-week reconnais-sance (recce) exercise was undertaken in the study area inOctober 2012 to assess relative densities of elephant signs(dung and tracks) A team spent each recce day per reservefollowing paths and trails on predetermined bearings andrecorded elephant signs as to when possible Distance wascalculated with a Global Positioning System (GPS) Notes onillegal activities such as wood cutting grazing and poachingwere also recorded The period also provided the teamwith the opportunity to predict logistical problems and testoperational procedures

23 Stratification and Transect Layout Based on dung den-sities recorded in the recce the BGFB was stratified into 3strata namely low (1ndash4 dung piles per km) medium (5ndash8dung piles per km) and high (9ndash12 dung piles per km) densitystrata (Figure 2) The high density stratum constituted the

Advances in Ecology 3

southern half of the Bia RR The medium density stratumconsisted of the remaining northern half of the Bia RR theeastern portion of theMpameso FR (about 6 km along the BiaRiver) and Bia Shelterbelt The low density stratum coveredthe Bia NP the remaining western portions of Mpameso FRand the rest of the forest reserves in the study area

In a grid consisting of cells each one-minute of latitude orlongitude was placed over a map of the study area using theMAPINFO software package The intersections of the linesformed the likely start points for each transect In all 130transects of length one kilometre each was distributed withinthe various strata based on the respective dung densitiesrecorded in the recce survey [23 24]This gave 70 transects inthe low 30 transects in the medium and 30 transects in thehigh density stratum Transect orientationwas perpendicularto themain drainage lines of the area Since themainRiver Biaflows fromnorth to south our transects ran from east to west

24 Field Survey An elephant dung count survey using theline transect method [23 25 26] was conducted in the studyarea in the wet season (November 2012) Three survey teamsof three persons each and led by a compass man (teamleader) were maintained throughout the counts to ensureconsistency in data collection procedures Straight transectswere maintained throughout the survey

The starting point of each transect was reached bynavigating with a compass and a GPS Once on the transectonly those dung seen from the transect centre-line wererecorded The compass man sighted on a stake held by aline cutter Once the stake was correctly aligned all walkedin a straight line towards the line cutter scrutinising theundergrowth on either side for elephant dung The length oftransects was measured with a GPS

The following notes were made each time a dung wasrecorded the distance along the transect measured by theGPS and the perpendicular distance from the dung to thetransect centre-line measured with a tape-measure Thestages of dung decay were classified based on the MIKE SSystem [27] Other notes were made along the transect par-ticularly of ecological and human factors that might explainthe distribution of large mammals length of secondaryforest (disturbed vegetation) altitude water sources (pondsrivers and streams) fruiting trees and signs of poachingand logging activity Using GIS the distance between eachtransect and the nearest forest edge major road international(Cote drsquoIvoire) boundary WDFSD guard post and humansettlement was measured Major roads were classified asroads linking any two villages usually with a minimum of 10vehicles plying along the road per hour

25 Data Analysis

251 Elephant Distribution All transects where elephantdung was recorded were noted and their coordinates weremarked using a Global Positioning System (GPS) The coor-dinates were digitized into a Geographic Information System(GIS ArcView Spatial Analyst version 90 EnvironmentalSystems Research Institute Redlands CA USA) and pro-cessed into an overall elephant distribution map

minus3∘00

998400

minus3∘00

998400

minus2∘30

998400

minus2∘30

998400

6∘00

9984006∘00

998400

5∘30

9984005∘30

998400

N0 2 4

(km)

9ndash12 indices per km5ndash8 indices per km1ndash4 indices per km

AbsentInternational boundaryBia River

Figure 3 Distribution of elephant dung piles for the study period

252 Factors Influencing Elephant Distribution All variableswere statistically treated before analysis Regression analyseswere used to investigate relationships between the elephantdung data and variables recorded on transects to determinewhich factors influence elephant distribution in the BGFB Inthis case the statistics package StatView 501 was used

3 Results31 Elephant Distribution Most elephant activities were con-centrated at the south and south-eastern sections of the BiaResource Reserve (Bia RR) and thinly spread northwardsinto the Bia National Park (Bia NP) In the Goaso rangeelephant activities were only in the south-eastern tip of theBiaNorth FR and easternMpameso FR towards the adjoiningBia Shelterbelt There was no activity of elephants in the restof the forest reserves (Figure 3)

The distribution of elephant dung piles recorded dur-ing the main field survey followed closed the distributionobserved during the recce except that in the main fieldsurvey a few very old elephant activities were also recordedin the southern tip of the Bia North FR Judging fromthe proximity of Bia Conservation Area to Bia North FR(under 2 km) it is possible that some elephants might havemigrated from the Bia Conservation Area into the Bia NorthFR at the time of the survey (Figure 3) The results suggestthat the BGFB elephant range may be partitioned into twomain populations Bia conservation area population and theMpameso-Bia SB population (hereby referred to as Goasopopulation)


Table 1 Regression coefficients (119903119904) between dung per km and a

suite of human or ecological variables recorded on transects in thewet season

Description of variable 119903119904

119875

Length of secondary forest (km) 0878 lt001Number of water sources per km 0837 lt001Distance to nearest road (km) 0815 lt001Distance to the nearest humansettlement (km) 0783 lt001

Number of poaching activities perkm minus0698 lt005

Number of fruiting trees per km 0304 gt005 NSNumber of logging activities 0226 gt005 NSDistance to reserve boundary line(km) minus0218 gt005 NS

Distance to the internationalboundary (km) minus0144 gt005 NS

Distance to the nearest WDFSDguard post (km) 0127 gt005 NS

Altitude (m) minus0093 gt005 NS

32 Factors Influencing Elephant Distribution Secondaryforest (disturbed vegetation) (119903 = 0878 119875 lt 001) wateravailability (119903 = 0837 119875 lt 001) distance to nearest majorroads (119903 = 0815 119875 lt 001) distance to nearest humansettlements (119903 = 0783 119875 lt 001) and poaching activity(119903 = minus0698 119875 lt 005) had the most significant effects onthe distribution of elephants in the BGFB (Table 1)

The number of fruiting trees (119903 = 0304 119875 gt 005)logging activity (119903 = 0226 119875 gt 005) altitude (119903 = minus0093119875 gt 005) and distance to the reserve boundary line (119903 =minus0218 119875 gt 005) the Ivorian border (119903 = minus0144 119875 gt 005)or WDFSD guard post (119903 = 0127 119875 gt 005) did notinfluence elephant distribution significantly in the BGFB

321 Water Availability and Secondary Forest (DisturbedVegetation) The regression models indicated that presenceof water and secondary vegetation may be the strongestpredictors of elephant assemblage in the BGFB Elephantdung density generally increased steadily with increasingnumber of water sources per km (Figure 4) and lengthof disturbed forest vegetation (Figure 5) Highest numbersof elephant dung piles were recorded at higher intensitiesof water sources and secondary forest where tree cover isrelatively low

322 Proximity to Major Roads and Human SettlementsGenerally elephant density also increased steadily withincreasing distance from major roads (Figure 6) and humansettlements (Figure 7) Very low elephant dung piles wererecorded close to these human variables

323 Poaching Activity The regression model that describedelephant distribution with respect to poaching activity in theBGFB indicated an inverse relationship (Figure 8) Lowestelephant dung densities were recorded in areas of highpoaching activity

Y = 527 + 1521 lowast X minus 045 lowast X2 R2

= 837

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16minus2Number of water sources per km

Figure 4 Relationship between dung pile density andwater sources

Y = minus641 + 7268 lowast X + 4225 lowast X2 R2

= 878

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14N

umbe

r of d

ung

pile

s per

km

minus2 2 4 6 8 1 120Length of secondary forest (km)

Figure 5 Relationship between dung pile density and length ofsecondary forest


= 815

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m

0 25 5 75 10 125 15 175 20 225minus25Distance to major roads (km)

Figure 6 Relationship between dung pile density and distance tonearest major roads



= 783

minus25 25 5 75 10 125 15 175 20 2250Distance to main settlements (km)

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m

Figure 7 Relationship between dung pile density and distance tonearest human settlements

Y = 11942 minus 5875 lowast X + 905 lowast X2minus 032 lowast X

3 R2= 699

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7minus1Poaching activity per km

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m

Figure 8 Relationship between dung pile density and poachingactivity

Elephants were reported hunted but the intensity couldnot be ascertained during the study Nevertheless fourhundred and fifty-five (455) signs of poaching activity wereencountered in the survey Eighty-one (81) poaching activitieswere recorded in the Bia range (encounter rate = 068 perkm) 183 in the Mpameso range (encounter rate = 173 perkm) and 191 (encounter rate = 171 per km) in the forestssouth of Goaso

Poaching activities in the study area consisted mostlyof use of wire snares for large rodents and ungulates (84119899 = 455) Finding of empty cartridges cases (9) discardedcarbide from poacher headlamps (4) and poacher camps(3) also indicated the occurrence of poaching Twelve (12)gunshots were heard in the night during the entire surveyIllegal activities per km was significantly higher in the Goasoblock of reserves than in the Bia CA (Mann-Whitney 119880 test119880 = 4175 119875 lt 001)

4 Discussion41 Distribution of Elephants Formerly elephants werefound in both the Bia NP and the Bia RR [28 29] Howeversince timber companies started logging in Bia RR in theearly 80s [30] elephants migrated from the Bia NP andmoved downwards into the south-eastern portions of the BiaRR [30 31] References [28 29] attributed the absence ofelephants in the BiaNP as a temporal reaction to different andmore palatable secondary vegetation conditions created byloggingwithin the Bia RR Even though the survey confirmedelephant concentrations in southern Bia RR elephants werefound to be more widespread than previously thought Thestudy showed a medium elephant density stratum whichextended above the southern high density to the limits ofthe Bia NP and a low elephant density in the Bia NP [32]Thus the question that needs to be asked and investigated iswhy elephants seem to be gradually moving back into the BiaNP after a long period of absence There is every indicationthat close to two decades of the stoppage of logging in thesouthern portion of the BRR the vegetation is maturing andbecoming like elsewhere in the conservation area so makingelephants spread out themoreHence the currentwidespreaddistribution of elephants may be in response to the increasedoccurrence of maturing fruiting trees in other areas of thepark [31 33]

42 Factors within Reserves Analysis of dung pile distri-bution indicated that secondary forests and water sourcesaccounted for a large proportion of variation in elephantdistribution in the BGFB References [31 32] also reported apositive correlation between elephant abundance and num-ber of water sources per km Secondary forests and poolsor water sources which were more abundant in the southand south-eastern sections of the reserve were created as aresult of the logging activities of Mim Timber Company Inthe construction of their logging and hauling roads whichwere larger than those specified in Ghanarsquos Logging Manual[32] many streams have been blocked forming several poolsalong the sides of sections of the roads Also the originalprimary forests were converted to highly disturbed secondaryforests as a result of the logging actions Apart from theirdegraded and swampy nature the areas around these poolsare surrounded by very thick thorny vegetation which isvery difficult to traverse and hence likely to be avoidedby hunters [32] Therefore whilst the pools and associatedvegetation provided water and food respectively for theelephants the highly disturbed nature of the vegetationat their banks also gave protection to the elephants bywarding off poachers Elephantsrsquo low use of the northernsections of the Bia Conservation Area particularly the BiaNP may be more pronounced especially in the dry seasonwhen most rivers dry up Also as the Bia NP has not beenlogged for over three decades there are limited man-inducedpools or succulent secondary vegetation making it a lesspreferred area Consequently it seems that water availabilitymay feature strongly in influencing elephant movements anddistribution particularly in the dry season

The vegetation in the Goaso area is primarily secondaryforest hence water availability may be the most important


determinant of elephant assemblages Similarly [30] hasobserved the lack of water to be themain reason for elephantsmoving out of the forests in the Goaso area The distributionof elephants along rivers in the dry season is also welldocumented in the Goaso area [32 34] The authors showthat scarcity of water in an area and elephantsrsquo need forwater becomes the central theme for determining elephantdistribution At the Mpameso-Bia Shelterbelt area the mainBia River may be serving as a major source of water for mostof its elephants dung density per km was inversely related todistance from the Bia River Elephant distribution during thesurvey was concentrated in the eastern section of the reservealong theBiaRiverwhere a few elephant pondswere observedto contain water It is possible that most of the elephantsresiding in this area might have migrated to live close to theRiver Bia due to scarcity of water in other parts

Poaching activitywithin the BGFBwas found to influenceelephant distribution Even though there was a difference inthe level of illegal activity between Bia RR and theMpameso-Bia SB area the use of wire snares dominated the signs of ille-gal activity in comparison to huntingwith gunsHuntingwithguns possesses a greater threat to the elephant populationthan wire snares These observations imply that most of theillegal activity seen on the transects were those of small gamepoachers and were not targeted at elephants No poacher wasencountered even though three gunshots were heard duringthe day whilst 12 gunshots were heard in the night duringthe entire study period Poachers may have been active inthe night than daytime Information from wildlife guardsalso suggested that poachers avoided swampy vegetationpossibly because these areas had the highest concentration ofelephants and they feared encountering them

Elephants were reported hunted but the team could notascertain the intensity Park rangers expressed fears andconcern about an alleged presence of a group of poacherslurking in the vicinity of the reserve but therewas no evidenceto suggest that they operated in the park Historical evidenceindicated that in 1999 there were at least four officialelephant-poaching cases in BCA alone [33] At Adwuofia(a native community at north-eastern edge of Bia NP) anelephant was also reportedly killed in 2004 Considering thesmall number of elephants in the BGFB (223 elephants) theirlong-term viability will depend on earning the goodwill ofcommunity members

References [29 31] further reported significant correla-tions betweendungdensity and variables such as fruiting treeHowever this study found no such correlation In the BGFBelephants are known to feed on a wide variety of plant speciesincluding fruits of Tieghemella heckelii Balanites wilsonianaPanda oleosa and Parinari excelsa [29] It is possible that asthe logging in the south-eastern portion of the reserve hasceased since about two decades before the study that areano longer has the highest concentration of available fruitingtrees hence elephants are gradually dispersing to other areasof the reserve

43 Factors outside Reserves Roads and human settlementshad significant negative impacts on elephants in whichelephant showed strong road and settlement avoidance in

the off-reserve areas presumably as a result of increasedhunting activity near roads and human settlements [35]This is very important since information on the effect ofroads on elephant movement between reserves is vital indetermining gene flow between reserves The question isldquoCould the relatively narrow (usually lt 40m wide) roads actas a movement barrier to elephantsrdquo Off-reserve roads thatseparate reserves can significantly reduce local movementsbetween reserves and alter the behaviour of elephants [36]Roads could be far more difficult obstacles to strictly arborealspecies including various primate species Moreover theinhibitory effects of roads on movements of larger animalswill undoubtedly be on the ascendancy as human activitiesand local hunting pressure rise [37] and as road widthincreases [35] Across Gabon roads appear to have negativelarge-scale impacts on the abundance of forest elephants[38] putty-nosed monkeys [39] duikers and other antelope[40]

Eighty percent (80) of the reserves constituting the lowdensity stratum form a contiguous block and are aligned in anorth-south manner This block of forests lies parallel to andwithin 8 km of the main Bibiani-Dormaa Ahenkro road andhence can be easily and quickly assessed by poachers fromthe road Somemajor commercial towns and district capitalswhich are linked by the road and consequently very close (notmore than 8 km) to these reserves are Bibiani Goaso Mimand Dormaa Ahenkro

Moreover because these are only forest reserves andnot protected by strict wildlife laws they are vulnerable toprofessional elephant poachers from the major towns A lotof forest products including bush meat are carted along thisroad to various destinations This could also be the reasonfor the striking difference in the intensity of illegal activitiesbetween the Bia range and theGoaso range because Bia is wellprotected by armedwildlife guards as against theGoaso rangethat has only a few unarmed forest guards Highly exploitedbush meat species include ungulates particularly MaxwellrsquosDuiker (Cephalophus maxwelli) and Bushbuck (Tragelaphusscriptus) and large rodents like Grasscutter (Thryonomysswinderianus)

431 Future of the Bia-Goaso Forest Block Corridor Givenits stable social conditions and relatively intact forest coverGhana is likely to play a crucial role in forest conservationinitiatives in West Africa Within Ghana the general vicinityof the Bia-Goaso Forest Block is very important from aregional perspective because it forms a biogeographic linkbetween Ghana and Cote drsquoIvoire The BGFB has beenproposed as a transfrontier elephant corridor to facilitateseasonal movements of forest elephants and other largewildlife species between western Ghana and eastern CotedrsquoIvoire [41] In this regional context the future managementof the BGFB is extremely important

Competing InterestsThe author declares that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper


Acknowledgments

The team acknowledges the field team and staff of GhanaForestry Commission for their support in the field Manythanks also go to all the traditional heads and people of allfringe communities within the Bia-Goaso Forest Block

References

[1] L S Foley The influence of environmental factors and humanactivity on elephant distribution in tarangire national park Tan-zania [MS thesis] International Institute for Geo-informationScience and Earth Observation in Partial Fulfilment of theRequirements for the Degree of Master of Science in NaturalResource Management 2002

[2] R B B Mwalyosi ldquoEcological evaluation for wildlife corridorsand buffer zones for LakeManyaraNational Park Tanzania andits immediate environmentrdquoBiological Conservation vol 57 no2 pp 171ndash186 1991

[3] S K Eltringham ldquoWildlife carrying capacities in relation tohuman settlementrdquo Koedoe vol 33 no 2 pp 87ndash97 1990

[4] A J T Johnsingh S Narendra Prasad and S P GoyalldquoConservation status of the Chila-Motichur corridor for ele-phant movement in Rajaji-Corbett National Parks Area IndiardquoBiological Conservation vol 51 no 2 pp 125ndash138 1990

[5] R E Hoare and J T Du Toit ldquoCoexistence between people andelephants inAfrican savannasrdquoConservation Biology vol 13 no3 pp 633ndash639 1999

[6] J M Fryxell and A R E Sinclair ldquoCauses and consequences ofmigration by large herbivoresrdquo Trends in Ecology and Evolutionvol 3 no 9 pp 237ndash241 1988

[7] R Sukumar ldquoEcology of the Asian elephant in southern IndiaII Feeding habits and crop raiding patternsrdquo Journal of TropicalEcology vol 6 no 1 pp 33ndash53 1990

[8] J LD Smith andHRMishra ldquoStatus and distribution ofAsianelephants in central NepalrdquoOryx vol 26 no 1 pp 34ndash38 1992

[9] P Nyhus R Tilson and P Sumianto ldquoCrop-raiding elephantsand conservation implications at Way Kambas Nationalrdquo Oryxvol 34 pp 262ndash274 2000

[10] M Stuwe J B Abdul BM Nor and CMWemmer ldquoTrackingthe movements of translocated elephants in Malaysia usingsatellite telemetryrdquo ORYX vol 32 no 1 pp 68ndash74 1998

[11] E Danquah S K Oppong and M K Sam ldquoAspects ofelephant crop-raiding behaviour in the Kakum ConservationArea Ghanardquo Nature amp Faune vol 21 no 2 pp 15ndash19 2007

[12] R F W Barnes U F Dubiure E Danquah et al ldquoCrop-raidingelephants and the moonrdquoAfrican Journal of Ecology vol 45 no1 pp 112ndash115 2007

[13] C R Thouless and J Sakwa ldquoShocking elephants fences andcrop raiders in Laikipia District Kenyardquo Biological Conserva-tion vol 72 no 1 pp 99ndash107 1995

[14] W F De Boer and D S Baquete ldquoNatural resource usecrop damage and attitudes of rural people in the vicinity ofthe Maputo Elephant Reserve Mozambiquerdquo EnvironmentalConservation vol 25 no 3 pp 208ndash218 1998

[15] A J Plumptre J-B Bizumuremyi F Uwimana and J-DNdaruhebeye ldquoThe effects of the Rwandan civil war on poach-ing of ungulates in the Pare National des Volcansrdquo ORYX vol31 no 4 pp 265ndash273 1997

[16] A C Tehou and B Sinsin ldquoEcology of elephant population(Loxodonta africana) in the Cynegetic Zone of Djona (Benin)rdquoMammalia vol 64 no 1 pp 29ndash40 2000

[17] D Saungweme Identifying elephant corridors using GIS habitatmodelling and remotely sensed images a case study of partsof the Zambezi river valley wildlife complex in North WesternZimbabwe [MS thesis] ITC Enschede 1999

[18] S K Eltringham The Elephant Problem African WildlifeResearch and Management International Council of ScientificUnions 1991

[19] J Poole ldquoTheAfrican elephantrdquo in Studying Elephants K Kang-wana Ed p 179 The African Wildlife Foundation NairobiKenya 1996

[20] J Glover ldquoThe elephant problem at Tsavordquo East AfricanWildlifeJournal vol 1 no 1 pp 30ndash39 1963

[21] D Western ldquoThe ecological role of elephants in Africardquo Pachy-derm vol 12 pp 42ndash45 1989

[22] J B Hall andMD SwaineDistribution and Ecology of VascularPlants in a Tropical Rainforest Forest Vegetation in Ghana JunkThe Hague The Netherlands 1981

[23] S T Buckland D R Anderson K P Burnham J L Laake DL Borchers and L Thomas Introduction to Distance SamplingEstimating Abundance of Biological Populations OxfordUniver-sity Press 2001

[24] M Norton-Griffiths Counting Animals AfricanWildlife Foun-dation Nairobi Kenya 1978

[25] K P Burnham D R Anderson and J L Laake ldquoEstimating ofdensity from line transect sampling of biological populationsrdquoWildlife Monogram vol 72 pp 1ndash202 1980

[26] S T Buckland D R Anderson K P Burnham and J LLaake Distance Sampling Estimating Abundance of BiologicalPopulations Champman and Hall London UK 1993

[27] S Hedges and D Lawson Dung Survey Standards for the MIKEProgramme CITES MIKE Programme Central CoordinatingUnit Nairobi Kenya 2006

[28] C Martin ldquoManagement plan for the Bia wildlife conservationareas part Irdquo Final Report IUCNWWF Project 1251 Wildlifeand National Parks Division Ghana Forestry CommissionAccra Ghana 1982

[29] J Short ldquoDiet and feeding behaviour of the forest elephantrdquoMammalia vol 45 no 2 pp 177ndash186 1981

[30] B M de Leede Feasibility Study on the Establishment ofCorridors for Forest Elephants (Loxodonta Africana CyclotisMatshie) between Forest Reserves inWestern Ghana and EasternIvory Coast Ghana Wildlife Department Accra Ghana 1994

[31] R F W Barnes ldquoEstimating forest elephant abundance bydung countsrdquo in Studying Elephants K Kangwana Ed AWFHandbook no 7 African Wildlife Foundation Nairobi Kenya1996

[32] M K Sam E Danquah S K Oppong and E D BosuldquoElephant survey in theBiaConservationAreawesternGhanardquoPachyderm vol 40 pp 42ndash50 2006

[33] J P Dudley A Y Mensah-Ntiamoah and D G Kpelle ldquoForestelephants in a rainforest fragment preliminary findings froma wildlife conservation project in southern Ghanardquo AfricanJournal of Ecology vol 30 no 2 pp 116ndash126 1992

[34] E Danquah Y Boafo U F Dubiure N Awo E M Hemaand M Amofah Appiah ldquoElephant census in the ankasaconservation area in SouthmdashWestern Ghanardquo Pachyderm vol31 pp 63ndash69 2001

[35] W F Laurance B M Croes L Tchignoumba et al ldquoImpactsof roads and hunting on central African rainforest mammalsrdquoConservation Biology vol 20 no 4 pp 1251ndash1261 2006


[36] S A Lahm and J P Tezi ldquoAssessment of the communities ofmedium-sized and large arboreal and terrestrial mammals inthe Rabi-Toucan region of the Ngove-Ndogo hunting domainand Southwestern Loango National Parkrdquo Bulletin of the Biolog-ical Society of Washington no 12 pp 169ndash416 2006

[37] J E Fa S F Ryan and D J Bell ldquoHunting vulnerabilityecological characteristics and harvest rates of bushmeat speciesin afrotropical forestsrdquo Biological Conservation vol 121 no 2pp 167ndash176 2005

[38] R F W Barnes K L Barnes M P T Alers and A Blom ldquoMandetermines the distribution of elephants in the rain forests ofnortheastern Gabonrdquo African Journal of Ecology vol 29 no 1pp 54ndash63 1991

[39] S A Lahm R F W Barnes K Beardsley and P CervinkaldquoA method for censusing the greater white-nosed monkey innortheastern Gabon using the population density gradient inrelation to roadsrdquo Journal of Tropical Ecology vol 14 no 5 pp629ndash643 1998

[40] S A Lahm ldquoImpact of human activity on antelope populationsin Gabonrdquo IUCNSSC Antelope Specialist Group Gnusletter vol10 no 1 pp 7ndash8 1991

[41] L Sebogo and R F W Barnes Plan drsquoAction Pour la Ges-tion des Elephant des Corridors Transfrontaliers drsquoAfrique delrsquoOuest Rapport Non-Publie UICN Groupe de Specialistesde lrsquoElephant drsquoAfrique Bureau drsquoAfrique de lrsquoOuest Oua-gadougou Burkina Faso 2003

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Forestry ResearchInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Environmental and Public Health

Journal of



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MeteorologyAdvances in

EcologyInternational Journal of


Marine BiologyJournal of


Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Applied ampEnvironmentalSoil Science

Volume 2014

Advances in


Environmental Chemistry

Atmospheric SciencesInternational Journal of



Waste ManagementJournal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal of

Geophysics


Geological ResearchJournal of

EarthquakesJournal of


BiodiversityInternational Journal of


ScientificaHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

OceanographyInternational Journal of


The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of Computational Environmental SciencesHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


ClimatologyJournal of


minus3∘00

998400

minus3∘00

998400

minus2∘30

998400

6∘00

9984006∘00

998400

5∘30

998400

N

0 2 4

(km)

Figure 1 Study area showing wildlife reserves forest reserves andshelterbelts

for prioritization of areas for elephant population protectionand to strengthen the argument for conservation of thosecritical areas [1] Conservation strategies that aim at the long-term protection of flagship species like elephant will not onlybenefit elephants but also safeguard other species within itsrange [21]

Ongoing studies have explored wildlife distributionsversus environmental factors based on time consumingground and expensive aerial surveys [1] Nevertheless a smallnumber of these studies have employed the use of existinggeographic information such as satellite images and GlobalPositioning System (GPS) location data into a GeographicInformation Systems (GIS) [1] This study recorded elephantincidents in spatial subdivisions of one ecosystem in the wetseason of 2012 The analysis is concerned with investigatingassociations with possible ecological and human explana-tory variables vegetation type altitude poaching activitylogging activity water sources fruiting trees and proximityto forest edge roads international boundary Wildlife Divi-sion (WD)Forestry Service Division (FSD) guard post andhuman settlement Regression analyses were used to inves-tigate which of the possible explanatory variables influenceelephant distribution in the Bia-Goaso Forest Block (BGFB)

2 Materials and Methods

21 Study Area The study was undertaken in the forest zoneof western Ghana in the Bia-Goaso Forest Block (BGFB)TheBGFB comprises the Bia Conservation Area (Bia NationalPark and Bia Resource Reserve) and an extensive networkof 9 forest reserves (Figure 1) south of Sunyani and to thewest of the Tano River to the Ghana-Cote drsquoIvoire borderThe natural land cover corresponds to the tropical moist

minus3∘00

998400

minus3∘00

998400

minus2∘30

998400

minus2∘30

998400

6∘00

9984006∘00

998400

5∘30

9984005∘30

998400

N

0 2 4

(km)

High density stratumMedium density stratumLow density stratum

Figure 2 Study area showing distribution of strata

forest of the Guinea-Congolian forest vegetation At thenorth the vegetation is dry semideciduous however moresouthwards the vegetation changes to the moist decidu-ous vegetation type [22] Key commercial species of theseforests are Triplochiton scleroxylon Entandrophragma utileand E cylinderium with the climbing palms Ancistrophyllumsecundiflorum and Calamus deerratus being characteristicof swampy areas The mean elevation is 200ndash550m withgenerally undulating topography Mean annual rainfall is680ndash1450mmyear characterized by a bimodal wet seasonfromMarch to July and September to November and a majordry season from December to February

22 Reconnaissance (Recce) Survey A one-week reconnais-sance (recce) exercise was undertaken in the study area inOctober 2012 to assess relative densities of elephant signs(dung and tracks) A team spent each recce day per reservefollowing paths and trails on predetermined bearings andrecorded elephant signs as to when possible Distance wascalculated with a Global Positioning System (GPS) Notes onillegal activities such as wood cutting grazing and poachingwere also recorded The period also provided the teamwith the opportunity to predict logistical problems and testoperational procedures

23 Stratification and Transect Layout Based on dung den-sities recorded in the recce the BGFB was stratified into 3strata namely low (1ndash4 dung piles per km) medium (5ndash8dung piles per km) and high (9ndash12 dung piles per km) densitystrata (Figure 2) The high density stratum constituted the







25 Data Analysis


minus3∘00

998400

minus3∘00

998400

minus2∘30

998400

minus2∘30

998400

6∘00

9984006∘00

998400

5∘30

9984005∘30

998400

N0 2 4

(km)











119875













= 837

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m




= 878

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14N

umbe

r of d

ung

pile

s per

km




= 815

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m





= 783


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



3 R2= 699


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



















Acknowledgments


References















































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics




















25 Data Analysis


minus3∘00

998400

minus3∘00

998400

minus2∘30

998400

minus2∘30

998400

6∘00

9984006∘00

998400

5∘30

9984005∘30

998400

N0 2 4

(km)











119875













= 837

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m




= 878

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14N

umbe

r of d

ung

pile

s per

km




= 815

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m





= 783


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



3 R2= 699


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



















Acknowledgments


References















































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics


















119875













= 837

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m




= 878

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14N

umbe

r of d

ung

pile

s per

km




= 815

minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m





= 783


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



3 R2= 699


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



















Acknowledgments


References















































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics
















= 783


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



3 R2= 699


minus2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Num

ber o

f dun

g pi

les p

er k

m



















Acknowledgments


References















































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics


























Acknowledgments


References















































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics















Acknowledgments


References















































Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics

























Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics


















Journal of












Volume 2014

Advances in









Geophysics














Documents

Research Article Spatial Distribution of Elephants versus ...downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ae/2016/8038524.pdf · Secondary forest, water availability, poaching activity, ... (GPS)