Research Article Competitiveness Level of Photovoltaic Solar …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ijp/2016/9698070.pdf · 2019-07-30 · Research Article Competitiveness Level of Photovoltaic

Research ArticleCompetitiveness Level of Photovoltaic Solar Systems inOuagadougou (Burkina Faso) Study Based on the DomesticElectric Meters Calibration

Konan Lambert Amani1 Raguilignaba Sam2 and Franccedilois Zougmoreacute1

1University of Ouagadougou 03 BP 7021 Ouagadougou 03 Burkina Faso2Polytechnic University of Bobo-Dioulasso 01 BP 1091 Bobo-Dioulasso 01 Burkina Faso

Correspondence should be addressed to Konan Lambert Amani amani konanhotmailfr

Received 23 July 2015 Accepted 1 December 2015

Academic Editor Xudong Zhao

Copyright copy 2016 Konan Lambert Amani et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited

The mean cost price of electricity in Burkina Faso at the end of the last quarter of 2012 was 158 FCFAkWh for a country wheremore than 46 of the population lives below the national poverty threshold To look for solution to that problem the resort tophotovoltaic solar energy is justified for that country The purpose of this study is to promote the integration of both technical andeconomical surveys in solar energy preliminary projects in Ouagadougou To reach that investigations were carried out in somehouseholds and attention was paid from the calibration of the domestic electric meters Energy demands collected within eachhousehold allow us to design a corresponding solar kit through optimization rules An estimate was edited and financial viabilitystudy for each household was also carried out thereafter In this study only households using the national electricity networkcalibration meter on their disadvantage favorably answered to all financial indicators and appear as the only one that could profitfrom such project This work is helpful to note that photovoltaic solar energy still stays at a primitive level of competitivenesscompared to conventional energy resources for small systems in Ouagadougou

1 Introduction

The crisis of the energy which has led all Africa for severalyears does not save Burkina Faso The countryrsquos dependenceon oil of which most of the electric production dependsdoes not help the things The country is in an energeticcontext where 672 of the consumed electricity is fromthe local thermal source 157 is from the hydroelectricsource and 171 is from the imports According to theWorld Bank Group (httpdataworldbankorg on October23 2013) only 146 of the population has access to thatresource The report of SONABEL (Societe NationaledrsquoElectricite du Burkina Faso) the national electricitycompany estimates at the last quarter of 2012 at158 FCFAkWh (African Financial Community Franc with1 Euro = 65596 FCFA (XOF) by the converter from Euro toWestern African FCFA with rates of exchange of October23 2013 httpfrcoinmillcomEUR XOFhtmlEUR=1)the

average national cost of consumed electricity This costremains relatively high for the majority of the populationin a country where 464 of the population lived below thenational poverty line (Population below national poverty lineis the percentage of the population living below the nationalpoverty line which is the poverty line deemed appropriatefor a country by its authorities National estimates are basedon population-weighted subgroup estimates from householdsurveys) [1] over the period 2000ndash2009

Among the ECOWAS (Economic Community of the ofWestAfrica States) countries except electricity consumptionshigher than 300 kilowatt-hours per month where it ispreceded by Benin Burkina Faso is the country wherepopulations pay for the electricity from the national networkexpensively (from Climate Change Knowledge Portal forDevelopment Practioners and Policy Makers database onDecember 15 2012 httpdonneesbanquemondialeorgpaysburkina-faso) This high cost finds its first explanation in the

Hindawi Publishing CorporationInternational Journal of PhotoenergyVolume 2016 Article ID 9698070 10 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520169698070

2 International Journal of Photoenergy

lack of a real knowledge on behalf of the national electricitysubscribers during the calibration of their domestic electricmeters Those are not enough informed on this causesome of them use electric meters overgauged for theirelectricity consumption which inevitably increase thefinal cost of their electricity invoice Taking into accountthis high cost 110 million households at low income inAfrica spend more than 4 billion dollars per year forlighting based on kerosene an expensive ineffective anddangerous product for safety and health [2] According toUNDP [1] 824 of the population of Burkina Faso liveswithout modern sources of energy That entrains significantcarbon dioxide (CO

2) emissions (Refer to the quantity of

greenhouse gas converted into equivalent CO2) essential gas

in the global warming estimated in 2010 at 1441 million Mt(httpswwwciagovlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosuvhtml)

CCI-BF [3] estimates that the majority of Burkinabelives far from the electrical supply network with only3 as national electrification rate at December 31 2009In Burkina Faso 735 of the total population lives inrural areas [1] For these rural communities it is tech-nically too complex to extend the network towards themor because the cost of an electric connection is not jus-tified compared to other existing solutions However itis often essential to have access to electricity in order toensure some basic services such as lighting productionof cold and operation of radio or television stations sets(httpwwwplanete-burkinacomeconomie burkinaphp)

Paradoxically Burkina Faso belongs to the sunniest areasof the earth with a potential of average solar irradiation ofapproximately 5-6 kWhm2day That could justify the alter-native to feed these isolated sites in electricity by photovoltaic(PV) solar energy The importance of this solar resource andthe real reduction of the PV technology costs [4 5] result invery significant contributions in PV systems mainly for ruralpopulations in Burkina Faso

The objective of this study is to show the households inwhich electric consumption can be ensured by a PV systemfocusing on the calibration of the domestic electric meters ofthe national electricity supply To succeed we review a broadand recent literature in order to highlight the key driversand uncertainties of PV systems costs prices and potentialregarding economic indicators

2 Material and Methods

21 Field Site Location Burkina Faso is a landlocked countrylocated at the heart of west Africa between the 9∘ and 15∘of Northern latitude the 2∘301015840 of eastern longitude and the5∘301015840 of western longitude It covers a surface of 274 000 km2and is limited by six countries Niger in the east Mali in thenorth and the west and Ivory Coast Ghana Togo and Beninin the south The total population is 17 million inhabitants in2011 with an average annual growth simulated to be 3 overthe period 2010ndash2015 [1] Ouagadougou the experimentalsite is the capital of Burkina Faso located at the center of thecountry (Figure 1)

N

Figure 1 Location of the experimental site Source modified fromCIA (fromCentral IntelligenceAgency httpswwwciagovlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosuvhtml)

22 Households Energy Needs Survey Before the electrifi-cation of a site it is compulsory to well know the energydemand of that sitersquos inhabitants in order to adapt to theexpected systemrsquos productivity For this study the data areacquired by campaigns carried out within a sample of five(5) households in Ouagadougou There is one household inthe district of Wemtenga one in the district of Zogona andthree households in the district of Dassasgho At Wemtengaand Dassasgho 01 where inhabitants pay for their electricityconsumption by cash-power daily electricity consumptionmeasurements are carried out from 20121109 to 20130115At Dassasgho 02 Dassasgho 03 and Zogona where inhab-itants pay monthly for their electricity by bills seven billshave been considered As all the householdsrsquo appliances workin alternative current (AC) the power of each householdappliance is collected in order to well design the solar inverterpower Each average energetic need found is set constantduring the year and is calculated by the following

119864119888ℎ119895=

119899

sum

119894=1

(119875119894times Δ119905119894) (1)

119864119888ℎ119895

is the daily energy consumption [Whday] 119894 is theelectric appliance 119899 is the total number of electric appliances119875119894is the nominal power of the electric appliance [W] andΔ119905119894is the average daily duration of the operating appliance

[hday]These households are thereafter divided into two classes

according to their domestic meters calibration (3A (Amp)and 5A) and the effective cost of energy paid from SONABELfollowing the tariff grid of that company was calculated

23 Technical Considerations For a given household tech-nical aspects include the solar database and the design of

International Journal of Photoenergy 3

the size of the main components of the PV system suchas modules batteries inverter and regulator The systempositioning and other technical considerations are also takeninto account

231 Solar Data Acquisition Before any design of systemPV it is important to know the solar resource at the site ofstudy because the weather data influence the productivity ofsystem PV a lot All databases used for solar data acquisitionare tools for decision-makers and investors especially duringthe analysis of the financial resources during the projects ofrural electrification [6 7] For this study we used the databaseRETScreen previously used by Leng et al [8] RNCan [9]RNCan [10] Suri et al [6] Gifford et al [11] Mermoud [12]and Mermoud and Lejeune [13]

232 Design of Modules Nominal Power The PV moduleperformance is highly affected by the solar irradiance and thePV module temperature In this paper a simplified equationis used to estimate the PV module nominal power [14]

119875PV =119864119888ℎ119895

PR times 119864119894def (2)

where 119875PV is the expected photovoltaic nominal power[Wp] 119864119888ℎ119895 is the daily energy needs [Whday] PR is theperformance ratio of the photovoltaic field and 119864

119894def is thedaily solar irradiation received in the plan of the modules inthe most unfavorable month of the year [kWhm2day]

233 Determination of Inverter Power The inverter is thedevice of power electronics which allows converting thedirect current (DC) to the alternative current (AC) for ACloads The nominal power transiting the inverter to serve thedemand is given by the following [15]

119875119899ond =

119875AC120578ond times cos120593 times 119896loss

(3)

where 119875119899ond is the nominal output power of the inverter [W]

119875AC is the total power load in alternative current [W] 120578ond isthe inverter efficiency [] cos120593 is the powerrsquos factor and 119896lossis the reduction coefficient related to the losses in the cables

Note that the ratio between 119875PV and 119875119899ond will hold

between 07 and 12 according to PERACOD [16]

234 Design of Regulator Output Intensity A regulator is thedevice which monitors the quantity of electricity injectedor tapped corresponding to the capacity of the batteriesinstalled It is dimensioned by its input intensity given by thefollowing [17]

119868reg =119873PV times 119875PV119894

119873PV119904 times 120578reg times 119880mod (4)

where 119868reg is the regulator input intensity [A]119873PV is the totalnumber of PV modules 119875PV119894 is the unit nominal power ofmodule [Wp]119873PV119904 is the PVmodules number in series 120578regis the regulator efficiency [] and119880mod is the nominal systemoperating voltage [V]

235 Calculation of Battery Park Size Because the periodsof consumption always do not correspond to the hours ofproduction a park of batteries is installed to store producedenergy The batteries are in charge during the periods of dayin order to be able to feed the site in the night or the daysof very bad weather The capacity of the park of batteries iscalculated by the following equation [15 18]

119862bat =119864119888ℎ119895times Aut

120578bat times DOD times 119880bat (5)

where119862bat is the capacity of the batteries park [Ah] Aut is thecharged batteries autonomy [day] 120578bat is the battery efficiencyat discharge phase [] DOD is the battery authorizeddischarge depth [-] and 119880bat is the battery voltage [V]

24 Financial Analysis Financial analysis is ensured by thesoftware RETScreen The formulas used are based on thecurrent financial terminology which can be found in themajority of the handbooks of financial analysis The modelmakes the following assumptions

(i) the year of initial investment is the year 0(ii) the costs and the appropriations are given for year

0 and consequently the inflation rate and the energyindexation rate are applied from year 1

(iii) the calculation of monetary flows is carried out at theend of each year

Frequently it is difficult for the project recipient to cover allthe expenses related to the project In that case this personcan resort to a loan from a bank Thus the total cost ofthe project is composed of the equity at year 0 and annualpayments of the debt and the expenses for operations andmaintenance and the replacements in the following years

241 Investment Cost The calculation of the cost of thecomponents of the solar kit is the most delicate part of thework because that represents the initial capital cost of thesolar project An estimate will be elaborate focusing on themost economic possible aspects beginning with the initialgross investment (119862

119894) calculated by (6) based on Table 2

119862119894= 119875PV times 119860 + 119862bat times 119861 + 119875119899ond times 119862 + 119868reg times 119863 (6)

where 119862119894is the initial gross investment in FCFA and 119860 119861 119862

and 119863 are respectively the chosen specific price of modulebattery inverter and regulator in FCFA as shown in Table 1

The costs of the other elements of the balance-of-system(BOS) such as cables structure and all installation costs areapplied with a weighting factor (120575) to119862

119894Thus the initial total

investment (119862119905) is calculated by the following equation

119862119905= (1 + 120575) times 119862

119894syst (7)

where 119862119905is the total initial investment in FCFA and 120575 is the

weighting factor for the other costsThe operations and maintenance (OampM) are adjusted on

the basis of annual cost during the period of analysis of the


Table 1 Solar energy systemrsquos components costs

Components Specific price Sources Chosen specific priceFCFAU Euro1U

Module (FCFAWp)

374 Sunny Uplands2 [31] PHOTON3

374 057577 Rigter and Vidican4 [29]1640 Szabo et al [7]3936 Bilal et al [17]

Battery (FCFAkWh5)

69536 Semassou [15]

69536 1070775440 Sunny Uplands [31]82000 Szabo et al [7]113707 Bilal et al [17]

Inverter (FCFAW)

190 PHOTON

190 029328 Semassou [15]348 Rigter and Vidican6 [29]524 Bilal et al [17]

Regulator (FCFAA) 3280 Intigaia7 3280 5005051 Bilal et al [17]

1With 1 Euro = 656576 FCFA as currencies conversion chosen2Value simulated for the year 20123PHOTON-Newsletter for 20130111 concerning inverters and module price index httpwwwphotoninfo4Simulation carried out according to the fall of the module cost for the year 20125Cost of AGM lead-acid batteries of nominal voltage of 12 V6This cost refers to a simulation carried out according to the fall of the price of the inverters for the year 20127httpintigaiafreefr

Table 2 Estimate of the average cost of the electricity consumed from SONABEL

Components Wemtenga Dassasgho 01 Dassasgho 02 Dassasgho 03 ZogonaCharacteristic

Type of bill Cash-power Cash-power Bill per month Bill per month Bill per monthAmperage 5A 5A 5A 3A 3AAC loads (W) 431 2556 210 1235 496

ElectricityMean electricity consumption (kWhmonth) 54 161 15 48 79Cost of the first electricity consumption level (FCFAkWh) 96 96 96 75 75Rough cost (FCFAmonth) 5198 161491 1440 3575 61372

Total taxes cost3 (FCFAmonth) 2446 3091 2326 1326 1527Proportion of the taxes [] 32 16 62 27 20

Monthly total cost (FCFAmonth) 7644 19240 3766 4901 7664Monthly specific cost

FCFAkWh 141 119 256 105 97Euro4kWh 022 018 039 016 015

1This cost includes the invoicing of the first section (1 to 50 kWh) and that of the second section (51 to 200 kWh) which costs 102 FCFAkWh2This cost includes the invoicing of the first section (1 to 50 kWh) and that of the second section (51 to 200 kWh) which costs 102 FCFAkWh3Including all taxes4With 1 Euro = 656576 FCFA as currencies conversion chosen

project In this work the OampM relate to the replacementof the batteries the inverter and the regulator and weconsidered that the system is free from other maintenancesduring the project lifetime

242 Risk Analysis An investor or a banker will use thecapacities of analysis of sensitivity and risk available in eachmodel in order to evaluate the risk associated with the

investment in a given project For this study we made onlyrisk assessment on the NPV with RETScreen That allowedevaluating how uncertainty in the estimate of this parameter(NPV) can affect the financial viability of the project

243 Levelized Cost of Energy The Levelized Cost of Energy(LCOE) is calculated by considering the cost of the energy


consumed (8) because in the remote village most of theenergy generated is lost [17 19] as follows

LCOE =(1 minus 119891

119889) 119868 + sum

119873

119899=1[119862an (1 + 120582)

119899+ 119863]

sum119873

119899=1119864an (1 + 119903)

119899 (8)

where LCOE is the effective cost of the energy consumedfrom the system (FCFAkWh) 119868 is the total capital cost of theproject [FCFA] 119891

119889is the debt ratio119873 is the project lifetime

in years 119899 is the considered year 119862an is the annual expen-diture [FCFA] 120582 is the inflation rate 119863 is the annual debtpayment [FCFA] 119864an is the annual electricity consumption[kWhyear] and 119903 is the energy indexation rate

244 Retained Assumptions and Financial Viability Param-eters Simulation The retained PR is 075 [6] The assumed120578ond is 92 [20] and cos120593 and 119896loss are respectively set at 09and 085 [15] The assumed119873PV119904 is 1 and 120578reg is 95 [21] Theassumed DOD is 80 [22] 120578bat is 85 [23] and Aut is three(3) days [21 23] The weighting factor (120575) is set at 12 OampMare set at 27 per year from the total initial investment

In order to carry out the financial analyses of the feasibil-ity of the project we considered a project lifetime of the 25years All monetary flows are handled in constant currencywith an interest rate of 75 for the loan considered Therate of the loan considered is 75 and the equity is set at25The inflation rate retained is 28 the indexation of theSONABEL energy rate is 4 and the real discount rate is 5All the financial viability parameters such as internal rate ofreturn (IRR) simple payback equity payback andnet presentvalue (NPV) are simulated by the software RETScreen

3 Results and Discussion

31 Solar Irradiation and Energy Delivered to Load Simula-tion carried out shows that the general trend of yearly globalirradiations evolution is similar (Figure 2) Neverthelesssignificant differences are observable at monthly scale

Note that daily solar irradiation on tilted plan is higherthan that on horizontal plan from September to March andlower the following months of the year But on average solarirradiation on the tilted plan is higher than that on the hori-zontal plan with 603 kWhm2day against 591 kWhm2dayrespectively As result a transposition factor of 1022 whichrepresents an increase of 22 of productivity is foundAugust is the month in which the daily solar irradiation is thesmallest on the tilted plan with the value of 515 kWhm2dayThis value has been used for the design of the PV modulessize

32 Households Energy Demands and Costs Campaigns car-ried out indicate that the energy consumed in the householdsismainly dominated by lighting (lamps) cold (ventilators andrefrigerators) and electronic appliances (radios televisionsiPad and computers) These uses are the same as that shownby Liebard et al [24] for 12 studied villages in the provinceof Kourittenga (Burkina Faso) However it is remarkableto indicate that refrigerator used at Dassasgho 01 consumes

Electricity delivered to loadDaily solar radiation horizontalDaily solar radiation tilted

5

55

6

65

7

Dai

ly so

lar i

rrad

iatio

n (k

Wh

m2d

)

014

015

016

017

018

Elec

tric

ity d

eliv

ered

to lo

ad (M

Wh)

Sept

embe

r

Mar

ch

June

Nov

embe

r

Janu

ary

July

Augu

st

April

Oct

ober

Febr

uary

Dec

embe

r

May

Months

Figure 2Global irradiation on full south fixed plans (principal axis)and energy delivered to load (secondary axis) The inclination angleis 15∘ Data simulated by RETScreen

more energy because it belongs to an old energetic classDomestic iron used as heating is found at Dassasgho 01 andDassasgho 03

Once again Dassasgho 01 uses an electrical appliance(iron) which consumes energy a lot Note that energyconsumptions vary from a household to another The highenergy consumption is observed at Dassasgho 01 and thelow one at Dassasgho 02 In fact the dependent taxes to thebill decrease when the electrical consumptions increase fora given domestic electric calibration meters When the elec-trical consumption is less than 161 kWhmonth in BurkinaFaso it is desirable to gauge the domestic electric meters at3AWith these energy consumptions high specific electricitybills are found at Dassasgho 02 andWemtengaThe domesticelectric meters of inhabitants of these households are gaugedat 5A and these inhabitants pay more than 30 of their billas taxes However inhabitants at Dassasgho 01 who use thesame electric calibration meters pay only 16 as taxes fortheir bill That cost is low at Zogona and Dassasgho 03 whereinhabitantsrsquo domestic meter calibration is 3A (Table 2)

According to the calibration of the electric meter withineach household and the tariff grid used for electricity costcalculation we classified the households into favorableunfavorable and buffer zone (Figure 3) Thus Wemtengaand Dassasgho 02 are located in the ldquo5A unfavorable areardquoDassasgho 03 and Zogona are located in the ldquo3A favorableareardquo and Dassasgho 01 is located at the boundary of the twoevoked areas called ldquobuffer areardquo

33 Solar Components Characteristics According to energyneeds collected the voltage retained for all components(modules regulator battery and inverter) at WemtengaDassasgho 02 Dassasgho 03 and Zogona is 12 V whileit was considered to be 24V at Dassasgho 01 where theelectric consumption is significant For all households we


Table 3 Characteristics of the PV system components

Components Modules 119875PV[Wp] Inverter 119875119899ond [W] Battery 119862bat [Ah] Regulator 119868reg [A]

Wemtenga 575 500 575 48Dassasgho 01 1680 2000 840lowast 70Dassasgho 02 155 200 155 15Dassasgho 03 500 700 500 45Zogona 840 800 840 70lowast119880bat is 24V 119862bat would be equal to 119875PV value if119880bat was also 12V

Dassasgho 02Dassasgho 03

Wemtenga 01Zogona

Dassasgho 015A unfavorable area

3A favorable area

Buffer area

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Elec

tric

ity m

ean

cost

(FCF

A)

40 80 120 160 2000Electricity consumption (kWhmonth)

5A3AHousehold

Figure 3 Households consumption according to the calibrationof the meters The cost of the electricity is calculated according toSONABEL tariff grid

chose the solar polycrystalline silicon modules of PHO-TOWATT (PHOTOWATT is only chosen for simulation notfor economic aspects) for the simulation All characteristicsof the PV systems components are illustrated in Table 3Components parameters values increase with the increase ofhousehold inhabitants energy demand Note that in valuethe module nominal power equals the capacity of the park ofbatteries which is interesting to make comparisons betweensystemsrsquo total cost thereafterHowever inverterrsquos power seemsstrongly overestimated at Dassasgho 03 meaning that systemtotal cost would be increased

In the same way it seems to be underestimated atWemtenga meaning that the system total cost would bedecreased there All the inverter power misestimation woulddistort the PV energy cost when analyzing economic aspects

Figure 4 shows that modules participate at only 20of the initial cost Batteries are the most expensive PVcomponent with 44 (Figure 4) and that percentage willreach about 65 of course of their replacements during theproject lifetime

34 Monetary Flows and Financial Viability Parameters Anal-ysis By considering the cumulative cash-flows Wemtengaand Dassasgho 01 and Dassasgho 02 answer favorably to theproject reliability because monetary flows are above the ldquonullflow thresholdrdquo (Figure 5) That indicates that projects areviable in both households located in 5A unfavorable area and

20

13

44

11

12

ModulesRegulatorBattery

InverterOthers

Figure 4 Solar system components costs at the beginning of theproject ldquoOthersrdquo represents cables installation and transport

buffer area justified or notwhen analyzing economic viabilityparameters

Financial viability parameters show different approachesIRR for equity is positive for Wemtenga and Dassasgho 01and Dassasgho 02 However it is lower than 5 at Dassasgho01 indicating that the project is not viable there On the onehand simple payback and equity payback for these threehouseholds are less than the expected project lifetime of25 years meaning that the projects are viable there Butby considering the recommendation of PERACOD [16] theproject would be more viable at an equity payback of more 15years

On the other hand NPV main parameter in projectanalysis indicate that onlyWemtenga and Dassasgho 02 eco-nomically satisfy the project For Zogona and Dassasgho 03all financial viability parameters are potentially unfavorablefor project feasibility (Table 4)

The loan ration taken at 75 seems justified for a kind ofproject In fact according to PERACOD [16] a project witha high loan rate would cost higher than that which is totallyfinanced by the project owner However seeing the highinvestment cost that project owner would rather becomereticent The interest rate of 75 on the loan admitted forthe project seems reasonable according to BAfD et al [25]because this is the rate which is applied by SGB (SocieteGenerale des Banques) for the PV projects in Burkina FasoHowever the management of monetary flows over the


Table 4 Financial viability parameters simulated by RETScreen Project lifetime was set at 25 years

Financial viability Wemtenga Dassasgho 01 Dassasgho 02 Dassasgho 03 ZogonaIRR-equity () 86 35 315 minus47 minus61Simple payback (years) 169 212 82 302 318Equity payback (years) 144 205 37 gtproject gtprojectNPV

FCFA 208340 minus225268 491367 minus385479 minus668860Euro1 3178 minus3436 7495 minus5880 minus10203

1With 1 Euro = 656576 FCFA as currencies conversion chosen

0 5 10 15 20 25Years

minus1500000

minus1000000

minus500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Cum

ulat

ive c

ash-

flow

(FCF

Ay

ear)

WemtengaDassasgho 02Zogona

Dassasgho 01Dassasgho 03Null flow threshold

Figure 5Cumulative cash-flows simulated byRETScreenNote thatcash-flows from Zogona and Dassasgho 03 (in broken line) whichuse a domestic meter calibration of 3A are below null flow line

duration of 25 years seems not to correspond to that appliedby this company because SGBonly allows the refunding of theloan over a loan term of 7 years which couldmake the projectcompared to these 25 years less viableThe inflation rate takenat 28 is the same as that simulated by CIAWorld Factbook(httpswwwciagovlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosuvhtml) [26] and BAfD et al [25] for Burkina Faso for2013

Indeed that rate of 27 applied at OampM cost during theproject lifetime seems correct In fact this value is slightlylower than that fixed by Short et al [27] who admit it to be at1-2 The energy indexation rate of 4 is different from AGIR[28] consideration For that author this rate was the same asthe inflation rate in a study realized in France We chose thisrate because of the fluctuations of electricity cost like oil inBurkina Faso We also chose a real discount rate of 5 likeLiebard et al [24] and Semassou [15] in their projects analysisin Burkina Faso and Benin respectively This rate respectsSzabo et al [7] recommendations for PV projects in Africa

35 Risk Analysis on NPV The analysis of the risk wentprimarily on the clear brought up to date values relatedto the project starting from the studied indicators This isbecause this economic parameter interests more investorsbefore the realization of their project This analysis is alsocarried out in three strategic households such as Dassasgho

Fuel cost-base case

Initial costs

Debt interest rate

OampM

Debt ratio

Debt term

Sort

ed b

y th

e im

pact

ZogonaDassasgho 01Dassasgho 02

minus06 minus04 minus02 0 02 04 06 08 1minus08

Relative impact (standard deviation) of parameter

Figure 6 NPV risk analysis at a range of 10 evaluated byRETScreen All costs in FCFA XOF and the debt term in a year fora real discount rate of 5 Negative values indicate outcome whilepositive values indicate income (savings)

02 located in the 5A unfavorable zone Zogona located inthe 3A favorable area and Dassasgho 01 located in the bufferzone For all these indicators the rate of the risk which ischosen to be at 10 made it possible to show that the riskrelated to the project is strong for the indicator ldquofuel cost-basecaserdquo followed by the ldquoinitial costsrdquo as indicated in Figure 6The analysis shows that the impact on the NPV is strongerfor the ldquofuel cost-base caserdquo for households located in the5A unfavorable zone That means that in these householdsNPV are based on this indicator and are exposed to the riskthat their projects could not be viable if the ldquofuel cost-basecaserdquo decreases conversely to the 3A favorable area For thesehouseholds the ldquoinitial costsrdquo rather seem to be the majorindicator in the risk on the NPV A project will be profitableif the cost of the PV system components strongly decreases

36 PV and SONABEL Energy Costs Figure 7 shows thatfor households located in the 3A favorable area (Dassasgho03 and Zogona) LCOE is higher than that of the nationalnetwork electricity cost meaning that PV projects are notviable there When the power consumption is slow andis located in the 5A unfavorable zone the PV projectsbecome profitable However by recommending the energyeffectiveness in each household when realizing preliminaryprojects Wemtenga and Dassasgho 02 would have their


PV energy costSONABEL energy cost

Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)

Figure 7 PV and SONABEL consumed energy costs Householdsranged from the highest energy consumption to the lowest one likePV energyrsquos expected costs

domestic electric meters being changed into 3A and wouldnot have viable PV projects

LCOE calculated range is from 105 FCFAkWh (Das-sasgho 01) to 119 FCFAkWh (Dassasgho 02) that is fromthe highest energy consumption to the lowest one In ourcase LCOE at Wemtenga is lower than that at Zogona andLCOE at Dassasgho 03 is equal to that at Dassasgho 03The explanation given to these illogical results could resideon several assumptions carried out and the calculationsuncertainties when editing the estimates of the projectsespecially on the misestimation of inverters nominal powersas revealed before

The mean LCOE of 112 FCFAkWh calculated seemsrealistic The project carried out by Rigter and Vidican [29]gives an average LCOE of 132 FCFAkWh with a discountrate of 7 for investments in PV solar project This costis slightly higher than those calculated there According toBNEF the LCOE in the first quarter of the year 2012 rangedbetween 81 FCFAkWh and 126 FCFAkWh for residentialsolar projects (NREL 2009 in [4])This interval of LCOE per-fectly includes those calculated in this study Regarding theLCOE compared to SONABEL energy cost in the favorablecases focusing on the domestic meters calibration it is clearthat LCOE of PV systems remain high That is proved inalmost all countries of Africa as shown by Szabo et al [7]studies carried out in African rural area This is why certainauthors [4 5 7 18] propose to turn towards hybrid systems inorder to make the systemmore competitive Indeed Lemaire[30] simply analyzes that technologies of renewable energyand mainly the PV systems are typically expensive thusout of the rural populations portfolio in a developmentcountry Note that to be economically viable the PV projectscarried out in Burkina Faso at a local scale need aids fromthe government Moreover the recipients of those projectsdeserve to be encouraged through flexibility on behalf of thebanks

4 Conclusion

The objective of this study is to show the hearths in whichelectric consumption can be ensured by an autonomoussystem PV instead of national network In order to reachthis objective investigations near five households with weakaverage consumption power in Ouagadougou were realizedAll these hearths which use the electricity of the nationalnetwork were initially classified into zones of favorable unfa-vorable use and plug in comparison with the calibration oftheir electric meters According to the energy needs for eachhousehold a solar kit was dimensioned The configurationretained for the success of the project resides in the optimiza-tion of the energy received in the field of the fixed sensors by aslope of 15 directed full south from the plan of the module bythe use of the RETScreen model Estimates were publishedon the most economic possible bases according to the dataobtained Using this model of analysis of clean projects ofenergies the evaluation of the financial viability of eachautonomous solar project in Ouagadougou was made Theresults indicate that only the class of the households whichuse electric meters of the national network in their discredithas a level of competitiveness raised for solar projects

The situation becomes even darker if incompressibleneeds were made and one gave a detailed attention to the cal-ibration of the electric meter before performing the analysisof feasibility of the solar projects in Ouagadougou Howeverthe recourse for these projects can prove the justification forhouseholds with great power consumption or if subsidiescould be brought on behalf of the government in order toencourage the recipients Today the economic situation ofthe majority of the countries ofWest Africa does not favor anambitious energy policy directed towards the rural worldThefunds of research development remain insufficient in spite ofthe efforts authorized by the countries Even if it is true thatthe exploitation of the majority of the solar systems does notrequire significant expenses apart from some trickle chargesthe initial investment makes them less competitive comparedto the traditional energy sources

Nomenclature

Abbreviations

CCI-BF Chambre de Commerce et drsquoIndustriedu Burkina Faso (Trading and IndustryRoom of Burkina Faso)

ECOWAS Economic Community of the of WestAfrica States

FCFA Franc de la Communaute FinanciereAfricaine (designating the currencyused by many West African and Pacificcountries)

NPV Net present valuePNUE Programme des Nations Unies pour

lrsquoEnvironnement for United Nation ofEnvironment Program

PV Photovoltaic


RETScreen Renewable Energy Project AnalysisSoftware

SONABEL Societe Nationale drsquoElectricite du BurkinaFaso (National Electricity Society ofBurkina)

UNDP United Nations Development Program

Symbols

Δ119905119894 The average daily duration of the operating

appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863

The chosen specific price of module batteryinverter and regulator respectively

Aut The charged batteries autonomy119862bat The capacity of the batteries park119862119894 The initial gross investment

cos120593 The powerrsquos factor119862119905 The total initial investment119863 The annual debt paymentDOD The battery authorized discharge depth119864an The annual electricity consumption119864119888ℎ119895

The daily energy consumption119864119894def The daily solar irradiation in the plan of the

modules in the most unfavorable month ofthe year

119891119889 The debt ratio119894 The electric appliance119868 The total capital cost of the project119868reg The regulator input intensity119896loss The reduction coefficient related to the losses

in the cablesLCOE The effective cost of the energy consumed

from the system119899 The total number of electric appliances119873 The project lifetime in years119873PV119904 The PV modules number in series119873PV The total number of PV modules119875AC The total power load in alternative current119875119894 The nominal power of the electric appliance119875119899ond The nominal output power of the inverter119875PV119894 The unit nominal power of module119875PV The expected photovoltaic nominal powerPR The performance ratio of the photovoltaic

field119880bat The battery voltage119880mod The nominal system operating voltage120575 The weighting factor for the other costs of

the photovoltaic system120578bat The battery efficiency at discharge phase120578ond The inverter efficiency120578reg The regulator efficiency120582 The inflation rate

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper

References

[1] UNDP ldquoSustainability and equity a better future for allrdquoHuman Development Report 2011 UNDP New York NYUSA 2011 httphdrundporgsitesdefaultfilesreports271hdr 2011 en completepdf

[2] PNUE ldquoVers une economie verte Pour un developpementdurable et une eradication de la pauvreterdquo Synthese a lrsquointentiondes decideurs 2011 httpwwwuneporggreeneconomy

[3] CCI-BFNote Sectorielle sur lrsquoEnergie au Burkina Faso Directionde la Prospective et de lrsquoIntelligence Economique (DPIE) 2010

[4] M Bazilian I Onyeji M Liebreich et al Re-Consideringthe Economics of Photovoltaic Power Bloomberg New EnergyFinance (BNEF) 2012

[5] M Bhatia J Levin and V Atur ldquoFinancing renewable energyoptions for developing financing instruments using publicfundsrdquo World Bank amp CIF 2012

[6] M Suri T A Huld E D Dunlop M Albuisson and L WaldldquoOnline data and tools for estimation of solar electricity inAfrica the PVGIS approachrdquo in Proceedings of the 21st EuropeanPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition p 4Dresden Germany October 2006

[7] S Szabo K Bodis T Huld and M Moner-Girona ldquoEnergysolutions in rural Africa mapping electrification costs ofdistributed solar and diesel generation versus grid extensionrdquoEnvironmental Research Letters vol 6 no 3 Article ID 0340022011

[8] G L Leng A Monarque S Graham S Higgins and HCleghorn RETScreen International Results and Impacts 1996ndash2012 Natural Resources Canada CTEC-Varennes 2004

[9] RNCan Logiciel RETScreen Manuel de lrsquoUtilisateur en LigneNASA PNUE et GEF 2005

[10] RNCan Analyse de projets drsquoenergies propres manueldrsquoingenierie et drsquoetudes de cas RETScreen chapitre introduction alrsquoanalyse de projets drsquoenergies propres Centre de la technologie delrsquoenergie de CANMETmdash(CTEC) Varennes Canada 2006

[11] J S Gifford R C Grace and W H Rickerson RenewableEnergy Cost Modeling A Toolkit for Establishing Cost-BasedIncentives in the United States National Renewable EnergyLaboratory 2011

[12] AMermoudNote about PHOTONPV Software Survey Institutdes Sciences de lrsquoEnvironnement Universite de Geneve 2011httpwwwpvsystcom

[13] A Mermoud and T Lejeune ldquoUserrsquos Guide PVsyst ContextualHelprdquo PVsyst SA 2012 httpwwwpvsystcom

[14] M Chikh A Mahrane and F Bouachri ldquoPVSST 10 sizing andsimulation tool for PV systemsrdquo Energy Procedia vol 6 pp 75ndash84 2011

[15] C Semassou Aide a la decision pour le choix de sites et systemesenergetiques adaptes aux besoins du Benin [PhD thesis]University of Bordeaux Talence France 2011

[16] PERACOD ldquoEtude de faisabilite technico-economique de lafiliere photovoltaıque raccordee reseau au Senegalrdquo Directionde lrsquoenergie Senegal et GTZ Allemagne 2006

[17] B O Bilal V Sambou C M F Kebe P A Ndiaye andM Ndongo ldquoMethodology to size an optimal stand-alonePVwinddieselbattery system minimizing the levelized costof energy and the CO

2emissionsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd

International Conference on Advances in Energy Engineering(ICAEE rsquo11) vol 14 of Energy Procedia pp 1636ndash1647 BangkokThailand December 2011


[18] SMA ldquoApprovisionnement en energie solaire des sites isoles etsystemes de secours principes applications et solutions SMArdquoRecueil Technologique 2 INSELVERSOR-AFR104310 2010

[19] P G Nikhil and D Subhakar ldquoAn improved algorithm forphotovoltaic system sizingrdquo Energy Procedia vol 14 pp 1134ndash1142 2012 Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference onAdvances in Energy Engineering

[20] S S Tassembedo S Z Kam Z Koalaga and F Zoug-more ldquoModelisation dimensionnement et simulation drsquounsysteme photovoltaıque autonome cas drsquoun centre multimediarural burkinaberdquo in 2eme Colloque International FrancophonedrsquoEnergetique et de Mecanique (CIFEM rsquo12) ART-5-35 p 62012

[21] PACER Installations Photovoltaıques Autonomes Guide Pourle Dimensionnement et la Realisation PACER amp Direction duDeveloppement et de la Cooperation 2007

[22] A RicaudModules et Systemes Photovoltaıques 2008[23] V Acquaviva Analyse de lrsquointegration des systemes energetiques

a sources renouvelables dans les reseaux electriques insulaires[PhD thesis] University of Corse Corte France 2011

[24] A Liebard Y B Civel Y Maigne N Guichard C Rigaud andS Sales ldquoDe lrsquoelectricite verte pour centmille ruraux au BurkinaFasordquo Fondation Energies Pour le Monde Ministere des Minesdes Carrieres et de lrsquoEnergie 2010

[25] BAfD OCDE PNUD et CEA 2012 ldquoBurkina FasomdashPerspectives economiques en Afriquerdquo httpwwwafricaneco-nomicoutlookorg

[26] CIA World Factbook 2012 Taux drsquoinflation (indice des prix ala consommation)mdashMonde March 2013 httpswwwciagovlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosuvhtml

[27] W Short D J Packey and T Holt ldquoManual for the economicevaluation of energy efficiency and renewable energy tech-nologiesrdquo Tech Rep NRELTP-462-5173 National RenewableEnergy Laboratory 1995

[28] AGIR ldquoGenerez des revenus grace au photovoltaıquerdquo Guidedu Photovoltaıque 2010

[29] J Rigter and G Vidican ldquoCost and optimal feed-in tariff forsmall scale photovoltaic systems in Chinardquo Energy Policy vol45 no 11 pp 6989ndash7000 2010

[30] X Lemaire ldquoFee-for-service companies for rural electrificationwith photovoltaic systems the case of Zambiardquo Energy forSustainable Development vol 13 no 1 pp 18ndash23 2009

[31] Sunny Uplands ldquoAlternative energy will no longer be alterna-tiverdquo The Economist 2012 httpwwweconomistcomnews21566414-alternative-energy-will-no-longer-be-alternative-sunny-uplands

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Inorganic ChemistryInternational Journal of

Hindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

International Journal ofPhotoenergy


Carbohydrate Chemistry

International Journal of


Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom

Analytical Methods in Chemistry

Journal of

Volume 2014

Bioinorganic Chemistry and ApplicationsHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

SpectroscopyInternational Journal of


The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Medicinal ChemistryInternational Journal of


Chromatography Research International


Applied ChemistryJournal of



Theoretical ChemistryJournal of


Journal of

Spectroscopy

Analytical ChemistryInternational Journal of


Journal of


Quantum Chemistry


Organic Chemistry International

ElectrochemistryInternational Journal of



CatalystsJournal of


lack of a real knowledge on behalf of the national electricitysubscribers during the calibration of their domestic electricmeters Those are not enough informed on this causesome of them use electric meters overgauged for theirelectricity consumption which inevitably increase thefinal cost of their electricity invoice Taking into accountthis high cost 110 million households at low income inAfrica spend more than 4 billion dollars per year forlighting based on kerosene an expensive ineffective anddangerous product for safety and health [2] According toUNDP [1] 824 of the population of Burkina Faso liveswithout modern sources of energy That entrains significantcarbon dioxide (CO

2) emissions (Refer to the quantity of

greenhouse gas converted into equivalent CO2) essential gas

in the global warming estimated in 2010 at 1441 million Mt(httpswwwciagovlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosuvhtml)

CCI-BF [3] estimates that the majority of Burkinabelives far from the electrical supply network with only3 as national electrification rate at December 31 2009In Burkina Faso 735 of the total population lives inrural areas [1] For these rural communities it is tech-nically too complex to extend the network towards themor because the cost of an electric connection is not jus-tified compared to other existing solutions However itis often essential to have access to electricity in order toensure some basic services such as lighting productionof cold and operation of radio or television stations sets(httpwwwplanete-burkinacomeconomie burkinaphp)

Paradoxically Burkina Faso belongs to the sunniest areasof the earth with a potential of average solar irradiation ofapproximately 5-6 kWhm2day That could justify the alter-native to feed these isolated sites in electricity by photovoltaic(PV) solar energy The importance of this solar resource andthe real reduction of the PV technology costs [4 5] result invery significant contributions in PV systems mainly for ruralpopulations in Burkina Faso

The objective of this study is to show the households inwhich electric consumption can be ensured by a PV systemfocusing on the calibration of the domestic electric meters ofthe national electricity supply To succeed we review a broadand recent literature in order to highlight the key driversand uncertainties of PV systems costs prices and potentialregarding economic indicators

2 Material and Methods

21 Field Site Location Burkina Faso is a landlocked countrylocated at the heart of west Africa between the 9∘ and 15∘of Northern latitude the 2∘301015840 of eastern longitude and the5∘301015840 of western longitude It covers a surface of 274 000 km2and is limited by six countries Niger in the east Mali in thenorth and the west and Ivory Coast Ghana Togo and Beninin the south The total population is 17 million inhabitants in2011 with an average annual growth simulated to be 3 overthe period 2010ndash2015 [1] Ouagadougou the experimentalsite is the capital of Burkina Faso located at the center of thecountry (Figure 1)

N

Figure 1 Location of the experimental site Source modified fromCIA (fromCentral IntelligenceAgency httpswwwciagovlibrarypublicationsthe-world-factbookgeosuvhtml)

22 Households Energy Needs Survey Before the electrifi-cation of a site it is compulsory to well know the energydemand of that sitersquos inhabitants in order to adapt to theexpected systemrsquos productivity For this study the data areacquired by campaigns carried out within a sample of five(5) households in Ouagadougou There is one household inthe district of Wemtenga one in the district of Zogona andthree households in the district of Dassasgho At Wemtengaand Dassasgho 01 where inhabitants pay for their electricityconsumption by cash-power daily electricity consumptionmeasurements are carried out from 20121109 to 20130115At Dassasgho 02 Dassasgho 03 and Zogona where inhab-itants pay monthly for their electricity by bills seven billshave been considered As all the householdsrsquo appliances workin alternative current (AC) the power of each householdappliance is collected in order to well design the solar inverterpower Each average energetic need found is set constantduring the year and is calculated by the following

119864119888ℎ119895=

119899

sum

119894=1

(119875119894times Δ119905119894) (1)

119864119888ℎ119895

is the daily energy consumption [Whday] 119894 is theelectric appliance 119899 is the total number of electric appliances119875119894is the nominal power of the electric appliance [W] andΔ119905119894is the average daily duration of the operating appliance

[hday]These households are thereafter divided into two classes

according to their domestic meters calibration (3A (Amp)and 5A) and the effective cost of energy paid from SONABELfollowing the tariff grid of that company was calculated

23 Technical Considerations For a given household tech-nical aspects include the solar database and the design of





119875PV =119864119888ℎ119895

PR times 119864119894def (2)




119875119899ond =


(3)






119868reg =119873PV times 119875PV119894




119862bat =119864119888ℎ119895times Aut
















119862119905= (1 + 120575) times 119862

119894syst (7)







Module (FCFAWp)



Battery (FCFAkWh5)

69536 Semassou [15]


Inverter (FCFAW)

190 PHOTON










FCFAkWh 141 119 256 105 97Euro4kWh 022 018 039 016 015









119889) 119868 + sum

119873

119899=1[119862an (1 + 120582)

119899+ 119863]

sum119873

119899=1119864an (1 + 119903)

119899 (8)











5

55

6

65

7

Dai

ly so

lar i

rrad

iatio

n (k

Wh

m2d

)

014

015

016

017

018

Elec

tric

ity d

eliv

ered

to lo

ad (M

Wh)

Sept

embe

r

Mar

ch

June

Nov

embe

r

Janu

ary

July

Augu

st

April

Oct

ober

Febr

uary

Dec

embe

r

May

Months











Wemtenga 01Zogona


3A favorable area

Buffer area

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Elec

tric

ity m

ean

cost

(FCF

A)


5A3AHousehold






20

13

44

11

12


InverterOthers











0 5 10 15 20 25Years

minus1500000

minus1000000

minus500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Cum

ulat

ive c

ash-

flow

(FCF

Ay

ear)







Fuel cost-base case

Initial costs

Debt interest rate

OampM

Debt ratio

Debt term

Sort

ed b

y th

e im

pact









Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)





4 Conclusion



Nomenclature

Abbreviations






PV Photovoltaic





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of





119875PV =119864119888ℎ119895

PR times 119864119894def (2)




119875119899ond =


(3)






119868reg =119873PV times 119875PV119894




119862bat =119864119888ℎ119895times Aut
















119862119905= (1 + 120575) times 119862

119894syst (7)







Module (FCFAWp)



Battery (FCFAkWh5)

69536 Semassou [15]


Inverter (FCFAW)

190 PHOTON










FCFAkWh 141 119 256 105 97Euro4kWh 022 018 039 016 015









119889) 119868 + sum

119873

119899=1[119862an (1 + 120582)

119899+ 119863]

sum119873

119899=1119864an (1 + 119903)

119899 (8)











5

55

6

65

7

Dai

ly so

lar i

rrad

iatio

n (k

Wh

m2d

)

014

015

016

017

018

Elec

tric

ity d

eliv

ered

to lo

ad (M

Wh)

Sept

embe

r

Mar

ch

June

Nov

embe

r

Janu

ary

July

Augu

st

April

Oct

ober

Febr

uary

Dec

embe

r

May

Months











Wemtenga 01Zogona


3A favorable area

Buffer area

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Elec

tric

ity m

ean

cost

(FCF

A)


5A3AHousehold






20

13

44

11

12


InverterOthers











0 5 10 15 20 25Years

minus1500000

minus1000000

minus500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Cum

ulat

ive c

ash-

flow

(FCF

Ay

ear)







Fuel cost-base case

Initial costs

Debt interest rate

OampM

Debt ratio

Debt term

Sort

ed b

y th

e im

pact









Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)





4 Conclusion



Nomenclature

Abbreviations






PV Photovoltaic





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of




Module (FCFAWp)



Battery (FCFAkWh5)

69536 Semassou [15]


Inverter (FCFAW)

190 PHOTON










FCFAkWh 141 119 256 105 97Euro4kWh 022 018 039 016 015









119889) 119868 + sum

119873

119899=1[119862an (1 + 120582)

119899+ 119863]

sum119873

119899=1119864an (1 + 119903)

119899 (8)











5

55

6

65

7

Dai

ly so

lar i

rrad

iatio

n (k

Wh

m2d

)

014

015

016

017

018

Elec

tric

ity d

eliv

ered

to lo

ad (M

Wh)

Sept

embe

r

Mar

ch

June

Nov

embe

r

Janu

ary

July

Augu

st

April

Oct

ober

Febr

uary

Dec

embe

r

May

Months











Wemtenga 01Zogona


3A favorable area

Buffer area

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Elec

tric

ity m

ean

cost

(FCF

A)


5A3AHousehold






20

13

44

11

12


InverterOthers











0 5 10 15 20 25Years

minus1500000

minus1000000

minus500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Cum

ulat

ive c

ash-

flow

(FCF

Ay

ear)







Fuel cost-base case

Initial costs

Debt interest rate

OampM

Debt ratio

Debt term

Sort

ed b

y th

e im

pact









Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)





4 Conclusion



Nomenclature

Abbreviations






PV Photovoltaic





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of




119889) 119868 + sum

119873

119899=1[119862an (1 + 120582)

119899+ 119863]

sum119873

119899=1119864an (1 + 119903)

119899 (8)











5

55

6

65

7

Dai

ly so

lar i

rrad

iatio

n (k

Wh

m2d

)

014

015

016

017

018

Elec

tric

ity d

eliv

ered

to lo

ad (M

Wh)

Sept

embe

r

Mar

ch

June

Nov

embe

r

Janu

ary

July

Augu

st

April

Oct

ober

Febr

uary

Dec

embe

r

May

Months











Wemtenga 01Zogona


3A favorable area

Buffer area

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Elec

tric

ity m

ean

cost

(FCF

A)


5A3AHousehold






20

13

44

11

12


InverterOthers











0 5 10 15 20 25Years

minus1500000

minus1000000

minus500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Cum

ulat

ive c

ash-

flow

(FCF

Ay

ear)







Fuel cost-base case

Initial costs

Debt interest rate

OampM

Debt ratio

Debt term

Sort

ed b

y th

e im

pact









Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)





4 Conclusion



Nomenclature

Abbreviations






PV Photovoltaic





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of






Wemtenga 01Zogona


3A favorable area

Buffer area

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

Elec

tric

ity m

ean

cost

(FCF

A)


5A3AHousehold






20

13

44

11

12


InverterOthers











0 5 10 15 20 25Years

minus1500000

minus1000000

minus500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Cum

ulat

ive c

ash-

flow

(FCF

Ay

ear)







Fuel cost-base case

Initial costs

Debt interest rate

OampM

Debt ratio

Debt term

Sort

ed b

y th

e im

pact









Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)





4 Conclusion



Nomenclature

Abbreviations






PV Photovoltaic





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of






0 5 10 15 20 25Years

minus1500000

minus1000000

minus500000

0

500000

1000000

1500000

Cum

ulat

ive c

ash-

flow

(FCF

Ay

ear)







Fuel cost-base case

Initial costs

Debt interest rate

OampM

Debt ratio

Debt term

Sort

ed b

y th

e im

pact









Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)





4 Conclusion



Nomenclature

Abbreviations






PV Photovoltaic





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of



Zogo

na

Wem

teng

a

Das

sasg

ho03

Das

sasg

ho02

Das

sasg

ho01

Households

70

120

170

220

270

Con

sum

ed en

ergy

cost

(FCF

Ak

Wh)





4 Conclusion



Nomenclature

Abbreviations






PV Photovoltaic





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of





Symbols


appliance119860 119861 119862 and119863













References












































Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of

























Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of










Journal of

Chemistry


Advances in

Physical Chemistry



Journal of

Volume 2014














Journal of

Spectroscopy



Journal of


Quantum Chemistry






CatalystsJournal of

Documents

Research Article Competitiveness Level of Photovoltaic Solar …downloads.hindawi.com/journals/ijp/2016/9698070.pdf · 2019-07-30 · Research Article Competitiveness Level of Photovoltaic