Research and Increase of Expertise in Arachno-Entomology Are Urgently Needed

8/3/2019 Research and Increase of Expertise in Arachno-Entomology Are Urgently Needed

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ORIGNAL PAPER

Research and increase of expertise in arachno-entomologyare urgently needed

Heinz Mehlhorn & Khaled A. S. Al-Rasheid &

Saleh Al-Quraishy & Fathy Abdel-Ghaffar

Received: 5 May 2011 /Accepted: 19 May 2011# Springer-Verlag 2011

Abstract Considering the contents of international journalsof parasitology dealing with broader topics inside this fieldshow that rather a few papers appear with studies in thediscipline of arachno-entomology. In the journals Journal of Parasitology , Parasitology Research and Trends in Parasitology , the relations of published papers on protozo-ology, helminthology and arachno-entomology showed that in all three journals, papers on protozoans were the most common, while those on helminths of any kind reached thesecond place being rather as common as the protozoan papers in Parasitology Research and in the Journal of Parasitology . In Trends of Parasitology , however, the papers on helminths reached only about 25% of thenumbers published on protozoan topics. But in all three journals — and this is important — the papers on arachno-entomological themes were scarce reaching less than thehalf of the protozoan papers in Parasitology Research , andonly about 15% in the Journal of Parasitology and in theTrends of Parasitology . These disproportions between thethree great subdivisions of targets in the focus of parasito-logical research are dangerous, since this lack exists alreadyfor several decades and thus led to a backlog of unsolved

increasing problems that are caused by ticks, mites, insectsand/or parasitic crustaceans especially in times of intensiveglobalization and global warming. Studies on the biology,vectorship, invasion and spreading of wanted vectors andon the control of pests and parasites belonging to the fieldof arachno-entomology are urgently needed.

Introduction

On occasion of the publication of the excellent (in contentsand pictures) book Sick Through Arthropods (Aspöck 2010 )which compiles in 46 chapters, many facettes of the biology, morphology and transmission activity of manyimportant insects, mites and ticks, it became again obviousthat the field of arachno-entomology is extremely important.There is no doubt that ticks, mites and insects are dangerousvectors of often deadly agents of diseases (Figs. 1, 2 and 3),which may hit as epidemics or pandemics in the increasingworld population of humans and animals (Mehlhorn 2008 ;Brooks and Hoberg 2007 ; Dobler 2008 ; Polley andThompson 2009 ). Since in times of intense globalizationand global warming, arthropods have proven to be able tosettle and spread at places far away from their “ normalenvironment ” , they are also able to transport inside their bodies agents of diseases during their migration or to become infested in their new surroundings by local parasites, bacteria and/or viruses. The sudden outbreak in the year 2006 of the Bluetongue disease in whole Central Europe andits huge death toll among infected ruminants (4% of infectedcattle and up to 40% of infected sheep died) is an example,how easy it was to produce a sudden terror amongEuropeans, who believed to live on "a safe and blessedisland" (Kiehl et al. 2009 ; Mehlhorn et al. 2007 , 2008 ,2009a , b; Carpenter et al. 2008; Conraths et al. 2008 ;

H. Mehlhorn ( * )

Department of Zoology and Parasitology,Heinrich Heine University,40225 Düsseldorf, Germanye-mail: [email protected]

K. A. S. Al-Rasheid : S. Al-QuraishyDepartment of Zoology, Center of Excellence, College of Science,King Saud University,Riyahd, Saudi Arabia

F. Abdel-Ghaffar College of Science, Department of Zoology, Cairo University,Giza, Egypt

Parasitol ResDOI 10.1007/s00436-011-2480-7



Conraths and Mettenleiter 2011 ). Even today, it is not surehow this Bluetongue virus of the serotype 8 arrived in "Goodold Europe". Was it included in infected midges that travelledwithin ship containers from Africa to The Netherlands and/or

Belgium (infecting the cattle while blood sucking) or was thevirus included in imported healthy appearing but silentlyinfected antelopes finally infecting local midges (Fig. 4)during their blood meal? Similar outbreaks may occur at anytime due to imported ticks, mosquitoes, sandflies, bugs,fleas, flies, tabanids, black flies, lice, ticks, mites. etc.(Dobler 2008 ; Aspöck and Dobler 2010 ; Dobler and Aspöck 2010a , b; Dobler 2010 ; Mehlhorn and Mehlhorn 2010a , b;Abdel-Ghaffar et al. 2008 , 2010 ; Dakies 1953 ; Falagas et al.2008 ; Kampen and Werner 2011 ; Lane and Crosskey 1993 ;Mumcuoglu and Ruffli 1983 ; Löscher and Burchard 2011 ;Martini 1946 ; Parola et al. 2005 ; Rueda 2004 ; Rust and

Dryden 1997 ; Smallegange et al. 2011 ; Schmahl et al. 2010 ;Sonenshine 1991 ; Wenk and Schlörer 1963 ; Werner andGrunwald 2010; Zumpt 1965 ). Such an important invasionhad occurred already in the USA, when — only 12 years agoin the year 1999 — the West Nile virus entered New York at the Central Park (probably as result of an infection duringthe visit of an American in Israel) and is now spread all over the continent. Although it was found that this virus might be

spread by feeding (e.g. hawks eat other birds), the mosquitotransmission has been proven to be most important (Smith2008 ; Linke et al. 2007 ). In general, most invasions occur silently and speed up later as has been the case whenChikungunya fever virus occurred in Italy 4 years ago. Other examples are the findings that fleas might transmit a very

wide spectrum of viruses (Mencke et al. 2008 ), that spidersmight travel from the USA to Great Britain and bite their German hotel guests (Pippirs et al. 2009 ) or that travellers bring African tick bite fever as souvenir back home(Schuster et al. 2008 ).

Such threatening invading agents of diseases and their vectors (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) which lurk “ ante portas ” of each continent for a chance to get in and to find there a silent place for undisturbed propagation, can only becomecontrolled at a reasonable time, if details of their life cycles,their feeding and mating behaviour, their sensitivity tocontrol measurements, etc. are known. However, when

looking at the registers of the international journals in thefield of parasitology, it becomes obvious that studies onticks, mites and insects are neglected compared to papers on protozoans and helminths. Thus, the present paper risks a short glimpse — of course not being totally representative — onthe appearance of papers concerning arachno-entomology inthree worldwide distributed journals: Journal of Parasitology , Parasitology Research and Trends in Parasitology .

Fig. 1 Micrograph of a female Dermacentor reticulatus tick, aninvader into Germany coming from the South of Europe and beingvector of Babesia canis

Fig. 2 Micrograph of so called tiger mosquitoes ( Aedes albopictus )— invaders from Asia into Europe spreading the Chikungunya virus

Fig. 3 Scanning electron micrograph of a female Anopheles stephensimosquito, one of the vectors of malaria

Fig. 4 Micrograph of a female Culicoides obsoletus — Europeanvector of the newly invaded Bluetongue virus serotype 8

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Methods

In randomly selected volumes of three "broader" parasitological journals, the titles of papers with protozoan, helminthologicaland arachno-entomological topics were counted in analphabetical order; issues of the following journals werechecked:

1. Journal of Parasitology (USA)

Volume 91 (2005, with six numbers)

2. Parasitology Research (Germany)

Volume 104: Nos. 1–

6 (2008, 2009)Volume 105: Nos. 1 – 6 plus supplement (2009)Volume 106: Nos. 1 – 4 (2009, 2010)Volume 107: Nos. 1 – 6 (2010)Volume 108: Nos. 1 – 4 (2011)

3. Trends in Parasitology (UK)

Volume 2007: Nos. 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12Volume 2008: Nos. 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12Volume 2009: Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6Volume 2010: Nos. 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12Volume 2011: Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4

Results

Journal of Parasitology

The whole volume 91 (year 2005) was considered in the present check up. Volume 91 appeared in six numberscomprising a total of 1,512 printed pages and contained a total of 289 articles (reviews, originals, research notes, errata,

book reviews and policy/guidelines). One hundred thirty-three papers dealt with protozoan research topics (on manydisciplines). One hundred twenty-eight papers reported onleeches. The papers dealing with the different groups of arthropods were extremely scarce, reaching a total number of 19 (11 on ticks and mites, only 8 on insects).

Parasitology Research

In the case of this journal, recent issues starting inDecember 2008 reaching until April 2011 were considered.The evaluated volumes 104, 105, 106, 107 (each with sixnumbers) and the four numbers of volume 108 in 2011comprised a total of 7,589 printed pages and contained a totalof 998 articles (reviews, rapid and short communications,originals,errata). Fourhundred eleven articles reported researchresults obtained in experiments with protozoans, 402 articlesdealt with helminths of any kind, while 185 papers reportedfrom research projects either on insects, ticks and/or mites. Thenumber of papers on the field of arachno-entomology is,however, somewhat misleading, since in many studies, theinsects, mites and ticks were not "the true objects", but onlytargets of control measurements. In these publications, theywere submitted to different extracts of plants, insecticides or they were treated with various types of chemicals beingenclosed (within or not) in nanoparticles or other carriers.Thus, the number of papers with respect to biology, genetics,morphology, behaviour, physiology, etc. of the different groupsof arthropods was rather low.

Trends in Parasitology

In total, 30 monthly appeared numbers (issues) wereconsidered after being selected from the 12 annual editions per year. Of the year 2007 (six numbers), 2008 (eight numbers), 2009 (five numbers), 2010 (seven numbers) and2011 (four numbers) were checked. These in total 30 selectednumbers comprised a total of 1,431 pages and 280 articles(updates: research focus, opinions, reviews, letters, errata,editorials). One hundred ninety-nine articles consideredresearch results or diseases due to protozoans, while only 53articles described various approaches in helminthologicalfields. The papers with topics belonging to the large fieldof arachno-entomology were scarce summing up to only32 (6 on ticks and mites, 25 on insects and 1 one a crustacean ectoparasite). Eight articles dealt with severalgroups of parasites.

Discussion

The present times are characterized by a speeding up of anyglobalization process, reaching unbelievable dimensions.

Fig. 5 Micrograph of a warmth-loving “ sandfly ” of the genus Phlebotomus spreadingnorthward. They are vectorsof the Papataci fever and of leishmaniasis

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T a

b l e 1

T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d p r o p a g a t i o n o f a g e n t s o f d i s e a s e b y t i c k s ( s e l e c t e d e x a m p l e s a c c o r d i n g t o m a n y a u t h o r s )

V e c t o r s

A g e n t s o f d i s e a s e

D i s e a s e s

T r a n s m i s s i o n p a t h w a y t o

v e r t e b r a t e h o s t s

T r a n s m i s s i o n

b y f e c e s o r

s q u e e z i n g

H o s t s

S o f t t i c k s O r n i t h o d o r u s s p e c i e s

B o r r e l i a d u t t o n i a n d o t h e r

B o r r e l i a s p e c i e s ( B )

T i c k b o r n e r e l a p s i n g f e v e r , b o r r e l i o s i s

V i a s a l i v a d u r i n g s h o r t b i t i n g t i m e

o f 3 0 m i n

+

H , A

A r g a s s p e c i e s

C o x i e l l a b u r n e t i i ( B )

Q f e v e r , e n d o c a r d i t i s

V i a s a l i v a d u r i n g s h o r t b i t i n g t i m e

( 2 0 m i n )

+

A

H a r d t i c k s I x o d e s s p e c i e s

A r b o v i r u s e s ( V )

S p r i n g - s u m m e r e n c e p h a l i t i s , R u s s i a n

e n c e p h a l i t i s ( V )

V i a s a l i v a s t a r t i n g i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h

s u c k i n g

+

H , A

I x o d e s a n d

D e r m a c e n t o r s p e c i e s

F l a v i v i r u s ( V )

O m s k h a e m o r r h a g i c f e v e r

R a r e : t i c k s a l i v a ; c o m m o n : b l o o d

c o n t a c t w i t h i n f e c t e d a n i m a l s

+

H , A

H y a l o m m a s p e c i e s

B u n y a v i r u s ( V )

C r i m e a n C o n g o h a e m o r r h a g i c f e v e r

B l o o d c o n t a c t a n d t i c k b i t e s ( s a l i v a )

+

H , A

I x o d e s s p e c i e s

B o r r e l i a b u r g d o r f e r i e t a l . ( B )

L y m e d i s e a s e ; t i c k - b o r r e l i o s i s

V i a s a l i v a i n j e c t i o n s t a r t i n g

8 – 1 2 h a f t e r a t t a c h m e n t

+

H , A

I x o d e s s p e c i e s

E h r l i c h i a , A n a p l a s m a ( B )

H u m a n e h r l i c h i o s i s

V i a s a l i v a i n j e c t i o n s t a r t i n g

8 – 1 2 h a f t e r a t t a c h m e n t

+

H , A

D e r m a c e n t o r s p e c i e s

R i c k e t t s i a r i c k e t t s i i ( R )

R o c k y M o u n t a i n s s p o t t e d f e v e r

S a l i v a

+

H , A

A m b l y o m m a s p e c i e s

R i c k e t t s i a a f r i c a e ( R )

A f r i c a n t i c k b i t e f e v e r , Q f e v e r

S a l i v a

+

H , A

C o x i e l l a b u r n e t i i ( B )

R h i p i c e p h a l u s s p e c i e s

R i c k e t t s i a c o n o r i ( R )

F i è v r e b o u t o n n e u s e

S a l i v a

+

H , A

I x o d e s , D e r m a c e n t o r s p e c i e s

B a b e s i a s p e c i e s ( P )

B a b e s i o s i s

S a l i v a

+

H , A

D e r m a c e n t o r H a e m a p h y s a l i s , R h i p i c e p h a l u s s p e c i e s

F r a n c i s e l l a t u l a r e n s i s ( B )

T u l a r a e m i a

S a l i v a

+

H , A

D e r m a c e n t o r r e t i c u l a t u s , R h i p i c e p h a l u s s a n g u i n e u s

B a b e s i a c a n i s ( P )

B a b e s i o s i s

S a l i v a

+

D

M i t e s T r o m b i c u l a a k a m u s h i

O r i e n t a t s u t s u g a m u s h i

E s h a r , T s u t s u g a m u s h i f e v e r

S a l i v a

+

H , A

A m a n y a n i m a l s ( o f t e n a s r e s e r v o i r h o s t s ) , B b a c t e r i a , D d o g s , H h u m a n s ,

P p r o t o z o a n s ,

R r i c k e t t s i a e ,

V v i r u s , + p o s s i b l e

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Thus, it takes at the maximum 24 h to travel from one endof the world to the other — and this is done daily by millionsof humans and also millions of tons of food or goods whichalso comprise plants. Inside the bodies of those travellers, but also mingled among their luggage, among the imported plants and inside of transportation containers, cars and/or planes, there is enough space for unwanted "blind" passengerssuch as agents of diseases and/or vectors of agents of diseases(being already infected or not). Furthermore, the possibilitythat birds of passage transport inside their body agents of diseases or different vectors of diseases on their body surfacemust not be underestimated.

When considering the incubation period (first occurrence of symptoms of disease after an infection) and when looking at the prepatent period (time of appearance of newly transmittableagents of diseases after an infection), it becomes clear that thedescribed short travel (or transportation) times will support aneasy invasion process of agents of diseases into new countriesand help to propagate there especially the agents of emerginginfectious diseases (EID) besides the numerous already knowndiseases that are transmitted by vectors from the field of arachno-entomology (Tables 1 and 2).

Since the importance of many of these actually spreadingagents of diseases is often underestimated, they are also

Table 2 Transmission and propagation of agents of disease transmitted by various groups of insects

Vectors Agents of disease Diseases Transmission pathway Transmission byfeces or squeezing

Hosts

Fleas (Siphonaptera)(many species)

Rickettsia felis (R) Flea borne spotted fever Intestinal contents + H, A Rickettsia typhi (R) Murine spotted fever Intestinal contents + H, A Dipylidium caninum (T) Plaque Intestinal contents + H, AYersinia pestis (B) Dipylidiasis Oral uptake + H, AViruses (V) Virosis (various) Blood meal + H, A

Body lice ( Pediculushumanus corporis )

Rickettsia prowazekii (R) Louse borne spotted fever Mechanical input of rickettsiae into bite sitesof lice

+ H

Raptor bugs (Triatomidae) Trypanosoma cruzi (P) Chagas disease Scratching in of parasitesinto bite sites

+ H, A

Sand flies (Phlebotomidae) Leishmania species (P) Leishmaniasis Blood meal + H, ABunyavirus (V) Pappataci fever Blood meal + H, A

Midges (Ceratopogonidae) West Nile virus (V) West Nile fever Blood meal + H, ABunyavirus (V) Nairobi disease Blood meal + H, A

Oropouche virus (V) Oropouche fever Blood meal + HBluetongue virus (V) Bluetongue Blood meal + AFilariae (N) Filariasis Blood meal H, A

Black flies (Simulidae) Filariae (N), e.g. Onchocerca Filariasis Blood meal + H, AMosquitoes (Culidae),

AnophelesArboviruses (V) Virosis/fever Saliva + H, ABunya virus (V) Encephalitis Saliva + H, A Plasmodium (P) Malaria Saliva + H, AFilariae (N) Filariasis Blood meal + H, A

Mosquitoes, Culex Flavivirus (V) Japanese encephalitis Saliva + H, ABunyavirus (V) Rift Valley virus Saliva + H, AArbovirus (V) West Nile fever Saliva + H, AFilariae (N) Filariasis Blood meal + H, A

Mosquitoes, Aedes Chikungunga virus (TO) Chikungunya fever Saliva + H, ADengue virus (FL) Dengue fever Saliva + H, AYellow fever virus (FL) Yellow fever Saliva + H, AFilariae (N) Filariasis Blood meal + H, A

Flies, Muscidae Bacteria (B), many species Bacteriosis Mechanical contaminationof mouth parts

+ H, A

Flies, Glossinidae Trypanosomes (P) Sleeping disease Blood meal + H, AFlies, Tabanidae Bacteria (B) Bacteriosis Mechanical contamination + H, A

Filariae (N) Loiasis Blood meal + H, A

A animals (often as reservoir hosts), B bacteria, FL flavirus, H humans, N nematodes, P protozoans, T tapeworm, TO togavirus, V virus, + possible

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described as “ neglected diseases ” or “ neglected tropicaldiseases (Claczinski et al. 2007 ) or positive as EID.Therefore, knowledge in arachno-entomology is highlyneeded but actually neglected. And it will take time toincrease the number of scientists working in this field sothat knowledge and experience become lost worldwideevery day by retirement of entomologists and acarologists.Especially more studies are needed on the following fields:– Knowledge on the existence of species in local regions– Observation of invading species– Life cycles and current situation of invading and of

local species– Propagation of species in different biotopes and

adaption to unfavourable conditions– Food supply and benefits– Modes of the development of resistances of vectors– Recent sensitivity to insecticides/acaricides– Development of new insecticides and acaricides,

respectively new modes of application– Host selection and host specification– Modes how vectors find their hosts– Uptake and propagation of agents of diseases by blood

sucking or licking vectors– Factors that are need for a successful transmission– Molecular biological and genetic investigations on the

relations of vector species (complexes)– Importance of mechanical transmissions– Biological control methods– Methods to exclude or minimize long distance trans-

portations of potentially infected vectors, etc.

These and many related other fields have to be studiedintensively in order to avoid outbreaks of pandemics with potentially uncontrollable consequences on earth, which become more and more crowded and the distances of whichshrink daily.

Acknowledgement We are grateful to the Center of Excellence of the College of Science of the King Saud University at Riyahd (SaudiArabia).

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Research and Increase of Expertise in Arachno-Entomology Are Urgently Needed