WHAT IS RESEARCH?WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Research:Research: As a scientific investigation of phenomena As a scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis, which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of facts that links man’s and interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with realityspeculation with realityis a systematic inquiry utilizing disciplined is a systematic inquiry utilizing disciplined methods to solved problems. methods to solved problems. In nursing, aims to view of understanding In nursing, aims to view of understanding effective nursing care and promoting health care effective nursing care and promoting health care as a system.as a system.

Aims/Objective of ResearchAims/Objective of Research To describe a phenomenon relating to To describe a phenomenon relating to

nursing profession by defining, observation nursing profession by defining, observation and documentationand documentation

To explore phenomenon and look for To explore phenomenon and look for variables affecting on it and determine the variables affecting on it and determine the assumed and presumed relationship among assumed and presumed relationship among and between the said variablesand between the said variables

To explain and seek clarification for better To explain and seek clarification for better understanding of a prevailing situationunderstanding of a prevailing situation

To predict and control to minimize the impact To predict and control to minimize the impact of the situationof the situation

NUR SING RESEARCH:NUR SING RESEARCH:- - Is a systematic search for knowledge about Is a systematic search for knowledge about

issues of importance to the nursing issues of importance to the nursing profession.profession.

- It includes the breadth and depth of the - It includes the breadth and depth of the discipline of nursing such as the FF:discipline of nursing such as the FF:

Rehabilitative, therapeutic and preventive Rehabilitative, therapeutic and preventive aspects of nursing;aspects of nursing;

Preparation of personnel involved in the Preparation of personnel involved in the total nursing sphere, such as nursing total nursing sphere, such as nursing educationeducation

Preparation of practitioners in nursingPreparation of practitioners in nursing

Nursing ResearchNursing Research- - A methodical/thorough scrutiny of A methodical/thorough scrutiny of

observable event or fact to patient, staff observable event or fact to patient, staff nurses, health workers and many nurses, health workers and many others which includes collection, others which includes collection, presentation, analysis, and presentation, analysis, and interpretation of phenomena that interpretation of phenomena that binds/connects nurse’s thoughts with binds/connects nurse’s thoughts with actualityactuality

Nursing ResearchNursing Research Is a systematic inquiry designed Is a systematic inquiry designed

to:to: Develop knowledge about issues Develop knowledge about issues

of importance to the nursing of importance to the nursing professionprofession

Guide nursing practiceGuide nursing practice Improve the health and quality of Improve the health and quality of

life of the nurses/client.life of the nurses/client.

Role of Nurses in Role of Nurses in ResearchResearch

To discover new knowledge To discover new knowledge for the development and for the development and improvement of skills, improvement of skills, behavior and practice for behavior and practice for better quality lifebetter quality life

Goal of Nursing ResearchGoal of Nursing Research

- Is to provide a basis for decision-Is to provide a basis for decision-making at all levels of the professionmaking at all levels of the profession

Schlotfeld states that” Nursing research Schlotfeld states that” Nursing research develops and refines nursing theories develops and refines nursing theories that will serve as guide to nursing that will serve as guide to nursing practice that can be organized into a practice that can be organized into a body of knowledge”body of knowledge”

Evolution of Evolution of NursingNursing

ResearchResearch

The Hx of Evolution of The Hx of Evolution of Professional nursing Professional nursing

was divided into three was divided into three PhasesPhases

by Simon & by Simon & Henderson:Henderson:

11stst Phase - Late 1800s Phase - Late 1800s

The trained nurse was a The trained nurse was a product of a hospitalproduct of a hospital

22ndnd Phase – from 1900 to 1930 Phase – from 1900 to 1930

Marked the beginning of Marked the beginning of nursing education in nursing education in institutions of higher institutions of higher learning, while hospital learning, while hospital was being expandedwas being expanded

33rdrd Phase – from 1930 to the Phase – from 1930 to the presentpresent

researcher are looking researcher are looking forward for the purpose of forward for the purpose of improving quality care and improving quality care and nursing educationnursing education

    

Then they turned to educational research Then they turned to educational research to apply some of its method and aims to apply some of its method and aims while research on industrial mgt helped in while research on industrial mgt helped in the scientific utilization of personnelthe scientific utilization of personnel

Florence Nightingale – 1Florence Nightingale – 1stst nursing nursing researcherresearcher

Lydia Hall presents the three aspect of Lydia Hall presents the three aspect of nursingnursing

In the later part people applied to the In the later part people applied to the medical research to art of the 19medical research to art of the 19thth century century nurses determine procedures and nursing nurses determine procedures and nursing treatmenttreatment

Role of Research in Improving Role of Research in Improving Quality of LifeQuality of Life

New knowledge can result in New knowledge can result in development or improvement of skills, development or improvement of skills, behavior or practices can result in behavior or practices can result in improved performance & better improved performance & better service deliveryservice delivery

Newly discovered or developed Newly discovered or developed technology can lead to the technology can lead to the development of new tools or devicesdevelopment of new tools or devices

The Importance of Research to the Practice The Importance of Research to the Practice of Nursingof Nursing

1.1. To expand “comfort zone” by offering creative To expand “comfort zone” by offering creative approaches to the health problem of the approaches to the health problem of the patientpatient

2.2. Designing new and innovative programs that Designing new and innovative programs that make a difference in the health status of the make a difference in the health status of the patientpatient

3.3. Provides a specialized scientific knowledge Provides a specialized scientific knowledge base that empowers the nursing profession to base that empowers the nursing profession to anticipate and meet these needs constantly anticipate and meet these needs constantly shifting challenges and maintain our societal shifting challenges and maintain our societal relevancerelevance

Aims/Objective of ResearchAims/Objective of Research--To describe a phenomenon relating to nursing To describe a phenomenon relating to nursing

profession by defining, observation and profession by defining, observation and documentationdocumentation

To explore phenomenon and look for variables To explore phenomenon and look for variables affecting on it and determine the assumed and affecting on it and determine the assumed and presumed relationship among and between the presumed relationship among and between the said variablessaid variables

To explain and seek clarification for better To explain and seek clarification for better understanding of a prevailing situationunderstanding of a prevailing situation

To predict and control to minimize the impact of To predict and control to minimize the impact of the situationthe situation

Role of Nurses in ResearchRole of Nurses in Research

To discover new knowledge for the To discover new knowledge for the development and improvement of skills, development and improvement of skills, behavior and practice for better quality lifebehavior and practice for better quality life  

NeNew knowledge can result in development or w knowledge can result in development or improvement of skills, behavior or practices can improvement of skills, behavior or practices can result in improved performance & better service result in improved performance & better service deliverydelivery

Newly discovered or developed technology can lead to Newly discovered or developed technology can lead to the development of new tools or devicesthe development of new tools or devices

Importance of Research to Nursing Importance of Research to Nursing EducationEducation

- Can benefit from using, when appropriate tools Can benefit from using, when appropriate tools and techniques developed for educational and techniques developed for educational research.research.

- Provide a basis for decision making at all levels Provide a basis for decision making at all levels of the profession.of the profession.

- The development and refinement of nursing The development and refinement of nursing theories which serve as guide to nursing theories which serve as guide to nursing practice and which can be organized into a practice and which can be organized into a body of scientific body of scientific nursingnursing knowledge. knowledge.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH:SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH:

Theory guides practice and Theory guides practice and researchresearch

Practice enables testing of theory Practice enables testing of theory and generates questions for and generates questions for researchresearch

Research contributes to theory-Research contributes to theory-building and establishing practice building and establishing practice guidelinesguidelines

SIGNIFICANCE OF NURSING SIGNIFICANCE OF NURSING RESEARCH:RESEARCH:

To measure outcome of nursing To measure outcome of nursing interventionsinterventions

To adopt an evidenced-based practice or To adopt an evidenced-based practice or use of the best clinical evidence in making use of the best clinical evidence in making patient care decisionspatient care decisions

To develop and validate nursing theories To develop and validate nursing theories which serve as guide to nursing practicewhich serve as guide to nursing practice

To document social relevance and To document social relevance and effectiveness of nursing practiceeffectiveness of nursing practice

Function of Research:Function of Research:Help us answer questions, solve problem Help us answer questions, solve problem

& make decisions& make decisionsEnables us to see & understand how & Enables us to see & understand how &

why a situation or a problem existwhy a situation or a problem existHelp us discover new things & ideasHelp us discover new things & ideasAllow us to validate existing theories or Allow us to validate existing theories or

generate new onesgenerate new onesIdentify & understand the causes & effect Identify & understand the causes & effect

of a situation or a phenomenonof a situation or a phenomenon

Uses of Research as a Scientific ProcessUses of Research as a Scientific Process

Determine/describe an existing situation ( situation Determine/describe an existing situation ( situation analysis)analysis)

Describe a population (people, objects, institution)Describe a population (people, objects, institution) Compare two conditions or group of populationCompare two conditions or group of population Determine existence, degree, or nature of relationship Determine existence, degree, or nature of relationship

between two or more factorsbetween two or more factors Evaluate &compare effectiveness of an intervention, tx Evaluate &compare effectiveness of an intervention, tx

or exposureor exposure Predict the value of a certain characteristicsPredict the value of a certain characteristics

Criteria of Good ResearchCriteria of Good Research

Clarity and relevanceClarity and relevance Researchability/feasiResearchability/feasibility of the problembility of the problem Adequacy and relevance of the related literatureAdequacy and relevance of the related literature Match between the purpose, design and Match between the purpose, design and

methodsmethods Suitability of the sampling procedure and the Suitability of the sampling procedure and the

samplesample Correctness of the analytical procedureCorrectness of the analytical procedure Clarity of the findingClarity of the finding

QUALITIES OF A QUALITIES OF A GOODGOOD RESEARCHER RESEARCHER- - N- NobleN- Noble

– U - Understanding and caring to patientsU - Understanding and caring to patients– R – RespectfulR – Respectful– S – Sincere to his workS – Sincere to his work– E – Excellent in performing his dutyE – Excellent in performing his duty– R – Research-orientedR – Research-oriented– E – EfficientE – Efficient– S – ScientificS – Scientific– E - EffectiveE - Effective– A – ActiveA – Active– R - Resourceful R - Resourceful – C - CreativeC - Creative– H - HonestH - Honest

CHARACTERISITICS OF THE CHARACTERISITICS OF THE RESARCHERRESARCHER

Intellectual curiosityIntellectual curiosityPrudencePrudenceHealthy criticismHealthy criticismIntellectual honestyIntellectual honestyIntellectual creativityIntellectual creativity

Characteristic of ResearchCharacteristic of Research EmpiricalEmpirical – – based on direct experience or based on direct experience or

observation by the researcher. The collection of observation by the researcher. The collection of data relies on practical experience without data relies on practical experience without benefit of the scientific knowledge or theorybenefit of the scientific knowledge or theory

LogicalLogical – based on valid procedure and – based on valid procedure and principle. Scientific investigation is done in an principle. Scientific investigation is done in an orderly manner so that the researcher has orderly manner so that the researcher has confidence on the resultsconfidence on the results

CyclicalCyclical – – it start with a problem and ends it start with a problem and ends with a problemwith a problem

Characteristic of ResearchCharacteristic of Research

AnalyticalAnalytical – – research utilizes a research utilizes a proven analytical procedures in proven analytical procedures in collecting the data, whether collecting the data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental historical, descriptive, experimental or case studyor case study

MethodicalMethodical - - research is conducted research is conducted in an orderly manner without bias in an orderly manner without bias using systematic procedureusing systematic procedure

Characteristic of ResearchCharacteristic of Research

ReplicabilityReplicability –– the research the research designs and procedures are designs and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive to arrive at valid and conclusive resultsresults

CriticalCritical – – research exhibits careful research exhibits careful and precise judgmentand precise judgment

  

Ethical Consideration of Ethical Consideration of ResearchResearch

Voluntary participationVoluntary participation To know & understand the purpose & the result of the To know & understand the purpose & the result of the

studystudy To demand that the researcher assumes full To demand that the researcher assumes full

responsibility of the pursuit of the studyresponsibility of the pursuit of the study To claim any reward that is dueTo claim any reward that is due To be informed the result of the study & how these will To be informed the result of the study & how these will

be usedbe used free from any physical and psychological harm free from any physical and psychological harm Anonymity & confidentialityAnonymity & confidentiality Consent must be obtainedConsent must be obtained

OVERVIEWOVERVIEWOF THE OF THE

RESEARCH RESEARCH PROCESSPROCESS

MAJOR STEPS IN THE RESEARCH MAJOR STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS:PROCESS:

Pnemonic = C DEADPnemonic = C DEAD PHASE 1 – CONCEPTUAL PHASEPHASE 1 – CONCEPTUAL PHASE PHASE2 – DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE2 – DESIGN AND PLANNING

PHASEPHASE PHASE 3 – EMPERICAL PHASEPHASE 3 – EMPERICAL PHASE PHASE 4 – ANALYTIC PHASEPHASE 4 – ANALYTIC PHASE PHASE 5 – DISSEMINATION PHASEPHASE 5 – DISSEMINATION PHASE

PHASE 1 – THE CONCEPTUAL PHASE 1 – THE CONCEPTUAL PHASEPHASE

   Step 1 – formulating and delimiting the Step 1 – formulating and delimiting the problemproblem

Start with selection of broad areas of Start with selection of broad areas of interest to the development of specific interest to the development of specific questions that are amenable to empirical in questions that are amenable to empirical in inquiryinquiry

A.A.Define source of topicsDefine source of topics

B.B.Define the purpose of researchDefine the purpose of research

C.C.Review of Related LiteratureReview of Related Literature

D.D.Formulate the theoretical frameworkFormulate the theoretical framework

Formulation of the Problem Formulation of the Problem cont.cont.

E. Delineate the population(s) to be E. Delineate the population(s) to be studiesstudies

F. State the Specific Research F. State the Specific Research ProblemProblem

G. State the AssumptionsG. State the Assumptions

H. State the scope and Limitation of H. State the scope and Limitation of the problemthe problem

In Developing Research Problem, the In Developing Research Problem, the Researcher Should Consider:Researcher Should Consider: Substantive Dimension Substantive Dimension – Is this research – Is this research

question of theoritical or practical question of theoritical or practical significance?significance?

Methodological Dimensions Methodological Dimensions – how can this – how can this questions be studied?questions be studied?

Practical Dimension Practical Dimension – Are adequate – Are adequate resources available to conduct the study?resources available to conduct the study?

Ethical dimensioEthical dimension – can this question be n – can this question be studied in a manner that is consistent with studied in a manner that is consistent with the guidelines for the protection of human the guidelines for the protection of human subjectssubjects

Steps 2 – Reviewing the Review of Steps 2 – Reviewing the Review of LiteratureLiterature

For research findings to be useful, they should be For research findings to be useful, they should be an extension of previous knowledge and theory an extension of previous knowledge and theory as well as a guide for future research activityas well as a guide for future research activity

Literature Review is the critical summary of a Literature Review is the critical summary of a research topic on a topic of interest generally research topic on a topic of interest generally prepared to put a research problem in context or prepared to put a research problem in context or to identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies to identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify a new investigationso as to justify a new investigation

     

Steps 3 – Developing a Steps 3 – Developing a theoretical frameworktheoretical framework

When research is performed in the When research is performed in the context of a theoretical framework, it is context of a theoretical framework, it is more likely that its finding will have a more likely that its finding will have a long-lasting significance and utilitylong-lasting significance and utility

Step 4 – Formulating a Step 4 – Formulating a hypothesishypothesis

  

A.HypothesisA.Hypothesis – – a statement of the researchers’ a statement of the researchers’

expectations concerning relationships expectations concerning relationships between the variables under between the variables under investigation; it is a prediction of investigation; it is a prediction of expected outcomeexpected outcome

Hull hypothesisHull hypothesis Hull hypothesisHull hypothesis– statement that there – statement that there

is no actual relationship between is no actual relationship between variables and that any such observed variables and that any such observed relationship is a result of chancerelationship is a result of chance

Alternative hypothesisAlternative hypothesis – – statement that there is a relationship statement that there is a relationship between the variables under studybetween the variables under study

B. Problem StatementB. Problem Statement

- - Identifies the Identifies the phenomenon under phenomenon under investigation and give investigation and give direction to the projectdirection to the project

Phase 2 Phase 2 The Design The Design

and and

Planning PhasePlanning Phase

Step - 5. Selecting a Research Step - 5. Selecting a Research DesignDesign

- - Is the overall plan for the Is the overall plan for the method of obtaining answer method of obtaining answer to the question being studied to the question being studied and how to handle some of and how to handle some of the difficulties encountered the difficulties encountered during the research processduring the research process

Step 6 – Identifying the Step 6 – Identifying the population to be studiedpopulation to be studied

a.a.PopulationPopulation – aggregate or totality – aggregate or totality of all the objects, subjects or of all the objects, subjects or members that conform to a members that conform to a designated set of specificationsdesignated set of specifications

b.b.SampleSample – – a subset of a population a subset of a population selected to participate in a research selected to participate in a research studystudy

Step 7 – Specifying Methods to collect the Step 7 – Specifying Methods to collect the Research DataResearch Data

Approaches of data collection:Approaches of data collection:

a. Biophysiological measurement a. Biophysiological measurement – data collected – data collected through physical examination, anthropometric through physical examination, anthropometric measurements and laboratory studies among measurements and laboratory studies among othersothers

b. Self-Report b. Self-Report – subjects are directly asked about – subjects are directly asked about their feelings, behaviors, attitudes and personal their feelings, behaviors, attitudes and personal traitstraits

c. Observational Techniques c. Observational Techniques – researcher – researcher collects data by observing people’s behavior collects data by observing people’s behavior and recording relevant aspect of itand recording relevant aspect of it

Level of Measurement:Level of Measurement:

1.1. Nominal measurement – Nominal measurement – the lowest level of the lowest level of measurement, basic requirements for measurement, basic requirements for measuring are that the classifications must be measuring are that the classifications must be mutually exclusive( each subject must be mutually exclusive( each subject must be classifiable only into one and only one classifiable only into one and only one categories) and collectively exhaustivecategories) and collectively exhaustive

Ex: Sex – a person is either male of female only; Ex: Sex – a person is either male of female only; smoking status – smoker or non-smoker( no smoking status – smoker or non-smoker( no such things as paartial smpkers because this such things as paartial smpkers because this person will still be categorized as a smoker)person will still be categorized as a smoker)

Level of Measurement:Level of Measurement:2.Ordinal Measurement 2.Ordinal Measurement – – this permits the sorting of objects on this permits the sorting of objects on

the basis of their standing relative to the basis of their standing relative to each other on a specific attribute; each other on a specific attribute; attributes are rank-ordered according attributes are rank-ordered according to a set criterion; average is to a set criterion; average is meaningless with rank-order measuresmeaningless with rank-order measures

Ex: frequency countsEx: frequency counts

Level of Measurement:Level of Measurement:

3. Interval Measurement 3. Interval Measurement

– – when the researcher can specify both the when the researcher can specify both the rank-ordering of the objects on an attribute rank-ordering of the objects on an attribute and the distance between those objects; and the distance between those objects; Zero is arbitrary(no real zero); interval Zero is arbitrary(no real zero); interval between numbers can be added or between numbers can be added or subtractedsubtracted

Ex: a temperature of 60 F; However it cannot Ex: a temperature of 60 F; However it cannot be said that 60 F is twice as hot as 30 Fbe said that 60 F is twice as hot as 30 F

Level of Measurement:Level of Measurement:

4. Ratio Measurement 4. Ratio Measurement – – the highest level of the highest level of measurements; it has a rational Zero point; it measurements; it has a rational Zero point; it provides information concerning rank ordering provides information concerning rank ordering of objects on a critical attribute, the intervals of objects on a critical attribute, the intervals between objects, and the absolute magnitude between objects, and the absolute magnitude of the attribute for the object; all arithmetic of the attribute for the object; all arithmetic operation are permissibleoperation are permissible

Ex: A person with a weight of 150 lbs is said to be Ex: A person with a weight of 150 lbs is said to be twice as heavy as a person who weighs 75 lbstwice as heavy as a person who weighs 75 lbs

Steps 8 – Designing the Steps 8 – Designing the Sampling PlanSampling Plan

- Devising the sampling plan Devising the sampling plan includes determining the includes determining the sampling method, sample size sampling method, sample size and selection procedures for and selection procedures for recruiting the subjectsrecruiting the subjects

Step 9 – Finalizing and Reviewing Step 9 – Finalizing and Reviewing the research Planthe research Plan

- - Review of the research plan may Review of the research plan may be done by the faculty adviser, be done by the faculty adviser, funding source or special funding source or special committee for ethics for its committee for ethics for its contents, design, methodology, contents, design, methodology, feasibility and ethical feasibility and ethical considerationsconsiderations

Step 10 – Conducting the Pilot Step 10 – Conducting the Pilot study and making revisionsstudy and making revisions

a.a. Pilot Study – sometime called feasibility Pilot Study – sometime called feasibility study, is a small-scale version or trial run study, is a small-scale version or trial run of the major studyof the major study

b.b. Pretesting of the questionnaires is done Pretesting of the questionnaires is done to know whether the respondents to know whether the respondents understand the question and the understand the question and the directions or if they find certain questions directions or if they find certain questions objectionableobjectionable

C. PHASE 3 – C. PHASE 3 –

THE EMPERICAL THE EMPERICAL

PHASEPHASE

Step 11 – Collecting the DataStep 11 – Collecting the Data

Step12 – Preparing the data for Step12 – Preparing the data for analysisanalysis

a.a.Coding – the process of translating verbal Coding – the process of translating verbal data into categories or numerical formsdata into categories or numerical forms

b.b.Transferring written document into Transferring written document into computer filescomputer files

Phase - 4Phase - 4The AnalyticThe Analytic

PhasePhase

Step 13 - Analyzing the DataStep 13 - Analyzing the Data

A. Qualitative Analysis A. Qualitative Analysis – integration and – integration and synthesis of narrative, non-numerical data for the synthesis of narrative, non-numerical data for the purpose of discovering important underlying purpose of discovering important underlying dimensions and patterns of relationshipsdimensions and patterns of relationships

B. Quantitative Analysis B. Quantitative Analysis – analysis of – analysis of numerical data through statistical procedures for the numerical data through statistical procedures for the purpose of describing phenomena or assessing the purpose of describing phenomena or assessing the magnitude and reliability of relationships among themmagnitude and reliability of relationships among them

C. Statistical Analysis C. Statistical Analysis – the organization and – the organization and analysis of quantitative data using statistical analysis of quantitative data using statistical procedures, including both descriptive and inferential procedures, including both descriptive and inferential statisticstatistic

Step 14 – Interpreting the DataStep 14 – Interpreting the Data

a.a. InterpretationInterpretation – the process of making – the process of making sense of the results and examining the sense of the results and examining the implications of the findings within a broader implications of the findings within a broader context( generalizability)context( generalizability)

b.b. Interpretation of Quantitative Interpretation of Quantitative Studies Studies - involve the translation of - involve the translation of statistical findings into practical and statistical findings into practical and conceptual meaningconceptual meaning

D. PHASE 5D. PHASE 5THE THE

DisseminationDissemination

PhasePhase

Step 15 – Communicating the Step 15 – Communicating the findingsfindings

- Preparation of a research reports that Preparation of a research reports that could be easily understood by readerscould be easily understood by readers

STEP 16 – UTILIZING THE FINDINGSSTEP 16 – UTILIZING THE FINDINGS- Facilitated by including in the report - Facilitated by including in the report

recommendations on how the results of the recommendations on how the results of the study could be incorporated into practice of study could be incorporated into practice of nursing and disseminating the findings to nursing and disseminating the findings to practicing nurses and nurses in other fieldspracticing nurses and nurses in other fields

TYPES/Methods TYPES/Methods

OFOF

RESEARCHRESEARCH

According to Different Point of ViewAccording to Different Point of View

1.1. BASICBASIC – research designed to produce – research designed to produce knowledge or to construct a theoryknowledge or to construct a theory

- The goal: is to fill in the gaps of nursing - The goal: is to fill in the gaps of nursing knowledgeknowledge

2. APPLIED 2. APPLIED – – research designed to find a research designed to find a solution for an immediate practical solution for an immediate practical problem, truth is adapted to daily situationproblem, truth is adapted to daily situation

- The Goal: to identify a solution to an - The Goal: to identify a solution to an immediate problemimmediate problem

According to Approach: TWO According to Approach: TWO CATEGORIESCATEGORIES

QUALITATIVE RESEARCHQUALITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCHRESEARCH

QUALITATIVEQUALITATIVE- Use an emergent designUse an emergent design

- Means that the design emerges as Means that the design emerges as researchers make ongoing decision as the researchers make ongoing decision as the study unfoldsstudy unfolds

- Such decisions involve how data can be Such decisions involve how data can be best obtained, from whom to obtain data, best obtained, from whom to obtain data, how to schedule data collection, and how how to schedule data collection, and how long should each data collection session long should each data collection session lastslasts

QUALITATIVEQUALITATIVE

- Research studies are rooted in Research studies are rooted in the discipline of:the discipline of:

a.a.AnthropologyAnthropology

b.b.SociologySociology

c.c.psychologypsychology

Major Types ofMajor Types ofQualitative Design Qualitative Design

and and

Its ComparisonIts Comparison

Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative DesignDesign

Strategy Types of Research

Paradigm Method Other data Sources

Phenomenology

Meaning questions eliciting the essence of experience

Philosophy(Phenomenology)

•Audio taped conversations•Written anecdotes of personal experiences

•Phenomenological literature•Philosophical•Reflections•Poetry•Art

Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative DesignComparison of the Major Type of Qualitative DesignStrategy

Types of Research Paradigm Method Other data Sources

Ethnography

Descriptive questions – of values, beliefs, practices as cultural group

Anthropolopgy (culture)

•Unstructured interviews•Participants observation•Field notes

•Document•Records•Photography•Maps•Genealogies•Social network diagrams

Ground Theory

Process questions – experience overtime or change, may have stages and phases

Sociology(symbolicinteractionism)

Interviews (tape recorded)

•Participants observation•Memo•Diary

Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative Comparison of the Major Type of Qualitative DesignDesign

Strategy Types of Research

Paradigm Method Other data Sources

Ethnomethodology/Discourse Analysis

Question regarding verbal interactions and dialogue

Semiotics Dialogue(Audio and Video recording

•Observation•Field notes

Participants Observation

Behavioral questions- Macro

Anthropology •Obervation•Field notes

•Interviews•Photography

Qualitative Ethology

Behavioral questions- Micro

Zoology Observation •Videotape•Note-taking

PhenomenologyPhenomenology

- A rigorous, critical, systematic and A rigorous, critical, systematic and holistic investigation of holistic investigation of phenomena or experience; phenomena or experience; investigates subjective investigates subjective phenomena in the belief that phenomena in the belief that essential truths about reality are essential truths about reality are grounded in lived experiencegrounded in lived experience

Purpose:Purpose:

- - to explicate the essence or meaning or to explicate the essence or meaning or structure of the lived experience of a structure of the lived experience of a phenomena in search for meaning that phenomena in search for meaning that deals with:deals with:

a.a.Identification of the essence of the Identification of the essence of the PhenomenonPhenomenon

b.b.Identification of accurate description thru Identification of accurate description thru everyday lived experienceeveryday lived experience

Six Core StepsSix Core Steps::

1.1. Descriptive Phenomenology Descriptive Phenomenology – direct – direct exploration, analysis and description of exploration, analysis and description of phenomena, free of presuppositionphenomena, free of presupposition

2.2. Phenomenology of essences Phenomenology of essences – probing – probing through data to identify common themes or through data to identify common themes or essences essences

3.3. Phenomenology of Appearances Phenomenology of Appearances – gives – gives attention to the way phenomena appearattention to the way phenomena appear

4.4. Constitutive Phenomenology Constitutive Phenomenology – Process in – Process in which phenomena advance in the which phenomena advance in the consciousnessconsciousness

Six Core Steps:Six Core Steps:5. Reductive Phenomenology 5. Reductive Phenomenology – –

researcher identifies all personal researcher identifies all personal biases, beliefs and assumptionsbiases, beliefs and assumptions

6. Hermeneutic phenomenology 6. Hermeneutic phenomenology – – Identifying the relationship Identifying the relationship between knowledge and contextbetween knowledge and context

::

Ex: “A study of the Meaning of Passing Ex: “A study of the Meaning of Passing the Local Nursing Board Examination to the Local Nursing Board Examination to different Types of Board Exam takers”,different Types of Board Exam takers”,ExEx

“The investigator may look into the meaning of passing the nursing board examination to the first-time takers as compared to those who have taken it more than once or its meaning to the new college graduates versus those who have nursing as their second course

Grounded TheoryGrounded Theory- A form of field researchA form of field research

Purpose:Purpose:

- To develop a theory about - To develop a theory about dominant social processes rather dominant social processes rather than describe a particular than describe a particular phenomenaphenomena

Five Basic CharacteristicsFive Basic Characteristics1.1. Conceptual Framework is generated from Conceptual Framework is generated from

data, not previous studiesdata, not previous studies

2.2. Attempts to discover dominant processes in Attempts to discover dominant processes in the social scene, not to describe the unit under the social scene, not to describe the unit under investigationinvestigation

3.3. All data are compared with all other dataAll data are compared with all other data

4.4. Researcher modifies data collection according Researcher modifies data collection according to advancing theory and ask more penetrating to advancing theory and ask more penetrating questions as neededquestions as needed

5.5. Investigator examines data as they arrive few Investigator examines data as they arrive few thoughts concerning the research report from thoughts concerning the research report from the beginning of the studythe beginning of the study

EthnographyEthnography- Work of describing cultureWork of describing culture

a.a.Ethnographer uses the (“emic”)insider’s view or Ethnographer uses the (“emic”)insider’s view or the way the members of a specific culture the way the members of a specific culture envision their worldenvision their world

b.b.Broad types of information sought:Broad types of information sought: Cultural behavior – what the members doCultural behavior – what the members do Cultural artifact – what the members make and Cultural artifact – what the members make and

useuse Cultural speech – what the members sayCultural speech – what the members say

EthnographyEthnographyc. Sources of data include c. Sources of data include

observations, in-depth observations, in-depth interviews, records, charts and interviews, records, charts and other physical evidences like other physical evidences like photographs, diaries, lettersphotographs, diaries, letters

Fundamental Characteristics:Fundamental Characteristics:1.1. FieldworkFieldwork

2.2. Cyclic nature of data collection and analysisCyclic nature of data collection and analysis

3.3. Focus on cultureFocus on culture

4.4. Researcher as instrumentResearcher as instrument

5.5. Cultural immersionCultural immersion

6.6. Tension between researcher as researcher Tension between researcher as researcher and researcher as cultural memberand researcher as cultural member

Ex: “Pregnancy, Labor, Childbirth and Ex: “Pregnancy, Labor, Childbirth and Puerperium Practices of Mangyans Families”Puerperium Practices of Mangyans Families”

Historical ResearchHistorical Research

- Used in the belief that something Used in the belief that something from the past will explain from the past will explain something in the presentsomething in the present

- Formulates a thesis about the Formulates a thesis about the relationship among ideas, events, relationship among ideas, events, institutions or people in the pastinstitutions or people in the past

Methodological stagesMethodological stages

1.1. Selecting a topic and appropriate theoritical Selecting a topic and appropriate theoritical frameworkframework

2.2. Finding and accessing resourcesFinding and accessing resources

3.3. Analysis and synthesis of dataAnalysis and synthesis of data

4.4. Interpretation of dataInterpretation of data

5.5. Reporting of dataReporting of data

Ex: “ A study on the evolution of the nurse-Ex: “ A study on the evolution of the nurse-researcher role in the Philippines settingresearcher role in the Philippines setting””

Action ResearchAction Research

- Also known as cooperative inquiry, Also known as cooperative inquiry, action inquiry, participatory action action inquiry, participatory action research, community-based action research, community-based action research, collaborative research, research, collaborative research, participative inquiryparticipative inquiry

- A form of social research involving the A form of social research involving the process of change based on process of change based on professional, organizational or professional, organizational or community actioncommunity action

Fundamental Characteristic:Fundamental Characteristic:1.1. Context-boundContext-bound

2.2. Process seeks to have full engagement by the Process seeks to have full engagement by the researcher and participant(collaborative)researcher and participant(collaborative)

3.3. Researcher pay attention to process and how Researcher pay attention to process and how it impacts the lives of othersit impacts the lives of othersFocus on action or changeFocus on action or change

4.4. Stakeholders decide to implement action or Stakeholders decide to implement action or changechange

Ex: “ Improving healthcare access among Ex: “ Improving healthcare access among families living in the farflung areas of families living in the farflung areas of Nagcarlan LagunaNagcarlan Laguna

TriangulationTriangulation- A type of research that uses a combination of A type of research that uses a combination of

more than one research strategy in a single more than one research strategy in a single investigation; done to ensure completeness of investigation; done to ensure completeness of findings or to confirm findingsfindings or to confirm findings

- This reveals the varied dimensions of a This reveals the varied dimensions of a phenomenon and helps create a more accurate phenomenon and helps create a more accurate description of itdescription of it

Ex: “ A study to explore the early Socialization of Filipino Ex: “ A study to explore the early Socialization of Filipino nurse practitioner in the US health care systemnurse practitioner in the US health care system

- Data is gathered through in-depth interview of nurse - Data is gathered through in-depth interview of nurse practitioner and their preceptorspractitioner and their preceptors

Principles of Sampling in Qualitative Principles of Sampling in Qualitative ResearchResearch

1. Appropriateness 1. Appropriateness – derived from the – derived from the identification and utilization of the participants identification and utilization of the participants who can best provide information on the who can best provide information on the research according to the theoretical research according to the theoretical requirement of the studyrequirement of the study

2. Adequacy 2. Adequacy – there is enough data to develop a – there is enough data to develop a full and rich description of the phenomena – full and rich description of the phenomena – preferably, that the stage of saturation has preferably, that the stage of saturation has been reached and that no new data will emerge been reached and that no new data will emerge by conducting further interviewsby conducting further interviews

QuantitativeQuantitative

ResearchResearch

Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research- Quantitative research design are fairly Quantitative research design are fairly

structuredstructured

- Before the data is gathered, researcher would Before the data is gathered, researcher would usually specify the following first: nature of an usually specify the following first: nature of an intervention, methods to be used to control an intervention, methods to be used to control an extraneous variables, timing of data collection, extraneous variables, timing of data collection, study site setting, even the information to be study site setting, even the information to be provided to the participantsprovided to the participants

- Modification to the research design is rarely Modification to the research design is rarely done once data collection transpiresdone once data collection transpires

Summary Table of Quantitative research Summary Table of Quantitative research DesignsDesigns

Dimension Designs Major Features

Degree of Structure Structuredflexible

Designs is before data collectionDesigns evolves during data collection

Type of group comparison Between subjectsWithin subjects

Subjects in groups that are being compared are different people

Time frame Cross sectionalLongitudinal

Data collected at one point in time

Data collected at two or more points in time over an extended period

Summary Table of Quantitative research DesignsSummary Table of Quantitative research Designs

Dimension Designs Major Features

Control over Independent variables

Experimental

Quasi-experimental

Pre-experimental

Non-experimental

Manipulation of IV, control group, randomization

-Manipulation of IV with either control group or randomization

-Manipulation of IV with either control group or randomization; limited control over extraneous variable

- No manipulation of IV

Measurement of independent and dependent variables

Retrospective

Prospective

Study begins with DV and looks backward for cause or antecedent

- Study begins with IV and looks forward for the effect

According According toto

Time ElementTime Element

Cross-Sectional DesignCross-Sectional Design– – involves collection of data at one point in timeinvolves collection of data at one point in time

• Appropriate fro describing the status of Appropriate fro describing the status of phenomena or for describing relationships phenomena or for describing relationships among phenomena at the fixed point in timeamong phenomena at the fixed point in time

• Used also to infer causal or temporal chain Used also to infer causal or temporal chain when:when:

- There is evidence or logical reasoning to There is evidence or logical reasoning to ensure that one variable preceded the ensure that one variable preceded the other(ex. other(ex. In a study on the effects of LBW on morbidity among In a study on the effects of LBW on morbidity among preschool children)preschool children)

- There is strong theoretical framework guiding analysisThere is strong theoretical framework guiding analysis

AdvantagesAdvantages: Practical, economical, easy to : Practical, economical, easy to managemanage

Disadvantages:Disadvantages:

- Problem to infer change and trends over timeProblem to infer change and trends over time

Ex: “ a study on the nursing students’ Ex: “ a study on the nursing students’ professionalism as they progress through 4professionalism as they progress through 4thth year course” it is necessary to survey year course” it is necessary to survey members of different year level at one point in members of different year level at one point in time and compare their degree of time and compare their degree of professionalism as they progress from the 1professionalism as they progress from the 1stst year to the 4year to the 4thth year year

Longitudinal DesignLongitudinal Design

- Designed to collect data at more than one point Designed to collect data at more than one point in time over an extended periodin time over an extended period

a.a.Trend Studies- Trend Studies- permit researchers to examine permit researchers to examine patterns and rates of change over time and to patterns and rates of change over time and to predict future direction on some phenomenapredict future direction on some phenomena

Ex: Trend studies have been used in analyzing Ex: Trend studies have been used in analyzing the number of students entering nursing and the number of students entering nursing and forecasting future supplies of nursing personnel forecasting future supplies of nursing personnel in the Philippinesin the Philippines

Longitudinal DesignLongitudinal Design

b. COHORT b. COHORT – a particular type of trend – a particular type of trend study in which a cohort (specific sub study in which a cohort (specific sub population) are examined over a population) are examined over a period of timeperiod of time

Ex: A cohort of the BSN graduates who took Ex: A cohort of the BSN graduates who took the PNLE in June 2006 may be the PNLE in June 2006 may be periodically surveyed to determine the periodically surveyed to determine the employment unemployment patternemployment unemployment pattern

Longitudinal DesignLongitudinal Design

c. c. Cross-sequential design or cohort Cross-sequential design or cohort sequential design or longitudinal cohort sequential design or longitudinal cohort comparison design comparison design – A type of cohort are – A type of cohort are studied longitudinally so that both changes studied longitudinally so that both changes over time and generational diference can be over time and generational diference can be detecteddetected

d. Panel Studiesd. Panel Studies- - panel refers to the sample of subjects panel refers to the sample of subjects

providing data; these same people providing data; these same people are studied at two or more points in are studied at two or more points in time so that researchers could identify time so that researchers could identify individuals who may or may not have individuals who may or may not have changed and to examine the changed and to examine the characteristics that differentiate the characteristics that differentiate the two groupstwo groups

Follow-Up StudiesFollow-Up Studies

Similar to panel studies though Similar to panel studies though these are undertaken to determine these are undertaken to determine the development of individuals the development of individuals who have specified conditionwho have specified condition

According to According to control overcontrol over

Independent Independent VariablesVariables

EXPERIMENTALEXPERIMENTAL

- Considered the ideal of some forms of - Considered the ideal of some forms of intervention and offers the possibility of intervention and offers the possibility of greater control over extraneous variablesgreater control over extraneous variables

True Experiments are also known as the most True Experiments are also known as the most powerful method available for testing powerful method available for testing hypotheses of cause and effect hypotheses of cause and effect relationships between variablesrelationships between variables

Quasi-ExperimentalQuasi-Experimental

Like true experiment this involve manipulation of Like true experiment this involve manipulation of an IV although it lacks at least one of the other an IV although it lacks at least one of the other two properties that characterize tru two properties that characterize tru experimentsexperiments

Advantage: Practical, feasible and generalizableAdvantage: Practical, feasible and generalizable

Disadvantage: its validity in making causal Disadvantage: its validity in making causal inferences is questionable. Its hall mark is the inferences is questionable. Its hall mark is the effort to compensate for the absence of either effort to compensate for the absence of either randomization or control grouprandomization or control group

Three General Types/Categories of ResearchThree General Types/Categories of Research

1.1. Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

- - Finds answer to the question WHO, Finds answer to the question WHO, WHAT, WHERE, & HOWWHAT, WHERE, & HOW

- Describes a situation or a given state of Describes a situation or a given state of affairs in terms of specified aspect or affairs in terms of specified aspect or factorsfactors

- Ex: Ex: ““The Mgt Style of Sch. Administrator in The Mgt Style of Sch. Administrator in Tomas del Rosario SchoolTomas del Rosario School””

- ““Tardiness & Absenteesims among level Tardiness & Absenteesims among level IV student of TRC in clinical areaIV student of TRC in clinical area””

22. . Correlational/Explanatory/Association ResearchCorrelational/Explanatory/Association Research

- Attempt to explain the possible Attempt to explain the possible factors related to a problem which factors related to a problem which have been observed in descriptive have been observed in descriptive studystudy

Ex: “ Knowledge about DM & Compliance Ex: “ Knowledge about DM & Compliance with Diet, Exercise & Medical Regimen with Diet, Exercise & Medical Regimen among DM Patient”among DM Patient”

““Relationship between Relationship between SocioeconomicSocioeconomic factors & factors & Absenteeism Absenteeism among Level IV among Level IV student of TRC of Balangastudent of TRC of Balanga””

3. Intervention or Experimental 3. Intervention or Experimental ResearchResearch

- It studies the “Cause & Effect” relationship - It studies the “Cause & Effect” relationship between certain factor on a certain between certain factor on a certain phenomenon under controlled conditionsphenomenon under controlled conditions

“ “ The Effect of Cooperative Learning Approach on The Effect of Cooperative Learning Approach on the performance in RLE the performance in RLE of Level IV Nursing of Level IV Nursing student of TRC in Balanga”student of TRC in Balanga”

““The Effect of Effleurage Massage on Overt Pain The Effect of Effleurage Massage on Overt Pain Reaction of Selected Post Operative Patient in Reaction of Selected Post Operative Patient in ICMC Balanga City: Basis for Information ICMC Balanga City: Basis for Information DisseminationDissemination””

Other Dichotomies of Research/ Classification Other Dichotomies of Research/ Classification (Jackson 1995, Mercado, 1994)(Jackson 1995, Mercado, 1994)

1.1. Pure Basic vs AppliedPure Basic vs Applied

Pure basicPure basic – attempts to describe an existing – attempts to describe an existing situation/or explain certain patterns of situation/or explain certain patterns of behavior using or both qualitative & behavior using or both qualitative & quantitativequantitative

Ex: “Factors Associated with Tardiness & Ex: “Factors Associated with Tardiness & Absenteeism among Level IV Nursing Absenteeism among Level IV Nursing student”student”

Applied ResearchApplied Research- Formulation or the refinement of theory, Formulation or the refinement of theory,

aims to see an immediate solution to a aims to see an immediate solution to a problemproblem

Ex: “The Effect of Gender Sensitivity Ex: “The Effect of Gender Sensitivity Training on Men’s Involvement in Training on Men’s Involvement in Child Care”Child Care”

““Remedial Teaching: Its effect on the Remedial Teaching: Its effect on the performance of Slow Learners”performance of Slow Learners”

2. Exploratory vs Explanatory2. Exploratory vs ExplanatoryExploratoryExploratory – – are designed to describe an are designed to describe an

existing problem situationexisting problem situation

- Examine the underlying factors that contribute Examine the underlying factors that contribute to the emergence of the problem, the nature of to the emergence of the problem, the nature of which is not yet well knownwhich is not yet well known

Ex: “Menopause: Working Women’s perception, Ex: “Menopause: Working Women’s perception, Experiences & coping strategies”Experiences & coping strategies”

“ “ Domestic Violence: Ideas, experiences,& needs Domestic Violence: Ideas, experiences,& needs of married working men in Balanga City”of married working men in Balanga City”

Explanatory ResearchExplanatory Research- Explain a relationship between which Explain a relationship between which

may have already been identified in may have already been identified in exploratory studies, & why the exploratory studies, & why the relationship existsrelationship exists

- Seek more specific answer to “why” & Seek more specific answer to “why” & “how” questions“how” questions

Ex: “ Relationship Between Alcohol Intake Ex: “ Relationship Between Alcohol Intake & Domestic Violence among Married & Domestic Violence among Married men in the Municipality of Balangamen in the Municipality of Balanga””

3. Quantitative vs Qualitative3. Quantitative vs Qualitative

QuantitativeQuantitative – It measures the – It measures the number of respondent or objects number of respondent or objects possessing a particular characteristic, possessing a particular characteristic, requires statistical analysis of data & requires statistical analysis of data & testing of hypotheses.testing of hypotheses.

Ex: “Health seeking behavior & Ex: “Health seeking behavior & health status of retired school health status of retired school teacher in Balanga Bataan”teacher in Balanga Bataan”

QualitativeQualitative- Emphasizes verbal descriptions & Emphasizes verbal descriptions &

explanation of human behavior & explanation of human behavior & practicespractices

- Ex: “ Experiences & Needs of Victims Ex: “ Experiences & Needs of Victims of Child Abuse Among Elementary of Child Abuse Among Elementary Pupils in Public School in Balanga Pupils in Public School in Balanga City”City”

- “ “ Menopause: Womens Perceptions & Menopause: Womens Perceptions & Experiences"Experiences"

EXPERIMENTALEXPERIMENTAL Used to determine the effectiveness of a Tx or Used to determine the effectiveness of a Tx or

an intervention or the cause & effect an intervention or the cause & effect relationship of certain phenomena under relationship of certain phenomena under controlled conditioncontrolled condition

Is a scientific investigation that makes Is a scientific investigation that makes observations and collects data according to observations and collects data according to explicit criteriaexplicit criteria

The subjects of the study are randomly The subjects of the study are randomly assigned to the experimental group & to the assigned to the experimental group & to the control group & both are exposed to similar control group & both are exposed to similar conditions except for the intervention conditions except for the intervention

Three Identifying Properties:Three Identifying Properties:1.Randomization1.Randomization

2.Control Manipulation2.Control Manipulation

3.Manipulation3.Manipulation

Randomization/random assignment to Randomization/random assignment to groupgroup

- - Involves the distribution of subjects to Involves the distribution of subjects to either the experimental or control either the experimental or control group on a purely random basisgroup on a purely random basis

- Each subject has an equal and known Each subject has an equal and known probability of being assigned to any probability of being assigned to any groupgroup

- Allows elimination of any systematic Allows elimination of any systematic bias in the groups with respect to bias in the groups with respect to attributes that may effect the attributes that may effect the dependent variables being dependent variables being studiedstudied

CONTROLCONTROL- The introduction of one or more constants The introduction of one or more constants

into the experimental situation.into the experimental situation.

- Is acquired by manipulating the causal or Is acquired by manipulating the causal or independent variable, by randomly independent variable, by randomly assigning subjects to a groupassigning subjects to a group

- In experimental research the comparison In experimental research the comparison group is the control group, or the group group is the control group, or the group that receives the usual treatment.that receives the usual treatment.

MANIPULATIONMANIPULATION

- Researcher “doing something” to at Researcher “doing something” to at least some of the involved subjects.least some of the involved subjects.

- The independent variable, is The independent variable, is manipulated by giving it ( the manipulated by giving it ( the experimental treatment) to some experimental treatment) to some participants in the study and not to participants in the study and not to others or by giving different amounts others or by giving different amounts of it to different groups.of it to different groups.

ManipulationManipulation

- these allows for other these allows for other explanations of the explanations of the phenomenon to be ruled out phenomenon to be ruled out and thereby provide strengths and thereby provide strengths of the designs for testing cause of the designs for testing cause and effect relationshipand effect relationship..

:

Typesof

Experimental

Designs Designs

a. SOLOMON FOUR-GROUPS a. SOLOMON FOUR-GROUPS DESIGNDESIGN

--more complex experimental designedmore complex experimental designed- Has - Has two groups two groups that are identical to that are identical to

those used in the classical those used in the classical experimental design, plus experimental design, plus two two additional groupadditional group, an , an experimental experimental after-group and a control group.after-group and a control group.

- These last two groups helps to rule - These last two groups helps to rule out testing threats to internal validity out testing threats to internal validity that the before and after groups may that the before and after groups may experienceexperience

b. TRUE b. TRUE EXPERIMENTALEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNSDESIGNS

- The Classic designThe Classic design

- Subject have been assigned randomly to Subject have been assigned randomly to the experimental or the control group.the experimental or the control group.

- The experimental The experimental treatmenttreatment is given only is given only to those in the to those in the experimental groupexperimental group, and , and the the pretestspretests and and posttestsposttests are those are those measurements of the dependent variables measurements of the dependent variables that are made before and after the that are made before and after the experimental treatment is performedexperimental treatment is performed

c. c. AFTER-ONLY DesignAFTER-ONLY Design

- Called the Called the posttest-only control group posttest-only control group designdesign

- Composed of Composed of twotwo randomly assigned randomly assigned groupgroup

- The The independent variable independent variable is introduced is introduced to the to the experimental group experimental group and and not to the not to the control groupcontrol group

- Useful when testing effects are expected Useful when testing effects are expected to be a major problem and the number of to be a major problem and the number of available subject is too limited to use a available subject is too limited to use a Solomon four group design.Solomon four group design.

2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL2. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL- If full experimental control is not If full experimental control is not

possible.possible.

- The researcher initiates an The researcher initiates an experimental treatment but some experimental treatment but some characteristic of a true experiment is characteristic of a true experiment is lacking.lacking.

- The basic problem with the quasi The basic problem with the quasi approach is a weakened confidence approach is a weakened confidence in making causal assertionsin making causal assertions..

Types of Quasi-Exp.

Designs:

Nonequivalent Control Group Nonequivalent Control Group DesignDesign Looks like exactly true experimental design Looks like exactly true experimental design

except that the subjects are not randomly except that the subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.assigned to groups.

Commonly used in Commonly used in nursing research nursing research studies studies conducted in conducted in field settingfield setting

The basic problem with the design is the The basic problem with the design is the weakened confidence the researcher can weakened confidence the researcher can have in assuming that the experimental and have in assuming that the experimental and comparison groups are similar at the comparison groups are similar at the beginning of the study.beginning of the study.

Threats to internal validity, such as Threats to internal validity, such as selection, maturation, testing and selection, maturation, testing and mortality are possible .mortality are possible .

b. After-Only Nonequivalent Control b. After-Only Nonequivalent Control Group DesignGroup Design

- Makes the assumption that the two Makes the assumption that the two groups are equivalent and groups are equivalent and comparable before the introduction comparable before the introduction of the independent variablesof the independent variables

- Similar to the after-only experimental - Similar to the after-only experimental design, but randomization is not design, but randomization is not used to assign subjects to groups.used to assign subjects to groups.

c. Time Series Designc. Time Series Design

- Only one group is available is to Only one group is available is to study that group over a longer study that group over a longer period.period.

- Useful for determining trendsUseful for determining trends

- Example: “The difference overtime of Example: “The difference overtime of Infants who were irritable Versus Infants who were irritable Versus Infants who were nonirritable”Infants who were nonirritable”

Non Experimental DesignsNon Experimental Designs- Are used in studies in which the researcher Are used in studies in which the researcher

wishes to construct a picture of a phenomenon wishes to construct a picture of a phenomenon or explore events, people, or situations as they or explore events, people, or situations as they naturally occurnaturally occur

- The independent variable have already The independent variable have already occurredoccurred

- The researcher explores the relationship or The researcher explores the relationship or differencesdifferences

- Requires a clear, concise problem statement Requires a clear, concise problem statement that is based on a theoretical frameworkthat is based on a theoretical framework

Studies:

3. Descriptive

1. Descriptive/Exploratory 1. Descriptive/Exploratory Survey StudiesSurvey Studies

- Collect detailed descriptions of existing Collect detailed descriptions of existing variables and used the data to justify and variables and used the data to justify and assess current conditions and practices or to assess current conditions and practices or to make more intelligent plans for improving make more intelligent plans for improving health care practices.health care practices.

- To search for accurate information about the To search for accurate information about the characteristics of particular subjects, groups, characteristics of particular subjects, groups, institution or situation.institution or situation.

- The types of variables of interest can be The types of variables of interest can be classified as opinion, attitudes, or factsclassified as opinion, attitudes, or facts

- Can be collected by either a questionnaire or an Can be collected by either a questionnaire or an interviewinterview

2. EVALUATION AND EXPERIMENTATION2. EVALUATION AND EXPERIMENTATION

Utilization of scientific research methods Utilization of scientific research methods and procedures to evaluate a program, and procedures to evaluate a program, treatment, practice, or policytreatment, practice, or policy

It uses analytical means to document the It uses analytical means to document the worth of an activity.worth of an activity.

Uses both experimental, quasi and non-Uses both experimental, quasi and non-experimental designs for the purpose of experimental designs for the purpose of determining the effect or outcome of a determining the effect or outcome of a program.program.

Example: “The effectiveness of the nurse Example: “The effectiveness of the nurse special care unit”special care unit”

3. Assessment3. Assessment- Describe the status of some Describe the status of some

phenomena at a particular timephenomena at a particular time

- It describe without value judgment It describe without value judgment a situation that prevails, it attempts a situation that prevails, it attempts no explanation of underlying no explanation of underlying reasons & make no reasons & make no recommendation for actionrecommendation for action

4. Descriptive Research4. Descriptive Research Sometimes known as Sometimes known as non-non-

experimental, correlational, or ex-post experimental, correlational, or ex-post facto, replication & secondary analysis facto, replication & secondary analysis which deals with the relationships which deals with the relationships between variables, the testing between variables, the testing hypothesis and the development of hypothesis and the development of generalizations, principles or theories generalizations, principles or theories that have universal validitythat have universal validity

Research

Types of Descriptive

1.Correlational Studies1.Correlational Studies- - To examine the relationship To examine the relationship

between two or more between two or more variablesvariables

- Ex: “Concern about Analgesics - Ex: “Concern about Analgesics Among Patient and Family Among Patient and Family Caregivers in a Hospice Caregivers in a Hospice Setting”Setting”

2. Ex Post Facto Studies2. Ex Post Facto Studies- - “From after the fact” also known “From after the fact” also known

as as causal-comparative studiescausal-comparative studies

- Explain causality or the factors - Explain causality or the factors that determine the occurrence that determine the occurrence of events or conditions.of events or conditions.

5. Prediction

Studies

5. Prediction studies5. Prediction studies- Researcher at times want to make forecast or Researcher at times want to make forecast or

prediction about how patients will respond to an prediction about how patients will respond to an intervention or a disease process or how intervention or a disease process or how successful individual will be in a particular successful individual will be in a particular setting or field of specialtysetting or field of specialty

- Ex. Which demographic and psychosocial Ex. Which demographic and psychosocial variables predicted adjustment in women with variables predicted adjustment in women with SLE.SLE.

- The purpose of the study was to examine the The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of psychosocial variables on the influence of psychosocial variables on the adjustment of women with SLE.adjustment of women with SLE.

6. DEVELOPMENTAL 6. DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIESSTUDIES

- Concerned not only with the - Concerned not only with the existing status and existing status and interrelationship of phenomena interrelationship of phenomena but also with changes that but also with changes that result from elapsed timeresult from elapsed time

Types

of Developmental

Studies

Cross-Sectional StudiesCross-Sectional Studies- Examine data at one point in time, the Examine data at one point in time, the

data collected on only one occasion with data collected on only one occasion with the same subjects rather than on the the same subjects rather than on the same subjects at several point in timesame subjects at several point in time

- Ex: Meleis and Co. studied the “nature Ex: Meleis and Co. studied the “nature of women’s work environment as of women’s work environment as perceived by a group by Makati Clerical perceived by a group by Makati Clerical Workers. Workers.

2. Longitudinal Studies2. Longitudinal Studies

- Collect data from the same Collect data from the same group at different points in time.group at different points in time.

- Costly in terms of money, effort, Costly in terms of money, effort, time time

7. Retrospective and 7. Retrospective and Prospective studiesProspective studies

- Are essentially the same as ex Are essentially the same as ex post facto studies. Mainly used post facto studies. Mainly used by epidemiologists.by epidemiologists.

8.Historical Research method8.Historical Research method The meaningful record of human The meaningful record of human

achievement, enable one to achievement, enable one to understand the present and, to some understand the present and, to some extent, to predict the futureextent, to predict the future

Is the application of scientific method to Is the application of scientific method to the description & analysis of past the description & analysis of past eventsevents

sources: “unconscious” testimony, sources: “unconscious” testimony, relics, research reports, recordingrelics, research reports, recording

The Basic ComponentsThe Basic ComponentsOf Of

Research Research ReportReport

1. TITLE OF THE STUDY1. TITLE OF THE STUDY

- - The title embodies substantive words or The title embodies substantive words or phrases that describe the research studyphrases that describe the research study

- Title must be clearly stated, concise and consist Title must be clearly stated, concise and consist of not more than 15 words if possible.of not more than 15 words if possible.

- The variable of the research are reflected in the The variable of the research are reflected in the title, the relationship among variables and its title, the relationship among variables and its proposed target populationproposed target population

Ex: “ Self concept and Professional Attributes of Ex: “ Self concept and Professional Attributes of Staff Nurses in Relation to Patients’ Satisfaction Staff Nurses in Relation to Patients’ Satisfaction Index”Index”

2. INTRODUCTION2. INTRODUCTION- Consist of a brief discussion of the rationale Consist of a brief discussion of the rationale

and background of the problem or subject of and background of the problem or subject of inquiryinquiry

- The introduction serves as a springboard for The introduction serves as a springboard for the statement of the problemthe statement of the problem

- It should stimulate the interest of the reader It should stimulate the interest of the reader and set the pace for the presentation of the and set the pace for the presentation of the studystudy

Introduction Introduction Cont.Cont.

It includes the following:It includes the following:

a.a.The context of the problemThe context of the problem

b.b.Authoritative viewpoints on the problemAuthoritative viewpoints on the problem

c.c.The researcher’s interest in working on The researcher’s interest in working on the problemthe problem

d.d.The purpose of the study in relation to the The purpose of the study in relation to the problemproblem

3. Statement of the Problem3. Statement of the Problem

- It expressed in precise terms It expressed in precise terms as the subject of inquiryas the subject of inquiry

- It reflect the population and It reflect the population and the major variables of the the major variables of the study which are subject to study which are subject to empirical testingempirical testing

RESEARCH PROCESSRESEARCH PROCESS- Is a system of chronological events to be Is a system of chronological events to be

done in order to have a scientific inquiry.done in order to have a scientific inquiry.Following Process/flow:Following Process/flow:1.1.Selecting a problemSelecting a problem2.2.Literature searchLiterature search3.3.Constructing theoretical and conceptual Constructing theoretical and conceptual

framework, review of related literature, framework, review of related literature, relevant research findingrelevant research finding

4.4.HYPOTHESIS FORMULATIONHYPOTHESIS FORMULATION5.5.Constructing operational definitionConstructing operational definition6.6.Manipulating and controlling variablesManipulating and controlling variables

Research processResearch process7. 7. Constructing research instrumentConstructing research instrument

8. Validating research instrument8. Validating research instrument

9. Constructing research design9. Constructing research design

10. Data Gathering & analysis10. Data Gathering & analysis

11. Findings11. Findings

12. Conclusion and recommendation12. Conclusion and recommendation

Research problemResearch problem- in form of question serves as the focus of the in form of question serves as the focus of the

investigation of unknown characteristics of a investigation of unknown characteristics of a population or factors that explain the presence or population or factors that explain the presence or occurrence of a phenomenon.occurrence of a phenomenon.

- A problem is anything which gives a person a A problem is anything which gives a person a feeling of discomfortfeeling of discomfort

- A problem could be a state of affairs that needs A problem could be a state of affairs that needs to be changed or anything that is not working as to be changed or anything that is not working as expectedexpected

- For researcher a problem could be conditions For researcher a problem could be conditions they want to improve, difficulties they want to they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, question for which they want answer or eliminate, question for which they want answer or information gaps they wish to fill or theories they information gaps they wish to fill or theories they want to validatewant to validate

IDENTIFYING A PROBLEMIDENTIFYING A PROBLEM

- Initially, a research problem is stated in a form Initially, a research problem is stated in a form of a question, which serve as the focus of the of a question, which serve as the focus of the investigationinvestigation

- Not all problems requires researchNot all problems requires research- Following condition for researchable problem:Following condition for researchable problem:

a.a. There is a perceived discrepancy between There is a perceived discrepancy between what is and what should bewhat is and what should be

b.b. There are two or more plausible reasons for There are two or more plausible reasons for the discrepancythe discrepancy

What is Researchable Question?What is Researchable Question?- A question that will provide answer, that explain, A question that will provide answer, that explain,

describe, identify, substantiate, predict.describe, identify, substantiate, predict.- If the research question were about an event, If the research question were about an event,

directive questions would ask:directive questions would ask:

What happened?What happened?

When did it happen?When did it happen?

What way did it happen/What way did it happen/

Whom did it happen?Whom did it happen?

What difference did it make, how that it What difference did it make, how that it happened? happened?

Basic Component of QuestionBasic Component of Question1.1. STEM STEM

2.2. TOPIC TOPIC

RULES IN RESEARCH QUESTION:RULES IN RESEARCH QUESTION:

1.1. Start with simple questionStart with simple question

2.2. Action-orientedAction-oriented

3.3. Ask active question – Ex: What are the Ask active question – Ex: What are the reaction of woman to mastectomyreaction of woman to mastectomy

4.4. Working definition of termsWorking definition of terms

Three major Level of QuestionsThree major Level of Questions- Each level based on the amount of knowledge - Each level based on the amount of knowledge

and theory about the topic under study.and theory about the topic under study.

Level 1 – there is little to no literature available Level 1 – there is little to no literature available on either the topic or on the population and on either the topic or on the population and the purpose is to describe what is found as it the purpose is to describe what is found as it exist naturally.exist naturally.

Ex: What are the eating problem of retarded Ex: What are the eating problem of retarded children?children?

What are the characteristic of suicidal patients?What are the characteristic of suicidal patients?

What are the spiritual needs of patients?What are the spiritual needs of patients?

Level 11 QuestionLevel 11 Question- Build on the result of studies at the 1Build on the result of studies at the 1stst level level- When topic has been thoroughly described, it is When topic has been thoroughly described, it is

possible to identify measurable variablespossible to identify measurable variables- The next step is to look for relationship between The next step is to look for relationship between

these variablesthese variables- The stem question ask, “What is the relationship?” The stem question ask, “What is the relationship?”

and the topic contains 2 or more variablesand the topic contains 2 or more variables- The answer to the question is determined b y the The answer to the question is determined b y the

statistical significance of the relationship between statistical significance of the relationship between the variables.the variables.

- Ex: What is the relationship between relaxation and Ex: What is the relationship between relaxation and pain in postoperative patient?pain in postoperative patient?

Level 111 QuestionLevel 111 Question- Begins at a significant relationship between Begins at a significant relationship between

variablesvariables

- At level 111, the question asks Why this At level 111, the question asks Why this relationship exists, and you must provide relationship exists, and you must provide answer, which always begins with answer, which always begins with “because…”“because…”

- All level 111 questions leads to experimental All level 111 questions leads to experimental designdesign

- Ex: Why does satisfaction increase with Ex: Why does satisfaction increase with positive attitudes toward self-carepositive attitudes toward self-care

Example of possible research questionExample of possible research question1.1. What problem do children of separated parents What problem do children of separated parents

encounter and how do the children cope with these encounter and how do the children cope with these problem?problem?

2.2. What goes on in a government office in a typical What goes on in a government office in a typical week? or How do government employees spend a week? or How do government employees spend a typical day in the office?typical day in the office?

3.3. Do mothers who have attended health education Do mothers who have attended health education classes have better health care mgt practices than classes have better health care mgt practices than those who have not?those who have not?

4.4. Does TV viewing affect a child’s school performance?Does TV viewing affect a child’s school performance?5.5. What are the perceptions of college students What are the perceptions of college students

regarding the granting of emergency power to the regarding the granting of emergency power to the president in times of crisis?president in times of crisis?

6.6. To what extent do students use the internet?To what extent do students use the internet?7.7. Does the students’ use of the internet affect their Does the students’ use of the internet affect their

performance in school”performance in school”

EXAMPLE OF A NON-RESEARCHABLE PROBLEMEXAMPLE OF A NON-RESEARCHABLE PROBLEM

SituationSituation: despite free tuition, many high : despite free tuition, many high school student in a public school in school student in a public school in Province X have dropped out. Records Province X have dropped out. Records show than more than 50% of the student show than more than 50% of the student have already dropped out before the have already dropped out before the middle of the school year (what is)middle of the school year (what is)

What should beWhat should be: Student are expected to : Student are expected to finish high school because it is free. They finish high school because it is free. They should not drop out (What should be). On should not drop out (What should be). On the contrary, a big number of students the contrary, a big number of students dropped out (Discrepancy)dropped out (Discrepancy)

Research QuestionResearch Question: : why do students drop out? why do students drop out? What factors contribute to the high drop out rate?What factors contribute to the high drop out rate?PossiblePossible AnswerAnswer: Fear of being caught in crossfire : Fear of being caught in crossfire

between military and rebel groupsbetween military and rebel groups

CommentComment: there have been encounters between the : there have been encounters between the military and rebel group and many civilians have military and rebel group and many civilians have been caught in the crossfire. It seems clear that been caught in the crossfire. It seems clear that the dropping out of the student is due to the the dropping out of the student is due to the armed encounters in the area. If they go to armed encounters in the area. If they go to school, they might die, so parents keep them out school, they might die, so parents keep them out to school until peace and order situation in the to school until peace and order situation in the area returns to normal.area returns to normal.

Example of a Researchable ProblemExample of a Researchable Problem

SituationSituation:despite free tuition, many high school :despite free tuition, many high school student in a public school in Province X have student in a public school in Province X have dropped out. Records show than more than dropped out. Records show than more than 50% of the student have already dropped out 50% of the student have already dropped out before the middle of the school year (what is)before the middle of the school year (what is)

What should beWhat should be: Student are expected to finish : Student are expected to finish high school because it is free. They should not high school because it is free. They should not drop out (What should be). On the contrary, a drop out (What should be). On the contrary, a big number of students dropped out big number of students dropped out (Discrepancy)(Discrepancy)

Research QuestionResearch Question: : why do students drop out? why do students drop out? What factors contribute to the high drop out rate?What factors contribute to the high drop out rate?

Possible AnswerPossible Answer: there are many possible : there are many possible reasons why students drop out. Among the reasons why students drop out. Among the possible reasons are: financial difficulties, far possible reasons are: financial difficulties, far distance of students’ houses from school, distance of students’ houses from school, students/ lack of interest to study, and poor students/ lack of interest to study, and poor health.health.

Comments Comments – since there are a number of possible – since there are a number of possible reasons for the dropping out of students despite reasons for the dropping out of students despite free tuition, the problem is researchable. free tuition, the problem is researchable. Research can determine the existence and Research can determine the existence and extent of relationship between the identified extent of relationship between the identified possible factors and the students’ decision to possible factors and the students’ decision to drop out of school or to stay. Research can drop out of school or to stay. Research can determine the relative contribution of each determine the relative contribution of each factors in the students’ decision to drop out.factors in the students’ decision to drop out.

Defining Research ProblemDefining Research Problem- Once the problem identified, it should be then Once the problem identified, it should be then defineddefined- Problem Definition explains the existence and Problem Definition explains the existence and

seriousness of the problemseriousness of the problem- It shows evidences that prove the problem really exist, It shows evidences that prove the problem really exist,

that is serious and widespreadthat is serious and widespread- Identifies the elements of a broader problem that are to be Identifies the elements of a broader problem that are to be

focus of the research activitiesfocus of the research activities- Must show that the problem needs serious attentionMust show that the problem needs serious attention- The researcher should present a valid justification for the The researcher should present a valid justification for the

conduct of the studyconduct of the study- The problem definition must show that the answers to the The problem definition must show that the answers to the

research questions are not yet clear or availableresearch questions are not yet clear or available- Definition should present relevant data from service Definition should present relevant data from service

statistics and related literaturestatistics and related literature

Following Question in Defining a ProblemFollowing Question in Defining a Problem

1.1. Does the problem really exist? What are Does the problem really exist? What are the evidences of the problem’s the evidences of the problem’s existence?existence?

2.2. Is the problem serious? Who and How Is the problem serious? Who and How many are affected by it?many are affected by it?

3.3. What places are affected? How What places are affected? How widespread is it?widespread is it?

4.4. How often does the problem occur?How often does the problem occur?

Things to Remember when Defining a ProblemThings to Remember when Defining a Problem1.1. Review of relevant literature and previous Review of relevant literature and previous

studies on the problemstudies on the problem

2.2. Examine current available data/statisticExamine current available data/statistic

3.3. Seek educated opinions from persons Seek educated opinions from persons concerned with the problemconcerned with the problem

4.4. Determine the probable reasons for the Determine the probable reasons for the existence of the problem from social, existence of the problem from social, economic, or other theories that may explain economic, or other theories that may explain the existence of the problem and the possible the existence of the problem and the possible connection between the problem and other connection between the problem and other factors.factors.

How to determine if the Problem is RelevantHow to determine if the Problem is Relevant

a.a. Will answer to the research question/s Will answer to the research question/s help advance knowledge?help advance knowledge?

b.b. Can answers to the research questions/s Can answers to the research questions/s help in improving practices/ help in improving practices/ behavior/performance?behavior/performance?

c.c. Will answers to the research problem Will answers to the research problem improve human conditions?improve human conditions?

Example of a Relevant ProblemExample of a Relevant ProblemResearch ProblemResearch Problem: “The effect of computer-asssisted : “The effect of computer-asssisted

instruction on the students’ Achievement in Medical instruction on the students’ Achievement in Medical Surgical concept?”Surgical concept?”

1.1. Will the answer to the research question help advance Will the answer to the research question help advance knowledge?knowledge?

Yes.Yes. A finding shows that the computer-assisted instruction A finding shows that the computer-assisted instruction significantly improves or does not improve achievement significantly improves or does not improve achievement in Medical/Surgical Concept comprises new knowledgein Medical/Surgical Concept comprises new knowledge

2. Can answer to the research question helps in improving 2. Can answer to the research question helps in improving practices/ behavior/performance?practices/ behavior/performance?

YesYes: Positive findings suggest that the teachers must use : Positive findings suggest that the teachers must use the computer as an instructional devicethe computer as an instructional device

3. Will answers to the research problem improve human 3. Will answers to the research problem improve human conditions?conditions?

YesYes: if the adoption of computer-assisted instruction leads to : if the adoption of computer-assisted instruction leads to improved learning, students will acquire better skills. improved learning, students will acquire better skills. With better skills, they will have better chances of With better skills, they will have better chances of getting employed to have a better quality life.getting employed to have a better quality life.

Example of a Feasible ProblemExample of a Feasible Problem

Research ProblemResearch Problem: “The effect of computer-: “The effect of computer-assisted instruction on the students’ assisted instruction on the students’ Achievement in Medical/Surgical concept?”Achievement in Medical/Surgical concept?”

CommentsComments:: instruction in the experimental group is instruction in the experimental group is computer-assisted, while that in the control group computer-assisted, while that in the control group is not. The teacher in the experimental group can is not. The teacher in the experimental group can be trained to use the computer in teaching M/S. be trained to use the computer in teaching M/S. The experiment can be carried out even if only The experiment can be carried out even if only one computer is available in the classroom. This one computer is available in the classroom. This can be provided by the institutioncan be provided by the institution

Example of a Problem that is not FeasibleExample of a Problem that is not Feasible

Research ProblemResearch Problem:" The effect on :" The effect on Achievement of Providing each Achievement of Providing each student a Microcomputer in their M/S student a Microcomputer in their M/S class”class”

Comment:Comment: It might be worth knowing if It might be worth knowing if computer-based M/S instruction can computer-based M/S instruction can improve students/ achievement in the improve students/ achievement in the subject but giving each student a subject but giving each student a computer would be very costly and computer would be very costly and not be afforded by most schools.not be afforded by most schools.

Example of a Problem which is Not ClearExample of a Problem which is Not Clear

Research ProblemResearch Problem: “Women’s perception : “Women’s perception about sexual harassment”about sexual harassment”

CommentsComments: This problem is not clear : This problem is not clear because it does not specify what group of because it does not specify what group of women will be studied. What is implied is women will be studied. What is implied is all kinds of women. Even the word all kinds of women. Even the word “perception” is not clear. One may ask, “perception” is not clear. One may ask, “perception regarding ‘what’ of sexual “perception regarding ‘what’ of sexual harassment”harassment”

Example of a Clear ProblemExample of a Clear Problem

Research problemResearch problem: “Attitudes Towards Sexual : “Attitudes Towards Sexual Harassment of Female rank and File Bank Harassment of Female rank and File Bank employees in Makati City”employees in Makati City”

Comment:Comment: n this research problem, it is clear that n this research problem, it is clear that what is being examined is attitudes towards what is being examined is attitudes towards sexual harassment. It is also clear that the sexual harassment. It is also clear that the study will cover female rank and file bank study will cover female rank and file bank employees in Makati City, though the location employees in Makati City, though the location of the study need not always be specified. of the study need not always be specified. Specifying it helps further clarification of the Specifying it helps further clarification of the research problem.research problem.

Example of an Unethical ProblemExample of an Unethical ProblemResearch problemResearch problem:” The Effect of Punishment on :” The Effect of Punishment on

the Self-Esteem and Academic Performance of the Self-Esteem and Academic Performance of Adolescents”Adolescents”

Comments:Comments: if an experiment is to be conducted, if an experiment is to be conducted, punishment will be applied to the experimental punishment will be applied to the experimental group/ but withheld from the control group. Even group/ but withheld from the control group. Even if the result of the study shows that punishment if the result of the study shows that punishment will improve self-esteem and performance, will improve self-esteem and performance, applying punishment to students for the sake of applying punishment to students for the sake of research in unethicalresearch in unethical

Example of an Ethical problemExample of an Ethical problemResearch ProblemResearch Problem: “Students’ Perceptions on the : “Students’ Perceptions on the

Effect of Physical Punishment on the Self-Effect of Physical Punishment on the Self-Esteem and School Performance”Esteem and School Performance”

Comments:Comments: A survey on students’ perception A survey on students’ perception about the effect of physical punishment on their about the effect of physical punishment on their self-esteem and performance does not raise an self-esteem and performance does not raise an ethical issue, since respondents are only asked ethical issue, since respondents are only asked about their perceptions. It is still important to about their perceptions. It is still important to explain to the respondents the purpose of the explain to the respondents the purpose of the study and get the informed consent to study and get the informed consent to participate in the studyparticipate in the study

ProblemProblem ConceptualizationConceptualization1.1. An Introductory PhaseAn Introductory Phase

a. it was the purpose of this studya. it was the purpose of this studyb. The purpose of this study isb. The purpose of this study isc. the study is aimed atc. the study is aimed atd. this study attemptsd. this study attempts

2. A general Plan of procedure2. A general Plan of procedurea. to investigatea. to investigateb. to determineb. to determinec. to examine and analyzec. to examine and analyze

3. The objective of the Plan3. The objective of the Plan(to investigate) the child-rearing practices of parents(to investigate) the child-rearing practices of parents(to determine) the degree of efficiency of the (to determine) the degree of efficiency of the maintenance of the plant and its equipmentmaintenance of the plant and its equipment(to examine and analyze) the linguistic structure(to examine and analyze) the linguistic structure

4. The “setting” of the Study4. The “setting” of the Study(to investigate the child-rearing practices of parents in the (to investigate the child-rearing practices of parents in the three fishing villages in Balanga City: PTO Rivas, three fishing villages in Balanga City: PTO Rivas, Cupang, CataningCupang, Cataning

The Sub-ProblemThe Sub-ProblemThe sub-problem lead to the main problem:The sub-problem lead to the main problem: What are the behavior problems of each What are the behavior problems of each

inmates?inmates? What is the personal profile each inmate on the What is the personal profile each inmate on the

basis of these criteria:basis of these criteria:a. home backgrounda. home backgroundb. personality traitsb. personality traitsc. felt problemsc. felt problems

What is the academic profile of each inmates What is the academic profile of each inmates based on:based on:

a. performance in schoola. performance in schoolb. intelligence quotient?b. intelligence quotient?

How do the inmate’s personal and academic How do the inmate’s personal and academic profiles relates to his behavior?profiles relates to his behavior?

Formulation of Research FrameworkFormulation of Research FrameworkResearch Framework Research Framework – – explain the existence of a problemexplain the existence of a problem- It serve as basis for examining and analyzing the It serve as basis for examining and analyzing the

connection between or among the study variablesconnection between or among the study variables- Theoretical frameworkTheoretical framework – present a theory that – present a theory that

explains why a problem under study exist, and explains why a problem under study exist, and explain the connection between certain factors explain the connection between certain factors and the problem.and the problem.

- The choice of a theory depends on the number The choice of a theory depends on the number and the nature of variables and the relationships and the nature of variables and the relationships being examinedbeing examined

- the conceptual underpinnings of a study. The the conceptual underpinnings of a study. The connection between a theory and the problem is connection between a theory and the problem is explained in theoretical frameworkexplained in theoretical framework

- The concept used in a theoretical framework are The concept used in a theoretical framework are abstract and expressed in generally termsabstract and expressed in generally terms

Functions of a Theoretical Framework in ResearchFunctions of a Theoretical Framework in Research Provides the general framework which can Provides the general framework which can

guide data analysisguide data analysis Identifies the variables to be measuredIdentifies the variables to be measured Explains why one variable can possibly Explains why one variable can possibly

affect another or why the independent affect another or why the independent variable can possibly influence the variable can possibly influence the dependent variabledependent variable

Limits the scope of data relevant to the Limits the scope of data relevant to the framework by focusing on specific variablesframework by focusing on specific variables

Stipulates the specific frame of mind or Stipulates the specific frame of mind or viewpoint that the researcher will take in viewpoint that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data.analyzing and interpreting the data.

Conceptual frameworkConceptual framework- Is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in Is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in

concrete terms. It is anchored on the theoretical concrete terms. It is anchored on the theoretical frameworkframework

- It explains in more detail the: variables to be It explains in more detail the: variables to be observed in the study and assumed connection observed in the study and assumed connection between the independent and dependent between the independent and dependent variablesvariables

- It summarized in a paradigm or schematic It summarized in a paradigm or schematic diagram identifying the hypothesized link between diagram identifying the hypothesized link between the independent and dependent variable, the independent and dependent variable, controlling for the effect of another variablecontrolling for the effect of another variable

The Role of Theory in researchThe Role of Theory in researchTheory-Theory- is a set of concept which explains the is a set of concept which explains the

occurrence of a certain phenomenaoccurrence of a certain phenomena

- It is a statement of a relationship between It is a statement of a relationship between two variablestwo variables

- It is possible to use two or more competing It is possible to use two or more competing theories and test which theory best explains theories and test which theory best explains the problemthe problem

- A competing theory may also used to explain A competing theory may also used to explain the possible confounding influence of other the possible confounding influence of other variable on the assumed relationship variable on the assumed relationship between the major variables of the studybetween the major variables of the study

Review of Related LiteratureReview of Related Literature- Is a series of references, simply documents the source Is a series of references, simply documents the source

of your idea and substantiates the rationale behind your of your idea and substantiates the rationale behind your questionquestion

- Purpose:Purpose:1.1. To provide background to the research being To provide background to the research being

conductedconducted2.2. To gain insight into researching techniques which have To gain insight into researching techniques which have

been employed in previous studiesbeen employed in previous studies3.3. To search for fact and information that will support the To search for fact and information that will support the

research question or hypothesisresearch question or hypothesis4.4. Helps the researcher identify and define a research Helps the researcher identify and define a research

problemproblem5.5. Helps justify the needs for studying a problemHelps justify the needs for studying a problem6.6. Helps prevent unnecessary duplication of a studyHelps prevent unnecessary duplication of a study7.7. Source of a theoretical basis for the studySource of a theoretical basis for the study8.8. Enable the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a Enable the researcher to learn how to conceptualize a

research problemresearch problem9.9. Results of related studies provide lessons for data Results of related studies provide lessons for data

analysis and interpretationanalysis and interpretation

Sources of Related LiteratureSources of Related Literature

1. general references: indexes, reviews, and 1. general references: indexes, reviews, and abstractabstract

2. Primary sources: journals article and 2. Primary sources: journals article and other periodicals, research reports, thesis, other periodicals, research reports, thesis, dissertationdissertation

3. Secondary sources: textbook, 3. Secondary sources: textbook, encyclopedias, research reviews, encyclopedias, research reviews, yearbookyearbook

Criteria in Formulating a Related LiteratureCriteria in Formulating a Related Literature

1.1. Limit the problemLimit the problem

2.2. Define the problemDefine the problem

3.3. Avoid necessary repetitionAvoid necessary repetition

4.4. Search for new approachesSearch for new approaches

5.5. Recommend suitable methodsRecommend suitable methods

6.6. Sample current opinionsSample current opinions

Steps in Reviewing the LiteratureSteps in Reviewing the Literature1.1. State the problem clearlyState the problem clearly2.2. Review the precise definition of the Review the precise definition of the

research problem. Note the key research problem. Note the key variables specified in the study objective variables specified in the study objective and hypothesisand hypothesis

3.3. List/formulate terms and descriptors List/formulate terms and descriptors (Key words or phrases) relating to the (Key words or phrases) relating to the problemproblem

4.4. Adopt a plan for obtaining literature Adopt a plan for obtaining literature systematicallysystematically

5.5. Do a search in the librariesDo a search in the libraries

Steps in reviewing the LiteratureSteps in reviewing the Literature6.Record reference details on 6.Record reference details on

bibliographic cardsbibliographic cards

7.Read the selected reading materials, 7.Read the selected reading materials, take note and summarize key take note and summarize key points. In note taking be briefs as points. In note taking be briefs as possible, but include all relevant possible, but include all relevant informationinformation

8.Collate information8.Collate information

9.Prepare for writing text9.Prepare for writing text

Rules in Writing the text of the Review of LiteratureRules in Writing the text of the Review of Literature

1.1. Correct: all quotation, facts and figures Correct: all quotation, facts and figures are accurate and verifiableare accurate and verifiable

2.2. Complete – all necessary information Complete – all necessary information relating to the research problem is relating to the research problem is includedincluded

3.3. Clear – words and terms used in the Clear – words and terms used in the descriptions are unambiguousdescriptions are unambiguous

4.4. Coherent – ideas arranged logicallyCoherent – ideas arranged logically

5.5. Concise – the review is an appropriate Concise – the review is an appropriate length considering the overall length of length considering the overall length of the reportthe report

Research objectiveResearch objective- Are statement of what the researcher Are statement of what the researcher

intends to do, it flow logically from the intends to do, it flow logically from the problemproblem

- While the problem deals with broad While the problem deals with broad concepts, the research objective usually concepts, the research objective usually states the concepts in operational termsstates the concepts in operational terms

- ExampleExample: “students’ Extent of exposure to : “students’ Extent of exposure to Mass Media” “ exposure to mass media is Mass Media” “ exposure to mass media is a broad concept. In the objective. “To a broad concept. In the objective. “To determine the students’ frequency of determine the students’ frequency of reading newspaper,” “frequency of reading reading newspaper,” “frequency of reading newspaper is specific and measurablenewspaper is specific and measurable

Research ObjectiveResearch Objective are usually stated in declarative form and start with infinitives are usually stated in declarative form and start with infinitives

like: “to determine”, “ to find out”, “ to describe”, like: “to determine”, “ to find out”, “ to describe”, Research question are usually introduced with a clause, Research question are usually introduced with a clause,

such as: “This study aims to answer the following questions” such as: “This study aims to answer the following questions” or “ This study sought answers to the following questions”or “ This study sought answers to the following questions”

Examples of research objectives:Examples of research objectives:- ““To determine the extent of high school students’ To determine the extent of high school students’

participation in school activities”participation in school activities”- ““To determine the relationship between exposure to To determine the relationship between exposure to

advertising materials and expenditure patterns of young advertising materials and expenditure patterns of young professionals”professionals”

- ““To compare the effectiveness of classroom-based and field-To compare the effectiveness of classroom-based and field-based training programs on the performance of community based training programs on the performance of community workers”workers”

- ““To test the effectiveness of oresol in the treatment of To test the effectiveness of oresol in the treatment of diarrhea”diarrhea”

Examples of objectives stated in question formsExamples of objectives stated in question forms

This study sought answers to the following This study sought answers to the following questions:questions:

1. To what extent do high school students 1. To what extent do high school students participate in school activities?participate in school activities?

2. Does extent of participation in school 2. Does extent of participation in school activities of male students significantly differ activities of male students significantly differ from the extent of participation of female from the extent of participation of female student?student?

3. Is there a significant relationship between 3. Is there a significant relationship between the students’ extent of participation in the students’ extent of participation in school activities and their school school activities and their school performance?performance?

Types of ObjectiveTypes of Objective1.1. immediate/general objectiveimmediate/general objective – – related directly to the research problem and related directly to the research problem and

state clearly what the researcher will do and state clearly what the researcher will do and expects to find out.expects to find out.

- Preferably stated in behavioral terms=in term Preferably stated in behavioral terms=in term of: who or what will be studied, who will do it, of: who or what will be studied, who will do it, when it will be done or where it will be donewhen it will be done or where it will be done

- Specifies the activities that will take place and Specifies the activities that will take place and the variables that will examinedthe variables that will examined

- The way the immediate objective is formulated The way the immediate objective is formulated suggest the type of research that will be suggest the type of research that will be undertaken and the methodology that will be undertaken and the methodology that will be adoptedadopted

Example of immediate/general objective of a Example of immediate/general objective of a descriptive studydescriptive study

Research Title:” A Study on the Extent of Research Title:” A Study on the Extent of Participation in School Activities of High school Participation in School Activities of High school Student in City A” Student in City A”

Objective: A survey will be conducted to determine Objective: A survey will be conducted to determine the extent of participation in school activities of the extent of participation in school activities of high school student in city A during school year high school student in city A during school year 2001 – 20022001 – 2002

What will be done? – A survey will be conductedWhat will be done? – A survey will be conductedFor what purpose? – to determine the extent of For what purpose? – to determine the extent of

participation in school activitiesparticipation in school activitiesWho will be studied? - high school studentWho will be studied? - high school studentWhere? – In city AWhere? – In city AWhen? – School year 2001 - 2002When? – School year 2001 - 2002

Example of Immediate/ general Objective of a Example of Immediate/ general Objective of a Correlational/ Relational StudiesCorrelational/ Relational Studies

Research Title: “Exposure to Advertising and Research Title: “Exposure to Advertising and expenditure patterns of Young Professional in expenditure patterns of Young Professional in Iloilo City”Iloilo City”

Objective: This study will be conducted to determine Objective: This study will be conducted to determine whether there is a significant relationship between whether there is a significant relationship between exposure to advertising and expenditure patterns exposure to advertising and expenditure patterns of young professionals in Iloilo Cityof young professionals in Iloilo City

What will be done? This study will be conductedWhat will be done? This study will be conductedFor what purpose? – to determine whether there is For what purpose? – to determine whether there is

significant relationship between exposure to significant relationship between exposure to advertising and expenditure patternsadvertising and expenditure patterns

Who will be studied? – Young professionalsWho will be studied? – Young professionalsWhere? – Iloilo CityWhere? – Iloilo CityWhen? – not specifiedWhen? – not specified

Example of Objective of an Intervention/ Example of Objective of an Intervention/ Experimental StudyExperimental Study

Research Title: “A comparative Study of the Effectiveness Research Title: “A comparative Study of the Effectiveness of class-room based and Field-based training Programs of class-room based and Field-based training Programs in Improving the Performance of Volunteer Workers in in Improving the Performance of Volunteer Workers in Community XCommunity X

Objective: this experimental study will be Objective: this experimental study will be conducted to determine and compare the conducted to determine and compare the effectiveness of classroom-based and field-effectiveness of classroom-based and field-based training programs in improving the based training programs in improving the performance of volunteer workers.performance of volunteer workers.

What will be done? – This Experimental study will be What will be done? – This Experimental study will be conductedconducted

Why? For What purpose? – To determine and compare the Why? For What purpose? – To determine and compare the effectiveness of classroom-based and field-based training effectiveness of classroom-based and field-based training programs in improving the performanceprograms in improving the performance

Who will be studied? – community volunteer workersWho will be studied? – community volunteer workersWhere? – Community XWhere? – Community XWhen? - October to November 2009When? - October to November 2009

2.2. Specific ObjectiveSpecific Objective- In studies with broader coverage in terms of In studies with broader coverage in terms of

subject and variables, statement of specific subject and variables, statement of specific objective may be necessaryobjective may be necessary

- Maybe viewed as sub-objective or small Maybe viewed as sub-objective or small particles of the general objectivesparticles of the general objectives

- The specific objective variables examined in The specific objective variables examined in the study are identified in the specific the study are identified in the specific objectiveobjective

- The variables are expressed in measurable The variables are expressed in measurable termsterms

- The specific objective suggest the type of The specific objective suggest the type of analysis to be doneanalysis to be done

Example of Specific ObjectiveExample of Specific ObjectiveResearch Titles:Research Titles: “Demographic and Socioeconomic “Demographic and Socioeconomic

Determinants of the Health-Seeking Behavior of the Determinants of the Health-Seeking Behavior of the Elderly in Southern Mindanao”Elderly in Southern Mindanao”

General ObjectiveGeneral Objective. This study will be conducted to identify . This study will be conducted to identify demographic and socioeconomic determinants of the demographic and socioeconomic determinants of the health seeking behavior of the elderly in Southern health seeking behavior of the elderly in Southern Mindanao”Mindanao”

Specifically, the study aims to:Specifically, the study aims to:1.1. Determine whether there is a significant relationship Determine whether there is a significant relationship

between demographic factors, such as age, sex, and between demographic factors, such as age, sex, and civil status of the elderly and their health-seeking civil status of the elderly and their health-seeking behaviorbehavior

2.2. Determine whether there is a significant relationship Determine whether there is a significant relationship between selected socio-economic characteristic of the between selected socio-economic characteristic of the elderly, particularly, educational attainment, community elderly, particularly, educational attainment, community involvement, occupational and income, and their involvement, occupational and income, and their health-seeking behavior health-seeking behavior

CommentsComments-the terms “demographic socio-economic -the terms “demographic socio-economic

determinants” in the general objective is determinants” in the general objective is still broad. still broad.

The term demographic characteristic can be The term demographic characteristic can be specified in terms of “educational specified in terms of “educational attainment” “living arrangements”. “living attainment” “living arrangements”. “living arrangement” or “occupation”arrangement” or “occupation”

Tips in formulating research ObjectiveTips in formulating research Objective Use simple languageUse simple language Focus attention on the specific actions Focus attention on the specific actions

that will be performedthat will be performed State exactly, what will be done and what State exactly, what will be done and what

variables will be measuredvariables will be measured Write objective in behavioral terms, like Write objective in behavioral terms, like

“to determine….” “to describe..,” and the “to determine….” “to describe..,” and the likelike

Examples of Statement of General and Specific Examples of Statement of General and Specific objectivesobjectives

Example No. 1Example No. 1““Relationship between TV viewing and academic Relationship between TV viewing and academic

performance of grade Six pupils in Private and performance of grade Six pupils in Private and Public elementary School in region V1Public elementary School in region V1

Specific Objective:Specific Objective:Specifically, the study aims to:Specifically, the study aims to:

1.1. Determine whether there is a significant Determine whether there is a significant relationship the pupils’ frequency of viewing TV relationship the pupils’ frequency of viewing TV and their general average in all subject in and their general average in all subject in grade sixgrade six

2.2. Determine whether there is significant Determine whether there is significant relationship between the amount of time spent relationship between the amount of time spent by the pupil in viewing TV and their general by the pupil in viewing TV and their general average in all subjects in grade sixaverage in all subjects in grade six

Example No.2 “The effect of Fielding Trained Male Family Example No.2 “The effect of Fielding Trained Male Family Planning Educators on the Improvement of Contraceptive Planning Educators on the Improvement of Contraceptive

Use?”Use?”General ObjectiveGeneral Objective::This experimental study will be conducted to determine the This experimental study will be conducted to determine the

impact of fielding trained male family planning educators impact of fielding trained male family planning educators in the improvement of contraceptive use in two in the improvement of contraceptive use in two municipalities in Region 111municipalities in Region 111

Specific Objective:Specific Objective:Specifically, the study aims:Specifically, the study aims:

1.1. To determine whether there is a significant difference To determine whether there is a significant difference between the extent of contraceptive use in the area between the extent of contraceptive use in the area where trained male family planning educators use in the where trained male family planning educators use in the area where trained male family planning educators were area where trained male family planning educators were fielded and that in the control areas before and after the fielded and that in the control areas before and after the studystudy

2.2. To determine whether there is a significant difference To determine whether there is a significant difference between the change in extent of contraceptive use in between the change in extent of contraceptive use in the area where trained male family planning educators the area where trained male family planning educators were fielded and the change in the control areas after were fielded and the change in the control areas after the interventionthe intervention

HypothesisHypothesis- An educated guess to tentatively answer the An educated guess to tentatively answer the

research questions, logically and research questions, logically and theoretically.theoretically.

- It is a statement about an expected It is a statement about an expected relationship between two or more variables relationship between two or more variables that can be empirically testedthat can be empirically tested

- Usually tested in intervention or evaluation Usually tested in intervention or evaluation studies and in correlation/relational studiesstudies and in correlation/relational studies

- Purely descriptive studies or diagnostic and Purely descriptive studies or diagnostic and exploratory investigations do not normally exploratory investigations do not normally require hypothesis statements because they require hypothesis statements because they generally do not test causal relationships generally do not test causal relationships between variablesbetween variables

- Suggests the type of analysis that must be Suggests the type of analysis that must be done in order to measure the relationshipdone in order to measure the relationship

Research hypothesisResearch hypothesis- Is a statement of expectation of outcome Is a statement of expectation of outcome

of the study and generally states a of the study and generally states a direction of the expectationdirection of the expectation

- Particularly useful when you have a hunch Particularly useful when you have a hunch you want to study. That preconceived idea you want to study. That preconceived idea becomes your hypothesis and your becomes your hypothesis and your research is designed to test it.research is designed to test it.

Function of HypothesisFunction of Hypothesis1.1. A single hypothesis might state that an A single hypothesis might state that an

independent variable is associated with a independent variable is associated with a dependent variablesdependent variables

Examples:Examples:“ “ There is a significant association between level There is a significant association between level

of knowledge about the dangers of smoking of knowledge about the dangers of smoking and smoking habits of young professionals”and smoking habits of young professionals”

““Parents’ extent of participation in school Parents’ extent of participation in school activities of their children is significantly activities of their children is significantly related to their children’s school related to their children’s school performance”performance”

““Direct selling of prepaid cell cards is more Direct selling of prepaid cell cards is more profitable than selling them in stores”profitable than selling them in stores”

2. 2. Sometimes a hypothesis specifies that, under Sometimes a hypothesis specifies that, under certain conditions (X,Y, and Z) variables A is certain conditions (X,Y, and Z) variables A is associated with or can be influence variable B.associated with or can be influence variable B.

Examples:Examples:““There is a significant association between level of knowledge There is a significant association between level of knowledge

about the dangers of smoking and smoking habits among about the dangers of smoking and smoking habits among young medical practitioners who have positive attitudes young medical practitioners who have positive attitudes towards life”towards life”

Condition: if they have a positive attitudesCondition: if they have a positive attitudes““There is a significant relationship between men’s extent of There is a significant relationship between men’s extent of

exposure to gender issues and their degree of involvement exposure to gender issues and their degree of involvement in child care among those living in urban areas”in child care among those living in urban areas”

Condition: living in urban areaCondition: living in urban area““Husband who have attended gender sensitivity training are Husband who have attended gender sensitivity training are

more likely to participate in household chores when they are more likely to participate in household chores when they are free, than those who have not attended training”free, than those who have not attended training”

Condition: when they are freeCondition: when they are free

3. 3. Some hypotheses may state that a particular Some hypotheses may state that a particular characteristic of a person or object varies characteristic of a person or object varies according to another variablesaccording to another variables

Examples:Examples:

“ “ The proportion of women who have experienced The proportion of women who have experienced domestic violence is higher in the rural areas than domestic violence is higher in the rural areas than it is in the urban areas”it is in the urban areas”

““Board performance of nursing graduates varies Board performance of nursing graduates varies according to the type of school they graduated according to the type of school they graduated from”from”

““The repayment status of new clients of the PAG-The repayment status of new clients of the PAG-IBIG housing loan is significantly higher than of IBIG housing loan is significantly higher than of the old clients”the old clients”

Types of Hypotheses:Types of Hypotheses:

1. 1. Null Hypotheses or alternativeNull Hypotheses or alternative2. 2. Directional or Non-directionalDirectional or Non-directionalNull HypothesisNull Hypothesis – is a negative statement which – is a negative statement which

indicates the absence of a indicates the absence of a relationship/correlation between two variables, relationship/correlation between two variables, an absence of a significant difference between an absence of a significant difference between the proportions of two groups of people or the proportions of two groups of people or objects possessing a particular or an absence of objects possessing a particular or an absence of difference between or among the means of two difference between or among the means of two or more groups with respect to a particular or more groups with respect to a particular variable, such as, “mean age of males and mean variable, such as, “mean age of males and mean age of females,” and “ mean score in math of age of females,” and “ mean score in math of students who attended tutorial classes and mean students who attended tutorial classes and mean score of those who did not attend tutorial score of those who did not attend tutorial classes.”classes.”

Examples of Null HypothesesExamples of Null Hypotheses “ “ There is no significant relationship between There is no significant relationship between

mass medias exposure and attitude land mass medias exposure and attitude land reform among lowland farmers”reform among lowland farmers”

““There is no significant difference between There is no significant difference between the proportion of health care providers who the proportion of health care providers who are smoking and the proportion of those who are smoking and the proportion of those who are not smoking”are not smoking”

““There is no significant difference between There is no significant difference between the mean age of male faculty members and the mean age of male faculty members and the mean of female faculty membersthe mean of female faculty members

Alternative Hypothesis or Research Alternative Hypothesis or Research HypothesisHypothesis

- Is the positive form of the null Is the positive form of the null hypothesishypothesis

- It may state the presence of a It may state the presence of a significant relationship between the significant relationship between the independent and dependent independent and dependent variables, or the presence of a variables, or the presence of a significant difference between two significant difference between two means or two proportionsmeans or two proportions

Example of Alternative hypothesesExample of Alternative hypotheses““There is a significant relationship between mass There is a significant relationship between mass

media exposure and attitude towards land reform media exposure and attitude towards land reform among lowland farmers.”among lowland farmers.”

““There is a significant difference between the mean There is a significant difference between the mean age of male faculty members and the mean age age of male faculty members and the mean age of female faculty members.”of female faculty members.”

““There is a significant difference between the There is a significant difference between the proportion of health care providers who are proportion of health care providers who are smoking and the proportion of those who are not smoking and the proportion of those who are not smoking.”smoking.”

““The amount paid in advertisement by food The amount paid in advertisement by food establishments is significantly associated with establishments is significantly associated with their monthly gross salestheir monthly gross sales

Directional HypothesesDirectional Hypotheses- States whether the relationship between States whether the relationship between

two variable is direct or inverse or positive two variable is direct or inverse or positive or negative.or negative.

- A positive or direct relationship is present A positive or direct relationship is present when the value of one variable increases when the value of one variable increases with the increase in the value of another.with the increase in the value of another.

- The relationship is negative when the The relationship is negative when the value of one variable increases as the value of one variable increases as the value of another decreasesvalue of another decreases

Examples of Directional HypothesesExamples of Directional Hypotheses

““The higher the level of exposure of The higher the level of exposure of farmers to mass media the more farmers to mass media the more favorable their attitude towards land favorable their attitude towards land reform” (positive)reform” (positive)

““The more time employees spend The more time employees spend meeting, the less productive they are.” meeting, the less productive they are.” (negative)(negative)

““The higher the advertisement expense The higher the advertisement expense of food establishments, the higher their of food establishments, the higher their monthly gross sales.” (positive)monthly gross sales.” (positive)

Non-Directional HypothesesNon-Directional Hypotheses Does not specify the direction of Does not specify the direction of

relationship between variablesrelationship between variables It merely states the presence or It merely states the presence or

absence of a relationship absence of a relationship between two variables or that one between two variables or that one variable influences another, or variable influences another, or there is a significant difference in there is a significant difference in the mean values of the two the mean values of the two variables.variables.

Examples of Non-directional HypothesesExamples of Non-directional Hypotheses

““The women’s educational attainment is The women’s educational attainment is significantly associated with their extent of significantly associated with their extent of participation in decision-making at home.”participation in decision-making at home.”

““There is a significant difference between There is a significant difference between the proportion of women and the proportion the proportion of women and the proportion of men who are engaged in dry goods of men who are engaged in dry goods business.”business.”

““Students who attend tutorial classes Students who attend tutorial classes perform better than those who do not perform better than those who do not attend.”attend.”

‘‘Taking vitamins regularly tend to improve a Taking vitamins regularly tend to improve a workers’ total health statusworkers’ total health status

Criteria in Writing HypothesesCriteria in Writing Hypotheses

Must be written in simple Must be written in simple understandable languageunderstandable language

Must focus on the variablesMust focus on the variables One must keep in mind the One must keep in mind the

distinction between independent distinction between independent and dependent variablesand dependent variables

Examples of Statement of HypothesesExamples of Statement of Hypotheses ““The Relationship Between Level of The Relationship Between Level of

Awareness Regarding the Dangers of Awareness Regarding the Dangers of Smoking and Smoking Habits Among High Smoking and Smoking Habits Among High School Students”School Students”

Objectives of the study:Objectives of the study:

The study will be conducted to determine The study will be conducted to determine the relationship Between Level of the relationship Between Level of Awareness Regarding the Dangers of Awareness Regarding the Dangers of Smoking and Smoking Habits Among High Smoking and Smoking Habits Among High School Students”School Students”

Specific ObjectivesSpecific Objectives1.1. To determine the relationship between To determine the relationship between

students’ awareness about the Dangers students’ awareness about the Dangers of smoking and their practice of smoking.of smoking and their practice of smoking.

2.2. To determine the relationship between To determine the relationship between the students level of awareness about the students level of awareness about cancer and the number of sticks of cancer and the number of sticks of cigarettes smokers smoke in a day.cigarettes smokers smoke in a day.

HypothesesHypotheses1.1. A high school student who is aware of A high school student who is aware of

the dangers of smoking is more likely not the dangers of smoking is more likely not to smoke than one who does not know to smoke than one who does not know about it.about it.

2.2. The higher a student’s level of The higher a student’s level of awareness about lung cancer and its awareness about lung cancer and its causes the fewer sticks of cigarettes causes the fewer sticks of cigarettes she/he smokes in a dayshe/he smokes in a day

Another way of stating the second Another way of stating the second hypotheses:hypotheses:

There is a significant relationship between There is a significant relationship between the students’ level of awareness about the students’ level of awareness about lung cancer and its causes and the lung cancer and its causes and the number of cigarettes sticks they smoke number of cigarettes sticks they smoke in a day.in a day.

( ( Null Hypotheses: only one set of hypotheses is Null Hypotheses: only one set of hypotheses is needed)needed)

1.1. There is no significant relationship There is no significant relationship between the students’ level of awareness between the students’ level of awareness about lung center and its causes and the about lung center and its causes and the number of cigarette sticks they smoke a number of cigarette sticks they smoke a day.day.

2.2. The students’ level of awareness about The students’ level of awareness about lung cancer is not significantly related with lung cancer is not significantly related with their smoking practices.their smoking practices.

VARIABLESVARIABLES- Is a concept that stands for a variation - Is a concept that stands for a variation

within a class of objects or personwithin a class of objects or person- An attribute of a person or object that An attribute of a person or object that

varies, that is, takes on different values.varies, that is, takes on different values.- Are basic elements which are measured Are basic elements which are measured

in a study. They are observable and in a study. They are observable and measurablemeasurable

Ex: weight, BP readings, preoperative Ex: weight, BP readings, preoperative anxiety levels, body temperature.anxiety levels, body temperature.

-For quantitative research nearly all aspects -For quantitative research nearly all aspects of human beings and their environment of human beings and their environment are considered variablesare considered variables

Research VariablesResearch Variables1. Research variables –1. Research variables – Identifiable from Identifiable from

research questions and or hypothesis research questions and or hypothesis which Includes:which Includes:

A.A. Dependent Variable-Dependent Variable- is the “assumed is the “assumed “effect” of another variable. It is the “effect” of another variable. It is the change that occurs in the study change that occurs in the study population when one or more factors are population when one or more factors are changed or when an intervention is changed or when an intervention is introduced. Usually dependent variable is introduced. Usually dependent variable is the problem it self.the problem it self.

--these are phenomena you observe the these are phenomena you observe the occurrence of the independent variablesoccurrence of the independent variables

B. B. Independent variable-Independent variable-- Variable that is observed, introduced or Variable that is observed, introduced or

manipulated in order to determine what effect it manipulated in order to determine what effect it has on another variable of interesthas on another variable of interest

- Called more appropriately the experimental, Called more appropriately the experimental, treatment, causal or stimulus variabletreatment, causal or stimulus variable

-is the “assumed cause” of a problem. It is an -is the “assumed cause” of a problem. It is an assumed reason for any “change” or variation in assumed reason for any “change” or variation in a dependent variable. An independent variable is a dependent variable. An independent variable is sometimes treated as “antecedent” variable (the sometimes treated as “antecedent” variable (the variable before). Likewise, an “antecedent” variable before). Likewise, an “antecedent” variable may be treated as an “independent” variable may be treated as an “independent” variable.variable.

C. C. Correlated variablesCorrelated variables

- neither dependent nor independent, but occurring in the neither dependent nor independent, but occurring in the presence of each otherpresence of each other

Ex: the relation of chronic mental illness and lower Ex: the relation of chronic mental illness and lower socioeconomic levelsocioeconomic level

Research question: What is the relationship of mental Research question: What is the relationship of mental illness and poverty?illness and poverty?

2. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES2. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES- All relevant variables that are not the direct focus of All relevant variables that are not the direct focus of

inquiry; that is, they are not identified in the research inquiry; that is, they are not identified in the research question or hypothesis which include:question or hypothesis which include:

A.A. Environmental variables Environmental variables - - Factors which impinge on the individual (economic, Factors which impinge on the individual (economic,

anthropological, sociological, and physical factors)anthropological, sociological, and physical factors)

BB. Organismic variables. Organismic variables- Physiological, psychological, and Physiological, psychological, and

demographic factorsdemographic factors

- Ex: age, sex, marital status, education, Ex: age, sex, marital status, education, type of work, personality, height, weight, type of work, personality, height, weight, BP, racial group, nationality, religion, hair BP, racial group, nationality, religion, hair color, job skill, intelligence, political belief, color, job skill, intelligence, political belief, income, and level of wellnessincome, and level of wellness

Measurement of VariablesMeasurement of Variables- Refers to how you collect the data about - Refers to how you collect the data about

the variables in order to test the the variables in order to test the hypothesis or answer the research hypothesis or answer the research questionquestion

““The Relationship Between Exposure toThe Relationship Between Exposure to MassMass Media and Smoking Habits among Young Adults”Media and Smoking Habits among Young Adults”

IndependentIndependent:: exposure to mass media exposure to mass media

DependentDependent: Smoking habits: Smoking habits

- A person’s smoking habits is assumed to - A person’s smoking habits is assumed to change or vary depending on his/her mere change or vary depending on his/her mere exposure or degree of exposure to print or exposure or degree of exposure to print or broadcast media elated to smokingbroadcast media elated to smoking

““Effect of Peer Counseling on the Students’ Effect of Peer Counseling on the Students’ Study Habits”Study Habits”

Independent variablesIndependent variables: Exposure to peer : Exposure to peer counselingcounseling

Dependent variablesDependent variables: Study habits: Study habits

It is assumed that the students who have been It is assumed that the students who have been counseled by peers will have better study counseled by peers will have better study habits that those who were not counseled by habits that those who were not counseled by peers or those who have been exposed to peers or those who have been exposed to traditional counseling techniquestraditional counseling techniques

Intervening VariableIntervening Variable-Is a factor that works “between” the -Is a factor that works “between” the

independent and dependent variables.independent and dependent variables.

It can be weaken (decrease) or strengthen It can be weaken (decrease) or strengthen (increase) the effect of the independent on (increase) the effect of the independent on the dependent variablesthe dependent variables

It is also a “facilitating variable,” or a It is also a “facilitating variable,” or a “moderator” or a “control variable”“moderator” or a “control variable”

““Knowledge of the Dangers of Smoking, AttitudesKnowledge of the Dangers of Smoking, Attitudes towards Life, and Smoking Habits of Young Professionals”

IndependentIndependent: Knowledge of the danger of smoking: Knowledge of the danger of smoking

InterveningIntervening: Attitudes towards life: Attitudes towards life

DependentDependent: Smoking Habits: Smoking Habits

- A person’s attitudes may increase or decrease the - A person’s attitudes may increase or decrease the influence of “knowledge on dangers of smoking influence of “knowledge on dangers of smoking (independent) on “smoking habits” (dependent ) (independent) on “smoking habits” (dependent ) knowing the dangers of smoking, one may stop knowing the dangers of smoking, one may stop smoking. One may argue, however, that smoking. One may argue, however, that knowledge about the dangers of smoking may not knowledge about the dangers of smoking may not necessarily prevent a person from smoking if he necessarily prevent a person from smoking if he does not mind dying early s long as he enjoys life.does not mind dying early s long as he enjoys life.

““Factors that Influence Household Factors that Influence Household

Decision-makingDecision-making Participation of Participation of Married Professional”Married Professional”

Independent:Independent: factorsfactors: sex. Age: sex. Age

Intervening variablesIntervening variables: : gender Sensitivity gender Sensitivity (perception about roles)(perception about roles)

Dependent variablesDependent variables: decision-making : decision-making

In the study on “Factors that Influence In the study on “Factors that Influence Household decision-making Participation of Household decision-making Participation of Married Professionals”Married Professionals”

- The intervening variables “ gender sensitivity” may affect The intervening variables “ gender sensitivity” may affect the relationship between “selected factors” –(independent the relationship between “selected factors” –(independent variables) and “decision-making participation” – variables) and “decision-making participation” – (dependent variable).(dependent variable).

- Men are generally expected to participate in decision-Men are generally expected to participate in decision-making more than woman because of social prescription. making more than woman because of social prescription. Older, better educated individuals and those with big Older, better educated individuals and those with big income are also expected to participate more actively in income are also expected to participate more actively in decision-making than their younger less educated decision-making than their younger less educated counterpartscounterparts

- It mat also be possible that a women with a gender It mat also be possible that a women with a gender sensitive partner may also be actively involved in sensitive partner may also be actively involved in decision-making, despite poor education or low incomedecision-making, despite poor education or low income

““The Effect of information Education Campaign The Effect of information Education Campaign (IEC) on Land Reform on the Farmer’s Attitude (IEC) on Land Reform on the Farmer’s Attitude Towards Land Reform”Towards Land Reform”--IndependentIndependent: Exposure To IEC Materials on : Exposure To IEC Materials on

Land reformLand reform

Intervening:Intervening: Length of Farmer-Landlord Length of Farmer-Landlord RelationshipRelationship

DependentDependent: attitudes Towards Land Reform: attitudes Towards Land Reform

““The effect of IEC on Land reform on the farmers The effect of IEC on Land reform on the farmers Attitude Towards Land Reform”Attitude Towards Land Reform”-The length of a farmer-landlord relationship” -The length of a farmer-landlord relationship”

is the intervening variables. It is assumed is the intervening variables. It is assumed that this variable can strengthen or weaken that this variable can strengthen or weaken the relationship between “exposure to IEC the relationship between “exposure to IEC materials” (Independent variable) and materials” (Independent variable) and Attitudes towards Land reform” ( dependent Attitudes towards Land reform” ( dependent variables). A farmer may have read or variables). A farmer may have read or heard about benefits of land reform, but still heard about benefits of land reform, but still reject it (negative attitude) because of a reject it (negative attitude) because of a long and close relationship with his landlord long and close relationship with his landlord and his family which he does not want to be and his family which he does not want to be “cut off” by land“cut off” by land

““Extent of Exposure to Print Media and Extent of Exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of College Freshmen”Reading Ability of College Freshmen”

Antecedent-Antecedent- is a factor or characteristic which is a factor or characteristic which id found before (ante) the independent id found before (ante) the independent variable. It is expected to influence the variable. It is expected to influence the independent variables. It is usually independent variables. It is usually irreversible.irreversible.

AntecedentAntecedent: sex, residence, parents’ : sex, residence, parents’ EducationEducation

IndependentIndependent: Extent of Exposure to Print : Extent of Exposure to Print MediaMedia

Dependent:Dependent: Reading ability Reading ability

““Extent of exposure to Print Media and Reading Extent of exposure to Print Media and Reading Ability of College Freshman”Ability of College Freshman”

- The main concern is the relationship - The main concern is the relationship between students’ “extent of exposure to between students’ “extent of exposure to print media” (independent variable) and print media” (independent variable) and their “reading ability” (dependent variable). their “reading ability” (dependent variable). the students’ exposure to print media, the students’ exposure to print media, however, may depend on their sex, however, may depend on their sex, residence and their parents’ education residence and their parents’ education (antecedent variable)(antecedent variable)

OperationalOperational Definition of Variables Definition of Variables- Specifies how a variables or a term in Specifies how a variables or a term in

interpreted in the study and also sets the interpreted in the study and also sets the procedures for measuring variable.procedures for measuring variable.

- It may differ from that employed in another It may differ from that employed in another studystudy

- It give specific meaning to the variable, it It give specific meaning to the variable, it clarifies how a variable or a term is used clarifies how a variable or a term is used and measured in the studyand measured in the study

- Meaning different from their “dictionary Meaning different from their “dictionary meaning”meaning”

examples of operational definitionexamples of operational definitionPurpose of the study: The study aims to determine the Purpose of the study: The study aims to determine the

significant relationship between level of stress and coping significant relationship between level of stress and coping strategies in hospitalized patient: strategies in hospitalized patient:

““Is there a significant relationship between level of Is there a significant relationship between level of stress and coping strategies in hospitalized stress and coping strategies in hospitalized patient?patient?

Terms to be defined:Terms to be defined:Level of stressLevel of stress: the number and intensity of events, : the number and intensity of events,

perceived by the patient as causing strain or tension, that perceived by the patient as causing strain or tension, that occurred during the past 12 months as measured by the occurred during the past 12 months as measured by the Holmes and Rahe “ Significant life event” scaleHolmes and Rahe “ Significant life event” scale

Coping strategiesCoping strategies: A person’s customary pattern of : A person’s customary pattern of adapting to or dealing with perceived stressful events as adapting to or dealing with perceived stressful events as measured by a rating scale evaluating both the number of measured by a rating scale evaluating both the number of strategies and the frequency with which the individual uses strategies and the frequency with which the individual uses themthem

Operational definitionOperational definition- Family planning user: is any currently Family planning user: is any currently

married woman aged 15 to 49 years old or married woman aged 15 to 49 years old or a married man aged 15 or older who has a married man aged 15 or older who has used a method to prevent or space used a method to prevent or space pregnancy at least once during the last pregnancy at least once during the last three monthsthree months

- Coastal Barangay: is a village or Coastal Barangay: is a village or community which is located near the sea community which is located near the sea where fishing is the main activity of the where fishing is the main activity of the residentsresidents

Guidelines in making Operational DefinitionsGuidelines in making Operational Definitions

1.1. List the independent, dependent, intervening List the independent, dependent, intervening variablesvariables

2.2. Write operational definition for each variablesWrite operational definition for each variables3.3. Identify the possible categories of each variable Identify the possible categories of each variable

and determine if the categories can be clearly and determine if the categories can be clearly understood, are mutually exclusive (do not understood, are mutually exclusive (do not overlap) and exhaustive. The list of categories is overlap) and exhaustive. The list of categories is complete so that all respondent can be complete so that all respondent can be categorizedcategorized

4.4. List the key terms which may be interpreted List the key terms which may be interpreted differently by different people, unless they are differently by different people, unless they are operationally defined. Write an operational operationally defined. Write an operational definition for each termdefinition for each term

4. When defining variable or a term, be 4. When defining variable or a term, be guided by the following questions:guided by the following questions:

a.a. Does the definition clearly specify Does the definition clearly specify the way the variable will be the way the variable will be measured?measured?

b.b. Are the categories of each variable Are the categories of each variable mutually exclusive?mutually exclusive?

c.c. Are the categories exhaustive/Are the categories exhaustive/

SamplingSampling

- - Is the process of choosing a Is the process of choosing a representative of a population or representative of a population or some elements in a population or some elements in a population or some elements in a population some elements in a population that will represent the entire that will represent the entire populationpopulation

Definition of terms:Definition of terms:PopulationPopulation – – refers to the total number refers to the total number

of elements to be studied. e.g. object, of elements to be studied. e.g. object, areas, or individualsareas, or individuals

Ex: “sexual attitudes and practices of Ex: “sexual attitudes and practices of student in public high school in student in public high school in province A”province A”

All students in Public High School in the All students in Public High School in the province constitute the study province constitute the study populationpopulation

Population ElementsPopulation Elements

- This pertains to an item, an object, This pertains to an item, an object, an area, or an individual on which an area, or an individual on which data will be taken. It is considered data will be taken. It is considered the unit of study. the unit of study.

Ex: a student in a public high School Ex: a student in a public high School is a population elementis a population element

Target populationTarget population

- This is the population for which representative This is the population for which representative information is desiredinformation is desired

Sampling populationSampling population – This the population from – This the population from which a sample is actually drawnwhich a sample is actually drawn

Sampling FrameSampling Frame – is a list of all elements or – is a list of all elements or sampling units (e.g. items, persons) in a sampling units (e.g. items, persons) in a population. The sample is drawn from the population. The sample is drawn from the sampling framesampling frame

SampleSample- This refers to an individual, an element - This refers to an individual, an element or a group of individuals or elements on which or a group of individuals or elements on which information is obtainedinformation is obtained

Advantages of studying a sampleAdvantages of studying a sample1.1. It is cheaperIt is cheaper – since a sample is smaller than the – since a sample is smaller than the

entire population, collection and processing of entire population, collection and processing of data is lessdata is less

2.2. It is fasterIt is faster – it is identify quicker to study fewer – it is identify quicker to study fewer individual or elements than an entire populationindividual or elements than an entire population

3.3. It is more accurateIt is more accurate – fewer errors are expected in – fewer errors are expected in data collection and processing in a study of a data collection and processing in a study of a sample than in a study of the entire populationsample than in a study of the entire population

4.4. It can yield more comprehensive informationIt can yield more comprehensive information - - can be more thoroughly investigated and can can be more thoroughly investigated and can yield more comprehensive information than a big yield more comprehensive information than a big populationpopulation

Basic Types of SamplingBasic Types of SamplingNon-probability samplingNon-probability sampling

- Is arbitrary (non-random) and is generally Is arbitrary (non-random) and is generally subjective. Data gatherers choose sample subjective. Data gatherers choose sample cases, “as they wish” or wherever they find cases, “as they wish” or wherever they find themthem

Probability SamplingProbability Sampling- is based on the concept of random is based on the concept of random

selection, a procedure that assures that selection, a procedure that assures that all elements in the population are given all elements in the population are given an equal chance of being selected as a an equal chance of being selected as a sample unitsample unit

Two common ways to choose person or elementsTwo common ways to choose person or elements::

1.1. Accidental samplingAccidental sampling – the investigator – the investigator elects the sample units as they become elects the sample units as they become availableavailable

2.2. PurposivePurposive SamplingSampling– the investigator – the investigator uses a specific purpose in selecting a uses a specific purpose in selecting a samplesample

5 Most Common Probability Sampling 5 Most Common Probability Sampling TechniqueTechnique

1.1. Simple random samplingSimple random sampling – is a process of – is a process of selecting sample cases or subset of sample selecting sample cases or subset of sample cases from population, giving all the sampling cases from population, giving all the sampling units equal chances of being included as a units equal chances of being included as a samplesample

2.2. Systematic sampling with a random start-Systematic sampling with a random start- is a is a method of selecting a sample from a population method of selecting a sample from a population by taking by taking kth kth units from an ordered population, units from an ordered population, from the first unit which is selected at random. from the first unit which is selected at random. The The kk is called the sampling interval. The is called the sampling interval. The sampling interval is derived by dividing the total sampling interval is derived by dividing the total population by the desired sample size. To use population by the desired sample size. To use this technique, an ordered list of the population this technique, an ordered list of the population elements is requiredelements is required

3.3. Stratified Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling

- Is the process of selecting a random sample Is the process of selecting a random sample from subgroup or strata into which a from subgroup or strata into which a population has been subdividedpopulation has been subdivided

- A population is made up off groups of A population is made up off groups of elements with varied characteristics, which elements with varied characteristics, which can possibly affect observation or can possibly affect observation or responsesresponses

- The population is stratified into more or less The population is stratified into more or less homogenous, a sub-sample is drawn using homogenous, a sub-sample is drawn using either simple random sampling or either simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a random startsystematic sampling with a random start

4. Cluster Sampling4. Cluster Sampling- Is a method of selecting a sample of groups Is a method of selecting a sample of groups

or clusters of elementsor clusters of elements

- The number of clusters in the population The number of clusters in the population represents the size of the population of represents the size of the population of clusters, while the number of elements in a clusters, while the number of elements in a cluster is called cluster size. The sample cluster is called cluster size. The sample cluster can be drawn using simple random cluster can be drawn using simple random sampling or systematic sampling with a sampling or systematic sampling with a random start.random start.

5. Multistage sampling5. Multistage sampling- The selection of the sample is accomplished two or The selection of the sample is accomplished two or

more stagesmore stages- The population is first divided into a number of first-The population is first divided into a number of first-

stage units from which a sample is drawnstage units from which a sample is drawn- Then, the population in the sampled first stage Then, the population in the sampled first stage

units are divided into second stage unitsunits are divided into second stage units- More stages may be added, if desired by dividing More stages may be added, if desired by dividing

the population into hierarchy of sampling units the population into hierarchy of sampling units corresponding to the different sampling stages. corresponding to the different sampling stages.

- This process is usually used when the population This process is usually used when the population can be divided into hierarchies.can be divided into hierarchies.

- The sampling process in each hierarchy is The sampling process in each hierarchy is considered one stageconsidered one stage

Non-Probability SamplingNon-Probability Sampling- Is a judgmental sampling. It does not Is a judgmental sampling. It does not

provide every member of the population an provide every member of the population an equal chance of being selected as part of equal chance of being selected as part of the sample.the sample.

TWO METHOD/WAYS TO CHOOSE A SAMPLE:TWO METHOD/WAYS TO CHOOSE A SAMPLE:

1.1. Accidental sampling – the investigator selects Accidental sampling – the investigator selects the sample units as they become availablethe sample units as they become available

2.2. Purposive Sampling – the investigator uses a Purposive Sampling – the investigator uses a specific purpose in selecting a samplespecific purpose in selecting a sample

DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZEDETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

Two consideration in determining Sample SizeTwo consideration in determining Sample Size

1.1. Availability of resourcesAvailability of resources

2.2. The requirements of a proposed plan of The requirements of a proposed plan of analysisanalysis

FORMULA: if populations is more than 10,000 FORMULA: if populations is more than 10,000

N =N = Z2pq Z2pq

d2d2

SAMPLINGSAMPLING- Is the process of choosing a representative Is the process of choosing a representative

portion of a population or some elements in a portion of a population or some elements in a population that will represents the entire population that will represents the entire populationpopulation

Definition of terms:Definition of terms:

Population – refers to the total number of elements Population – refers to the total number of elements to be studiedto be studied

Population elements – this pertain to an item, an Population elements – this pertain to an item, an object, an area, or an individual on which data will object, an area, or an individual on which data will be taken. It is considered the unit of the studybe taken. It is considered the unit of the study

Target population – is a population for which Target population – is a population for which representative information is desiredrepresentative information is desired

Sampling PopulationSampling Population- Is the population from which a sample is Is the population from which a sample is

actually drawnactually drawn

SAMPLING FRAME – is a list of all the SAMPLING FRAME – is a list of all the elements or sampling un its in a populationelements or sampling un its in a population

SAMPLE – refers to an individual, an element SAMPLE – refers to an individual, an element or a group of individuals or elements on or a group of individuals or elements on which information is obtainedwhich information is obtained

STATISTICSTATISTIC

- Are measured numeric values, - Are measured numeric values, called data, collected from the called data, collected from the sample subjectsample subject

-Summaries of the data-Summaries of the data

TWO TYPES:TWO TYPES:

1.DESCRIPTIVE1.DESCRIPTIVE

2. INFERRENTIAL2. INFERRENTIAL

DATADATA- The pieces of information obtained in the course The pieces of information obtained in the course

of a studyof a study- Data that are likely to change from one Data that are likely to change from one

measurement to another are called measurement to another are called Variables.Variables.Constant – are measurement that can never Constant – are measurement that can never

change.change.Variables may be continuous – theoretically able to Variables may be continuous – theoretically able to

assume an unlimited number of fractional values assume an unlimited number of fractional values between any two possible whole- number values. between any two possible whole- number values. Alternatively, variable may be discrete – able to Alternatively, variable may be discrete – able to assume only certain specific values and no assume only certain specific values and no fractional values in betweenfractional values in between

Ex. Of continuous data: weight, score in a test, Ex. Of continuous data: weight, score in a test, amount of alcohol in the bloodamount of alcohol in the blood

Ex. Of Discrete data: cars, boys, girls, householdEx. Of Discrete data: cars, boys, girls, household

Types of Data Types of Data or Measurementor Measurement1.1. Nonmetric measurementNonmetric measurement

a. Nominala. Nominal

b. Ordinalb. Ordinal

2. Metric measurement2. Metric measurement

a. Intervala. Interval

b.Ratiob.Ratio

NOMINALNOMINAL- Lowest level of measurement, it involves Lowest level of measurement, it involves

the assignment of numbers simply to the assignment of numbers simply to classify characteristic into categoriesclassify characteristic into categories

Ex of variables: gender, bld type, ng specialtyEx of variables: gender, bld type, ng specialty

-the numeric code assigned in nominal -the numeric code assigned in nominal measurement are not intended to convey measurement are not intended to convey any quantitative information it is purely any quantitative information it is purely symbolicsymbolic

Ordinal MeasurementOrdinal Measurement-the next level of measurement hierarchy, it permits -the next level of measurement hierarchy, it permits

the sorting of object on the basis of their standing the sorting of object on the basis of their standing on an attribute relative to each otheron an attribute relative to each other

- This level of measurement goes beyond a mere This level of measurement goes beyond a mere categorization: the attributes are ordered categorization: the attributes are ordered according to some criterion eg. If a researcher according to some criterion eg. If a researcher were to rank-order subject from the heaviest to were to rank-order subject from the heaviest to lightest.lightest.

- This tells the researcher the relative ranking of This tells the researcher the relative ranking of the levels of an attributethe levels of an attribute

- Ex. of mathematical used are frequency counts, Ex. of mathematical used are frequency counts, percentagespercentages

Interval MeasurementInterval Measurement- Occurs when the researcher can specify both - Occurs when the researcher can specify both

the rank-ordering of object on an attribute the rank-ordering of object on an attribute and the distance between those objectand the distance between those object

- The distance between the numeric values on The distance between the numeric values on an interval scale represent equal distances an interval scale represent equal distances in the attribute being measuredin the attribute being measured

- More informative than ordinal measure but More informative than ordinal measure but one piece of information that interval one piece of information that interval measurement fail to provide is the absolute measurement fail to provide is the absolute magnitude of the attributemagnitude of the attribute

Ratio MeasurementRatio Measurement- The highest level of measurement can be The highest level of measurement can be

distinguished from interval scale by virtue of distinguished from interval scale by virtue of having a rational, meaningful zerohaving a rational, meaningful zero

- This provide information concerning the rank-This provide information concerning the rank-ordering of objects on the critical attribute, the ordering of objects on the critical attribute, the intervals between objects, and the absolute intervals between objects, and the absolute magnitude of the attribute for the objectmagnitude of the attribute for the object

- Have equal interval and meaningful zero point - Have equal interval and meaningful zero point absolute zero, all arithmetic operation are absolute zero, all arithmetic operation are permissible. permissible.

- One can meaningfully add, subtract, multiply and One can meaningfully add, subtract, multiply and divide on a ratio scaledivide on a ratio scale

- Ex. Physical attribute like weight and heightEx. Physical attribute like weight and height

Descriptive statisticDescriptive statistic-Summaries of data or numerical information -Summaries of data or numerical information

presented in formats that enable easy presented in formats that enable easy comprehension.comprehension.

These include charts, graphs, numeric tables These include charts, graphs, numeric tables and averagesand averages

Types:Types:

1.1. Measure of Central Tendency: mean, Measure of Central Tendency: mean, frequency, mode, median, percentilefrequency, mode, median, percentile

2. Measure of Dispersion: Standard Deviation2. Measure of Dispersion: Standard Deviation

Central TendencyCentral Tendency-As an “index of central location employed in -As an “index of central location employed in

the description of frequency distribution” – the description of frequency distribution” – Runyon-Haber Runyon-Haber

Frequency – simply means how many and is Frequency – simply means how many and is determined by counting. The number of determined by counting. The number of men and the number of women in a given men and the number of women in a given geographic location are frequencies.geographic location are frequencies.

- Are important means of imposing order on a - Are important means of imposing order on a set of raw data and of classifying group set of raw data and of classifying group patternspatterns

MODEMODE- Is the simplest to determine of the three Is the simplest to determine of the three

measures of central tendency and seldom measures of central tendency and seldom used in research reportused in research report

- Is the numeric value in a distribution that Is the numeric value in a distribution that occur most frequently.occur most frequently.

- Is not computed but rather is determined Is not computed but rather is determined through inspection of a frequency through inspection of a frequency distributiondistribution

- Are quick and easy method of determining Are quick and easy method of determining the most popular score at a glance but are the most popular score at a glance but are unsuitable for further computation and unsuitable for further computation and unstable.unstable.

MEDIANMEDIAN

- the “middle” score.- the “middle” score.

- Is that point on a numeric scale above which Is that point on a numeric scale above which and below which 50% of the cases fall.and below which 50% of the cases fall.

- An important characteristic of the median is An important characteristic of the median is that it does not take into account the that it does not take into account the quantitative values of individual scoresquantitative values of individual scores

- An index of average position in a distribution An index of average position in a distribution of numbers and is insensitive to extreme of numbers and is insensitive to extreme valuesvalues

- Abbreviated as Md or Mdn.Abbreviated as Md or Mdn.

PercentilePercentile

- Are used in communicating to individual Are used in communicating to individual how they compare with others.how they compare with others.

MEANMEAN

- Is the point on the score scale that is equal to the Is the point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of the score divided by the total number of sum of the score divided by the total number of scorescore

- Is the index of central tendency that is usually Is the index of central tendency that is usually referred to as an averagereferred to as an average

- Most stable and most reliable estimate of MCT of Most stable and most reliable estimate of MCT of the populationthe population

- The arithmetic mean is the most appropriate index The arithmetic mean is the most appropriate index in situation in which the concern is for totals or in situation in which the concern is for totals or combined performance of a group.combined performance of a group.

Measures of VariabilityMeasures of Variability- Known as dispersionKnown as dispersion

- Common Indexes developed: Range, Common Indexes developed: Range, semiquartile, and standard deviationsemiquartile, and standard deviation

RANGERANGE

- Is simply the highest score minus the lowest Is simply the highest score minus the lowest score in a given distributionscore in a given distribution

- It indicate the distance on the score scale It indicate the distance on the score scale between the lowest and highest valuesbetween the lowest and highest values

- Is used largely as a gross descriptive index Is used largely as a gross descriptive index and is typically reported in conjunction with, and is typically reported in conjunction with, not instead of other measures of variabilitynot instead of other measures of variability

Semiquartile RangeSemiquartile Range- Is calculated on the basis of quartiles within Is calculated on the basis of quartiles within

a distributiona distribution

- Indicates half the range of scores within Indicates half the range of scores within which the middle 50% of score lies. which the middle 50% of score lies. Because this index is a measure based on Because this index is a measure based on the middle cases rather than extreme score, the middle cases rather than extreme score, it is considerably more stable than the it is considerably more stable than the range.range.

Standard DeviationStandard Deviation- With interval- or ratio-level dataWith interval- or ratio-level data- the most widely used statistic that measure of the most widely used statistic that measure of

variabilityvariability- It summarizes the average amount of deviation of It summarizes the average amount of deviation of

values from the mean.values from the mean.- In variability index is someway capturing the In variability index is someway capturing the

degree to which scores deviate from one anotherdegree to which scores deviate from one another- This concept of deviation is represented in both This concept of deviation is represented in both

range and the semiquartile range by the presence range and the semiquartile range by the presence of a minus sign, which produce an index of of a minus sign, which produce an index of deviation, or difference, between two score points.deviation, or difference, between two score points.

Bivariate Descriptive StatisticBivariate Descriptive StatisticContingency table or cross tabulation – is Contingency table or cross tabulation – is

essentially a two-dimensional frequency essentially a two-dimensional frequency distribution in which the frequency of two distribution in which the frequency of two variables are cross-tabulatedvariables are cross-tabulated

- The system of bars and cross-hatches can The system of bars and cross-hatches can then be used to tabulate the number of then be used to tabulate the number of subjects belonging in each cell.subjects belonging in each cell.

- Is usually restricted to nominal data or to Is usually restricted to nominal data or to ordinal data that have few values or ranks.ordinal data that have few values or ranks.

CORRELATIONCORRELATION- The most common method of describing the The most common method of describing the

relationship between two measures.relationship between two measures.- The graphic presentation of a correlation The graphic presentation of a correlation

between two variables is called scatter plot or between two variables is called scatter plot or scatter diagramscatter diagram

- Test for Correlation:Test for Correlation:1. Contingency Coefficient Correlation - for 1. Contingency Coefficient Correlation - for

nominal data is appropriate for answering such nominal data is appropriate for answering such question “what is the relationship between the question “what is the relationship between the region of the country in which one lives and the region of the country in which one lives and the basic nursing program from which one basic nursing program from which one graduated?”graduated?”

2. Spearman rho Correlation2. Spearman rho Correlation- Requires that both variables be measured in Requires that both variables be measured in

at least an ordinal scale so that the data can at least an ordinal scale so that the data can be ranked in two ordered seriesbe ranked in two ordered series

3. Pearson Product Moment Correlation – is 3. Pearson Product Moment Correlation – is the appropriate correlation statistic for the appropriate correlation statistic for interval and ratio data. Data such as age, interval and ratio data. Data such as age, weight, and height weight, and height

Inferential statisticInferential statistic

- Are statistic we used to infer or draw a Are statistic we used to infer or draw a conclusion about somethingconclusion about something

- We frequently want to know the probability We frequently want to know the probability of our sample representing the populationof our sample representing the population

- An important concept of inferential statistic An important concept of inferential statistic is decision makingis decision making

- In making decision you need to know about In making decision you need to know about one-tailed and two tailedone-tailed and two tailed

One-tailed and two-tailed testOne-tailed and two-tailed testOne- tailed - means that both ends or tails of One- tailed - means that both ends or tails of

the sampling distribution are used to the sampling distribution are used to determine the range of improbable valuesdetermine the range of improbable values

Two tailed - When the researcher has strong Two tailed - When the researcher has strong basis for using a directional hypothesis it basis for using a directional hypothesis it may justifiable to used one-tailed testmay justifiable to used one-tailed test

Parametric and Non Parametric testParametric and Non Parametric test

Parametric testParametric test - characterized by three - characterized by three attribute: involve the estimation of at least attribute: involve the estimation of at least one parameter; require measurement on at one parameter; require measurement on at least an interval scale; involve several least an interval scale; involve several underlying assumptions about the variables underlying assumptions about the variables under consideration, such as the under consideration, such as the assumption that the variables are normally assumption that the variables are normally distributed in the populationdistributed in the population

Nonparametric testNonparametric test- Are not based on the estimation of Are not based on the estimation of

parameters. Usually applied when the data parameters. Usually applied when the data have been measured on a nominal or have been measured on a nominal or ordinal scaleordinal scale

- It involve less restrictive assumption It involve less restrictive assumption concerning the shape of the distribution of concerning the shape of the distribution of the critical variables than do parametric testthe critical variables than do parametric test

- Sometimes called distribution-free statisticSometimes called distribution-free statistic

Chi squareChi square

- Is an inferential statistic appropriate for - Is an inferential statistic appropriate for frequency data whenever you can count the frequency data whenever you can count the number of items in a categorynumber of items in a category

Sign testSign test- A simple test may be used with ordinal dataA simple test may be used with ordinal data

Mann-Whitney U – a nonparametric inferential Mann-Whitney U – a nonparametric inferential statistical test that is appropriate for ordinal datastatistical test that is appropriate for ordinal data

- One of the most powerful of the nonparametric - One of the most powerful of the nonparametric tests, and it is a most useful alternate to the tests, and it is a most useful alternate to the parametric parametric tt test when the researcher wishes to test when the researcher wishes to avoid the t test’s assumption, or when the avoid the t test’s assumption, or when the measurement in the research is weaker than the measurement in the research is weaker than the interval scalinginterval scaling

tt Test Test- Is a parametric test that is widely usedIs a parametric test that is widely used

- Sometimes referred to as student’s Sometimes referred to as student’s tt

- Assumption include:Assumption include:

1.1. Normal distributionNormal distribution

2.2. Random samplingRandom sampling

3.3. Homogeneity of varianceHomogeneity of variance

4.4. Independent sampleIndependent sample

5.5. Data measured on at least an interval Data measured on at least an interval scalescale