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AS Unit F211:Cells, exchange and transport

Module 1- Cells

Cell structureDone

State the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope, atransmission electron microscope and a scanning electron microscope.

Explain the difference between magnification and resolution.

Explain the need for staining samples for use in light and electron microscopy.

Calculate the linear magnification of an image.

Describe and interpret drawings and photographs of eukaryotic cells as seen underan electron microscope and be able to recognise the following structures

nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear envelope, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum,!olgi apparatus, ribosomes, mitochondria, lysosomes, chloroplasts, plasma "cellsurface# membrane, centrioles, flagella and cilia.

$utline the functions of the structures listed above.

$utline the interrelationship between the organelles involved in the production and

secretion of proteins.

Explain the importance of the cytoskeleton in providing mechanical strength tocells, aiding transport within cells and enabling cell movement.

Compare and contrast, with the aid of diagrams and electron micrographs, thestructure of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

Compare and contrast, with the aid of diagrams and electron micrographs, thestructure and ultrastructure of plant cells and animal cells.

Cell membranes

Done

$utline the roles of membranes within cells and at the surface of cells.

State that plasma "cell surface# membranes are partially permeable barriers.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure.

Describe the roles of the components of the cell membrane% phospholipids,cholesterol, glycolipids, proteins and glycoproteins.

$utline the effect of changing temperature on membrane structure and permeability.

Explain the term cell signalling.

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Explain the role of membrane'bound receptors as sites where hormones and drugscan bind.

Explain what is meant bypassive transport"diffusion and facilitated diffusion includingthe role of membrane proteins#, active transport, endocytosisand exocytosis.

Explain what is meant by osmosis, in terms of water potential.

(ecognise and explain the effects that solutions of different water potentials canhave upon plant and animal cells.

Cell diision, cell diersit! and cellular organisationDone

State that mitosis occupies only a small percentage of the cell cycle and that the

remaining percentage includes the copying and checking of genetic information.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the main stages of mitosis"behaviour of the chromosomes, nuclear envelope, cell membrane and centrioles#.

Explain the meaning of the term homologous pair of chromosomes.

Explain the significance of mitosis for growth, repair and asexual reproduction inplants and animals.

$utline, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the process of cell division bybudding in yeast.

State that cells produced as a result of meiosis are not genetically identical.

Define the term stem cell.

Define the term differentiation, with reference to the production of erythrocytes "redblood cells# and neutrophils derived from stem cells in bone marrow, and theproduction of xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes from cambium.

Describe and explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how cells ofmulticellular organisms are specialised for particular functions, with reference to

erythrocytes "red blood cells#, neutrophils, epithelial cells, sperm cells, palisadecells, root hair cells and guard cells.

Explain the meaning of the terms tissue, organand organ system.

Explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how cells are organised intotissues, using s)uamous and ciliated epithelia, xylem and phloem as examples.

Discuss the importance of cooperation between cells, tissues, organs and organsystems.

Module 2 - "xchange and transport

"xchange sur#aces and breathing Done


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Explain, in terms of surface areavolume ratio, why multicellular organisms need

specialised exchange surfaces and single'celled organisms do not.

Describe the features of an efficient exchange surface, with reference to diffusion ofoxygen and carbon dioxide across an alveolus.

Describe the features of the mammalian lung that adapt it to efficient gaseousexchange.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the distribution of cartilage,ciliated epithelium, goblet cells, smooth muscle and elastic fibres in the trachea,bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli of the mammalian gaseous exchange system.

Describe the functions of cartilage, cilia, goblet cells, smooth muscle and elasticfibres in the mammalian gaseous exchange system.

$utline the mechanism of breathing "inspiration and expiration# in mammals, withreference to the function of the rib cage, intercostal muscles and diaphragm.

Explain the meanings of the terms tidal volumeand vital capacity.

Describe how a spirometer can be used to measure vital capacity, tidal volume,breathing rate and oxygen uptake.

+nalyse and interpret data from a spirometer.

$ransport in animalsDone

Explain the need for transport systems in multicellular animals in terms of sie, levelof activity and surface area to volume ratio.

Explain the meaning of the terms single circulatory systemand double circulatorysystem, with reference to the circulatory systems of fish and mammals.

Explain the meaning of the terms open circulatory systemand closed circulatorysystem, with reference to the circulatory systems of insects and fish.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the external and internalstructure of the mammalian heart.

Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the differences in the thickness of the walls of thedifferent chambers of the heart in terms of their functions.

Describe the cardiac cycle, with reference to the action of the valves in the heart.

Describe how heart action is coordinated with reference to the sinoatrial node"S+-#, the atrioventricular node "+-# and the /urkyne tissue.

0nterpret and explain electrocardiogram "EC!# traces, with reference to normal andabnormal heart activity.


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Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the structures and functions ofarteries, veins and capillaries.

Explain the differences between blood, tissue fluid and lymph.

Describe how tissue fluid is formed from plasma.

Describe the role of haemoglobin in carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Describe and explain the significance of the dissociation curves of adultoxyhaemoglobin at different carbon dioxide levels "the 2ohr effect#.

Explain the significance of the different affinities of fetal haemoglobin and adulthaemoglobin for oxygen.

$ransport in plants Done

Explain the need for transport systems in multicellular plants in terms of sie andsurface area to volume ratio.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the distribution of xylem andphloem tissue in roots, stems and leaves of dicotyledonous plants.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the structure and function ofxylem vessels, sieve tube elements and companion cells.

Define the term transpiration.

Explain why transpiration is a conse)uence of gaseous exchange.

Describe the factors that affect transpiration rate.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, how a potometer is used to estimatetranspiration rates.

Explain, in terms of water potential, the movement of water between plant cells, andbetween plant cells and their environment.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the pathway by which water is transported fromthe root cortex to the air surrounding the leaves, with reference to the Casparianstrip, apoplast pathway, symplast pathway, xylem and the stomata.

Explain the mechanism by which water is transported from the root cortex to the airsurrounding the leaves, with reference to adhesion, cohesion and the transpirationstream.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, how the leaves of somexerophytes are adapted to reduce water loss by transpiration.

Explain translocation as an energy're)uiring process transporting assimilates,especially sucrose, between sources "e.g. leaves# and sinks "e.g. roots, meristem#.


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Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the mechanism of transport in phloem involvingactive loading at the source and removal at the sink, and the evidence for andagainst this mechanism.


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AS Unit F212: Molecules, biodiersit!, #ood and health

Module 1 - %iological molecules

%iological moleculesDone

Describe how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules, and relate thisand other properties of water to the roles of water in living organisms.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of an amino acid.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the formation and breakage of peptide bonds in

the synthesis and hydrolysis of dipeptides and polypeptides.Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the termprimary structure.

Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the term secondary structurewith reference tohydrogen bonding.

Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the term tertiary structure, with reference tohydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, disulphide bonds and ionic interactions.

Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the term quaternarystructure, with reference tothe structure of haemoglobin.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of a collagen molecule.

Compare the structure and function of haemoglobin "as an example of a globularprotein# and collagen "as an example of a fibrous protein#.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the molecular structure of alpha'glucose as anexample of a monosaccharide carbohydrate.

State the structural difference between alpha' and beta'glucose.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the formation and breakage of glycosidic bondsin the synthesis and hydrolysis of a disaccharide "maltose# and a polysaccharide"amylose#.

Compare and contrast the structure and functions of starch "amylose# andcellulose.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of glycogen.

Explain how the structures of glucose, starch "amylose#, glycogen and cellulosemolecules relate to their functions in living organisms.

Compare, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of a triglyceride and aphospholipid.

Explain how the structures of triglyceride, phospholipid and cholesterol molecules

relate to their functions in living organisms.

Describe how to carry out chemical tests to identify the presence of the following


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molecules protein "biuret test#, reducing and non'reducing sugars "2enedict6s test#,starch "iodine solution#, and lipids "emulsion test#.

Describe how the concentration of glucose in a solution may be determined usingcolorimetry.

&ucleic acidsDone

State that deoxyribonucleic acid "D-+# is a polynucleotide, usually double'stranded, made up of nucleotides containing the bases adenine "+#, thymine "7#,cytosine "C# and guanine "!#.

State that ribonucleic acid "(-+# is a polynucleotide, usually single'stranded, made

up of nucleotides containing the bases adenine "+#, uracil "8#, cytosine "C# andguanine "!#.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, how hydrogen bonding between complementarybase pairs "+'7, !'C# on two anti'parallel D-+ polynucleotides leads to theformation of a D-+ molecule, and how the twisting of D-+ produces its double-helixshape.

$utline, with the aid of diagrams, how D-+ replicates semi'conservatively, withreference to the role of D-+ polymerase.

State that a gene is a se)uence of D-+ nucleotides that codes for a polypeptide.

$utline the roles of D-+ and (-+ in living organisms "the concept of proteinsynthesis must be considered in outline only#.

"n'!mesDone

State that enymes are globular proteins, with a specific tertiary structure, whichcatalyse metabolic reactions in living organisms.

State that enyme action may be intracellular or extracellular.

Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the mechanism of action of enyme molecules,with reference to specificity, active site, lock'and'key hypothesis, induced'fithypothesis, enyme'substrate complex, enyme'product complex and lowering ofactivation energy.

Describe and explain the effects of p9, temperature, enyme concentration andsubstrate concentration on enyme activity.

Describe how the effects of p9, temperature, enyme concentration and substrateconcentration on enyme activity can be investigated experimentally.

Explain the effects of competitive and non'competitive inhibitors on the rate of

enyme'controlled reactions, with reference to both reversible and non'reversibleinhibitors.


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Explain the importance of cofactors and coenymes in enyme'controlled reactions.

State that metabolic poisons may be enyme inhibitors, and describe the action of

one named inhibitor.

State that some medicinal drugs work by inhibiting the activity of enymes.


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Module 2 - Food and health

Diet and #ood productionDone

Define the term balanced diet.

Explain how consumption of an unbalanced diet can lead to malnutrition, withreference to obesity.

Discuss the possible links between diet and coronary heart disease "C9D#.

Discuss the possible effects of a high blood cholesterol level on the heart and

circulatory system, with reference to high density lipoproteins "9D


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Describe, with the aid of diagrams, the structure of antibodies.

$utline the mode of action of antibodies, with reference to the neutralisation and

agglutination of pathogens.

Describe the structure and mode of action of 7 lymphocytes and 2 lymphocytes,including the significance of cell signalling and the role of memory cells.

Compare and contrast the primary and secondary immune responses.

Compare and contrast active, passive, natural and artificial immunity.

Explain how vaccination can control disease.

Discuss the responses of governments and other organisations to the threat of new

strains of influena each year.

$utline possible new sources of medicines, with reference to microorganisms andplants and the need to maintain biodiversity.

Describe the effects of smoking on the mammalian gas exchange system, withreference to the symptoms of chronic bronchitis, emphysema "chronic obstructivepulmonary disease# and lung cancer.

Describe the effects of nicotine and carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke on thecardiovascular system with reference to the course of events that lead to

atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease and stroke.Evaluate the epidemiological and experimental evidence linking cigarette smokingto disease and early death.


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Module ) - %iodiersit! and eolution

%iodiersit!Done

Define the terms species, habitatand biodiversity.

Explain how biodiversity may be considered at different levels% habitat, species andgenetic.

Explain the importance of sampling in measuring the biodiversity of a habitat.

Describe how random samples can be taken when measuring biodiversity.

Describe how to measure species richness, species evenness in a habitat.

8se Simpson6s 0ndex "D# to calculate the biodiversity of a habitat, using the formula

D? "n/N#&.

$utline the significance of both high and low values of Simpson6s 0ndex "D#.

Discuss current estimates of global biodiversity.

Classi#icationDone

Define the terms classification, phylogeny and taxonomy.

Explain the relationship between classification and phylogeny.

Describe the classification of species into the taxonomic hierarchy of domain,kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.

$utline the characteristic features of the following five kingdoms /rokaryotae"@onera#, /rotoctista, Aungi, /lantae, +nimalia.

$utline the binomial system of nomenclature and the use of scientific "


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Define the term variation.

Discuss the fact that variation occurs within as well as between species.

Describe the differences between continuous and discontinuous variation, usingexamples of a range of characteristics found in plants, animals andmicroorganisms.

Explain both genetic and environmental causes of variation.

$utline the behavioural, physiological and anatomical "structural# adaptations oforganisms to their environments.

Explain the conse)uences of the four observations made by Darwin in proposinghis theory of natural selection.

Define the term speciation.

Discuss the evidence supporting the theory of evolution, with reference to fossil,D-+ and molecular evidence.

$utline how variation, adaptation and selection are maBor components of evolution.

Discuss why the evolution of pesticide resistance in insects and drug resistance inmicroorganisms has implications for humans.

Consering biodiersit!

Done

$utline the reasons for the conservation of animal and plant species, with referenceto economic, ecological, ethical and aesthetic reasons.

Discuss the conse)uences of global climate change on the biodiversity of plantsand animals, with reference to changing patterns of agriculture and spread ofdisease.

Explain the benefits for agriculture of maintaining the biodiversity of animal andplant species.

Describe the conservation of endangered plant and animal species, both in situandex situ, with reference to the advantages and disadvantages of these twoapproaches.

Discuss the role of botanic gardens in the ex situconservation of rare plant speciesor plant species extinct in the wild, with reference to seed banks.

Discuss the importance of international cooperation in species conservation withreference to the Convention in 0nternational 7rade in Endangered Species "C07ES#and the (io Convention on 2iodiversity.

Discuss the significance of environmental impact assessments "includingbiodiversity estimates# for local authority planning decisions.

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