218
ED 444 350 AUTHOR TITLE INSTITUTION PUB DATE NOTE AVAILABLE FROM PUB TYPE EDRS PRICE DESCRIPTORS IDENTIFIERS ABSTRACT DOCUMENT RESUME FL 026 339 Boberg, Charles, Ed.; Meyerhoff, Miriam, Ed.; Strassel, Stephanie, Ed. A Selection of Papers from NWAVE [New Ways of Analyzing Variation] (25th, Las Vegas, Nevada, October 1996). University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, Volume 4, Number 1. Pennsylvania Univ., Philadelphia. Penn Linguistics Club. 1997-00-00 432p.; Papers presented at the Annual New Ways of Analyzing Variation Conference (Las Vegas, NV, October, 1996). PWPL, 619 Williams Hall, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305 ($12). Collected Works - Proceedings (021) -- Speeches/Meeting Papers (150) MF01/PC18 Plus Postage. Black Dialects; Code Switching (Language); *Dialects; English (Second Language); Ethnic Groups; Grammar; Immigrants; Language Minorities; *Language Research; Lexicography; *Linguistics; Phonetics; Phonology; Pronouns; Pronunciation; Second Language Instruction; Second Language Learning; Sociolinguistics; Syntax; Uncommonly Taught Languages Acadians This issue includes the following articles: "Towards a Sociolinguistics of Style" (Alan Bell, Gary Johnson); "Engendering Identities: Pronoun Selection as an Indicator of Salient Intergroup Identities" (Miriam Meyerhoff); "A Majority Sound Change in a Minority Community" (Carmen Fought); "Addressing the Actuation Question for Local Linguistic Communities" (Lisa Ann Lane); "Typologizing the Sociolinguistic Speech Community" (Otto Santa Ana and Claudia Parodi); "Symbolic Identity and Language Change: A Comparative Analysis of Post-Insular /ay/ and /aw/" (Natalie Schilling-Estes, Walt Wolfram); "The Geolinguistics of Sound Change in Progress: /1/ Vocalization in Australia" (Barbara M. Horvath, Ronald J. Horvath); "Urban Sound Change beyond the Cities: The Spread of the Northern Cities Chain Shift" (Matthew J. Gordon); "Dialect Contact, Focusing and Phonological Rule Complexity: The Koineisation of Fenland English" (David Britain); "Sociolinguistic Coherence of Changes in Standard Dialect" (J. K. Chambers); "Adaptive Sociophonetic Strategies and Dialect Accommodation: /ay/ Monophthongization in Cherokee English" (Bridget L. Anderson); "Phonetic Realization of Final Engma in Taipei Mandarin" (Fu-Dong Chiou); "Frequency Effects in Variable Lexical Phonology" (James Meyers, Gregory R. Guy); "Variation in the Nativization of Foreign [a] in English" (Charles Boberg); "Rule Inversion in British English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Investigation of [r]-sandhi in Newcastle upon Tyne" (Paul Foulkes); "Optimality and the Syntax of Lectal Variation" (Rakesh M. Bhatt); "The Truth about Codeswitching in Insular Acadian" (Ruth King, Terry Nadasdi); "Empirical Analysis of Anti-Immigrant Metaphor in Political Discourse" (Otto Santa Ana): "Is There an Auithentic African American Speech Community: Carla Revisited" (Lanita Jacobs-Huey); "Yorkville Crossing: A Case Study of the Influence of Hip-Hop Culture on the Speech of a White Middle Class Adolescent in New York City" Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document.

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madeDuring the conference, participants expressed some interest in putting out a selection of papers that were presented, along

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  • ED 444 350

    AUTHOR

    TITLE

    INSTITUTIONPUB DATENOTE

    AVAILABLE FROM

    PUB TYPE

    EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

    IDENTIFIERS

    ABSTRACT

    DOCUMENT RESUME

    FL 026 339

    Boberg, Charles, Ed.; Meyerhoff, Miriam, Ed.; Strassel,Stephanie, Ed.A Selection of Papers from NWAVE [New Ways of AnalyzingVariation] (25th, Las Vegas, Nevada, October 1996).University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics,Volume 4, Number 1.Pennsylvania Univ., Philadelphia. Penn Linguistics Club.1997-00-00432p.; Papers presented at the Annual New Ways of AnalyzingVariation Conference (Las Vegas, NV, October, 1996).PWPL, 619 Williams Hall, University of Pennsylvania,Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305 ($12).Collected Works - Proceedings (021) -- Speeches/MeetingPapers (150)MF01/PC18 Plus Postage.Black Dialects; Code Switching (Language); *Dialects;English (Second Language); Ethnic Groups; Grammar;Immigrants; Language Minorities; *Language Research;Lexicography; *Linguistics; Phonetics; Phonology; Pronouns;Pronunciation; Second Language Instruction; Second LanguageLearning; Sociolinguistics; Syntax; Uncommonly TaughtLanguagesAcadians

    This issue includes the following articles: "Towards aSociolinguistics of Style" (Alan Bell, Gary Johnson); "EngenderingIdentities: Pronoun Selection as an Indicator of Salient IntergroupIdentities" (Miriam Meyerhoff); "A Majority Sound Change in a MinorityCommunity" (Carmen Fought); "Addressing the Actuation Question for LocalLinguistic Communities" (Lisa Ann Lane); "Typologizing the SociolinguisticSpeech Community" (Otto Santa Ana and Claudia Parodi); "Symbolic Identity andLanguage Change: A Comparative Analysis of Post-Insular /ay/ and /aw/"(Natalie Schilling-Estes, Walt Wolfram); "The Geolinguistics of Sound Changein Progress: /1/ Vocalization in Australia" (Barbara M. Horvath, Ronald J.Horvath); "Urban Sound Change beyond the Cities: The Spread of the NorthernCities Chain Shift" (Matthew J. Gordon); "Dialect Contact, Focusing andPhonological Rule Complexity: The Koineisation of Fenland English" (DavidBritain); "Sociolinguistic Coherence of Changes in Standard Dialect" (J. K.Chambers); "Adaptive Sociophonetic Strategies and Dialect Accommodation: /ay/Monophthongization in Cherokee English" (Bridget L. Anderson); "PhoneticRealization of Final Engma in Taipei Mandarin" (Fu-Dong Chiou); "FrequencyEffects in Variable Lexical Phonology" (James Meyers, Gregory R. Guy);"Variation in the Nativization of Foreign [a] in English" (Charles Boberg);"Rule Inversion in British English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Investigationof [r]-sandhi in Newcastle upon Tyne" (Paul Foulkes); "Optimality and theSyntax of Lectal Variation" (Rakesh M. Bhatt); "The Truth about Codeswitchingin Insular Acadian" (Ruth King, Terry Nadasdi); "Empirical Analysis ofAnti-Immigrant Metaphor in Political Discourse" (Otto Santa Ana): "Is Therean Auithentic African American Speech Community: Carla Revisited" (LanitaJacobs-Huey); "Yorkville Crossing: A Case Study of the Influence of Hip-HopCulture on the Speech of a White Middle Class Adolescent in New York City"

    Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

  • (Cecilia A. Cutler); and "Modeling Contact-Induced Language Change" (NaomiNagy). Tables, figures, charts, graphs, and references are included in

    individual articles. (KFT)

    EEO E DOCUMENT:

    POOR PRINT ORLI

    Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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    ofA

    naly

    zing

    Var

    iatio

    n) w

    as h

    o:;te

    d by

    Guy

    Bai

    ley

    and

    Jan

    Till

    ery

    ofth

    e U

    nive

    rsity

    of

    Nev

    ada,

    Las

    Veg

    as in

    Oct

    ober

    199

    6.D

    urin

    g th

    eco

    nfer

    ence

    , par

    ticip

    ants

    exp

    ress

    ed s

    ome

    inte

    rest

    in p

    uttin

    g ou

    t ase

    lect

    ion

    of p

    aper

    s th

    at w

    ere

    pres

    ente

    d, a

    long

    the

    lines

    of

    (N)W

    aves

    and

    Mea

    ns: a

    sel

    ectio

    n pa

    pers

    fro

    m N

    WA

    VE

    24

    (PW

    PL v

    . 3.1

    ).A

    s in

    that

    PW

    PL v

    olum

    e, th

    ese

    pape

    rs a

    re n

    ot c

    onfe

    renc

    epr

    ocee

    ding

    s.Pr

    actic

    alco

    nstr

    aint

    sm

    ade

    afu

    llpr

    ocee

    ding

    sim

    poss

    ible

    . Con

    sequ

    ently

    , the

    sel

    ectio

    n of

    pap

    ers

    refl

    ects

    to a

    grea

    ter

    or le

    sser

    ext

    ent t

    he in

    tere

    sts

    of th

    e E

    dito

    rs a

    nd o

    f th

    e Pe

    nnso

    ciol

    ingu

    istic

    spr

    ogra

    m.

    How

    ever

    ,no

    twith

    stan

    ding

    thes

    elim

    itatio

    ns, w

    e ho

    pe th

    at th

    ,; pa

    pers

    sel

    ecte

    d fa

    ithfu

    lly r

    efle

    ct th

    ebr

    oad

    rang

    e of

    res

    earc

    h in

    whi

    ch N

    WA

    VE

    par

    ticip

    ants

    are

    eng

    aged

    .T

    he p

    aper

    s ar

    e ar

    rang

    ed th

    emat

    ical

    ly. T

    he f

    irst

    pap

    er, a

    plen

    ary

    addr

    ess

    by B

    ell,

    revi

    .iws

    rece

    nt w

    ork

    iden

    tifyi

    ng a

    ddre

    ssee

    effe

    cts

    in th

    e so

    ciol

    ingu

    istic

    vari

    atio

    n of

    dis

    cour

    sepa

    rtic

    les.

    Mey

    erho

    ff c

    ritic

    ally

    exa

    min

    es th

    e us

    e of

    acc

    omm

    odat

    ion

    theo

    ry to

    acco

    unt f

    or a

    ddre

    ssee

    eff

    ects

    .N

    ext a

    re f

    our

    pape

    rs r

    elat

    ing

    to o

    ne o

    f th

    e cl

    assi

    c co

    ncer

    nsof

    soc

    iolin

    guis

    tics:

    the

    defi

    nitio

    n an

    d pe

    rcep

    tion

    of th

    e sp

    eech

    com

    mun

    ity. F

    ough

    t dea

    ls w

    ith g

    ang

    mem

    bers

    hip

    in th

    e L

    osA

    ngel

    es C

    hica

    no c

    omm

    unity

    , Lan

    e lo

    oks

    at th

    e co

    nstr

    uctio

    n of

    asp

    eech

    com

    mun

    ity in

    Den

    mar

    k, a

    nd S

    anta

    Ana

    & P

    arod

    isc

    hem

    atiz

    e th

    e st

    ruct

    ure

    of s

    peec

    h co

    mm

    uniti

    es u

    sing

    a M

    exic

    anex

    empl

    ar.

    Wol

    fram

    &hi

    lling

    -Est

    es'

    pape

    rex

    tend

    sth

    eir

    inve

    stig

    atio

    nof

    pos

    t-in

    suL

    ir s

    peec

    h co

    mm

    uniti

    es to

    a ne

    wlo

    catio

    n.T

    his

    last

    pap

    er a

    lso

    exem

    plif

    ies

    the

    incr

    easi

    ng s

    tren

    gth

    ofre

    sear

    ch in

    soc

    ial d

    iale

    ctol

    ogy.

    A n

    umbe

    r of

    pap

    ers

    at N

    WA

    VE

    25

    used

    soc

    iolin

    guis

    tic m

    etho

    dolo

    gy to

    app

    roac

    h th

    e st

    udy

    of r

    egio

    nal

    dial

    ects

    : the

    se in

    clud

    e H

    on a

    th &

    Hor

    vath

    (A

    ustr

    alia

    n E

    nglis

    h,w

    ith s

    peci

    al e

    mph

    asis

    on

    the

    inte

    rsec

    tion

    of g

    eogr

    aphi

    cal a

    ndso

    ciol

    ingu

    istic

    theo

    ry),

    Gor

    don

    (Nor

    ther

    nC

    ities

    shif

    tin

    Mic

    higa

    n), B

    rita

    in (

    The

    Fen

    s in

    the

    UK

    ), C

    ham

    bers

    (C

    anad

    ian

    Eng

    lish)

    , And

    erso

    n (C

    hero

    kee

    com

    mun

    ities

    in N

    orth

    Car

    olin

    a),

    and

    Chi

    ou (

    phon

    olog

    ical

    var

    iatio

    n in

    Man

    dari

    n).

    Muc

    h so

    ciol

    ingu

    ist.c

    s is

    invo

    lved

    in th

    e ap

    plic

    atio

    n of

    soci

    olin

    guis

    ticre

    sear

    chto

    gene

    ral

    ques

    tions

    of th

    eore

    tical

    lingu

    istic

    s. G

    reg

    Guy

    's w

    ork

    has

    been

    cen

    tral

    to th

    is a

    rea.

    In

    this

    volu

    me,

    Mye

    rs &

    Guy

    test

    for

    mal

    pho

    nolo

    gica

    l mod

    els

    agai

    nst

    1 0

    vii

    BF

    ST

    Cop

    yA

    VA

    ILA

    BLE

    data

    on

    t/d d

    elet

    ion.

    Bob

    erg

    uses

    str

    uctu

    ral p

    hono

    logy

    toex

    plai

    ndi

    alec

    t dif

    fere

    nces

    in th

    e na

    tiviz

    atio

    n of

    for

    eign

    [a]

    inE

    nglis

    h, a

    ndFo

    ulke

    s as

    ks w

    heth

    er I

    n in

    sert

    ion

    is a

    pur

    ely

    phon

    olog

    ical

    pro

    cess

    orw

    heth

    erit,

    too,

    isso

    ciol

    ingu

    istic

    ally

    stra

    tifie

    d.B

    hatt

    dem

    onst

    rate

    s th

    e us

    e of

    Opt

    imal

    ity T

    heor

    y in

    syn

    tact

    icva

    riat

    ion,

    and

    Kin

    g &

    Nad

    asdi

    exa

    min

    e sy

    ntac

    tic a

    ndse

    man

    tic c

    onst

    rain

    tson

    cod

    e-sw

    itchi

    ng in

    Can

    adia

    nFr

    ench

    . San

    ta A

    na e

    xam

    ines

    lang

    uage

    var

    iatio

    n w

    ithin

    the

    fram

    ewor

    k of

    cri

    tical

    disc

    ours

    e

    anal

    ysis

    . The

    trad

    ition

    of w

    ork

    on A

    AV

    E is

    give

    n a

    new

    pers

    pect

    ive

    in p

    aper

    s by

    Jac

    obs-

    Hue

    y an

    d C

    utle

    r, w

    hoex

    amin

    e th

    etr

    ansf

    er a

    nd u

    se o

    f A

    AV

    E f

    eatu

    res

    tono

    n-A

    fric

    an A

    mer

    ican

    spea

    kers

    . Fin

    ally

    , situ

    atio

    ns o

    f la

    ngua

    ge c

    onta

    ct h

    ave

    long

    bee

    n a

    cent

    ral i

    nter

    est o

    f so

    ciol

    ingu

    istic

    s, a

    nd th

    is tr

    aditi

    on is

    rep

    rese

    nted

    by N

    agy'

    s pa

    per.

    If,

    as

    it se

    ems,

    lang

    uage

    con

    tact

    is s

    et to

    aga

    inbe

    com

    e an

    impo

    rtan

    t com

    pone

    nt in

    the

    stud

    y of

    lang

    uage

    inso

    ciet

    y, th

    is p

    aper

    pro

    vide

    s a

    tem

    plat

    e fo

    r m

    akin

    g fu

    ture

    stu

    dies

    max

    imal

    ly c

    ompa

    rabl

    e.

    Cha

    rles

    Bob

    erg

    Mir

    iam

    Mey

    erho

    ffSt

    epha

    nie

    Stra

    ssel

    viii

    11

  • Tow

    ards

    a S

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s of

    Styl

    e'

    Alla

    n B

    ell a

    nd G

    ary

    John

    son

    1.In

    trod

    uctio

    n

    The

    bas

    ic p

    rinc

    iple

    of

    lang

    uage

    sty

    le is

    that

    an

    indi

    vidu

    al s

    peak

    erdo

    es n

    ot a

    lway

    s ta

    lk in

    the

    sam

    e w

    ay o

    n al

    l occ

    asio

    ns.

    Styl

    e

    mea

    ns th

    at s

    peak

    ers

    have

    alte

    rnat

    ives

    or

    choi

    cesa

    'tha

    t way

    'w

    hich

    cou

    ld h

    ave

    been

    cho

    sen

    inst

    ead

    of a

    'thi

    s w

    ay'.

    Spea

    kers

    talk

    in d

    iffe

    rent

    way

    s in

    dif

    fere

    nt s

    ituat

    ions

    , and

    thes

    edi

    ffer

    ent

    way

    s of

    spe

    akin

    g ca

    n ca

    rry

    diff

    eren

    tsoc

    ial m

    eani

    ngs.

    The

    stu

    dy o

    f st

    yle

    has

    had

    a ch

    eque

    red

    care

    er in

    soc

    iolin

    -gu

    istic

    s ov

    er th

    e pa

    st20

    year

    s, b

    ut is

    now

    attr

    actin

    g m

    ore

    inte

    rest

    agai

    n fr

    om v

    aria

    tioni

    sts.

    Tha

    t ren

    ewed

    inte

    rest

    can

    be

    date

    d fr

    omth

    e w

    ork

    done

    by

    John

    Ric

    kfor

    d &

    Fay

    e M

    cNai

    r -K

    nox,

    as

    pre-

    sent

    ed in

    a p

    lena

    ry p

    aper

    to N

    WA

    VE

    in1991.

    We

    conc

    ur w

    ithth

    eir

    asse

    ssm

    ent i

    n th

    e pu

    blis

    hed

    vers

    ion

    (199

    4: 5

    2):

    With

    res

    pect

    to th

    eory

    dev

    elop

    men

    t, st

    ylis

    ticva

    riat

    ion

    seem

    s to

    off

    er m

    ore

    pote

    ntia

    l for

    the

    inte

    grat

    ion

    of p

    ast f

    indi

    ngs

    and

    the

    esta

    blis

    hmen

    tof

    pro

    duct

    ive

    rese

    arch

    age

    ndas

    than

    vir

    tual

    ly a

    nyot

    her

    area

    in s

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s.

    The

    wor

    k th

    at w

    e de

    scri

    be b

    elow

    has

    just

    suc

    h a

    goal

    .G

    ener

    aliz

    ing

    gros

    sly,

    we

    can

    dist

    ingu

    ish

    two

    mai

    n ap

    -pr

    oach

    es to

    the

    stud

    y of

    sty

    lc in

    soc

    iolin

    guis

    tics.

    The

    fir

    st, e

    thno

    -gr

    aphi

    c ap

    proa

    ch--

    asso

    ciat

    ed e

    spec

    ially

    with

    Del

    l Hym

    es (

    e.g.

    1974

    Yen

    com

    pass

    es th

    e m

    any

    way

    s in

    whi

    ch in

    divi

    dual

    spe

    aker

    sca

    n ex

    pres

    s th

    emse

    lves

    dif

    fere

    ntly

    in d

    iffe

    rent

    situ

    atio

    ns.

    Thi

    s

    We

    ackn

    owle

    dge

    the

    supp

    ort o

    f th

    e N

    ew Z

    eala

    nd F

    ound

    atio

    n fo

    r R

    e-se

    arch

    , Sci

    ence

    & T

    echn

    olog

    y in

    fun

    ding

    the

    stud

    y re

    port

    ed b

    elow

    as

    part

    of th

    e N

    ew Z

    eala

    nd E

    nglis

    h Pr

    ogra

    mm

    e co

    nduc

    ted

    in th

    e D

    epar

    tmen

    t of

    Lin

    guis

    tics,

    Vic

    tori

    a U

    nive

    rsity

    of

    Wel

    lingt

    on. A

    llan

    Bel

    l is

    grat

    eful

    toth

    e D

    epar

    tmen

    t for

    its

    hosp

    italit

    y (n

    ot a

    lway

    s fu

    nded

    ) ov

    er a

    per

    iod

    ofye

    ars. 12

    U P

    enn

    Wor

    king

    Pap

    ers

    in L

    ingu

    istic

    s, V

    olum

    e 4.

    1, 1

    997

    U P

    enn

    Wor

    king

    Pap

    ers

    in L

    ingu

    istic

    sV

    olum

    e 4.

    1 (1

    997)

    reco

    gniz

    es th

    at s

    tyle

    ope

    rate

    s on

    the

    full

    rang

    e of

    lingu

    istic

    lev-

    elsi

    n th

    e pa

    ttern

    s of

    spe

    akin

    g ac

    ross

    who

    ledi

    scou

    rses

    and

    con

    -ve

    rsat

    ions

    as

    wel

    l as

    in th

    e ph

    onol

    ogy

    or s

    ynta

    x. O

    nth

    e 's

    ocia

    l'si

    de, a

    wid

    e ra

    nge

    of f

    acto

    rs th

    at m

    ay a

    ffec

    t the

    diff

    eren

    t way

    s an

    indi

    vidu

    al ta

    lks

    are

    take

    n in

    to a

    ccou

    ntin

    clud

    ing

    purp

    ose,

    topi

    c,

    genr

    e, c

    hann

    el a

    nd a

    udie

    nce.

    The

    sec

    ond,

    var

    iatio

    nist

    app

    roac

    h to

    sty

    le is

    muc

    h m

    ore

    stri

    ctly

    def

    ined

    on

    both

    the

    soci

    al a

    nd li

    ngui

    stic

    dim

    ensi

    ons.

    It

    was

    pio

    neer

    ed b

    y L

    abov

    in h

    is N

    ewY

    ork

    City

    stu

    dy(1966, 1972)

    and

    has

    been

    fol

    low

    ed a

    nd d

    evel

    oped

    in c

    ount

    less

    stud

    ies

    in m

    any

    coun

    trie

    s in

    the

    subs

    eque

    nt 3

    0-od

    d ye

    ars.

    Var

    iatio

    nist

    soc

    iolin

    -gu

    istic

    s ha

    s us

    ually

    wor

    ked

    with

    mic

    ro a

    spec

    ts o

    flin

    guis

    tic s

    truc

    -

    ture

    the

    alte

    rnat

    ion

    of s

    peci

    fic

    phon

    olog

    ical

    var

    iant

    s. I

    thas

    als

    ous

    ually

    fol

    low

    ed a

    tigh

    tly d

    efin

    ed a

    ppro

    ach

    to th

    e so

    cial

    dim

    en-

    sion

    , in

    term

    s of

    par

    ticul

    ar d

    emog

    raph

    ic p

    aram

    eter

    ssu

    ch a

    s ge

    nder

    or e

    thni

    city

    .So

    on

    the

    one

    hand

    we

    have

    a v

    ery

    broa

    d-br

    ush,

    `max

    imal

    ist'

    appr

    oach

    to b

    oth

    lingu

    istic

    and

    soc

    ial p

    heno

    men

    a.A

    nd o

    n th

    e ot

    her,

    a m

    uch

    mor

    e ri

    goro

    us a

    ttem

    pt to

    con

    trol

    both

    the

    soci

    al a

    nd li

    ngui

    stic

    var

    iabl

    es. O

    ur a

    ppro

    ach

    in th

    is p

    aper

    and

    the

    wor

    k it

    repo

    rts

    on is

    in p

    art a

    n at

    tem

    pt to

    ble

    nd th

    e tw

    o,in

    par

    -tic

    ular

    the

    quan

    titat

    ive

    rigo

    ur w

    ith th

    e qu

    alita

    tive

    brea

    dth.

    2.T

    he G

    ist o

    f A

    udie

    nce

    Des

    ign

    In a

    pap

    er p

    ublis

    hed

    in1984,

    Bel

    l dev

    elop

    ed th

    e A

    udie

    nce

    Des

    ign

    fram

    ewor

    k w

    hich

    has

    had

    som

    e cu

    rren

    cy s

    ince

    then

    as

    a so

    ciol

    in-

    guis

    tic a

    ppro

    ach

    to s

    tyle

    .A

    udie

    nce

    Des

    ign

    prop

    osed

    that

    sty

    lesh

    ift o

    ccur

    s pr

    imar

    ily in

    res

    pons

    e to

    the

    spea

    ker's

    aud

    ienc

    e.It

    s

    mai

    n co

    nten

    tions

    can

    be

    sum

    mar

    ized

    thus

    :

    1.St

    yle

    is w

    hat a

    n in

    divi

    dual

    spe

    aker

    doe

    s w

    ith a

    lang

    uage

    in r

    elat

    ion

    to o

    ther

    peo

    ple.

    2.St

    yle

    deri

    ves

    its m

    eani

    ng f

    rom

    the

    asso

    ciat

    ion

    of li

    ngui

    s-tic

    fea

    ture

    s w

    ith p

    artic

    ular

    soc

    ial g

    roup

    s.3.

    Spea

    kers

    des

    ign

    thei

    r st

    yle

    prim

    arily

    for

    and

    in r

    espo

    nse

    to th

    eir

    audi

    ence

    .4.

    Aud

    ienc

    e de

    sign

    app

    lies

    to a

    ll co

    des

    and

    leve

    ls o

    f a

    lan-

    guag

    e re

    pert

    oire

    , mon

    olin

    gual

    and

    mul

    tilin

    gual

    .

    2

  • Tow

    ards

    a S

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s of

    Sty

    leB

    ell &

    Joh

    nson

    5.V

    aria

    tion

    on th

    e st

    yle

    dim

    ensi

    on w

    ithin

    the

    spee

    ch o

    f a

    sing

    le s

    peak

    er d

    eriv

    es f

    rom

    and

    ech

    oes

    the

    vari

    atio

    nw

    hich

    exi

    sts

    betw

    een

    spea

    kers

    on

    the

    'soc

    ial'

    dim

    ensi

    on.

    6.Sp

    eake

    rs h

    ave

    a fi

    n3-g

    rain

    ed a

    bilit

    y to

    des

    ign

    thei

    r st

    yle

    for

    a ra

    nge

    of d

    iffe

    rent

    add

    ress

    ees,

    as

    wel

    l as

    for

    othe

    rau

    dien

    ce m

    embe

    rs.

    7.St

    yle

    shif

    ting

    acco

    rdin

    g to

    topi

    c or

    set

    ting

    deri

    ves

    itsm

    eani

    ng a

    nd d

    irec

    tion

    of s

    hift

    fro

    m th

    e un

    derl

    ying

    ass

    o-ci

    atio

    n of

    topi

    cs o

    r se

    tting

    s w

    ith ty

    pica

    l aud

    ienc

    e m

    em-

    bers

    .8.

    As

    wel

    l as

    the

    'resp

    onsi

    ve' d

    imen

    sion

    of

    styl

    e, th

    ere

    is th

    e`i

    nitia

    tive'

    dim

    ensi

    on, w

    here

    the

    styl

    e sh

    ift i

    tsel

    f in

    itiat

    esa

    chan

    ge in

    the

    situ

    atio

    n ra

    ther

    than

    res

    ultin

    g fr

    omsu

    ch a

    chan

    ge.

    9.In

    itiat

    ive

    styl

    e sh

    ifts

    are

    in e

    ssen

    ce r

    efer

    ee d

    esig

    n, b

    yw

    hich

    the

    lingu

    istic

    fea

    ture

    s as

    soci

    ated

    with

    a r

    efer

    ence

    grou

    p ca

    n be

    use

    d to

    exp

    ress

    iden

    tific

    atio

    n w

    ithth

    at

    grou

    p.

    The

    se n

    ine

    poin

    ts n

    ave

    been

    enl

    arge

    d up

    on e

    lsew

    here

    (Bel

    l in

    pres

    s), a

    nd th

    e la

    st th

    ree

    in p

    artic

    ular

    cri

    tique

    d an

    d re

    -vi

    sed.

    The

    bas

    ic p

    rem

    ise

    of a

    udie

    nce

    desi

    gn is

    that

    sty

    le is

    ori

    -en

    ted

    to p

    eopl

    e ra

    ther

    than

    to m

    echa

    nism

    s su

    ch a

    s at

    tent

    ion.

    Sty

    lefo

    cuse

    s on

    the

    pers

    on.

    It is

    ess

    entia

    lly a

    soc

    ial t

    hing

    .It

    mar

    ksin

    terp

    erso

    nal a

    nd in

    terg

    roup

    rel

    atio

    ns.

    In in

    itiat

    ive

    styl

    e sh

    ift,

    the

    indi

    vidu

    al s

    peak

    er m

    akes

    crea

    tive

    use

    of la

    ngua

    ge r

    esou

    rces

    oft

    en f

    rom

    bey

    ond

    the

    imm

    edi-

    ate

    spee

    ch c

    omm

    unity

    , suc

    h as

    dis

    tant

    dia

    lect

    s, o

    rst

    retc

    hes

    thos

    ere

    sour

    ces

    in n

    ovel

    dir

    ectio

    ns. W

    ith B

    akht

    in w

    e m

    ayca

    ll th

    is d

    i-m

    ensi

    on 's

    tyliz

    atio

    n' (

    1981

    ), a

    nd th

    e re

    spon

    sive

    sim

    ply

    'sty

    le'.

    Initi

    ativ

    e st

    yle

    shif

    ts d

    eriv

    e th

    eir

    forc

    e an

    d th

    eir

    dire

    ctio

    n of

    shi

    ftfr

    om th

    eir

    unde

    rlyi

    ng a

    ssoc

    iatio

    n w

    ith ty

    pes

    of p

    erso

    ns o

    r gr

    oups

    .R

    efer

    ees

    are

    thir

    d pe

    rson

    s w

    ho a

    re n

    ot p

    hysi

    cally

    pre

    sent

    at a

    nin

    tera

    ctio

    n bu

    t who

    are

    so

    salie

    nt f

    or a

    spe

    aker

    that

    they

    infl

    uenc

    est

    yle

    even

    in th

    eir

    abse

    nce.

    . Thi

    s is

    the

    area

    whe

    re w

    e be

    lieve

    audi

    ence

    des

    ign

    to b

    e in

    nee

    d of

    ser

    ious

    ret

    hink

    ing.

    And

    this

    alon

    g w

    ith a

    n ap

    proa

    ch to

    ble

    ndin

    g th

    e qu

    antit

    ativ

    e w

    ithth

    equ

    alita

    tivei

    s th

    e se

    cond

    mai

    n go

    al o

    f th

    e pr

    ojec

    t we

    are

    wor

    king

    on, a

    nd o

    f th

    is p

    aper

    .

    3

    U P

    enn

    Wor

    king

    Pap

    ers

    in L

    ingu

    istic

    sV

    olum

    e 4.

    1 (1

    997)

    Tab

    le 1

    Gri

    d fo

    r in

    terv

    iew

    s w

    ith 4

    info

    rman

    ts e

    ach

    talk

    ing

    to 3

    diff

    eren

    t int

    ervi

    ewer

    s

    MM

    Pine

    INT

    ER

    VIE

    WE

    RS

    MF

    PMPa

    nia

    Paul

    PF Jen

    INFO

    RM

    AN

    TS

    MM

    Dun

    can

    1st

    2nd

    3rd

    MF

    Kay

    2nd

    1st

    3rd

    PML

    ee3r

    d1s

    t2n

    d

    PFSa

    lly3r

    d2n

    d1s

    t

    Eth

    nici

    ty: M

    aori

    Gen

    der:

    Fem

    ale

    Pake

    ha (

    Ang

    lo)

    Mal

    e

    3.D

    esig

    ning

    Res

    earc

    h on

    Sty

    le

    We

    now

    turn

    to r

    epor

    t on

    a st

    udy

    whi

    ch w

    as e

    xplic

    itly

    desi

    gned

    to

    test

    out

    sev

    eral

    of

    the

    Aud

    ienc

    e D

    esig

    nhy

    poth

    eses

    . It i

    s a

    thre

    e-ye

    ar p

    roje

    ct (

    just

    com

    plet

    ed)

    whi

    ch w

    as f

    unde

    d by

    the

    New

    Zea

    -la

    nd F

    ound

    atio

    n fo

    r R

    esea

    rch,

    Sci

    ence

    & T

    echn

    olog

    yun

    der

    the

    NZ

    Eng

    lish

    Prog

    ram

    me

    at V

    icto

    ria

    Uni

    vers

    ityof

    Wel

    lingt

    on. T

    hepr

    ojec

    t exa

    min

    es a

    nd s

    eeks

    to e

    xpla

    in th

    e w

    ays

    spea

    kers

    talk

    dif

    -fe

    rent

    ly to

    dif

    fere

    nt a

    udie

    nces

    , and

    how

    they

    pre

    sent

    thei

    r ow

    n

    iden

    titie

    s th

    roug

    h la

    ngua

    ge.

    The

    lang

    uage

    sam

    ple

    cons

    ists

    of

    thre

    e in

    terv

    iew

    s co

    n-du

    cted

    with

    eac

    h of

    fou

    r sp

    eake

    rs. A

    set

    of

    four

    info

    rman

    ts a

    ged

    in th

    eir

    twen

    ties

    wer

    e in

    terv

    iew

    ed in

    suc

    cess

    ion

    by a

    set

    of

    four

    inte

    rvie

    wer

    s (T

    able

    1).

    The

    info

    rman

    t and

    inte

    rvie

    wer

    sam

    ples

    wer

    e ea

    ch s

    truc

    ture

    d by

    gen

    dera

    nd e

    thni

    city

    , so

    that

    eac

    h of

    them

    4

  • Tow

    ards

    a S

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s of

    Sty

    leB

    ell &

    Joh

    nson

    cont

    aine

    d a

    Mao

    ri2

    wom

    an, M

    aori

    man

    , Pak

    eha

    wom

    anan

    d

    Pake

    ha m

    an. T

    hus

    for

    exam

    ple,

    the

    Mao

    ri m

    an w

    as in

    terv

    iew

    edfi

    rst b

    y th

    e M

    aori

    mal

    e in

    terv

    iew

    er, s

    econ

    d by

    the

    Mao

    ri w

    oman

    ,an

    d th

    ird

    by th

    e Pa

    keha

    man

    . The

    fou

    rth

    poss

    ible

    com

    bina

    tion

    ofin

    terv

    iew

    ers

    and

    info

    rman

    ts w

    as in

    tent

    iona

    lly e

    xclu

    ded

    (the

    pra

    c-tic

    aliti

    es o

    f a

    four

    th s

    ucce

    ssiN

    e in

    terv

    iew

    with

    eac

    h in

    form

    ant w

    ere

    proh

    ibiti

    ve).

    Whi

    le g

    ende

    r an

    d et

    hnic

    ity w

    ere

    vari

    ed, o

    ther

    spe

    aker

    char

    acte

    rist

    ics

    wer

    e he

    ld a

    s co

    nsta

    nt a

    s po

    ssib

    le:

    Age

    : all

    eigh

    t spe

    aker

    s w

    ere

    in th

    eir

    earl

    y to

    mid

    20s

    .So

    cial

    cla

    ss: a

    ll w

    ere

    mid

    dle

    clas

    s, u

    nive

    rsity

    edu

    cate

    d.N

    ew Z

    eala

    nd o

    rigi

    ns:

    all w

    ere

    New

    Zea

    land

    ers

    of s

    ever

    al g

    en-

    erat

    ions

    ' sta

    ndin

    g.D

    egre

    e of

    fam

    iliar

    ity:

    all i

    nfor

    man

    ts a

    nd in

    terv

    iew

    ers

    wer

    est

    rang

    ers

    to e

    ach

    othe

    r.

    In a

    dditi

    on, w

    e tr

    ied

    to k

    eep

    ;ispe

    cts

    of th

    e se

    tting

    con

    stan

    t.

    Inte

    rvie

    ws

    wer

    e co

    nduc

    ted

    in th

    e in

    form

    ants

    ' ow

    n ho

    mes

    .N

    o th

    ird

    part

    ies

    wer

    e pr

    esen

    t.In

    terv

    iew

    ers

    wer

    e as

    ked

    to d

    ress

    in a

    sim

    ilar

    and

    'neu

    tral

    ' fas

    h-io

    n (n

    eith

    er to

    o fo

    rmal

    nor

    too

    casu

    al).

    The

    atte

    mpt

    to h

    old

    fact

    ors

    cons

    tant

    ext

    ende

    d to

    inte

    rvie

    wde

    sign

    as

    wel

    l. T

    he e

    licita

    tion

    of m

    axim

    ally

    info

    rmal

    spe

    ech

    had

    to b

    e sa

    crif

    iced

    to th

    e ne

    ed to

    ens

    ure

    com

    para

    bilit

    y ac

    ross

    the

    in-

    terv

    iew

    s, e

    .g. b

    y to

    pico

    ne e

    xam

    ple

    of th

    e di

    ffer

    ent m

    etho

    dolo

    gyne

    eded

    for

    sty

    le r

    esea

    rch.

    Thr

    ee s

    tand

    ardi

    zed

    ques

    tionn

    aire

    s w

    ere

    desi

    gned

    , one

    for

    each

    of

    the

    thre

    e in

    terv

    iew

    s co

    nduc

    ted

    with

    eac

    h in

    form

    ant.

    Eac

    hin

    terv

    iew

    con

    sist

    ed o

    f fo

    ur c

    ompo

    nent

    s:fr

    ee c

    onve

    rsat

    ion,

    set

    topi

    cs, r

    eadi

    ng ta

    sks

    and

    othe

    r ta

    sks.

    A b

    asic

    pri

    ncip

    le o

    f th

    e in

    -te

    rvie

    w d

    esig

    n w

    as to

    mak

    e as

    pect

    s of

    the

    info

    rman

    t's id

    entit

    ysa

    lient

    at p

    artic

    ular

    tim

    es.

    So th

    e se

    t top

    ic f

    or th

    e se

    cond

    inte

    r-

    2M

    aori

    are

    the

    indi

    geno

    us P

    olyn

    esia

    n in

    habi

    tant

    s an

    d no

    w m

    ake

    up s

    ome

    15 p

    erce

    nt o

    f th

    e po

    pula

    tion.

    `Pa

    keha

    ' is

    the

    term

    for

    New

    Zea

    land

    ers

    ofm

    ainl

    y B

    ritis

    h or

    igin

    who

    col

    oniz

    ed th

    e co

    untr

    y fr

    om th

    e 19

    th c

    entu

    ry(s

    ome

    80 p

    erce

    nt o

    f th

    e po

    pula

    tion)

    .

    5

    1.6

    U. P

    enn

    Wor

    king

    Pap

    ers

    in L

    ingu

    istic

    sV

    olum

    e 4.

    1 (1

    997)

    view

    the

    cros

    s-ge

    nder

    com

    bina

    tionw

    as g

    ende

    r,fo

    cuss

    ing

    the

    info

    rman

    ts o

    n th

    eir

    own

    gend

    er id

    entit

    y an

    d its

    con

    tras

    tw

    ith th

    e

    inte

    rvie

    wer

    s'.

    Sim

    ilarl

    y, th

    e pr

    imar

    y to

    pic

    of d

    iscu

    ssio

    n in

    the

    thir

    d, c

    ross

    -eth

    nic

    inte

    rvie

    w w

    as th

    e is

    sue

    of e

    thni

    c re

    latio

    ns a

    ndid

    entit

    y in

    New

    Zea

    land

    .T

    his

    was

    an

    ambi

    tious

    res

    earc

    h de

    sign

    , par

    ticul

    arly

    in it

    sre

    peat

    ed in

    terv

    iew

    s in

    volv

    ing

    the

    sam

    e se

    t of

    info

    rman

    ts a

    nd in

    -te

    rvie

    wer

    s.R

    ecor

    ding

    fai

    lure

    or

    spea

    ker

    with

    draw

    al c

    ould

    hav

    eje

    opar

    dize

    d th

    e w

    hole

    pro

    ject

    , req

    uiri

    ng lo

    catio

    n of

    fre

    sh s

    peak

    ers

    and

    re-r

    ecor

    ding

    inte

    rvie

    ws

    in o

    rder

    to m

    aint

    ain

    the

    inte

    grity

    of

    the

    desi

    gn.

    How

    ever

    , all

    12 in

    terv

    iew

    s w

    ere

    com

    plet

    ed d

    espi

    te th

    ispo

    tent

    ial f

    or d

    isas

    ter.

    The

    inte

    rvie

    ws

    aver

    aged

    ove

    r an

    hou

    r lo

    ngea

    ch. T

    hey

    have

    bee

    n tr

    ansc

    ribe

    d in

    ful

    l, tim

    ed, a

    nd th

    eir

    cont

    ent

    logg

    ed u

    nder

    topi

    c he

    adin

    gs.

    The

    sam

    ple

    amou

    nts

    to o

    ver

    13ho

    urs

    of ta

    ped

    inte

    rvie

    ws,

    abo

    ut 6

    50 p

    ages

    of

    tran

    scri

    pts,

    and

    ato

    tal c

    ount

    of

    som

    e 14

    0,00

    0 w

    ords

    .

    4.T

    he D

    isco

    urse

    Fea

    ture

    s

    The

    ling

    uist

    ic a

    naly

    sis

    we

    will

    rep

    ort o

    n co

    vers

    a s

    ubse

    t of

    the

    feat

    ures

    oft

    en k

    now

    n as

    pra

    gmat

    ic m

    arke

    rsty

    pica

    lly th

    e se

    n-te

    nce-

    fina

    l tag

    s su

    ch a

    s I

    thin

    k an

    d lik

    e th

    at w

    e sc

    atte

    r lik

    e di

    scou

    r-sa

    l and

    inte

    ract

    ive

    glue

    thro

    ugho

    ut o

    ur c

    onve

    rsat

    iona

    l enc

    ount

    ers.

    Am

    ong

    thes

    e fe

    atur

    es th

    ere

    is a

    sub

    set s

    omet

    imes

    kno

    wn

    as th

    e`a

    ddre

    ssee

    -ori

    ente

    d' p

    ragm

    atic

    mar

    kers

    you

    know

    , tag

    que

    stio

    nssu

    ch a

    s is

    n't i

    t, an

    d so

    for

    th. T

    hey

    have

    bee

    n st

    udie

    d in

    New

    Zea

    -la

    nd b

    y Ja

    net H

    olm

    es a

    nd M

    aria

    Stu

    bbe

    (e.g

    . Stu

    bbe

    & H

    olm

    es19

    95)

    in p

    artic

    ular

    . The

    chi

    ef f

    unct

    ion

    of th

    ese

    feat

    ures

    see

    ms

    tobe

    inte

    ract

    ive,

    for

    the

    spea

    ker

    to s

    eek

    reas

    sura

    nce

    of th

    e lis

    tene

    r'sco

    ntin

    uing

    atte

    ntio

    n to

    wha

    t is

    bein

    g sa

    id, o

    r co

    nfir

    mat

    ion

    ofsh

    ared

    exp

    erie

    nce

    or k

    now

    ledg

    e.T

    he f

    our

    feat

    ures

    we

    shal

    l loo

    k at

    her

    e ar

    e: Y

    'KN

    OW

    ,T

    AG

    que

    stio

    ns, t

    he d

    isco

    urse

    par

    ticle

    EH

    and

    Hig

    h R

    isin

    g T

    erm

    i-na

    l int

    onat

    ions

    (H

    RT

    s).

    Whi

    le Y

    'KN

    OW

    and

    TA

    Gs

    need

    littl

    ein

    trod

    uctio

    n, th

    e ot

    her

    two

    invi

    te m

    ore

    disc

    ussi

    on, p

    artly

    bec

    ause

    they

    are

    cha

    ract

    eris

    tic o

    f N

    ZE

    , alth

    ough

    not

    exc

    lusi

    ve to

    it.

    The

    par

    ticle

    EH

    fun

    ctio

    ns s

    ynta

    ctic

    ally

    ver

    y m

    uch

    like

    Y'K

    NO

    W o

    r T

    AG

    s. E

    H a

    lso

    occu

    rs in

    oth

    er v

    arie

    ties

    of E

    ng-

    6

    1_7

  • 18

    Tow

    ards

    a S

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s of

    Sty

    leB

    ell &

    Joh

    nson

    lisha

    t lea

    st C

    anad

    ian

    (e.g

    . Gib

    son

    1976

    ) an

    d th

    e di

    alec

    t of

    Gue

    rnse

    y in

    the

    Cha

    nnel

    Isl

    ands

    (R

    amis

    ch 1

    989)

    .T

    he le

    adin

    gst

    udy

    of E

    H in

    NZ

    Eng

    lish

    to d

    ate

    is M

    eyer

    hoff

    's (

    1994

    ) an

    alys

    isof

    the

    Pori

    rua

    soci

    al d

    iale

    ct s

    urve

    y (H

    olm

    es, B

    ell &

    Boy

    ce 1

    991)

    .E

    H a

    lso

    carr

    ies

    cons

    ider

    able

    soc

    ial m

    eani

    ng, w

    hich

    we

    will

    com

    eto

    sho

    rtly

    . Tra

    nscr

    ipt 1

    com

    es f

    rom

    the

    inte

    rvie

    w b

    etw

    een

    the

    two

    Mao

    ri m

    en (

    pseu

    dony

    ms

    used

    ), a

    nd g

    ives

    a s

    ense

    bot

    h of

    the

    data

    in g

    ener

    al, a

    nd a

    lso

    in p

    artic

    ular

    of

    EH

    and

    its

    usag

    e,T

    he H

    igh

    Ris

    ing

    Ter

    min

    al (

    HR

    T)

    is n

    ot a

    pra

    gmat

    ic p

    ar-

    ticle

    but

    an

    into

    natio

    n pa

    ttern

    , how

    ever

    its

    disc

    ours

    e fu

    nctio

    n is

    very

    sim

    ilar.

    Thi

    s in

    tona

    tion

    is b

    ecom

    ing

    fam

    iliar

    in E

    nglis

    h in

    -te

    rnat

    iona

    lly, b

    oth

    thro

    ugh

    usag

    e, a

    nd b

    ecau

    se o

    f re

    sear

    ch a

    ndpu

    blic

    atio

    n.It

    is in

    com

    mon

    usa

    ge in

    New

    Zea

    land

    , whe

    re th

    ele

    adin

    g st

    udy

    is b

    y D

    avid

    Bri

    tain

    (19

    92),

    aga

    in o

    n th

    e Po

    riru

    a da

    ta.

    Tra

    nscr

    ipt 1

    Dun

    canE

    H c

    lust

    erin

    g

    ()

    // \\

    uncl

    ear

    spee

    chco

    ntin

    uatio

    n of

    turn

    or

    latc

    hing

    over

    lapp

    ing

    spee

    ch

    koha

    nga

    reo:

    lang

    uage

    nes

    t (pr

    esch

    ool i

    mm

    ersi

    on c

    lass

    )ka

    upap

    a:ph

    iloso

    phy,

    pri

    ncip

    les

    D:

    firs

    t we

    did

    Her

    etau

    nga

    and

    then

    er

    one

    a fe

    w u

    rn k

    o-ha

    nga

    reo

    from

    Pon

    eke

    (yea

    h) a

    nd th

    en a

    few

    fro

    mR

    angi

    tane

    and

    we

    ei g

    ot b

    ack

    to th

    e to

    the

    urn

    real

    kau

    -pa

    pa o

    f w

    hat k

    ohan

    ga r

    eo is

    all

    abou

    t bec

    ause

    it's

    bec

    om-

    ing

    a bi

    t of

    a bu

    sine

    ss n

    ow E

    H a

    nd th

    ey're

    losi

    ng th

    e lo

    s-in

    g w

    hat i

    t's th

    e re

    al m

    eani

    ng o

    f it

    //(Y

    OU

    KN

    OW

    ) it'

    s\fo

    r ou

    r ch

    ildre

    n Y

    OU

    KN

    OW

    =/n

    un \\

    D:

    =al

    thou

    gh a

    lot o

    f th

    e pe

    ople

    in th

    ere

    EH

    they

    wor

    kbl

    imm

    in h

    ard

    man

    and

    they

    get

    stu

    ff a

    ll fo

    r it

    and

    som

    e-tim

    es y

    ou d

    on't

    blam

    e th

    em E

    H 'c

    ause

    they

    're g

    ettin

    g no

    rew

    ards

    out

    of

    it //b

    ut u

    m\ w

    e're

    tryi

    ng to

    (an

    d th

    en)=

    /nim

    \\D

    :=

    tha-

    that

    sor

    t of

    thin

    g E

    H e

    r w

    ith k

    ohan

    ga r

    eo th

    ere

    will

    neve

    r be

    man

    y re

    war

    ds f

    or th

    e pe

    ople

    wor

    king

    in it

    but

    7

    U. P

    enn

    Wor

    king

    Pap

    ers

    in L

    ingu

    istic

    sV

    olum

    e 4.

    1 (1

    997)

    urn

    YO

    U K

    NO

    W th

    ey'v

    e st

    ill g

    ot to

    kee

    p up

    with

    that

    orig

    inal

    kau

    papa

    of

    mak

    ing

    sure

    our

    chi

    ldre

    n ar

    e ge

    tting

    taug

    ht th

    e be

    st th

    ey c

    an y

    eah

    Tra

    nscr

    ipt 2

    Kay

    : clu

    ster

    ing

    of H

    igh

    Ris

    ing

    Ter

    min

    al to

    nes

    (I =

    }M

    T)

    K:

    I re

    mem

    ber

    oh I

    was

    abo

    ut e

    leve

    n or

    twel

    ve a

    nd u

    m w

    e'd

    been

    jum

    ping

    off

    this

    bri

    dge

    yeah

    /K

    :/=

    into

    this

    um

    oh

    into

    the

    wat

    er b

    elow

    it a

    nd it

    was

    a la

    goon

    goi

    ng o

    ut to

    the

    open

    SE

    A!

    and

    ther

    e w

    asqu

    ite a

    stro

    ng c

    urre

    nt ta

    king

    all

    the

    wat

    er o

    ut //

    and\

    um

    Pd

    dive

    =/y

    eah\

    \

    K:

    =bo

    mbe

    d th

    is G

    UY

    ! an

    d sp

    lash

    ed h

    im s

    o he

    sta

    rted

    rac

    ing

    over

    to th

    e ro

    ad B

    RID

    GE

    ! an

    d I

    was

    sw

    imm

    ing

    back

    agai

    nst t

    he c

    urre

    nt to

    the

    othe

    r si

    de o

    f th

    e la

    goon

    and

    urn

    my

    toes

    had

    just

    touc

    hed

    the

    GR

    OU

    ND

    I=/

    /=ye

    ah=

    /K

    :/=

    and

    he ju

    mpe

    d of

    f th

    e ro

    ad b

    ridg

    e an

    d hi

    t me

    on m

    ySH

    OU

    LD

    ER

    S! a

    nd ja

    rred

    my

    SPIN

    E!

    and

    I w

    asPA

    RA

    LY

    SED

    ! I

    coul

    dn't

    mov

    e=/ /=

    God

    =/

    K:

    /=an

    d al

    l I th

    - I

    just

    thou

    ght Y

    OU

    KN

    OW

    all

    I ca

    n do

    is tr

    y an

    d fl

    oat t

    ryan

    d fl

    oat a

    nd ju

    st li

    e ba

    ck a

    nd r

    elax

    and

    try

    and

    floa

    t and

    urn

    I w

    as g

    oing

    hel

    p m

    e he

    lp m

    e an

    d D

    ad c

    ame

    out a

    ndre

    scue

    d m

    e an

    d bl

    ew u

    p th

    e ki

    d [i

    nhal

    es]

    and

    um a

    nd//t

    hen

    he f

    ound

    out

    I w

    as\ y

    ou k

    now

    I c

    ould

    n't m

    ove

    for

    abou

    t tw

    o da

    ys a

    nd th

    en I

    was

    fin

    e

    Tra

    nscr

    ipt 2

    is a

    dan

    ger-

    of-d

    eath

    nar

    rativ

    e fr

    om th

    e in

    terv

    iew

    be-

    twee

    n th

    e tw

    o M

    aori

    wom

    en,

    Initi

    ally

    we

    will

    pre

    sent

    qua

    ntita

    tive

    find

    ings

    on

    the

    dis-

    trib

    utio

    n of

    thes

    e fe

    atur

    es. B

    ut th

    en w

    e w

    ant t

    o m

    ove

    on to

    wha

    t

    we

    cons

    ider

    to b

    e a

    com

    plem

    enta

    ryap

    proa

    ch, t

    hat i

    s a

    mor

    equ

    alita

    tive

    anal

    ysis

    of

    whe

    re th

    e fe

    atur

    es o

    ccur

    on-

    line

    duri

    ngsp

    eech

    and

    why

    , and

    als

    o ho

    w th

    e fo

    ur f

    eatu

    res

    co-o

    ccur

    --or

    oth-

    erw

    isew

    ith e

    ach

    othe

    r.J U-

    19

  • Tow

    ards

    a S

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s of

    Sty

    leB

    ell &

    Joh

    nson

    By

    way

    of

    orie

    ntat

    ion,

    we

    pres

    ent

    in T

    able

    2 th

    e ra

    wco

    unts

    of

    the

    feat

    ures

    , with

    no

    allo

    wan

    ce f

    or a

    mou

    nt o

    f ta

    lk o

    rin

    terv

    iew

    leng

    th. W

    e ca

    n m

    ake

    som

    eob

    serv

    atio

    ns o

    n th

    e st

    reng

    th

    of th

    ese

    figu

    res

    for

    toke

    ns:

    1.Y

    'KN

    OW

    is th

    e fe

    atur

    e of

    cho

    ice,

    esp

    ecia

    llyfo

    r th

    ePa

    keha

    man

    Lee

    in e

    xpos

    itory

    mod

    e. I

    t app

    ears

    to c

    arry

    little

    iden

    tity

    mea

    ning

    , alth

    ough

    res

    earc

    hw

    ould

    tend

    toas

    soci

    ate

    it w

    ith w

    omen

    's s

    tyle

    rat

    her

    than

    men

    's.

    2.B

    ut f

    or th

    e Pa

    keha

    wom

    an S

    ally

    the

    defa

    ultf

    eatu

    re is

    the

    HR

    T, a

    nd s

    he h

    as r

    emar

    kabl

    y fe

    w Y

    'KN

    OW

    s. (

    She

    also

    has

    som

    e ot

    her

    indi

    vidu

    alis

    tic p

    refe

    renc

    ese.

    g.al

    way

    sus

    ing

    KIN

    D O

    F w

    here

    the

    othe

    r th

    ree

    use

    SOR

    T O

    F.)

    3.T

    ags

    are

    infr

    eque

    nt. b

    ut th

    ere

    is a

    n in

    dica

    tion

    that

    they

    are

    used

    mor

    e by

    Pak

    eha

    than

    Mao

    ri.

    Tab

    le 2

    Num

    ber

    of to

    kens

    of

    4 ad

    dres

    see-

    orie

    nted

    pra

    gmat

    icfe

    a-

    ture

    s in

    the

    spee

    ch o

    f 4

    info

    r, n

    ants

    talk

    ing

    to 3

    diff

    eren

    t int

    ervi

    ew-

    ers

    By

    Info

    rman

    t

    Num

    ber

    of to

    kens

    To Inte

    rvie

    wer

    Y'K

    NO

    WT

    AG

    EH

    HR

    T

    Mao

    riM

    MPi

    ne13

    30

    4832

    man

    MF

    Pani

    a98

    220

    56

    Dun

    can

    PMPa

    ul69

    016

    53

    Mao

    riM

    FPa

    nia

    390

    350

    wom

    anM

    MPi

    ne86

    12

    40

    Kay

    PFJe

    n29

    00

    16

    Pake

    haPM

    Paul

    213

    017

    man

    PFJe

    n10

    64

    17

    Lee

    MM

    Pine

    210

    .80

    9

    Pake

    haPF

    Jen

    264

    059

    wom

    anPM

    Paul

    51

    031

    Sally

    MF

    Pani

    a8

    20

    55

    9

    2, 0

    U P

    enn

    Wor

    king

    Pap

    ers

    in L

    ingu

    istic

    sV

    olum

    e 4.

    1 (1

    997)

    4.E

    H o

    ccur

    s ov

    erw

    helm

    ingl

    y in

    the

    spee

    ch o

    f th

    eM

    aori

    man

    Dun

    can,

    alth

    ough

    ther

    e ar

    e so

    me

    toke

    ns

    by K

    ay th

    e M

    aori

    wom

    an.

    5.H

    RT

    s ar

    e co

    mm

    on e

    xcep

    t by

    Lee

    the

    Pake

    ha m

    an.

    Not

    e th

    at th

    ere

    is a

    kin

    d of

    com

    plem

    enta

    rydi

    stri

    bu-

    tion

    of th

    e tw

    o la

    st f

    eatu

    res

    for

    the

    Pake

    ha m

    anan

    d

    wom

    anL

    ee u

    ses

    Y'K

    NO

    W a

    nd n

    ot H

    RT

    s,an

    d

    Sally

    HR

    Ts

    and

    not Y

    'KN

    OW

    .

    5.Q

    uant

    itativ

    e A

    naly

    sis

    One

    of

    the

    mai

    n pr

    oble

    ms

    with

    dis

    cour

    seva

    riab

    les

    is d

    ecid

    ing

    wha

    t to

    coun

    t. T

    he m

    ain

    issu

    e is

    wha

    t do

    we

    coun

    t as

    pote

    ntia

    l but

    not a

    ctua

    l occ

    urre

    nces

    of

    prag

    mat

    icfe

    atur

    es s

    uch

    as H

    RT

    s or

    EH

    ?

    Her

    e w

    e ha

    ve q

    uant

    ifie

    d al

    l fou

    r fe

    atur

    es o

    ver

    the

    amou

    nt o

    fsp

    eech

    pro

    duce

    d by

    the

    part

    icul

    ar s

    peak

    er,

    and

    amou

    nt o

    f sp

    eech

    is in

    term

    s of

    wor

    d co

    unt.

    Thi

    s pr

    oduc

    es a

    nin

    dex

    for

    the

    feat

    ure,

    whi

    ch c

    onsi

    sts

    sim

    ply

    of th

    e nu

    mbe

    r of

    occ

    urre

    nces

    of th

    e fe

    atur

    e

    divi

    ded

    by th

    e nu

    mbe

    r of

    wor

    ds p

    rodu

    ced

    byth

    e sp

    eake

    r, a

    nd th

    en

    mul

    tiplie

    d by

    10,

    000.

    The

    mul

    tiplie

    r of

    10,

    000

    yiel

    ds in

    dexe

    sge

    nera

    lly in

    dou

    ble

    digi

    ts, s

    o ea

    sy to

    gra

    sp.

    And

    10,

    000

    wor

    ds is

    actu

    ally

    clo

    se to

    the

    aver

    age

    amou

    nt o

    f in

    form

    ant

    spee

    ch p

    er in

    -te

    rvie

    w, s

    o it

    repr

    esen

    ts in

    som

    e se

    nse

    a no

    rmal

    ized

    inte

    rvie

    w

    leng

    th.

    5.1.

    EH

    by

    Info

    rman

    ts

    The

    pra

    gmat

    ic p

    artic

    le e

    h is

    one

    of

    the

    mos

    thig

    h-pr

    ofile

    soc

    iolin

    -gu

    istic

    mar

    kers

    of

    Eng

    lish

    with

    in N

    ew Z

    eala

    nd. I

    t is

    criti

    cize

    d by

    pres

    crip

    tivis

    ts, s

    atir

    ized

    by

    com

    edia

    ns, a

    nd u

    tiliz

    ed b

    yad

    vert

    isin

    gco

    pyw

    rite

    rs to

    cre

    ate

    soci

    al c

    aric

    atur

    es (

    Bel

    l 199

    2).

    Bot

    h th

    e N

    ew

    Zea

    land

    ste

    reot

    ype

    and

    the

    rese

    arch

    fin

    ding

    s as

    soci

    ate

    the

    vari

    able

    EH

    with

    the

    spee

    ch o

    f M

    aori

    rat

    her

    than

    Pak

    eha,

    and

    to a

    less

    er

    exte

    nt w

    ith m

    en r

    athe

    r th

    an w

    omen

    .In

    Tab

    le 3

    EH

    is u

    sed

    by M

    aori

    spe

    aker

    s, o

    verw

    helm

    ingl

    yby

    the

    Mao

    ri m

    an D

    unca

    n-84

    toke

    ns in

    all

    (see

    Tab

    le 2

    for

    raw

    toke

    ns).

    In f

    act h

    is in

    dex

    whi

    le ta

    lkin

    g w

    ith th

    e M

    aori

    mal

    ein

    terv

    iew

    er is

    sim

    ilar

    to th

    e in

    dex

    for

    youn

    g M

    aori

    mal

    es in

    Por

    irua

    stud

    y

    10

    2

  • 22

    Tow

    ards

    a S

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s of

    Sty

    leB

    ell &

    Joh

    nson

    Tab

    le 3

    EH

    Ind

    ex in

    spe

    ech

    by I

    nfor

    man

    ts to

    Int

    ervi

    ewer

    s

    To

    Inte

    rvie

    wer

    s

    By

    Info

    rman

    ts

    Pine

    MM

    Pani

    aM

    FPa

    ulPM

    Jen

    PF

    Dun

    can

    MM

    4626

    19

    Kay

    MF

    24

    0

    Lee

    PM0

    01

    Sally

    PF0

    00

    (Hol

    mes

    , Bel

    l & B

    oyce

    199

    1). K

    ay th

    e M

    aori

    wom

    an a

    lso

    uses

    som

    e E

    H, b

    ut a

    t a m

    uch

    low

    er f

    requ

    ency

    -on

    ly 5

    toke

    ns. B

    y co

    n-tr

    ast,

    the

    Pake

    ha s

    peak

    ers

    use

    virt

    ually

    no

    EH

    . Sal

    ly u

    ses

    abso

    -lu

    tely

    non

    e at

    all,

    and

    ther

    e is

    onl

    y 1

    toke

    n fr

    om L

    ee th

    e Pa

    keha

    man

    in n

    earl

    y fo

    ur h

    ours

    of

    reco

    rded

    talk

    .W

    e ca

    n se

    e th

    us h

    ow E

    H is

    fun

    ctio

    ning

    mai

    nly

    as a

    mar

    ker

    of g

    roup

    iden

    tity

    prim

    arily

    of

    ethn

    icity

    (M

    aori

    ), a

    nd s

    ec-

    onda

    rily

    of

    gend

    er (

    Mao

    ri m

    en).

    Thi

    s pa

    ttern

    of

    usag

    e fi

    ts th

    eas

    soci

    atio

    n of

    ling

    uist

    ic f

    eatu

    res

    with

    gro

    up u

    sage

    whi

    ch w

    e ou

    t-lin

    ed in

    the

    sum

    mar

    y of

    aud

    ienc

    e de

    sign

    abo

    ve.

    It a

    lso

    acco

    rds

    both

    with

    our

    pre

    viou

    s fi

    ndin

    gs, a

    nd w

    ith p

    opul

    ar s

    tere

    otyp

    e.T

    urni

    ng to

    the

    shif

    ts w

    hich

    info

    rman

    ts m

    ake

    in d

    iffe

    rent

    inte

    rvie

    ws,

    as

    hypo

    thes

    ized

    in a

    udie

    nce

    desi

    gn, t

    he s

    peak

    ers

    use

    diff

    eren

    t am

    ount

    s of

    EH

    with

    dif

    fere

    nt in

    terl

    ocut

    ors.

    In

    part

    icul

    ar,

    Dun

    can

    the

    Mao

    ri m

    an u

    ses

    EH

    mor

    e of

    ten

    in in

    terv

    iew

    with

    Pin

    eth

    e M

    aori

    mal

    e, le

    ss w

    ith P

    ania

    the

    Mao

    ri w

    oman

    , lea

    st w

    ith P

    aul

    the

    Pake

    ha m

    an. A

    t a v

    ery

    muc

    h lo

    wer

    leve

    l of

    freq

    uenc

    y, th

    is is

    para

    llelle

    d by

    Kay

    the

    Mao

    ri w

    oman

    info

    rman

    t. Sh

    e us

    es s

    ome

    EH

    with

    her

    mos

    t lik

    e in

    terl

    ocut

    or (

    Pani

    a th

    e M

    aori

    wom

    an),

    less

    with

    Pin

    e th

    e M

    aori

    man

    , and

    non

    e w

    ith J

    en th

    e Pa

    keha

    wom

    an(d

    egpi

    te th

    e Pa

    keha

    fem

    ale

    inte

    rvie

    wer

    usi

    ng o

    ne to

    ken

    of E

    H h

    er-

    self

    ).T

    hese

    are

    the

    kind

    s of

    fin

    e-gr

    aine

    d sh

    ift w

    hich

    is th

    e co

    repr

    inci

    ple

    of a

    udie

    nce

    desi

    gn a

    s ou

    tline

    d ab

    ove.

    It c

    onfo

    rms

    with

    an in

    terp

    reta

    tion

    of E

    H a

    s a

    mar

    ker

    of M

    aori

    iden

    tity,

    par

    ticul

    arly

    for

    men

    .

    BE

    ST

    CO

    PY

    AV

    AIL

    AB

    LE11

    U P

    enn

    Wor

    king

    Pap

    ers

    in L

    ingu

    istic

    sV

    olum

    e 4.

    1 (1

    997)

    5.2.

    HR

    Ts

    by I

    nfor

    man

    ts

    The

    Hig

    h R

    isin

    g T

    erm

    inal

    invo

    lves

    an

    into

    natio

    n pa

    ttern

    in th

    efo

    rm o

    f a

    high

    ris

    e, q

    uest

    ioni

    ng p

    atte

    rn, b

    ut u

    sed

    on a

    tone

    gro

    upw

    hich

    is a

    sta

    tem

    ent.

    One

    inte

    rpre

    tatio

    n is

    that

    its

    use

    indi

    cate

    she

    sita

    ncy

    or d

    oubt

    , but

    NZ

    res

    earc

    hers

    hav

    e in

    terp

    rete

    d it

    as a

    mar

    ker

    of in

    tera

    ctiv

    e so

    lidar

    ity a

    nd a

    ffec

    t (B

    rita

    in 1

    992)

    .T

    his

    feat

    ure

    is s

    tere

    otyp

    ical

    ly a

    ssoc

    iate

    d in

    New

    Zea

    land

    mai

    nly

    with

    youn

    ger

    Pake

    ha w

    omen

    . The

    res

    earc

    h pa

    rtly

    con

    firm

    s th

    is. D

    avid

    Bri

    tain

    's f

    indi

    ngs

    wer

    e th

    at H

    RT

    s ar

    e us

    ed m

    ainl

    y by

    you

    nger

    spea

    kers

    (i.e

    . our

    gro

    up o

    f sp

    eake

    rs),

    par

    ticul

    arly

    by

    wom

    en, a

    ndto

    a le

    sser

    ext

    ent b

    y M

    aori

    .T

    he r

    esea

    rch

    has

    also

    sho

    wn

    that

    HR

    Ts

    are

    sens

    itive

    to th

    e ge

    nre

    or te

    xt ty

    pe o

    f th

    e sp

    eech

    in w

    hich

    they

    occ

    ur, b

    eing

    par

    ticul

    arly

    com

    mon

    in n

    arra

    tives

    . The

    ana

    lyse

    sw

    e pr

    esen

    t unf

    ortu

    nate

    ly s

    till l

    ack

    this

    sub

    -cat

    egor

    izat

    ion.

    In T

    able

    4 S

    ally

    the

    Pake

    ha w

    oman

    use

    s by

    far

    the

    high

    -es

    t lev

    el o

    f H

    RT

    s. L

    ee th

    e Pa

    keha

    man

    use

    s ve

    ry c

    onsi

    dera

    bly

    the

    low

    est,

    and

    the

    othe

    rs a

    re in

    bet

    wee

    n.So

    the

    iden

    tific

    atio

    n of

    HR

    Ts

    with

    wom

    en, p

    artic

    ular

    ly P

    akeh

    a, s

    eem

    s co

    nfir

    med

    , and

    also

    pos

    sibl

    y w

    ith M

    aori

    .W

    ho a

    re H

    RT

    s us

    ed to

    ? T

    rack

    ing

    the

    shif

    ts b

    etw

    een

    in-

    terv

    iew

    s, w

    e ca

    n se

    e th

    at H

    RT

    s ar

    e us

    ed m

    ore

    to w

    omen

    than

    tom

    en. S

    o D

    unca

    n, th

    e M

    aori

    man

    , use

    s m

    ost H

    RT

    s to

    Pani

    a th

    eM

    aori

    wom

    an, a

    nd f

    ewer

    to th

    e tw

    o m

    en w

    ho a

    lso

    inte

    rvie

    wed

    him

    . Sal

    ly th

    e Pa

    keha

    wom

    an u

    ses

    few

    est t

    o Pa

    ul th

    e Pa

    keha

    man

    ,

    Tab

    le 4

    Hal

    - In

    dex

    in s

    peec

    h by

    Inf

    orm

    ants

    to I

    nter

    view

    ers

    To

    Inte

    rvie

    wer

    s

    By

    Info

    rman

    ts

    Pine

    MM

    Pani

    aM

    FPa

    ulPM

    Jen

    PF

    Dun

    can

    MM

    3172

    62

    Kay

    MF

    3472

    38

    Lee

    PM6

    236

    Sally

    PF90

    6080

    12

    23

  • Tow

    ards

    a S

    ocio

    lingu

    istic

    s of

    Sty

    leB

    ell &

    Joh

    nson

    mor

    e to

    the

    two

    wom

    en w

    ho in

    terv

    iew

    edhe

    r. T

    he s

    ame

    patte

    rnho

    lds

    for

    Kay

    the

    Mao

    ri w

    oman

    , alth

    ough

    her

    fre

    quen

    cy to

    Jen

    the

    Pake

    ha w

    oman

    is c

    lose

    to th

    at to

    Pin

    e th

    e M

    dori

    man

    .So

    aga

    in,

    we

    have

    som

    e co

    nfir

    mat

    ion

    that

    the

    info

    rman

    ts a

    re s

    hift

    ing

    thei

    rst

    yle

    acco

    rdin

    g to

    thei

    r au

    dien

    ce f

    or H

    RT

    s.B

    ut q

    uest

    ions

    rem

    ain:

    why

    doe

    s th

    e Pa

    keha

    mal

    ein

    for-

    man

    t Lee

    pro

    duce

    his

    onl

    y ap

    prec

    iabl

    ele

    vel o

    f H

    RT

    s to

    Pau

    l, th

    ePa

    keha

    mal

    e in

    terv

    iew

    er, a

    nd n

    ot in

    par

    ticul

    ar to

    the

    Pake

    ha

    wom

    an?

    And

    why

    if H

    RT

    s ar

    e pa

    rtic

    ular

    ly id

    entif

    ied

    with

    Pake

    ha w

    omen

    aren

    't m

    ore

    used

    to th

    e Pa

    keha

    fem

    ale

    inte

    r-

    view

    er J

    en?

    5.3.

    EH

    by

    Inte

    rvie

    wer

    s

    So f

    ar, s

    o tid

    y (m

    ore

    or le

    ss).

    Let

    us

    turn

    now

    to th

    ein

    terv

    iew

    ers'

    usag

    e of

    EH

    and

    HR

    T in

    thes

    e sa

    me

    inte

    rvie

    ws.

    Her

    e it

    need

    s to

    be r

    emem

    bere

    d th

    at th

    ese

    wer

    e no

    t ord

    inar

    y co

    nver

    satio

    ns w

    ithbo

    th p

    artic

    ipan

    ts c

    laim

    ing

    equa

    l rig

    hts

    to s

    peak

    ing

    time.

    The

    se

    wer

    e in

    terv

    iew

    s, a

    nd th

    e in

    terv

    iew

    ers

    prov

    ided

    muc

    h le

    ss o

    f th

    eta

    lk.

    The

    kin

    d of

    talk

    they

    pro

    vide

    d al

    so n

    eces

    sari

    ly m

    ilita

    ted

    agai

    nst u

    sage

    of

    som

    e of

    thes

    e pr

    agm

    atic

    fea

    ture

    s.In

    par

    ticul

    ar,

    both

    Y'K

    NO

    W a

    nd H

    RT

    by

    and

    larg

    e te

    nd to

    occ

    ur in

    a f

    low

    of

    talk

    of

    a ki

    nd w

    hich

    inte

    rvie

    wer

    s ar

    e no

    t usu

    ally

    pro

    duci

    ng.

    On

    the

    othe

    r ha

    nd th

    eir

    role

    as

    inte

    rvie

    wer

    s is

    to e

    stab

    lish

    the

    kind

    of

    rapp

    ort w

    ith th

    e in

    form

    ants

    that

    will

    enc

    oura

    ge th

    em to

    rela

    x an

    d ta

    lk. T

    hat i

    s, th

    e pr

    essu

    res

    on th

    e in

    terv

    iew

    er to

    acc

    om-

    mod

    ate

    to th

    e in

    form

    ant a

    re p

    roba

    bly

    grea

    ter

    than

    vic

    e ve

    rsa,

    de-

    spite

    the

    com

    para

    tivel

    y lit

    tle s

    peak

    ing

    time

    the

    inte

    rvie

    wer

    will

    have

    to d

    ispl

    ay th

    is li

    ngui

    stic

    ally

    .T

    able

    5 s

    how

    s th

    at th

    e in

    terv

    iew

    ers

    use

    mor

    e E

    H th

    an th

    ein

    form

    ants

    (cf

    Tab

    le 3

    ) w

    ith th

    e on