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ED 444 350
AUTHOR
TITLE
INSTITUTIONPUB DATENOTE
AVAILABLE FROM
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EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
DOCUMENT RESUME
FL 026 339
Boberg, Charles, Ed.; Meyerhoff, Miriam, Ed.; Strassel,Stephanie, Ed.A Selection of Papers from NWAVE [New Ways of AnalyzingVariation] (25th, Las Vegas, Nevada, October 1996).University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics,Volume 4, Number 1.Pennsylvania Univ., Philadelphia. Penn Linguistics Club.1997-00-00432p.; Papers presented at the Annual New Ways of AnalyzingVariation Conference (Las Vegas, NV, October, 1996).PWPL, 619 Williams Hall, University of Pennsylvania,Philadelphia, PA 19104-6305 ($12).Collected Works - Proceedings (021) -- Speeches/MeetingPapers (150)MF01/PC18 Plus Postage.Black Dialects; Code Switching (Language); *Dialects;English (Second Language); Ethnic Groups; Grammar;Immigrants; Language Minorities; *Language Research;Lexicography; *Linguistics; Phonetics; Phonology; Pronouns;Pronunciation; Second Language Instruction; Second LanguageLearning; Sociolinguistics; Syntax; Uncommonly TaughtLanguagesAcadians
This issue includes the following articles: "Towards aSociolinguistics of Style" (Alan Bell, Gary Johnson); "EngenderingIdentities: Pronoun Selection as an Indicator of Salient IntergroupIdentities" (Miriam Meyerhoff); "A Majority Sound Change in a MinorityCommunity" (Carmen Fought); "Addressing the Actuation Question for LocalLinguistic Communities" (Lisa Ann Lane); "Typologizing the SociolinguisticSpeech Community" (Otto Santa Ana and Claudia Parodi); "Symbolic Identity andLanguage Change: A Comparative Analysis of Post-Insular /ay/ and /aw/"(Natalie Schilling-Estes, Walt Wolfram); "The Geolinguistics of Sound Changein Progress: /1/ Vocalization in Australia" (Barbara M. Horvath, Ronald J.Horvath); "Urban Sound Change beyond the Cities: The Spread of the NorthernCities Chain Shift" (Matthew J. Gordon); "Dialect Contact, Focusing andPhonological Rule Complexity: The Koineisation of Fenland English" (DavidBritain); "Sociolinguistic Coherence of Changes in Standard Dialect" (J. K.Chambers); "Adaptive Sociophonetic Strategies and Dialect Accommodation: /ay/Monophthongization in Cherokee English" (Bridget L. Anderson); "PhoneticRealization of Final Engma in Taipei Mandarin" (Fu-Dong Chiou); "FrequencyEffects in Variable Lexical Phonology" (James Meyers, Gregory R. Guy);"Variation in the Nativization of Foreign [a] in English" (Charles Boberg);"Rule Inversion in British English Dialect: A Sociolinguistic Investigationof [r]-sandhi in Newcastle upon Tyne" (Paul Foulkes); "Optimality and theSyntax of Lectal Variation" (Rakesh M. Bhatt); "The Truth about Codeswitchingin Insular Acadian" (Ruth King, Terry Nadasdi); "Empirical Analysis ofAnti-Immigrant Metaphor in Political Discourse" (Otto Santa Ana): "Is Therean Auithentic African American Speech Community: Carla Revisited" (LanitaJacobs-Huey); "Yorkville Crossing: A Case Study of the Influence of Hip-HopCulture on the Speech of a White Middle Class Adolescent in New York City"
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
(Cecilia A. Cutler); and "Modeling Contact-Induced Language Change" (NaomiNagy). Tables, figures, charts, graphs, and references are included in
individual articles. (KFT)
EEO E DOCUMENT:
POOR PRINT ORLI
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.
U.S
. DE
PA
RT
ME
NT
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
Offi
ce o
f Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
and
Impr
ovem
ent
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
RE
SO
UR
CE
S IN
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
)hi
s do
cum
ent h
as b
een
repr
oduc
ed a
sre
ceiv
ed fr
om th
e pe
rson
or
orga
niza
tion
orig
inat
ing
Min
or c
hang
es h
ave
been
mad
e to
impr
ove
repr
oduc
tion
qual
ity.
----
----
----
---
Poi
nts
of v
iew
or
opin
ions
sta
ted
in th
isdo
cum
ent d
o no
t nec
essa
rily
repr
esen
tof
ficia
l OE
RI p
ositi
on c
r
Uni
vers
ity o
fPe
nnsy
lvan
ia
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
s
Vol
ume
4.1
(199
7)
A S
elec
tion
of P
aper
sfr
om N
WA
VE
25
Edi
ted
by:
Cha
rles
Bob
erg,
Mir
iam
Mey
erho
ff, S
teph
anie
Stra
ssel
and
the
PWPL
ser
ies
edito
rs
BE
ST C
OPY
AV
AIL
AB
LE
':
PE
RM
ISS
ION
TO
RE
PR
OD
UC
E A
ND
DIS
SE
MIN
AT
E T
HIS
MA
TE
RIA
L H
AS
BE
EN
GR
AN
TE
D B
Y
Clle
xand
46ni
sT
O T
HE
ED
UC
AT
ION
AL
RE
SO
UR
CE
SIN
FO
RM
AT
ION
CE
NT
ER
(E
RIC
)
3
Uni
vers
ity o
f Pe
nnsy
lvan
ia
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
s
Vol
ume
4.1
(199
7)
A S
elec
tion
of P
aper
s fr
om N
WA
VE
25
Edi
ted
by:
Cha
rles
Bob
erg,
Mir
iam
Mey
erho
ff, S
teph
anie
Str
asse
l
and
the
PAV
PL s
erie
s ed
itors
45
Tab
le o
f C
onte
nts
Abo
ut th
e PW
PL s
erie
sFr
om th
e E
dito
rsvi
i
1.A
ddre
ssee
eff
ects
Tow
ards
a s
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
sty
le1
Ala
n B
ell a
nd G
ary
John
son
Eng
ende
ring
iden
titie
s: P
rono
un s
elec
tion
as a
n in
dica
tor
ofsa
lient
inte
rgro
up id
entit
ies
23
Mir
iam
Mey
erho
ff
2.D
efin
ition
and
per
cept
ion
of th
e sp
eech
com
mun
ityA
maj
ority
sou
nd c
hang
e in
,t m
inor
ity c
omm
unity
39C
arm
en F
ough
t
Add
ress
ing
the
actu
atio
n qu
estio
n fo
r lo
cal l
ingu
istic
com
mun
ities
57
Lis
a A
nn L
ane
Typ
olog
izin
g th
e so
ciol
ingu
istic
spe
ech
com
mun
ity73
Otto
San
ta A
na a
nd C
laud
ia P
arod
i
3.So
cial
dia
lect
olog
ySy
mbo
lic id
entit
y an
d la
ngua
ge c
hang
e: A
com
para
tive
anal
ysis
of
post
-ins
ular
/ay/
and
/aw
/83
Nat
alie
Sch
illin
g-E
ste
c an
d W
alt W
olfr
am
The
geo
lingu
istic
s of
a s
ound
cha
nge
in p
rogr
ess:
/1/ v
ocal
izat
ion
in A
ustr
alia
109
Bar
bara
M H
orva
th a
nd R
onal
d J.
Hor
vath
Urb
an s
ound
cha
nge
beyo
nd th
e ci
ties:
The
spr
ead
of th
eN
orth
ern
Citi
es c
hain
shi
ft12
5M
atth
ew J
. Gor
don
Dia
lect
con
tact
, foc
usin
g an
d ph
onol
ogic
al r
ule
com
plex
ity:
the
Koi
neis
atio
n of
Fea
land
Eng
lish
141
Dav
id B
rita
in
Soci
olin
guis
tic c
oher
ence
of
;han
ges
in a
sta
ndar
d di
alec
t17
1
J K
. Cha
mbe
rs
6B
ES
T C
OP
YA
VA
ILA
BLE
iii
Ada
ptiv
e so
ciop
hone
tic s
trat
egie
s an
d di
alec
t acc
omm
odat
ion:
/ay/
mon
opht
hong
izat
ion
in C
hero
kee
Eng
lish
185
Bri
dget
L. A
nder
son
Phon
etic
rea
lizat
ion
of f
inal
eng
ma
in T
aipe
i Man
dari
n20
3
Fu-D
ong
Chi
ou
4.T
heor
etic
al is
sues
Freq
uenc
y ef
fect
s in
Var
iabl
e L
exic
al P
hono
logy
215
Jam
es M
eyer
s an
d G
rego
ry R
Guy
Var
iatio
n in
the
nativ
izat
ion
of f
orei
gn [
a] in
Eng
lish
229
Cha
rles
Bob
erg
Rul
e in
vers
ion
in a
Bri
tish
Eng
lish
dial
ect:
A s
ocio
lingu
istic
inve
stig
atio
n of
[r]
-san
dhi i
n N
ewca
stle
upo
n T
yne
259
Paul
Fou
lkes
Opt
imal
ity a
nd th
e sy
ntax
of
lect
al v
aria
tion
271
Rak
esh
M. B
hatt
The
trut
h ab
out c
odes
witc
hing
in in
sula
r A
cadi
an29
9R
uth
Kin
g an
d T
erry
Nad
asdi
Em
piri
cal a
naly
sis
of a
nti-
imm
igra
nt m
etap
hor
in p
oliti
cal
disc
ours
e31
7O
tto S
anta
Ana
5.A
AV
E
Is th
ere
an a
uthe
ntic
Afr
ican
Am
eric
an s
peec
h co
mm
unity
:C
arla
rev
isite
d33
1
Lan
ita J
acob
s-H
uey
Yor
kvill
e C
ross
ing:
a c
ase
stud
y of
the
infl
uenc
e of
Hip
Hop
cultu
re o
n th
e sp
eech
of
a w
hite
mid
dle
clas
s ad
oles
cent
in N
ew Y
ork
City
371
Cec
ilia
A. C
utle
r
6.L
angu
age
cont
act
Mod
elin
g co
ntac
t-in
duce
d la
ngua
ge c
hang
e39
9
Nao
mi N
agy
Con
tent
s of
Pre
viou
s V
olum
es41
9
iv
!Th
8
Abo
ut th
e PW
PL s
erie
sT
he U
nive
rsity
of
Penn
sylv
ania
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
s(P
WPL
) is
an
occa
sion
al s
erie
s pr
oduc
ed b
y th
e Pe
nn L
ingu
istic
sC
lub,
the
grad
uate
stu
dent
of
gani
zatio
n of
the
Lin
guis
tics
Dep
art-
men
t of
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Pe
nns
ylva
nia.
It a
ims
to p
rovi
de a
fo-
rum
for
pre
viou
sly
unpu
blis
hed
wor
k, o
r w
ork
in p
rogr
ess,
by
lin-
guis
ts w
ith a
n on
goin
g af
filia
tion
with
the
Dep
artm
ent.
The
cur
rent
PW
PL s
erie
s ed
itors
are
Ale
xis
Dim
itria
dis,
Lau
raSi
egel
, Cla
riss
a Su
rek-
Cla
rk a
nd A
lexa
nder
Will
iam
s.
Thi
s vo
lum
e is
the
resu
lt of
the
com
bine
d ef
fort
s of
man
y pe
ople
.Pa
pers
wer
e se
lect
ed a
nd r
evie
wed
for
con
tent
und
er th
e di
rect
ion
ofC
harl
es B
ober
g, M
iria
m M
eyer
hoff
, and
Ste
phan
ie S
tras
sel.
Atis
saB
anua
zizi
did
mos
t of
the
leg
wor
k of
col
lect
ing
the
pape
rs, a
nd th
ePW
PL e
dito
rs c
arri
ed o
ut th
e pr
oduc
tion
of th
e ac
tual
vol
ume.
Spec
ial t
hank
s ar
e du
e to
Hik
youn
g L
ee f
or h
er p
rodu
ctio
n he
lp,
expe
rt p
roof
read
ing,
and
am
azin
g po
st-i
ts. A
ll re
mai
ning
err
ors
are
the
resp
onsi
bilit
y of
the
seri
es e
dito
rs o
r th
e au
thor
s, a
s th
e ca
sem
ay b
e.
Publ
icat
ion
in th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Penn
sylv
ania
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
in-
guis
tics
(PW
PL)
does
not
pre
clud
e su
bmis
sion
of
pape
rs e
lsew
here
; all
copy
righ
t is
reta
ined
by
the
auth
or(s
) of
indi
vidu
al p
aper
s. C
omm
ents
on th
e pa
pers
sho
uld
be s
ent d
irec
tly to
the
auth
ors,
at t
he a
ddre
ss p
ro-
vide
d at
the
end
of e
ach
pape
r.
The
PW
PL e
dito
rs c
an b
e co
ntac
ted
at th
e fo
llow
ing
addr
esse
s:
U. P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
s61
9 W
illia
ms
Hal
lU
nive
rsity
of
Penn
sylv
ania
Phila
delp
hia,
PA
19
:04-
6305
wor
king
-pap
ers
@ba
bel.l
ing.
upen
n.ed
u
For
mor
e in
form
atio
n, p
leas
e co
nsul
t our
web
site
:
http
: //l
ing.
up
enn.
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ipap
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Vol
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ilabl
e at
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y, p
re-p
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(Se
ein
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olum
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ulti-
issu
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bscr
iptio
ns a
ndco
pies
of
prev
ious
issu
es a
re a
lso
avai
labl
e. W
e in
vite
oth
er s
tude
ntor
gani
zatio
ns to
set
up
an e
xcha
nge
of p
ublic
atio
ns w
ith u
s.
From
the
Edi
tors
The
25t
h an
nual
mee
ting
of N
WA
VE
(N
ew W
ays
ofA
naly
zing
Var
iatio
n) w
as h
o:;te
d by
Guy
Bai
ley
and
Jan
Till
ery
ofth
e U
nive
rsity
of
Nev
ada,
Las
Veg
as in
Oct
ober
199
6.D
urin
g th
eco
nfer
ence
, par
ticip
ants
exp
ress
ed s
ome
inte
rest
in p
uttin
g ou
t ase
lect
ion
of p
aper
s th
at w
ere
pres
ente
d, a
long
the
lines
of
(N)W
aves
and
Mea
ns: a
sel
ectio
n pa
pers
fro
m N
WA
VE
24
(PW
PL v
. 3.1
).A
s in
that
PW
PL v
olum
e, th
ese
pape
rs a
re n
ot c
onfe
renc
epr
ocee
ding
s.Pr
actic
alco
nstr
aint
sm
ade
afu
llpr
ocee
ding
sim
poss
ible
. Con
sequ
ently
, the
sel
ectio
n of
pap
ers
refl
ects
to a
grea
ter
or le
sser
ext
ent t
he in
tere
sts
of th
e E
dito
rs a
nd o
f th
e Pe
nnso
ciol
ingu
istic
spr
ogra
m.
How
ever
,no
twith
stan
ding
thes
elim
itatio
ns, w
e ho
pe th
at th
,; pa
pers
sel
ecte
d fa
ithfu
lly r
efle
ct th
ebr
oad
rang
e of
res
earc
h in
whi
ch N
WA
VE
par
ticip
ants
are
eng
aged
.T
he p
aper
s ar
e ar
rang
ed th
emat
ical
ly. T
he f
irst
pap
er, a
plen
ary
addr
ess
by B
ell,
revi
.iws
rece
nt w
ork
iden
tifyi
ng a
ddre
ssee
effe
cts
in th
e so
ciol
ingu
istic
vari
atio
n of
dis
cour
sepa
rtic
les.
Mey
erho
ff c
ritic
ally
exa
min
es th
e us
e of
acc
omm
odat
ion
theo
ry to
acco
unt f
or a
ddre
ssee
eff
ects
.N
ext a
re f
our
pape
rs r
elat
ing
to o
ne o
f th
e cl
assi
c co
ncer
nsof
soc
iolin
guis
tics:
the
defi
nitio
n an
d pe
rcep
tion
of th
e sp
eech
com
mun
ity. F
ough
t dea
ls w
ith g
ang
mem
bers
hip
in th
e L
osA
ngel
es C
hica
no c
omm
unity
, Lan
e lo
oks
at th
e co
nstr
uctio
n of
asp
eech
com
mun
ity in
Den
mar
k, a
nd S
anta
Ana
& P
arod
isc
hem
atiz
e th
e st
ruct
ure
of s
peec
h co
mm
uniti
es u
sing
a M
exic
anex
empl
ar.
Wol
fram
&hi
lling
-Est
es'
pape
rex
tend
sth
eir
inve
stig
atio
nof
pos
t-in
suL
ir s
peec
h co
mm
uniti
es to
a ne
wlo
catio
n.T
his
last
pap
er a
lso
exem
plif
ies
the
incr
easi
ng s
tren
gth
ofre
sear
ch in
soc
ial d
iale
ctol
ogy.
A n
umbe
r of
pap
ers
at N
WA
VE
25
used
soc
iolin
guis
tic m
etho
dolo
gy to
app
roac
h th
e st
udy
of r
egio
nal
dial
ects
: the
se in
clud
e H
on a
th &
Hor
vath
(A
ustr
alia
n E
nglis
h,w
ith s
peci
al e
mph
asis
on
the
inte
rsec
tion
of g
eogr
aphi
cal a
ndso
ciol
ingu
istic
theo
ry),
Gor
don
(Nor
ther
nC
ities
shif
tin
Mic
higa
n), B
rita
in (
The
Fen
s in
the
UK
), C
ham
bers
(C
anad
ian
Eng
lish)
, And
erso
n (C
hero
kee
com
mun
ities
in N
orth
Car
olin
a),
and
Chi
ou (
phon
olog
ical
var
iatio
n in
Man
dari
n).
Muc
h so
ciol
ingu
ist.c
s is
invo
lved
in th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
soci
olin
guis
ticre
sear
chto
gene
ral
ques
tions
of th
eore
tical
lingu
istic
s. G
reg
Guy
's w
ork
has
been
cen
tral
to th
is a
rea.
In
this
volu
me,
Mye
rs &
Guy
test
for
mal
pho
nolo
gica
l mod
els
agai
nst
1 0
vii
BF
ST
Cop
yA
VA
ILA
BLE
data
on
t/d d
elet
ion.
Bob
erg
uses
str
uctu
ral p
hono
logy
toex
plai
ndi
alec
t dif
fere
nces
in th
e na
tiviz
atio
n of
for
eign
[a]
inE
nglis
h, a
ndFo
ulke
s as
ks w
heth
er I
n in
sert
ion
is a
pur
ely
phon
olog
ical
pro
cess
orw
heth
erit,
too,
isso
ciol
ingu
istic
ally
stra
tifie
d.B
hatt
dem
onst
rate
s th
e us
e of
Opt
imal
ity T
heor
y in
syn
tact
icva
riat
ion,
and
Kin
g &
Nad
asdi
exa
min
e sy
ntac
tic a
ndse
man
tic c
onst
rain
tson
cod
e-sw
itchi
ng in
Can
adia
nFr
ench
. San
ta A
na e
xam
ines
lang
uage
var
iatio
n w
ithin
the
fram
ewor
k of
cri
tical
disc
ours
e
anal
ysis
. The
trad
ition
of w
ork
on A
AV
E is
give
n a
new
pers
pect
ive
in p
aper
s by
Jac
obs-
Hue
y an
d C
utle
r, w
hoex
amin
e th
etr
ansf
er a
nd u
se o
f A
AV
E f
eatu
res
tono
n-A
fric
an A
mer
ican
spea
kers
. Fin
ally
, situ
atio
ns o
f la
ngua
ge c
onta
ct h
ave
long
bee
n a
cent
ral i
nter
est o
f so
ciol
ingu
istic
s, a
nd th
is tr
aditi
on is
rep
rese
nted
by N
agy'
s pa
per.
If,
as
it se
ems,
lang
uage
con
tact
is s
et to
aga
inbe
com
e an
impo
rtan
t com
pone
nt in
the
stud
y of
lang
uage
inso
ciet
y, th
is p
aper
pro
vide
s a
tem
plat
e fo
r m
akin
g fu
ture
stu
dies
max
imal
ly c
ompa
rabl
e.
Cha
rles
Bob
erg
Mir
iam
Mey
erho
ffSt
epha
nie
Stra
ssel
viii
11
Tow
ards
a S
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
Styl
e'
Alla
n B
ell a
nd G
ary
John
son
1.In
trod
uctio
n
The
bas
ic p
rinc
iple
of
lang
uage
sty
le is
that
an
indi
vidu
al s
peak
erdo
es n
ot a
lway
s ta
lk in
the
sam
e w
ay o
n al
l occ
asio
ns.
Styl
e
mea
ns th
at s
peak
ers
have
alte
rnat
ives
or
choi
cesa
'tha
t way
'w
hich
cou
ld h
ave
been
cho
sen
inst
ead
of a
'thi
s w
ay'.
Spea
kers
talk
in d
iffe
rent
way
s in
dif
fere
nt s
ituat
ions
, and
thes
edi
ffer
ent
way
s of
spe
akin
g ca
n ca
rry
diff
eren
tsoc
ial m
eani
ngs.
The
stu
dy o
f st
yle
has
had
a ch
eque
red
care
er in
soc
iolin
-gu
istic
s ov
er th
e pa
st20
year
s, b
ut is
now
attr
actin
g m
ore
inte
rest
agai
n fr
om v
aria
tioni
sts.
Tha
t ren
ewed
inte
rest
can
be
date
d fr
omth
e w
ork
done
by
John
Ric
kfor
d &
Fay
e M
cNai
r -K
nox,
as
pre-
sent
ed in
a p
lena
ry p
aper
to N
WA
VE
in1991.
We
conc
ur w
ithth
eir
asse
ssm
ent i
n th
e pu
blis
hed
vers
ion
(199
4: 5
2):
With
res
pect
to th
eory
dev
elop
men
t, st
ylis
ticva
riat
ion
seem
s to
off
er m
ore
pote
ntia
l for
the
inte
grat
ion
of p
ast f
indi
ngs
and
the
esta
blis
hmen
tof
pro
duct
ive
rese
arch
age
ndas
than
vir
tual
ly a
nyot
her
area
in s
ocio
lingu
istic
s.
The
wor
k th
at w
e de
scri
be b
elow
has
just
suc
h a
goal
.G
ener
aliz
ing
gros
sly,
we
can
dist
ingu
ish
two
mai
n ap
-pr
oach
es to
the
stud
y of
sty
lc in
soc
iolin
guis
tics.
The
fir
st, e
thno
-gr
aphi
c ap
proa
ch--
asso
ciat
ed e
spec
ially
with
Del
l Hym
es (
e.g.
1974
Yen
com
pass
es th
e m
any
way
s in
whi
ch in
divi
dual
spe
aker
sca
n ex
pres
s th
emse
lves
dif
fere
ntly
in d
iffe
rent
situ
atio
ns.
Thi
s
We
ackn
owle
dge
the
supp
ort o
f th
e N
ew Z
eala
nd F
ound
atio
n fo
r R
e-se
arch
, Sci
ence
& T
echn
olog
y in
fun
ding
the
stud
y re
port
ed b
elow
as
part
of th
e N
ew Z
eala
nd E
nglis
h Pr
ogra
mm
e co
nduc
ted
in th
e D
epar
tmen
t of
Lin
guis
tics,
Vic
tori
a U
nive
rsity
of
Wel
lingt
on. A
llan
Bel
l is
grat
eful
toth
e D
epar
tmen
t for
its
hosp
italit
y (n
ot a
lway
s fu
nded
) ov
er a
per
iod
ofye
ars. 12
U P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
s, V
olum
e 4.
1, 1
997
U P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
sV
olum
e 4.
1 (1
997)
reco
gniz
es th
at s
tyle
ope
rate
s on
the
full
rang
e of
lingu
istic
lev-
elsi
n th
e pa
ttern
s of
spe
akin
g ac
ross
who
ledi
scou
rses
and
con
-ve
rsat
ions
as
wel
l as
in th
e ph
onol
ogy
or s
ynta
x. O
nth
e 's
ocia
l'si
de, a
wid
e ra
nge
of f
acto
rs th
at m
ay a
ffec
t the
diff
eren
t way
s an
indi
vidu
al ta
lks
are
take
n in
to a
ccou
ntin
clud
ing
purp
ose,
topi
c,
genr
e, c
hann
el a
nd a
udie
nce.
The
sec
ond,
var
iatio
nist
app
roac
h to
sty
le is
muc
h m
ore
stri
ctly
def
ined
on
both
the
soci
al a
nd li
ngui
stic
dim
ensi
ons.
It
was
pio
neer
ed b
y L
abov
in h
is N
ewY
ork
City
stu
dy(1966, 1972)
and
has
been
fol
low
ed a
nd d
evel
oped
in c
ount
less
stud
ies
in m
any
coun
trie
s in
the
subs
eque
nt 3
0-od
d ye
ars.
Var
iatio
nist
soc
iolin
-gu
istic
s ha
s us
ually
wor
ked
with
mic
ro a
spec
ts o
flin
guis
tic s
truc
-
ture
the
alte
rnat
ion
of s
peci
fic
phon
olog
ical
var
iant
s. I
thas
als
ous
ually
fol
low
ed a
tigh
tly d
efin
ed a
ppro
ach
to th
e so
cial
dim
en-
sion
, in
term
s of
par
ticul
ar d
emog
raph
ic p
aram
eter
ssu
ch a
s ge
nder
or e
thni
city
.So
on
the
one
hand
we
have
a v
ery
broa
d-br
ush,
`max
imal
ist'
appr
oach
to b
oth
lingu
istic
and
soc
ial p
heno
men
a.A
nd o
n th
e ot
her,
a m
uch
mor
e ri
goro
us a
ttem
pt to
con
trol
both
the
soci
al a
nd li
ngui
stic
var
iabl
es. O
ur a
ppro
ach
in th
is p
aper
and
the
wor
k it
repo
rts
on is
in p
art a
n at
tem
pt to
ble
nd th
e tw
o,in
par
-tic
ular
the
quan
titat
ive
rigo
ur w
ith th
e qu
alita
tive
brea
dth.
2.T
he G
ist o
f A
udie
nce
Des
ign
In a
pap
er p
ublis
hed
in1984,
Bel
l dev
elop
ed th
e A
udie
nce
Des
ign
fram
ewor
k w
hich
has
had
som
e cu
rren
cy s
ince
then
as
a so
ciol
in-
guis
tic a
ppro
ach
to s
tyle
.A
udie
nce
Des
ign
prop
osed
that
sty
lesh
ift o
ccur
s pr
imar
ily in
res
pons
e to
the
spea
ker's
aud
ienc
e.It
s
mai
n co
nten
tions
can
be
sum
mar
ized
thus
:
1.St
yle
is w
hat a
n in
divi
dual
spe
aker
doe
s w
ith a
lang
uage
in r
elat
ion
to o
ther
peo
ple.
2.St
yle
deri
ves
its m
eani
ng f
rom
the
asso
ciat
ion
of li
ngui
s-tic
fea
ture
s w
ith p
artic
ular
soc
ial g
roup
s.3.
Spea
kers
des
ign
thei
r st
yle
prim
arily
for
and
in r
espo
nse
to th
eir
audi
ence
.4.
Aud
ienc
e de
sign
app
lies
to a
ll co
des
and
leve
ls o
f a
lan-
guag
e re
pert
oire
, mon
olin
gual
and
mul
tilin
gual
.
2
Tow
ards
a S
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
Sty
leB
ell &
Joh
nson
5.V
aria
tion
on th
e st
yle
dim
ensi
on w
ithin
the
spee
ch o
f a
sing
le s
peak
er d
eriv
es f
rom
and
ech
oes
the
vari
atio
nw
hich
exi
sts
betw
een
spea
kers
on
the
'soc
ial'
dim
ensi
on.
6.Sp
eake
rs h
ave
a fi
n3-g
rain
ed a
bilit
y to
des
ign
thei
r st
yle
for
a ra
nge
of d
iffe
rent
add
ress
ees,
as
wel
l as
for
othe
rau
dien
ce m
embe
rs.
7.St
yle
shif
ting
acco
rdin
g to
topi
c or
set
ting
deri
ves
itsm
eani
ng a
nd d
irec
tion
of s
hift
fro
m th
e un
derl
ying
ass
o-ci
atio
n of
topi
cs o
r se
tting
s w
ith ty
pica
l aud
ienc
e m
em-
bers
.8.
As
wel
l as
the
'resp
onsi
ve' d
imen
sion
of
styl
e, th
ere
is th
e`i
nitia
tive'
dim
ensi
on, w
here
the
styl
e sh
ift i
tsel
f in
itiat
esa
chan
ge in
the
situ
atio
n ra
ther
than
res
ultin
g fr
omsu
ch a
chan
ge.
9.In
itiat
ive
styl
e sh
ifts
are
in e
ssen
ce r
efer
ee d
esig
n, b
yw
hich
the
lingu
istic
fea
ture
s as
soci
ated
with
a r
efer
ence
grou
p ca
n be
use
d to
exp
ress
iden
tific
atio
n w
ithth
at
grou
p.
The
se n
ine
poin
ts n
ave
been
enl
arge
d up
on e
lsew
here
(Bel
l in
pres
s), a
nd th
e la
st th
ree
in p
artic
ular
cri
tique
d an
d re
-vi
sed.
The
bas
ic p
rem
ise
of a
udie
nce
desi
gn is
that
sty
le is
ori
-en
ted
to p
eopl
e ra
ther
than
to m
echa
nism
s su
ch a
s at
tent
ion.
Sty
lefo
cuse
s on
the
pers
on.
It is
ess
entia
lly a
soc
ial t
hing
.It
mar
ksin
terp
erso
nal a
nd in
terg
roup
rel
atio
ns.
In in
itiat
ive
styl
e sh
ift,
the
indi
vidu
al s
peak
er m
akes
crea
tive
use
of la
ngua
ge r
esou
rces
oft
en f
rom
bey
ond
the
imm
edi-
ate
spee
ch c
omm
unity
, suc
h as
dis
tant
dia
lect
s, o
rst
retc
hes
thos
ere
sour
ces
in n
ovel
dir
ectio
ns. W
ith B
akht
in w
e m
ayca
ll th
is d
i-m
ensi
on 's
tyliz
atio
n' (
1981
), a
nd th
e re
spon
sive
sim
ply
'sty
le'.
Initi
ativ
e st
yle
shif
ts d
eriv
e th
eir
forc
e an
d th
eir
dire
ctio
n of
shi
ftfr
om th
eir
unde
rlyi
ng a
ssoc
iatio
n w
ith ty
pes
of p
erso
ns o
r gr
oups
.R
efer
ees
are
thir
d pe
rson
s w
ho a
re n
ot p
hysi
cally
pre
sent
at a
nin
tera
ctio
n bu
t who
are
so
salie
nt f
or a
spe
aker
that
they
infl
uenc
est
yle
even
in th
eir
abse
nce.
. Thi
s is
the
area
whe
re w
e be
lieve
audi
ence
des
ign
to b
e in
nee
d of
ser
ious
ret
hink
ing.
And
this
alon
g w
ith a
n ap
proa
ch to
ble
ndin
g th
e qu
antit
ativ
e w
ithth
equ
alita
tivei
s th
e se
cond
mai
n go
al o
f th
e pr
ojec
t we
are
wor
king
on, a
nd o
f th
is p
aper
.
3
U P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
sV
olum
e 4.
1 (1
997)
Tab
le 1
Gri
d fo
r in
terv
iew
s w
ith 4
info
rman
ts e
ach
talk
ing
to 3
diff
eren
t int
ervi
ewer
s
MM
Pine
INT
ER
VIE
WE
RS
MF
PMPa
nia
Paul
PF Jen
INFO
RM
AN
TS
MM
Dun
can
1st
2nd
3rd
MF
Kay
2nd
1st
3rd
PML
ee3r
d1s
t2n
d
PFSa
lly3r
d2n
d1s
t
Eth
nici
ty: M
aori
Gen
der:
Fem
ale
Pake
ha (
Ang
lo)
Mal
e
3.D
esig
ning
Res
earc
h on
Sty
le
We
now
turn
to r
epor
t on
a st
udy
whi
ch w
as e
xplic
itly
desi
gned
to
test
out
sev
eral
of
the
Aud
ienc
e D
esig
nhy
poth
eses
. It i
s a
thre
e-ye
ar p
roje
ct (
just
com
plet
ed)
whi
ch w
as f
unde
d by
the
New
Zea
-la
nd F
ound
atio
n fo
r R
esea
rch,
Sci
ence
& T
echn
olog
yun
der
the
NZ
Eng
lish
Prog
ram
me
at V
icto
ria
Uni
vers
ityof
Wel
lingt
on. T
hepr
ojec
t exa
min
es a
nd s
eeks
to e
xpla
in th
e w
ays
spea
kers
talk
dif
-fe
rent
ly to
dif
fere
nt a
udie
nces
, and
how
they
pre
sent
thei
r ow
n
iden
titie
s th
roug
h la
ngua
ge.
The
lang
uage
sam
ple
cons
ists
of
thre
e in
terv
iew
s co
n-du
cted
with
eac
h of
fou
r sp
eake
rs. A
set
of
four
info
rman
ts a
ged
in th
eir
twen
ties
wer
e in
terv
iew
ed in
suc
cess
ion
by a
set
of
four
inte
rvie
wer
s (T
able
1).
The
info
rman
t and
inte
rvie
wer
sam
ples
wer
e ea
ch s
truc
ture
d by
gen
dera
nd e
thni
city
, so
that
eac
h of
them
4
Tow
ards
a S
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
Sty
leB
ell &
Joh
nson
cont
aine
d a
Mao
ri2
wom
an, M
aori
man
, Pak
eha
wom
anan
d
Pake
ha m
an. T
hus
for
exam
ple,
the
Mao
ri m
an w
as in
terv
iew
edfi
rst b
y th
e M
aori
mal
e in
terv
iew
er, s
econ
d by
the
Mao
ri w
oman
,an
d th
ird
by th
e Pa
keha
man
. The
fou
rth
poss
ible
com
bina
tion
ofin
terv
iew
ers
and
info
rman
ts w
as in
tent
iona
lly e
xclu
ded
(the
pra
c-tic
aliti
es o
f a
four
th s
ucce
ssiN
e in
terv
iew
with
eac
h in
form
ant w
ere
proh
ibiti
ve).
Whi
le g
ende
r an
d et
hnic
ity w
ere
vari
ed, o
ther
spe
aker
char
acte
rist
ics
wer
e he
ld a
s co
nsta
nt a
s po
ssib
le:
Age
: all
eigh
t spe
aker
s w
ere
in th
eir
earl
y to
mid
20s
.So
cial
cla
ss: a
ll w
ere
mid
dle
clas
s, u
nive
rsity
edu
cate
d.N
ew Z
eala
nd o
rigi
ns:
all w
ere
New
Zea
land
ers
of s
ever
al g
en-
erat
ions
' sta
ndin
g.D
egre
e of
fam
iliar
ity:
all i
nfor
man
ts a
nd in
terv
iew
ers
wer
est
rang
ers
to e
ach
othe
r.
In a
dditi
on, w
e tr
ied
to k
eep
;ispe
cts
of th
e se
tting
con
stan
t.
Inte
rvie
ws
wer
e co
nduc
ted
in th
e in
form
ants
' ow
n ho
mes
.N
o th
ird
part
ies
wer
e pr
esen
t.In
terv
iew
ers
wer
e as
ked
to d
ress
in a
sim
ilar
and
'neu
tral
' fas
h-io
n (n
eith
er to
o fo
rmal
nor
too
casu
al).
The
atte
mpt
to h
old
fact
ors
cons
tant
ext
ende
d to
inte
rvie
wde
sign
as
wel
l. T
he e
licita
tion
of m
axim
ally
info
rmal
spe
ech
had
to b
e sa
crif
iced
to th
e ne
ed to
ens
ure
com
para
bilit
y ac
ross
the
in-
terv
iew
s, e
.g. b
y to
pico
ne e
xam
ple
of th
e di
ffer
ent m
etho
dolo
gyne
eded
for
sty
le r
esea
rch.
Thr
ee s
tand
ardi
zed
ques
tionn
aire
s w
ere
desi
gned
, one
for
each
of
the
thre
e in
terv
iew
s co
nduc
ted
with
eac
h in
form
ant.
Eac
hin
terv
iew
con
sist
ed o
f fo
ur c
ompo
nent
s:fr
ee c
onve
rsat
ion,
set
topi
cs, r
eadi
ng ta
sks
and
othe
r ta
sks.
A b
asic
pri
ncip
le o
f th
e in
-te
rvie
w d
esig
n w
as to
mak
e as
pect
s of
the
info
rman
t's id
entit
ysa
lient
at p
artic
ular
tim
es.
So th
e se
t top
ic f
or th
e se
cond
inte
r-
2M
aori
are
the
indi
geno
us P
olyn
esia
n in
habi
tant
s an
d no
w m
ake
up s
ome
15 p
erce
nt o
f th
e po
pula
tion.
`Pa
keha
' is
the
term
for
New
Zea
land
ers
ofm
ainl
y B
ritis
h or
igin
who
col
oniz
ed th
e co
untr
y fr
om th
e 19
th c
entu
ry(s
ome
80 p
erce
nt o
f th
e po
pula
tion)
.
5
1.6
U. P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
sV
olum
e 4.
1 (1
997)
view
the
cros
s-ge
nder
com
bina
tionw
as g
ende
r,fo
cuss
ing
the
info
rman
ts o
n th
eir
own
gend
er id
entit
y an
d its
con
tras
tw
ith th
e
inte
rvie
wer
s'.
Sim
ilarl
y, th
e pr
imar
y to
pic
of d
iscu
ssio
n in
the
thir
d, c
ross
-eth
nic
inte
rvie
w w
as th
e is
sue
of e
thni
c re
latio
ns a
ndid
entit
y in
New
Zea
land
.T
his
was
an
ambi
tious
res
earc
h de
sign
, par
ticul
arly
in it
sre
peat
ed in
terv
iew
s in
volv
ing
the
sam
e se
t of
info
rman
ts a
nd in
-te
rvie
wer
s.R
ecor
ding
fai
lure
or
spea
ker
with
draw
al c
ould
hav
eje
opar
dize
d th
e w
hole
pro
ject
, req
uiri
ng lo
catio
n of
fre
sh s
peak
ers
and
re-r
ecor
ding
inte
rvie
ws
in o
rder
to m
aint
ain
the
inte
grity
of
the
desi
gn.
How
ever
, all
12 in
terv
iew
s w
ere
com
plet
ed d
espi
te th
ispo
tent
ial f
or d
isas
ter.
The
inte
rvie
ws
aver
aged
ove
r an
hou
r lo
ngea
ch. T
hey
have
bee
n tr
ansc
ribe
d in
ful
l, tim
ed, a
nd th
eir
cont
ent
logg
ed u
nder
topi
c he
adin
gs.
The
sam
ple
amou
nts
to o
ver
13ho
urs
of ta
ped
inte
rvie
ws,
abo
ut 6
50 p
ages
of
tran
scri
pts,
and
ato
tal c
ount
of
som
e 14
0,00
0 w
ords
.
4.T
he D
isco
urse
Fea
ture
s
The
ling
uist
ic a
naly
sis
we
will
rep
ort o
n co
vers
a s
ubse
t of
the
feat
ures
oft
en k
now
n as
pra
gmat
ic m
arke
rsty
pica
lly th
e se
n-te
nce-
fina
l tag
s su
ch a
s I
thin
k an
d lik
e th
at w
e sc
atte
r lik
e di
scou
r-sa
l and
inte
ract
ive
glue
thro
ugho
ut o
ur c
onve
rsat
iona
l enc
ount
ers.
Am
ong
thes
e fe
atur
es th
ere
is a
sub
set s
omet
imes
kno
wn
as th
e`a
ddre
ssee
-ori
ente
d' p
ragm
atic
mar
kers
you
know
, tag
que
stio
nssu
ch a
s is
n't i
t, an
d so
for
th. T
hey
have
bee
n st
udie
d in
New
Zea
-la
nd b
y Ja
net H
olm
es a
nd M
aria
Stu
bbe
(e.g
. Stu
bbe
& H
olm
es19
95)
in p
artic
ular
. The
chi
ef f
unct
ion
of th
ese
feat
ures
see
ms
tobe
inte
ract
ive,
for
the
spea
ker
to s
eek
reas
sura
nce
of th
e lis
tene
r'sco
ntin
uing
atte
ntio
n to
wha
t is
bein
g sa
id, o
r co
nfir
mat
ion
ofsh
ared
exp
erie
nce
or k
now
ledg
e.T
he f
our
feat
ures
we
shal
l loo
k at
her
e ar
e: Y
'KN
OW
,T
AG
que
stio
ns, t
he d
isco
urse
par
ticle
EH
and
Hig
h R
isin
g T
erm
i-na
l int
onat
ions
(H
RT
s).
Whi
le Y
'KN
OW
and
TA
Gs
need
littl
ein
trod
uctio
n, th
e ot
her
two
invi
te m
ore
disc
ussi
on, p
artly
bec
ause
they
are
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f N
ZE
, alth
ough
not
exc
lusi
ve to
it.
The
par
ticle
EH
fun
ctio
ns s
ynta
ctic
ally
ver
y m
uch
like
Y'K
NO
W o
r T
AG
s. E
H a
lso
occu
rs in
oth
er v
arie
ties
of E
ng-
6
1_7
18
Tow
ards
a S
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
Sty
leB
ell &
Joh
nson
lisha
t lea
st C
anad
ian
(e.g
. Gib
son
1976
) an
d th
e di
alec
t of
Gue
rnse
y in
the
Cha
nnel
Isl
ands
(R
amis
ch 1
989)
.T
he le
adin
gst
udy
of E
H in
NZ
Eng
lish
to d
ate
is M
eyer
hoff
's (
1994
) an
alys
isof
the
Pori
rua
soci
al d
iale
ct s
urve
y (H
olm
es, B
ell &
Boy
ce 1
991)
.E
H a
lso
carr
ies
cons
ider
able
soc
ial m
eani
ng, w
hich
we
will
com
eto
sho
rtly
. Tra
nscr
ipt 1
com
es f
rom
the
inte
rvie
w b
etw
een
the
two
Mao
ri m
en (
pseu
dony
ms
used
), a
nd g
ives
a s
ense
bot
h of
the
data
in g
ener
al, a
nd a
lso
in p
artic
ular
of
EH
and
its
usag
e,T
he H
igh
Ris
ing
Ter
min
al (
HR
T)
is n
ot a
pra
gmat
ic p
ar-
ticle
but
an
into
natio
n pa
ttern
, how
ever
its
disc
ours
e fu
nctio
n is
very
sim
ilar.
Thi
s in
tona
tion
is b
ecom
ing
fam
iliar
in E
nglis
h in
-te
rnat
iona
lly, b
oth
thro
ugh
usag
e, a
nd b
ecau
se o
f re
sear
ch a
ndpu
blic
atio
n.It
is in
com
mon
usa
ge in
New
Zea
land
, whe
re th
ele
adin
g st
udy
is b
y D
avid
Bri
tain
(19
92),
aga
in o
n th
e Po
riru
a da
ta.
Tra
nscr
ipt 1
Dun
canE
H c
lust
erin
g
()
// \\
uncl
ear
spee
chco
ntin
uatio
n of
turn
or
latc
hing
over
lapp
ing
spee
ch
koha
nga
reo:
lang
uage
nes
t (pr
esch
ool i
mm
ersi
on c
lass
)ka
upap
a:ph
iloso
phy,
pri
ncip
les
D:
firs
t we
did
Her
etau
nga
and
then
er
one
a fe
w u
rn k
o-ha
nga
reo
from
Pon
eke
(yea
h) a
nd th
en a
few
fro
mR
angi
tane
and
we
ei g
ot b
ack
to th
e to
the
urn
real
kau
-pa
pa o
f w
hat k
ohan
ga r
eo is
all
abou
t bec
ause
it's
bec
om-
ing
a bi
t of
a bu
sine
ss n
ow E
H a
nd th
ey're
losi
ng th
e lo
s-in
g w
hat i
t's th
e re
al m
eani
ng o
f it
//(Y
OU
KN
OW
) it'
s\fo
r ou
r ch
ildre
n Y
OU
KN
OW
=/n
un \\
D:
=al
thou
gh a
lot o
f th
e pe
ople
in th
ere
EH
they
wor
kbl
imm
in h
ard
man
and
they
get
stu
ff a
ll fo
r it
and
som
e-tim
es y
ou d
on't
blam
e th
em E
H 'c
ause
they
're g
ettin
g no
rew
ards
out
of
it //b
ut u
m\ w
e're
tryi
ng to
(an
d th
en)=
/nim
\\D
:=
tha-
that
sor
t of
thin
g E
H e
r w
ith k
ohan
ga r
eo th
ere
will
neve
r be
man
y re
war
ds f
or th
e pe
ople
wor
king
in it
but
7
U. P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
sV
olum
e 4.
1 (1
997)
urn
YO
U K
NO
W th
ey'v
e st
ill g
ot to
kee
p up
with
that
orig
inal
kau
papa
of
mak
ing
sure
our
chi
ldre
n ar
e ge
tting
taug
ht th
e be
st th
ey c
an y
eah
Tra
nscr
ipt 2
Kay
: clu
ster
ing
of H
igh
Ris
ing
Ter
min
al to
nes
(I =
}M
T)
K:
I re
mem
ber
oh I
was
abo
ut e
leve
n or
twel
ve a
nd u
m w
e'd
been
jum
ping
off
this
bri
dge
yeah
/K
:/=
into
this
um
oh
into
the
wat
er b
elow
it a
nd it
was
a la
goon
goi
ng o
ut to
the
open
SE
A!
and
ther
e w
asqu
ite a
stro
ng c
urre
nt ta
king
all
the
wat
er o
ut //
and\
um
Pd
dive
=/y
eah\
\
K:
=bo
mbe
d th
is G
UY
! an
d sp
lash
ed h
im s
o he
sta
rted
rac
ing
over
to th
e ro
ad B
RID
GE
! an
d I
was
sw
imm
ing
back
agai
nst t
he c
urre
nt to
the
othe
r si
de o
f th
e la
goon
and
urn
my
toes
had
just
touc
hed
the
GR
OU
ND
I=/
/=ye
ah=
/K
:/=
and
he ju
mpe
d of
f th
e ro
ad b
ridg
e an
d hi
t me
on m
ySH
OU
LD
ER
S! a
nd ja
rred
my
SPIN
E!
and
I w
asPA
RA
LY
SED
! I
coul
dn't
mov
e=/ /=
God
=/
K:
/=an
d al
l I th
- I
just
thou
ght Y
OU
KN
OW
all
I ca
n do
is tr
y an
d fl
oat t
ryan
d fl
oat a
nd ju
st li
e ba
ck a
nd r
elax
and
try
and
floa
t and
urn
I w
as g
oing
hel
p m
e he
lp m
e an
d D
ad c
ame
out a
ndre
scue
d m
e an
d bl
ew u
p th
e ki
d [i
nhal
es]
and
um a
nd//t
hen
he f
ound
out
I w
as\ y
ou k
now
I c
ould
n't m
ove
for
abou
t tw
o da
ys a
nd th
en I
was
fin
e
Tra
nscr
ipt 2
is a
dan
ger-
of-d
eath
nar
rativ
e fr
om th
e in
terv
iew
be-
twee
n th
e tw
o M
aori
wom
en,
Initi
ally
we
will
pre
sent
qua
ntita
tive
find
ings
on
the
dis-
trib
utio
n of
thes
e fe
atur
es. B
ut th
en w
e w
ant t
o m
ove
on to
wha
t
we
cons
ider
to b
e a
com
plem
enta
ryap
proa
ch, t
hat i
s a
mor
equ
alita
tive
anal
ysis
of
whe
re th
e fe
atur
es o
ccur
on-
line
duri
ngsp
eech
and
why
, and
als
o ho
w th
e fo
ur f
eatu
res
co-o
ccur
--or
oth-
erw
isew
ith e
ach
othe
r.J U-
19
Tow
ards
a S
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
Sty
leB
ell &
Joh
nson
By
way
of
orie
ntat
ion,
we
pres
ent
in T
able
2 th
e ra
wco
unts
of
the
feat
ures
, with
no
allo
wan
ce f
or a
mou
nt o
f ta
lk o
rin
terv
iew
leng
th. W
e ca
n m
ake
som
eob
serv
atio
ns o
n th
e st
reng
th
of th
ese
figu
res
for
toke
ns:
1.Y
'KN
OW
is th
e fe
atur
e of
cho
ice,
esp
ecia
llyfo
r th
ePa
keha
man
Lee
in e
xpos
itory
mod
e. I
t app
ears
to c
arry
little
iden
tity
mea
ning
, alth
ough
res
earc
hw
ould
tend
toas
soci
ate
it w
ith w
omen
's s
tyle
rat
her
than
men
's.
2.B
ut f
or th
e Pa
keha
wom
an S
ally
the
defa
ultf
eatu
re is
the
HR
T, a
nd s
he h
as r
emar
kabl
y fe
w Y
'KN
OW
s. (
She
also
has
som
e ot
her
indi
vidu
alis
tic p
refe
renc
ese.
g.al
way
sus
ing
KIN
D O
F w
here
the
othe
r th
ree
use
SOR
T O
F.)
3.T
ags
are
infr
eque
nt. b
ut th
ere
is a
n in
dica
tion
that
they
are
used
mor
e by
Pak
eha
than
Mao
ri.
Tab
le 2
Num
ber
of to
kens
of
4 ad
dres
see-
orie
nted
pra
gmat
icfe
a-
ture
s in
the
spee
ch o
f 4
info
r, n
ants
talk
ing
to 3
diff
eren
t int
ervi
ew-
ers
By
Info
rman
t
Num
ber
of to
kens
To Inte
rvie
wer
Y'K
NO
WT
AG
EH
HR
T
Mao
riM
MPi
ne13
30
4832
man
MF
Pani
a98
220
56
Dun
can
PMPa
ul69
016
53
Mao
riM
FPa
nia
390
350
wom
anM
MPi
ne86
12
40
Kay
PFJe
n29
00
16
Pake
haPM
Paul
213
017
man
PFJe
n10
64
17
Lee
MM
Pine
210
.80
9
Pake
haPF
Jen
264
059
wom
anPM
Paul
51
031
Sally
MF
Pani
a8
20
55
9
2, 0
U P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
sV
olum
e 4.
1 (1
997)
4.E
H o
ccur
s ov
erw
helm
ingl
y in
the
spee
ch o
f th
eM
aori
man
Dun
can,
alth
ough
ther
e ar
e so
me
toke
ns
by K
ay th
e M
aori
wom
an.
5.H
RT
s ar
e co
mm
on e
xcep
t by
Lee
the
Pake
ha m
an.
Not
e th
at th
ere
is a
kin
d of
com
plem
enta
rydi
stri
bu-
tion
of th
e tw
o la
st f
eatu
res
for
the
Pake
ha m
anan
d
wom
anL
ee u
ses
Y'K
NO
W a
nd n
ot H
RT
s,an
d
Sally
HR
Ts
and
not Y
'KN
OW
.
5.Q
uant
itativ
e A
naly
sis
One
of
the
mai
n pr
oble
ms
with
dis
cour
seva
riab
les
is d
ecid
ing
wha
t to
coun
t. T
he m
ain
issu
e is
wha
t do
we
coun
t as
pote
ntia
l but
not a
ctua
l occ
urre
nces
of
prag
mat
icfe
atur
es s
uch
as H
RT
s or
EH
?
Her
e w
e ha
ve q
uant
ifie
d al
l fou
r fe
atur
es o
ver
the
amou
nt o
fsp
eech
pro
duce
d by
the
part
icul
ar s
peak
er,
and
amou
nt o
f sp
eech
is in
term
s of
wor
d co
unt.
Thi
s pr
oduc
es a
nin
dex
for
the
feat
ure,
whi
ch c
onsi
sts
sim
ply
of th
e nu
mbe
r of
occ
urre
nces
of th
e fe
atur
e
divi
ded
by th
e nu
mbe
r of
wor
ds p
rodu
ced
byth
e sp
eake
r, a
nd th
en
mul
tiplie
d by
10,
000.
The
mul
tiplie
r of
10,
000
yiel
ds in
dexe
sge
nera
lly in
dou
ble
digi
ts, s
o ea
sy to
gra
sp.
And
10,
000
wor
ds is
actu
ally
clo
se to
the
aver
age
amou
nt o
f in
form
ant
spee
ch p
er in
-te
rvie
w, s
o it
repr
esen
ts in
som
e se
nse
a no
rmal
ized
inte
rvie
w
leng
th.
5.1.
EH
by
Info
rman
ts
The
pra
gmat
ic p
artic
le e
h is
one
of
the
mos
thig
h-pr
ofile
soc
iolin
-gu
istic
mar
kers
of
Eng
lish
with
in N
ew Z
eala
nd. I
t is
criti
cize
d by
pres
crip
tivis
ts, s
atir
ized
by
com
edia
ns, a
nd u
tiliz
ed b
yad
vert
isin
gco
pyw
rite
rs to
cre
ate
soci
al c
aric
atur
es (
Bel
l 199
2).
Bot
h th
e N
ew
Zea
land
ste
reot
ype
and
the
rese
arch
fin
ding
s as
soci
ate
the
vari
able
EH
with
the
spee
ch o
f M
aori
rat
her
than
Pak
eha,
and
to a
less
er
exte
nt w
ith m
en r
athe
r th
an w
omen
.In
Tab
le 3
EH
is u
sed
by M
aori
spe
aker
s, o
verw
helm
ingl
yby
the
Mao
ri m
an D
unca
n-84
toke
ns in
all
(see
Tab
le 2
for
raw
toke
ns).
In f
act h
is in
dex
whi
le ta
lkin
g w
ith th
e M
aori
mal
ein
terv
iew
er is
sim
ilar
to th
e in
dex
for
youn
g M
aori
mal
es in
Por
irua
stud
y
10
2
22
Tow
ards
a S
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
Sty
leB
ell &
Joh
nson
Tab
le 3
EH
Ind
ex in
spe
ech
by I
nfor
man
ts to
Int
ervi
ewer
s
To
Inte
rvie
wer
s
By
Info
rman
ts
Pine
MM
Pani
aM
FPa
ulPM
Jen
PF
Dun
can
MM
4626
19
Kay
MF
24
0
Lee
PM0
01
Sally
PF0
00
(Hol
mes
, Bel
l & B
oyce
199
1). K
ay th
e M
aori
wom
an a
lso
uses
som
e E
H, b
ut a
t a m
uch
low
er f
requ
ency
-on
ly 5
toke
ns. B
y co
n-tr
ast,
the
Pake
ha s
peak
ers
use
virt
ually
no
EH
. Sal
ly u
ses
abso
-lu
tely
non
e at
all,
and
ther
e is
onl
y 1
toke
n fr
om L
ee th
e Pa
keha
man
in n
earl
y fo
ur h
ours
of
reco
rded
talk
.W
e ca
n se
e th
us h
ow E
H is
fun
ctio
ning
mai
nly
as a
mar
ker
of g
roup
iden
tity
prim
arily
of
ethn
icity
(M
aori
), a
nd s
ec-
onda
rily
of
gend
er (
Mao
ri m
en).
Thi
s pa
ttern
of
usag
e fi
ts th
eas
soci
atio
n of
ling
uist
ic f
eatu
res
with
gro
up u
sage
whi
ch w
e ou
t-lin
ed in
the
sum
mar
y of
aud
ienc
e de
sign
abo
ve.
It a
lso
acco
rds
both
with
our
pre
viou
s fi
ndin
gs, a
nd w
ith p
opul
ar s
tere
otyp
e.T
urni
ng to
the
shif
ts w
hich
info
rman
ts m
ake
in d
iffe
rent
inte
rvie
ws,
as
hypo
thes
ized
in a
udie
nce
desi
gn, t
he s
peak
ers
use
diff
eren
t am
ount
s of
EH
with
dif
fere
nt in
terl
ocut
ors.
In
part
icul
ar,
Dun
can
the
Mao
ri m
an u
ses
EH
mor
e of
ten
in in
terv
iew
with
Pin
eth
e M
aori
mal
e, le
ss w
ith P
ania
the
Mao
ri w
oman
, lea
st w
ith P
aul
the
Pake
ha m
an. A
t a v
ery
muc
h lo
wer
leve
l of
freq
uenc
y, th
is is
para
llelle
d by
Kay
the
Mao
ri w
oman
info
rman
t. Sh
e us
es s
ome
EH
with
her
mos
t lik
e in
terl
ocut
or (
Pani
a th
e M
aori
wom
an),
less
with
Pin
e th
e M
aori
man
, and
non
e w
ith J
en th
e Pa
keha
wom
an(d
egpi
te th
e Pa
keha
fem
ale
inte
rvie
wer
usi
ng o
ne to
ken
of E
H h
er-
self
).T
hese
are
the
kind
s of
fin
e-gr
aine
d sh
ift w
hich
is th
e co
repr
inci
ple
of a
udie
nce
desi
gn a
s ou
tline
d ab
ove.
It c
onfo
rms
with
an in
terp
reta
tion
of E
H a
s a
mar
ker
of M
aori
iden
tity,
par
ticul
arly
for
men
.
BE
ST
CO
PY
AV
AIL
AB
LE11
U P
enn
Wor
king
Pap
ers
in L
ingu
istic
sV
olum
e 4.
1 (1
997)
5.2.
HR
Ts
by I
nfor
man
ts
The
Hig
h R
isin
g T
erm
inal
invo
lves
an
into
natio
n pa
ttern
in th
efo
rm o
f a
high
ris
e, q
uest
ioni
ng p
atte
rn, b
ut u
sed
on a
tone
gro
upw
hich
is a
sta
tem
ent.
One
inte
rpre
tatio
n is
that
its
use
indi
cate
she
sita
ncy
or d
oubt
, but
NZ
res
earc
hers
hav
e in
terp
rete
d it
as a
mar
ker
of in
tera
ctiv
e so
lidar
ity a
nd a
ffec
t (B
rita
in 1
992)
.T
his
feat
ure
is s
tere
otyp
ical
ly a
ssoc
iate
d in
New
Zea
land
mai
nly
with
youn
ger
Pake
ha w
omen
. The
res
earc
h pa
rtly
con
firm
s th
is. D
avid
Bri
tain
's f
indi
ngs
wer
e th
at H
RT
s ar
e us
ed m
ainl
y by
you
nger
spea
kers
(i.e
. our
gro
up o
f sp
eake
rs),
par
ticul
arly
by
wom
en, a
ndto
a le
sser
ext
ent b
y M
aori
.T
he r
esea
rch
has
also
sho
wn
that
HR
Ts
are
sens
itive
to th
e ge
nre
or te
xt ty
pe o
f th
e sp
eech
in w
hich
they
occ
ur, b
eing
par
ticul
arly
com
mon
in n
arra
tives
. The
ana
lyse
sw
e pr
esen
t unf
ortu
nate
ly s
till l
ack
this
sub
-cat
egor
izat
ion.
In T
able
4 S
ally
the
Pake
ha w
oman
use
s by
far
the
high
-es
t lev
el o
f H
RT
s. L
ee th
e Pa
keha
man
use
s ve
ry c
onsi
dera
bly
the
low
est,
and
the
othe
rs a
re in
bet
wee
n.So
the
iden
tific
atio
n of
HR
Ts
with
wom
en, p
artic
ular
ly P
akeh
a, s
eem
s co
nfir
med
, and
also
pos
sibl
y w
ith M
aori
.W
ho a
re H
RT
s us
ed to
? T
rack
ing
the
shif
ts b
etw
een
in-
terv
iew
s, w
e ca
n se
e th
at H
RT
s ar
e us
ed m
ore
to w
omen
than
tom
en. S
o D
unca
n, th
e M
aori
man
, use
s m
ost H
RT
s to
Pani
a th
eM
aori
wom
an, a
nd f
ewer
to th
e tw
o m
en w
ho a
lso
inte
rvie
wed
him
. Sal
ly th
e Pa
keha
wom
an u
ses
few
est t
o Pa
ul th
e Pa
keha
man
,
Tab
le 4
Hal
- In
dex
in s
peec
h by
Inf
orm
ants
to I
nter
view
ers
To
Inte
rvie
wer
s
By
Info
rman
ts
Pine
MM
Pani
aM
FPa
ulPM
Jen
PF
Dun
can
MM
3172
62
Kay
MF
3472
38
Lee
PM6
236
Sally
PF90
6080
12
23
Tow
ards
a S
ocio
lingu
istic
s of
Sty
leB
ell &
Joh
nson
mor
e to
the
two
wom
en w
ho in
terv
iew
edhe
r. T
he s
ame
patte
rnho
lds
for
Kay
the
Mao
ri w
oman
, alth
ough
her
fre
quen
cy to
Jen
the
Pake
ha w
oman
is c
lose
to th
at to
Pin
e th
e M
dori
man
.So
aga
in,
we
have
som
e co
nfir
mat
ion
that
the
info
rman
ts a
re s
hift
ing
thei
rst
yle
acco
rdin
g to
thei
r au
dien
ce f
or H
RT
s.B
ut q
uest
ions
rem
ain:
why
doe
s th
e Pa
keha
mal
ein
for-
man
t Lee
pro
duce
his
onl
y ap
prec
iabl
ele
vel o
f H
RT
s to
Pau
l, th
ePa
keha
mal
e in
terv
iew
er, a
nd n
ot in
par
ticul
ar to
the
Pake
ha
wom
an?
And
why
if H
RT
s ar
e pa
rtic
ular
ly id
entif
ied
with
Pake
ha w
omen
aren
't m
ore
used
to th
e Pa
keha
fem
ale
inte
r-
view
er J
en?
5.3.
EH
by
Inte
rvie
wer
s
So f
ar, s
o tid
y (m
ore
or le
ss).
Let
us
turn
now
to th
ein
terv
iew
ers'
usag
e of
EH
and
HR
T in
thes
e sa
me
inte
rvie
ws.
Her
e it
need
s to
be r
emem
bere
d th
at th
ese
wer
e no
t ord
inar
y co
nver
satio
ns w
ithbo
th p
artic
ipan
ts c
laim
ing
equa
l rig
hts
to s
peak
ing
time.
The
se
wer
e in
terv
iew
s, a
nd th
e in
terv
iew
ers
prov
ided
muc
h le
ss o
f th
eta
lk.
The
kin
d of
talk
they
pro
vide
d al
so n
eces
sari
ly m
ilita
ted
agai
nst u
sage
of
som
e of
thes
e pr
agm
atic
fea
ture
s.In
par
ticul
ar,
both
Y'K
NO
W a
nd H
RT
by
and
larg
e te
nd to
occ
ur in
a f
low
of
talk
of
a ki
nd w
hich
inte
rvie
wer
s ar
e no
t usu
ally
pro
duci
ng.
On
the
othe
r ha
nd th
eir
role
as
inte
rvie
wer
s is
to e
stab
lish
the
kind
of
rapp
ort w
ith th
e in
form
ants
that
will
enc
oura
ge th
em to
rela
x an
d ta
lk. T
hat i
s, th
e pr
essu
res
on th
e in
terv
iew
er to
acc
om-
mod
ate
to th
e in
form
ant a
re p
roba
bly
grea
ter
than
vic
e ve
rsa,
de-
spite
the
com
para
tivel
y lit
tle s
peak
ing
time
the
inte
rvie
wer
will
have
to d
ispl
ay th
is li
ngui
stic
ally
.T
able
5 s
how
s th
at th
e in
terv
iew
ers
use
mor
e E
H th
an th
ein
form
ants
(cf
Tab
le 3
) w
ith th
e on