Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008

Reproduction and Human Development(Miller Chapter 4)


The BIG Questions

How are modes of reproduction related to modes of production?

How does culture shape fertility in different contexts?

How does culture shape personality and human development over the life cycle?


Modes of Reproduction

A mode of reproduction is the predominant pattern of fertility in a culture (p. 80).

Fertility is the number of children a woman bears, or the rate of population growth.


Three Modes of Reproduction

There are three major modes of reproduction which correlate with several of the modes of production The foraging mode of reproduction The agricultural mode of reproduction The industrial/informatics mode of

reproduction


Foraging Mode of Reproduction Common among those with a foraging

mode of production Moderate birth and death rates

Average of about 2 children per woman survive to adulthood

Value of children: moderate (labor value) Children do not do much work


Foraging Mode of Reproduction Indirect means of fertility control: diet,

breastfeeding, work/exercise, spontaneous abortion Low body fat due to low fat diet and lots of

exercise – suppresses ovulation – fewer children

Long length of breastfeeding – suppresses ovulation – fewer children


Agricultural Mode of Reproduction Common among societies with an

agricultural, horticultural, and pastoralist mode of production

High birth rates, moderate/low death rates Average between 2 and 8 children per

woman


Agricultural Mode of Reproduction Value of children: high (labor value)

– Need for children to work the land, care for animals, process foods, etc.

– Pronatalism – an ideology promoting many children (p. 80)

– Increased reliance on direct means of birth control

Increasing specialization: midwives, herbalists


Industrial/Informatics Mode of Reproduction Common in societies with an

industrial/informatics mode of production

Stable or declining population Either replacement level fertility in which

the number of births equals the number of deaths, leading to maintenance of current population size

Or below-replacement level fertility in which the number of births is less than the number of deaths, leading to population decline


Industrial/Informatics Mode of Reproduction Low fertility and moderate/low mortality

Leading to aging population in many industrialized nations

Value of children: mixed or low (labor) Cost of raising children: high

Highly developed professional specializations

Mandatory formal schooling for children Parents have fewer children and invest

more resources in them


Industrial/Informatics Mode of Reproduction Social inequality is reflected in population

patterns – stratified reproduction Middle- and upper-class people – few children with

high survival rates Lower-class – higher fertility and higher mortality

rates Government policies may promote births in the

“native” population while discouraging births in the non-native population e.g. France

Increasing specialization and involvement in the scientific and medical community of all aspects of pregnancy and birth


Changes in the Population of Japan



Culture and Fertility

Culture affects: Sexual intercourse

Frequency and timing of sexual intercourse Fertility control

Why and when to have a child


Culture Shapes Reproduction at Several Levels

Cultural guidelines…

Government policies…

International organizations…

•when to start having sex

•how many children to have

•when to stop having sex and children


Fertility Decision Making

At the family level At the state level At the global level



At the family level 4 factors are most important in affecting

the desire for children Children’s labor value

High – higher fertility rates

Children’s value as old-age support for parents High – higher fertility rates

Infant and child mortality rates High – higher fertility rates

Economic costs of children High – lower fertility rates



At the family level Desire for children may differ based on the

parent Families may prefer sons, daughters, or a

combination of both, often depending upon the culture and the gender division of labor



At the state level State governments formulate policies that

affect rates of population growth within their boundaries Vary from being pronatalist (favoring many

births) To antinatalist (opposed to many births)



At the state level Factors that affect government policies

include… Projected jobs and employment levels Public services Maintaining the tax base Filling the ranks of the military Maintaining ethnic and regional proportions Dealing with population aging



At the global level Global corporations such as

pharmaceutical companies and religious leaders influence country-level and family-level decision making


Fertility Control People in all cultures since prehistory

have had ways of influencing fertility Methods to increase fertility Methods to reduce fertility Methods to regulate its spacing

Even among non-industrial cultures Research in Afghanistan in the 1980s

found over 500 fertility-regulating techniques in just one region!


Fertility Control Direct methods

Taking medicines or herbs that induce abortion, act as contraceptives, or increase fertility Cross-culturally, often the women who possess

the most information about these methods

Indirect methods e.g. Long periods of breast feeding to reduce

the chances of conception


Fertility Control

Induced abortion A review of 400 societies found that

induced abortion was practiced in virtually all of them Attitudes towards abortion very greatly Methods vary widely


Fertility Control Induced abortion

Reasons to induce abortion Economic reasons

Mobility Poverty

Cultural reasons “Illegitimate” child

Social penalties for bearing an illegitimate child are often motivations for abortion


Fertility Control Induced abortion

Governments intervene in family decisions to regulate access to abortion, either promoting it or forbidding it U.S.

Abortion legally allowed but the issue is often still hotly contested

China One-Child per-Couple Policy started in 1978

Often forced abortions and sterilizations Increase in female infanticide because of cultural

preference for sons Brazil

Predominantly Catholic country Outlawed abortion Still intense poverty, so in practice 1/3 of women had

abortions


Fertility Control New Reproductive Technologies

In vitro fertilization (IVF) Often used among middle- and upper-class

couples in the U.S. who cannot have children the “natural” way

Meanings depend on cultural context In Greece it seen as “natural” because it allows women

to realize a key aspect of their feminine nature through pregnancy and birth


Fertility Control

Infanticide Infanticide is the deliberate killing of offspring

Practiced cross-culturally, but is rarely a frequent practice within a culture

Direct infanticide Death of an infant or child resulting from actions such as

beating, smothering, poisoning, or drowning

Indirect infanticide A more subtle process, may involve prolonged practices

such as food deprivation, failure to take a sick infant to a clinic, or failure to provide warm clothing in winter


Fertility Control

Infanticide Motives include…

Having a “deformed,” very sick, or very ill child Sex of the infant Unwed mother – “illegitimate” child Too many children in the family Poverty

Can occur as a perceived necessity (creating “angel babies”) rather than as a result of cruelty


Infanticide as “Family Planning”

The killing of an offspring

Direct or indirect

•poverty•due to child deformity or sickness

•if child does not meet family expectations


Personality and Culture Personality is an individual’s patterned

and characteristic way of behaving, thinking, and feeling (p.88) Formed largely through enculturation

The process by which culture is passed from one generation to the next and through which individuals become members of their society

Also a genetic component to personality


Personality and Culture Psychological anthropology is the

study of the interactions between culture and personality


Personality and the Life Cycle

Birth and infancy Childhood Adolescence Adulthood


Birth and Infancy The cultural context of birth affects an

infant’s psychological development There are a variety of different cultural

practices that occur at birth which are considered essential for the baby’s physical and psychological welfare


Birth and Infancy Often times will have conflicting views about

what practices are essential between cultures Often requires someone to act as a cultural

broker – someone who is familiar with the practices and beliefs of two different cultures and can promote cross-cultural understanding to prevent or mediate conflicts


Birth and Infancy Pre-birth

Babies may also begin to be enculturated when a child is in the womb

Birth Members of the household play the key role

in enculturating the newborn Infant begins to develop a sense of self-

awareness About 2 years old in industrialized and post-

industrial societies A bit sooner in foraging societies




Birth and Infancy Bonding

Different cultures believe in different times and ways of bonding with children

U.S. Believe that should start bonding with baby at birth Adaptive in low-mortality/low-fertility societies

Brazil Bonding occurs several years after birth Adaptive in high-mortality/high-fertility societies


Birth and Infancy Naming

Personal names are important devices of self-definition in all cultures. Without a name an individual has no self, no identity

It is through naming that a social group acknowledges a child’s birthright and establishes it’s social identity

Naming varies cross culturally


Birth and Infancy

Oriented with surrounding world Object orientation Spatial orientation Temporal orientation Normative orientation


Infancy and Identity

Sex and Gender in Infancy Sex is something that everybody is born with

Has three biological markers: genitals, hormones, and chromosomes

Either male or female Gender is a cultural construction and is

highly variable across cultures Learned behaviors and ideas attributed to males,

females, or third genders Children are taught their gender roles beginning

in infancy Does not necessarily correlate to biological

characteristics (sex)


Gender and Identity Gender identity is influenced both by

biology and culture Many individuals born with XX (biological

female) or XY (biological male) Can choose to be culturally male, female, or a

third gender Some individuals are born as intersexuals

(about 1 percent of humans – over 60 million individuals worldwide) People who are born with reproductive organs,

genitalia, and/or sex chromosomes that are not exclusively male or female

Hermaphrodite – has both testicular and ovarian tissue Can choose or may be forced to be culturally male,

female, or a third gender


Gender and Identity http://www.thestar.com/sports/article/

693942 “Runner has male and female sex organs”

Caster Semenya of South Africa


Gender and Identity Gender identities can be fluid

Individuals might change their gender at different points in their lives Transgenders are people who cross over or

occupy a culturally accepted position in the binary male-female gender construction

Berdache in some native North American groups Amazon – a woman who takes on male roles and

behaviors Hijra in India Fa’afafines in Samoa Sambia people of New Guinea


Gender and Identity Intersexual, transgendered, and/or homosexual

individuals in U.S.

Transgendered individuals in the may be stigmatized or revered and well respected depending on the cultural context



Gender and IdentityGender identity and sexual orientation is determined by a mix of genetic and cultural factors

Gender pluralism – the existence within a culture of multiple categories of femininity, masculinity and androgyny that are tolerated and legitimate

“Third genders” – some cultures permit the expression of varied forms of sexual orientation: for example, the berdache


Childhood and Personality

Cross-cultural studies have shown two general patterns of child rearing (opposite ends of a spectrum) nurturant-responsible dependent-dominant


Childhood and Personality Nurturant-responsible child rearing

Emphasizes caring and sharing acts toward other children

Socializes children to think of themselves in terms of the larger whole

Prominent in areas where extended families raise children and where decisions are made collectively In foraging, egalitarian societies In horticultural societies In pastoral societies


Childhood and Personality Dependent-dominant child rearing

Emphasizes independence, self-reliance, and personal achievement

Children have fewer acts of caregiving, seek more attention, try to assert dominance over other children

Prominent in areas where parent(s) and offspring are the basic social unit In agricultural and industrialized/informatic societies, children

have fewer tasks and less responsibilities


Childhood and Personality Often in childhood other individuals

outside the household are brought into the enculturation process Extended relatives Peers School teachers in societies with formalized

schooling, such as the U.S.



Adolescence Puberty is a time in the human life cycle

that occurs universally and involves a set of biological markers

Adolescence is a culturally defined period of maturation from around the time of puberty until the attainment of adulthood Length of adolescence varies cross-culturally

Length and activities of adolescence varies by gender


Adulthood Usually thought of as the period of

entering into some form of marriage or long-term relationship and having children

In U.S., adulthood is often thought of as becoming economically self-sufficient

Often a rite of passage occurs during the transition from adolescence to adulthood May be a period of isolation May be circumcision or female genital cutting

(FGC) Giving birth


Adulthood Becoming a mother

Matrescence is the cultural process of becoming a mother Varies cross-culturally in terms of duration and

meaning In U.S. a woman becomes a mother when she

gives birth In other cultures it can be when conception occurs

or when a woman delivers an infant of the “right” sex or at the right time period in her life

Often a number of prenatal taboos, including food taboos, in cultures

Proper behavior insures a good delivery and a healthy baby


Adulthood Becoming a father

Patrescence is the cultural process of becoming a father Couvade are beliefs and customs applying to a

father during his wife’s pregnancy and delivery Often occurs in societies in where father have prominent

roles in child care Father is symbolically bearing some of the woman’s birth

pain Proper behavior insures a good delivery and a healthy

baby

Paternal involvement in child rearing varies cross-culturally



Example of paternal child care among the Aka of the Central African Republic


Adulthood Middle Age

Typically seen as being between 30 and 70 years old in industrial/informatics societies May occur earlier in societies where the life

expectancy is shorter For women, going through menopause is a

significant aspect of middle age Depending on the culture, can be a time of

stress or crisis, or it can be a time of relief


Adulthood The Senior Years

The elderly are variably recognized, defined, and valued in different cultures In many cultures, elders are highly revered and their

life experiences are valued as the greatest wisdom In other cultures, the elderly are perceived as

becoming burdens to their families and to society


Death In many industrialized societies such as the U.S.

A large resistance to death High dependence on medical technology Try to avoid it often at high financial and psychological

costs In many other cultures

Is a greater acceptance of death, but still have various rules and burial practices that must be followed if living relatives are to avert psychological suffering

Grief Outward expression varies greatly from huge displays

of ritualized mourning (Trobriand Islands) to no outside display of crying or grief (Bali, Indonesia)


Death

http://www.funeralplanning101.com/funeral-etiquette/attending-a-wake.aspx


Personality in Adulthood

Parenthood

• Role of mother and father shaped by culture

• Responsibility for childcare

Middle age

• Mid-life crisis and menopause: a Western obsession?

Old age

• Nonindustrial cultures respect the elderly more


Group Personality Trying to determine the personality or

“typical characteristics” of a large group, often a nation Tries to determine the “average” personality

of a member of a particular society “National character” studies

Popular in anthropology during the 1930’s and 1940’s

Tries to discover personality traits shared by the majority of the people of modern nation states


Group Personality Problems?


Group Personality

Problems? Who is average? Individual variations – not everyone will

behave this way Stereotyping What about microcultures? Sample size representative of a large group Subjective


Group Personality Modal personality of a group

The body of personality traits that occur with the highest frequency in a culturally bounded population

Is a statistical concept rather than the personality of an average person in a particular society1. So instead of typifying and generalizing the

average American as materialistic, recognize the variation that exists from non-materialistic to materialistic

2. Collect a variety of data3. Maybe can make a statement that based on this

data we find that 70% of the Americans sampled are materialistic, 30% are non-materialistic


Group Personality Core values of a group

The values promoted by a particular culture e.g. North Americans – value rugged

individualism Fits well with our mode of production and family life

e.g. China – value kin ties, cooperation, and mutual dependence

Allows for the fact that not all personalities will conform to cultural ideals


The BIG Questions Revisited

How are modes of reproduction related to modes of production?

How does culture shape fertility in different contexts?

How does culture shape personality and human development over the life cycle?


Samoa Tsunami

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5WdMAH8jboA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqS_7tk3Ec

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v0mTnu9ibFk

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qRgTiCQdMxg&NR=1

Documents

Reproduction and Human Development (Miller Chapter 4)