INTRODUCTION

The past decade has witnessed the emergence of new manufacturing technologies that build parts on a layer-by-layer basis. Using these technologies, manufacturing time for parts of virtually any complexity is reduced considerably. In other words, it is rapid. Rapid Prototyping Technologies and Rapid Manufacturing offer great potential for producing models and unique parts for manufacturing industry. Thus, the reliability of products can be increased; investment of time and money is less risky. Not everything that is thinkable today is already workable or available at a reasonable price, but this technology is fast evolving and the better the challenges, the better for this developing process.

Rapid Prototyping (RP) can be defined as a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data.

OR

Rapid prototyping is the fabrication of parts from CAD data sources.

There is a multitude of experimental RP methodologies either in development or used by small groups of individuals. This section will focus on RP techniques that are currently commercially available, including Stereo lithography (SLA), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM), Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Solid Ground Curing (SGC), and Ink Jet printing techniques.

• Rapid Prototyping (RP) techniques are methods that allow designers to produce physical prototypes quickly.

• It consists of various manufacturing processes by which a solid physical model of part is made directly from 3D CAD model data without any special tooling.

• The first commercial rapid prototyping process was brought on the market in 1987.

• Nowadays, more than 30 different processes (not all commercialized) with high accuracy and a large choice of materials exist.

• These processes are classified in different ways: by materials used, by energy used, by lighting of photopolymers, or by typical application range.

The term Rapid prototyping (RP) refers to a class of technologies that can automatically construct physical models from Computer-Aided Design (CAD) data. It is a free form fabrication

1

technique by which a total object of prescribed shape, dimension and finish can be directly generated from the CAD based geometrical model stored in a computer, with little human intervention. Rapid prototyping is an "additive" process, combining layers of paper, wax, or plastic to create a solid object. In contrast, most machining processes (milling, drilling, grinding, etc.) are "subtractive" processes that remove material from a solid block. RP’s additive nature allows it to create objects with complicated internal features that cannot be manufactured by other means. In addition to prototypes, RP techniques can also be used to make tooling (referred to as rapid tooling) and even production-quality parts (rapid manufacturing). For small production runs and complicated objects, rapid prototyping is often the best manufacturing process available. Of course, "rapid" is a relative term. Most prototypes require from three to seventy-two hours to build, depending on the size and complexity of the object. This may seem slow, but it is much faster than the weeks or months required to make a prototype by traditional means such as machining. These dramatic time savings allow manufacturers to bring products to market faster and more cheaply.

Use of Rapid Prototyping

The reasons of Rapid Prototyping are-

a. To increase effective communication.

b. To decrease development time.

c. To decrease costly mistakes.

d. To minimize sustaining engineering changes.

e. To extend product lifetime by adding necessary features and eliminating redundant features early in the design.

2

Prototyping

a. . Physical Model of the productb. . Degrees of Prototypingc. . Full Complete scale Model - functional modeld. . Scaled Model - functional/ simulated materiale. . Geometrical configuration

Methodology of Rapid Prototyping

The basic methodology for all current rapid prototyping techniques can be summarized as follows:

1.A CAD model is constructed, then converted to STL format. The resolution can be set to minimize stair stepping.

2.The RP machine processes the .STL file by creating sliced layers of the model.

3.The first layer of the physical model is created. The model is then lowered by the thickness of the next layer, and the process is repeated until completion of the model.

4.The model and any supports are removed. The surface of the model is then finished and cleaned.

3

BASIC PRINCIPAL OF RAPID PROTOTYPING

4

RP uses layer by layer additive approach to build shapes, RP systems use liquid, powder or sheet materials to form physical objects

5

The Basic Process

Although several rapid prototyping techniques exist, all employ the same basic five-step process. The steps are:

1. Create a CAD model of the design

2. Convert the CAD model to STL format

3. Slice the STL file into thin cross-sectional layers

4. Construct the model one layer atop another

5. Clean and finish the model

CAD Model Creation:- First, the object to be built is modeled using a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software package. Solid modelers, such as Pro/ENGINEER, tend to represent 3-D objects more accurately than wire-frame modelers such as AutoCAD, and will therefore yield better results. The designer can use a pre-existing CAD file or may wish to create one expressly for prototyping purposes. This process is identical for all of the RP build techniques. Conversion to STL Format: The various CAD packages use a number of different algorithms to represent solid objects. To establish consistency, the STL (stereolithography, the first RP technique) format has been adopted as the standard of the rapid prototyping industry. The second step, therefore, is to convert the CAD file into STL format. This format represents a three-dimensional surface as an assembly of planar triangles, "like the facets of a cut jewel." 6 The file contains the coordinates of the vertices and the direction of the outward normal of each triangle. Because STL files use planar elements, they cannot represent curved surfaces exactly. Increasing the number of triangles improves the approximation, but at the cost of bigger file size. Large, complicated files require more time to pre-process and build, so the designer must balance accuracy with manageability to produce a useful STL file. Since the STL format is universal, this process is identical for all of the RP build techniques.

Slice the STL File: In the third step, a pre-processing program prepares the STL file to be built. Several programs are available, and most allow the user to adjust the size, location and orientation of the model. Build orientation is important for several reasons. First, properties of rapid prototypes vary from one coordinate direction to another. For example, prototypes are usually weaker and less accurate in the z (vertical) direction than in the x-y plane. In addition, part orientation partially determines the amount of time required to build the model. Placing the shortest dimension in the z direction reduces the number of layers, thereby shortening build time. The pre-processing software

6

slices the STL model into a number of layers from 0.01 mm to 0.7 mm thick, depending on the build technique. The program may also generate an auxiliary structure to support the model during the build. Supports are useful for delicate features such as overhangs, internal cavities, and thin-walled sections. Each PR machine manufacturer supplies their own proprietary pre-processing software.

Layer by Layer Construction: The fourth step is the actual construction of the part. Using one of several techniques (described in the next section) RP machines build one layer at a time from polymers, paper, or powdered metal. Most machines are fairly autonomous, needing little human intervention. Clean and Finish: The final step is post-processing. This involves removing the prototype from the machine and detaching any supports. Some photosensitive materials need to be fully cured before use. Prototypes may also require minor cleaning and surface treatment. Sanding, sealing, and/or painting the model will improve its appearance and durability.

The Rapid Prototyping Technique

a) In the Rapid Prototyping process the 3D CAD data is sliced into thin cross sectional planes by a computer.

b) The cross sections are sent from the computer to the rapid prototyping machine which build the part layer by layer.

c) The first layer geometry is defined by the shape of the first cross sectional plane generated by the computer.

d) It is bonded to a starting base and additional layers are bonded on the top of the first shaped according to their respective cross sectional planes.

e) This process is repeated until the prototype is complete.

7

Classification of Prototyping Technology

I. Subtractive Processes (Material Removal)

A. Ex : Milling, turning, grinding, machining centers ,when used for prototype production

B. Degree of automation vary

II. Additive (Material Build-up)

A. Ex : Stereolithography

B. Degree of sophistication vary

III. Formative (Sculpture)

A. Ex : Forging, Casting

B. When used for Prototyping, it is usually manual

Sophistication of Prototyping Technology

Such Technology is known by different terms, such as :

a) Desktop Manufacturing

b) Rapid Prototyping

c) Tool-less Manufacturing

d) 3-D printing

e) Free form Fabrication (F3)

f) Fabrication process

The process must take a material in some shapeless form, and turn out solid objects with definite shape

g) Degree of Automation :

8

High degree of automation. Since Prototyping is a stage in a cycle, it is expected that the technology will enable “automated chaining” to the before and after links in the cycle.

h) Ability to build complex objects

The more complex the build object, the more sophistication in the technology.

i) Tooling (no Tooling): Less tools is better

j) One shot operations: No assembly of parts, ..etc.

k) Time: The less time the better it is

l) The closeness to serve the purpose of the prototype: Accurate representation of the design

m) Flexible: Modifications, addition of parameters, scaling

n) Equipment: size, weight, maintenance..etc

o) Economical: Both equipment and operating costs

p) Clean, safe operation

q) User friendly

9

Rapid Prototyping Techniques

Most commercially available rapid prototyping machines use one of six techniques. At present, trade restrictions severely limit the import/export of rapid prototyping machines, so this guide only covers systems available in the U.S.

1) Stereo lithography

2) 3-Dimensional Printing

3) Fused Deposition Modeling

4) Laminated Object Manufacturing

5) Selective Laser Sintering

1) Stereolithography

Patented in 1986, stereolithography started the rapid prototyping revolution. The technique builds three-dimensional models from liquid photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to ultraviolet light. As shown in the figure below, the model is built upon a platform situated just below the surface in a vat of liquid epoxy or acrylate resin. A low-power highly focused UV laser traces out the first layer, solidifying the model’s cross section while leaving excess areas liquid.

Next, an elevator incrementally lowers the platform into the liquid polymer. A sweeper re-coats the solidified layer with liquid, and the laser traces the second layer atop the first.

This process is repeated until the prototype is complete. Afterwards, the solid part is removed from the vat and rinsed clean of excess liquid. Supports are broken off and the model is then placed in an ultraviolet oven for complete curing.

Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA) machines have been made since 1988 by 3D Systems of Valencia, CA. To this day, 3D Systems is the industry leader, selling more RP machines than any other company. Because it was the first technique, stereolithography is regarded as a benchmark

10

by which other technologies are judged. Early stereolithography prototypes were fairly brittle and prone to curing-induced warpage and distortion, but recent modifications have largely corrected these problems.

Application Range

1) Parts used for functional tests2) Manufacturing of medical models3) Form –fit functions for assembly tests

Advantages

1) Possibility of manufacturing parts which are impossible to be produced conventionally in a single process

2) Can be fully atomized and no supervision is required.3) High Resolution4) No geometric limitations

Disadvantages

1) Necessity to have a support structure2) Require labor for post processing and cleaning

Desirable features of SL resin

a) Improved Impact resistance (less brittleness)

b) Greater Flexibility

c) Improved photospeed

d) Increased Strength

e) Better overall part accuracy

f) Electrical conductivity

g) High temperature resistance

h) Solvent resistance or vice versa

11

Fig- stereolithography

12

2) Laminated Object Manufacturing

In this technique, developed by Helisys of Torrance, CA, layers of adhesive-coated sheet material are bonded together to form a prototype. The original material consists of paper laminated with heat-activated glue and rolled up on spools. As shown in the figure below, a feeder/collector mechanism advances the sheet over the build platform, where a base has been constructed from paper and double-sided foam tape. Next, a heated roller applies pressure to bond the paper to the base. A focused laser cuts the outline of the first layer into the paper and then cross-hatches the excess area (the negative space in the prototype). Cross-hatching breaks up the extra material, making it easier to remove during post-processing. During the build, the excess material provides excellent support for overhangs and thin-walled sections. After the first layer is cut, the platform lowers out of the way and fresh material is advanced. The platform rises to slightly below the previous height, the roller bonds the second layer to the first, and the laser cuts the second layer. This process is repeated as needed to build the part, which will have a wood-like texture. Because the models are made of paper, they must be sealed and finished with paint or varnish to prevent moisture damage.

Fig - Laminated Object Manufacturing

13

Helisys developed several new sheet materials, including plastic, water-repellent paper, and ceramic and metal powder tapes. The powder tapes produce a "green" part that must be sintered for maximum strength. As of 2001, Helisys is no longer in business.

Application Range

a. Visual Representation models

b. Large Bulky models as sand casting patterns

Advantages

a. Variety of organic and inorganic materials can be used-

1. Paper, plastic, ceramic, composite

b. Process is faster than other processes

c. No internal stress and undesirable deformations

d. LOM can deal with discontinuities, where objects are not closed completely

Disadvantages

a. The stability of the object is bonded by the strength of the glued layers.

b. Parts with thin walls in the z direction cannot be made using LOM

c. Hollow parts cannot be built using LOM

3. Selective Laser Sintering

Developed by Carl Deckard for his master’s thesis at the University of Texas, selective laser sintering was patented in 1989. The technique, shown in Figure 3, uses a laser beam to selectively fuse powdered materials, such as nylon, elastomer, and metal, into a solid object.

Parts are built upon a platform which sits just below the surface in a bin of the heat-fusable powder.

14

Fig - Selective Laser Sintering

Application Range

a. Visual Representation models

b. Functional and tough prototypes

c. cast metal parts

Advantages

a. Flexibility of materials used-

i. PVC, Nylon, Sand for building sand casting cores, metal and investment casting wax.

b. No need to create a structure to support the part

c. Parts do not require any post curing except when ceramic is used.

15

Disadvantages

a. During solidification, additional powder may be hardened at the border line.

b. The roughness is most visible when parts contain sloping (stepped) surfaces.

A laser traces the pattern of the first layer, sintering it together. The platform is lowered by the height of the next layer and powder is reapplied. This process continues until the part is complete. Excess powder in each layer helps to support the part during the build. SLS machines are produced by DTM of Austin, TX.

4.Fused Deposition Modeling

In this technique, filaments of heated thermoplastic are extruded from a tip that moves in the x-y plane. Like a baker decorating a cake, the controlled extrusion head deposits very thin beads of material onto the build platform to form the first layer. The platform is maintained at a lower temperature, so that the thermoplastic quickly hardens. After the platform lowers, the extrusion head deposits a second layer upon the first. Supports are built along the way, fastened to the part either with a second, weaker material or with a perforated junction. Stratasys, of Eden Prairie, MN makes a variety of FDM machines ranging from fast concept modelers to slower, high-precision machines. Materials include ABS (standard and medical grade), elastomer (96 durometer), polycarbonate, polyphenolsulfone, and investment casting wax.

Application Range

a. Conceptual modelingb. Fit, form applications and models for further manufacturing proceduresc. Investment casting and injection molding

Advantages

a. Quick and cheap generation of modelsb. There is no worry of exposure to toxic chemicals, lasers or a liquid chemical bath.

Disadvantages

a. Restricted accuracy due to the shape of material used, wire is 1.27 mm diameter.

16

Fig - Fused Deposition Modeling

5.Solid Ground Curing

Developed by Cubital, solid ground curing (SGC) is somewhat similar to stereolithography (SLA) in that both use ultraviolet light to selectively harden photosensitive polymers. Unlike SLA, SGC cures an entire layer at a time. Figure 5 depicts solid ground curing, which is also known as the solider process. First, photosensitive resin is sprayed on the build platform. Next, the machine develops a photo mask (like a stencil) of the layer to be built. This photo mask is printed on a glass plate above the build platform using an electrostatic process similar to that found in photocopiers. The mask is then exposed to UV light, which only passes through the transparent portions of the mask to selectively harden the shape of the current layer.

17

After the layer is cured, the machine vacuums up the excess liquid resin and sprays wax in its place to support the model during the build. The top surface is milled flat, and then the process repeats to build the next layer. When the part is complete, it must be de-waxed by immersing it in a solvent bath. SGC machines are distributed in the U.S. by Cubital America Inc. of Troy, MI. The machines are quite big and can produce large models.

6.3-D Ink-Jet Printing

In this method roller is to distribute and compress the powder evenly in the fabrication chamber. The multi-channel jetting head then creates a layer of liquid adhesive in the geometry of the part in the bed of powder. A layer of the part geometry is created when the powder that containing liquid adhesive bonds and hardens.

When a layer is completed, the fabrication piston will move down in increments. These increments are specified to determine the layer thickness.

18

Additional layers are formed to create the entire part geometry. Once the part is completed, the fabrication piston is raised to expose the part. With the part exposed, the access powder can be brushed away.

Ink-Jet Printing refers to an entire class of machines that employ ink-jet technology. The first was 3D Printing (3DP), developed at MIT and licensed to Soligen Corporation, Extrude Hone, and others.

The ZCorp 3D printer, produced by Z Corporation of Burlington, MA is an example of this technology. As shown in Figure 6a, parts are built upon a platform situated in a bin full of powder material. An ink-jet printing head selectively deposits or "prints" a binder fluid to fuse the powder together in the desired areas. Unbound powder remains to support the part. The platform is lowered, more

powder added and leveled, and the process repeated. When finished, the green part is then removed from the unbound powder, and excess unbound powder is blown off. Finished parts can be infiltrated with wax, CA glue, or other sealants to improve durability and surface finish.

Typical layer thicknesses are on the order of 0.1 mm. This process is very fast, and produces parts with a slightly grainy surface. ZCorp uses two different materials, a starch based powder (not as strong, but can be burned out, for investment casting applications) and a ceramic powder. Machines with 4 color printing capability are available.

3D Systems’ version of the ink-jet based system is called the Thermo-Jet or Multi-Jet Printer. It uses a linear array of print heads to rapidly produce thermoplastic models (Figure 6d). If the part is narrow enough, the print head can deposit an entire layer in one pass. Otherwise, the head makes several passes.

Sanders Prototype of Wilton, NH uses a different ink-jet technique in its Model Maker line of concept modelers. The machines use two ink-jets (see Figure 6c). One dispenses low-melt thermoplastic to make the model, while the other prints wax to form supports. After each layer, a cutting tool mills the top surface to uniform height. This yields extremely good accuracy, allowing the machines to be used in the jewelry industry.

19

Ballistic particle manufacturing, depicted in Figure 6b, was developed by BPM Inc., which has since gone out of business.

Other Processes

Ballistic Particle Manufacturing (BPM) –

• This process uses a 3D solid model data to direct streams of material at a target.

3D Printing –

• It creates parts by layered printing process. The layers are produced by adding a layer of powder to the top of a piston and cylinder containing a powder bed and the part is being fabricated.

Model Maker

• It uses ink jet printer technology with 2 heads. One deposits building material, and the other deposits supporting wax.

Rapid Prototyping Resin

a) Basic Polymer Chemistry

a. SL Resin : It is a liquid photocurable resin1. Characteristics-2. Fully 100% reactive component3. Energy efficient requiring 50 to 100 times less energy than

thermally cured coatings

20

b. Polymerization : It is the process of linking small molecules (monomers) into larger molecules (polymers) comprised of many monomer units.

c. As polymerization occurs (chemical reaction) many properties changes, shear strength increase, density increased as resin changes from liquid to solid (shrinkage)

d. Polymerization occurs in SL through the exposure of liquid resin to laser. The layer thickness to be polymerized is given by the amount of liquid which has been recoated onto the part, and any excess laser radiation that penetrates this layer acts to slightly increase the curing of the previous layers.

e. The important properties for selecting the resin has to do with posture shrinkage and the resulting posture distortions.

Desirable features of SL resin

a) Improved Impact resistance (less brittleness)

b) Greater Flexibility

c) Improved photospeed

d) Increased Strength

e) Better overall part accuracy

f) Electrical conductivity

g) High temperature resistance

h) Solvent resistance or vice versa

Some measures to reduce distortions

a) Use high exposure and slow scan speed such that polymerization is essentially complete under the laser spot.

b) Use resin with a faster rate of polymerization

c) Decrease laser power to decrease scan speed for a given exposure.\

d) Use low-shrinkage resin

e) Increase layer thickness to increase the strength

21

Applications of Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping is widely used in the automotive, aerospace, medical, and consumer products industries………..

1 .Engineering –

The aerospace industry imposes stringent quality demands. Rigorous testing and certification is necessary before it is possible to use materials and processes for the manufacture of aerospace components.

Yet, Boeing's Rocketdyne has successfully used RP technology to manufacture hundreds of parts for the International Space Station and the space shuttle fleet. The company also uses RP to manufacture parts for the military's F-18 fighter jet in glass-filled nylon .Another not yet mature idea is to have a RP machine on board of the International Space Station (ISS) to produce spare parts for repair jobs. Models are widely used in automotive industry for design studies, physical experiments etc.

Functional parts have been used for titanium casting have been made by RP techniques for parts in F1 racing cars.

2.Architecture -

The Department of Architecture at the University of Hongkong is applying Rapid Prototyping Technology for teaching students about the new possibilities in testing there draft, e.g. for lighting conditions, mechanical details. One example is the Sidney Opera House.

3.Medical Applications-

RPT has created a new market in the world of orthodontics. Appearance conscious adults can now have straighter teeth without the embarrassment of a mouth full of metal. Using

22

stereolithography technology custom-fit, clear plastic aligners can be produced in a customized mass process.

The RP world has made its entry into the hearing instrument world too. The result is instrument shells that are stronger, fit better and are biocompatible to a very high degree. The ear impression is scanned and digitized with an extremely accurate 3-D scanner. Software specially developed for this converts the digital image into a virtual hearing instrument shell .Thanks to the accuracy of the process, instrument shells are produced with high precision and reproducibility.

This means the hearing instruments fit better and the need for remakes is reduced. In the case of repairs, damage to or loss of the ITE instrument, an absolutely identical shell can be manufactured quickly, since the digital data are stored in the system.

4.Arts and Archeology –

Selective Laser Sintering with marble powders can help to restore or duplicate ancient statues and ornaments, which suffer from environmental influences. The originals are scanned to derive the 3D data, damages can be corrected within the software and the duplicates can be created easily. One application is duplicating a statue . The original statue was digitized and a smaller model was produced to serve a base for a bronze casting process.

5.Rapid Tooling –

A much-anticipated application of rapid prototyping is rapid tooling, the automatic fabrication of production quality machine tools.

Tooling is one of the slowest and most expensive steps in the manufacturing process, because of the extremely high quality required. Tools often have complex geometries, yet must be dimensionally accurate to within a hundredth of a millimeter. In addition, tools must be hard, wear-resistant, and have very low surface roughness (about 0.5 micrometers root mean square).

To meet these requirements, molds and dies are traditionally made by CNC-machining, electro-discharge machining, or by hand. All are expensive and time consuming, so manufacturers would like to incorporate rapid prototyping techniques to speed the process.

6.Design-

a) CAD model Verification

b) Visualizing object

c) Proof of concept

23

d) Engineering, Analysis and planning

e) Form and fit models

f) Flow analysis

g) Stress distribution

h) Mock-up

i) Diagnostic and surgical operation planning

j) Design and fabrication of custom prosthesis and

k) Implant

7.Manufacturing and tooling-

a) Plastic mold parts

b) Vacuum casting

c) Metal spraying

d) Casting

e) Sand casting

f) Investment casting

g) Die casting

h) EDM electrodes

i) Master models

24

RPT vs. conventional technologies

RPT does not—and will not—replace completely conventional technologies such NC and high-speed milling, or even hand-made parts. Rather, one should regard RPT as one more option in the toolkit for manufacturing parts. Figure 14 depicts a rough comparison between RPT and milling regarding the costs and time of manufacturing one part as a function of part complexity10. It is assumed, evidently, that the part can be manufactured by either technology such that the material and tolerance requirements are met.

25

ADVANTAGES OF RAPID PRPTPTYPING

1) Rapid Prototyping can provide with concept proof that would be required for attracting funds.

2) The Prototype gives the user a fair idea about the final look of the product.

3) Rapid prototyping can enhance the early visibility.

4) It is easier to find the design flaws in the early developmental stages.

5) Active participation among the users and producer is encouraged by rapid prototyping6) .7) As the development costs are reduced, Rapid prototyping proves to be cost effective.

8) The user can get a higher output.

9) Strength, Elasticity and Temperature Resistance.

10) Typical quantities

11) Standard accuracy

12) Time Savings

13) Surface structure

14) Cost

15) Use any type of model

DISADVANTAGES OF RAPID PROTOTYPE

1) Some people are of the opinion that rapid prototyping is not effective because, in actual, it

fails in replication of the real product or system.

2) Disadvantage of rapid prototyping is that it may not be suitable for large sized applications.

3) The user may have very high expectations about the prototype’s performance and the

designer is unable to deliver these.

26

4) The system could be left unfinished due to various reasons or the system may be

implemented before it is completely ready.

Conclusion

Finally, the rise of rapid prototyping has spurred progress in traditional subtractive methods as well. Advances in computerized path planning, numeric control, and machine dynamics are increasing the speed and accuracy of machining. Modern CNC machining centers can have spindle speeds of up to 100,000 RPM, with correspondingly fast feed rates. 34 Such high material removal rates translate into short build times.

For certain applications, particularly metals, machining will continue to be a useful manufacturing process. Rapid prototyping will not make machining obsolete, but rather complement it.

Rapid prototyping is starting to change the way companies design and build products. On the horizon, though, are several developments that will help to revolutionize manufacturing as we know it. One such improvement is increased speed. "Rapid" prototyping machines are still slow by some standards.

By using faster computers, more complex control systems, and improved materials, RP manufacturers are dramatically reducing build time. Another future development is improved accuracy and surface finish.

Today’s commercially available machines are accurate to ~0.08 millimeters in the x-y plane, but less in the z (vertical) direction. Improvements in laser optics and motor control should increase accuracy in all three directions. In addition, RP companies are developing new polymers that will be less prone to curing and temperature-induced warpage. The introduction of non-polymeric materials, including metals, ceramics, and composites, represents another much anticipated development. These materials would allow RP users to produce functional parts.

27

Another important development is increased size capacity. Currently most RP machines are limited to objects 0.125 cubic meters or less. Larger parts must be built in sections and joined by hand. To remedy this situation, several "large prototype" techniques are in the works.

One future application is Distance Manufacturing on Demand, a combination of RP and the Internet that will allow designers to remotely submit designs for immediate manufacture.

28

References

1) Recent Design Trand IEI

2) Elements of Workshop Technology (2nd edition)

3) Rapid prototyping journal (ISSN No. 1355-2546)

4) www.wikipedia.com

5) www.seminarreport.com

6) www.slideworld.com

29