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REPORT ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF THE BENEFICIARIES
OF THE PROPOSED WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMME
PREPARED FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT,
GOVERNMENT OF MAHARASHTRA " AND
THE WORLD BANK
BY ------~BOGRESSIVE RESEARCH AIDS PVT. LTD.
18, SITABAG COLONY
PUNE- 411 030
AUGUST 1992
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REPORT ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDY OF THE BENEFICIARIES
OF THE PROPOSED WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAHKE
PREPARED FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT, GOVERNMENT OF MAHARASHTRA
AND THE WORLD BANK ·
BY
PROGRESSIVE RESEARCH AIDS PVT. LTD. 18, SITABAG COLONY
PUNE - 411 030 ,.
AUGUST 1992
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
SOCIO RCONOKIC STUDY OF THE BENEFICIARIES OF THE PROPOBHD WATHR BUPP~V AND SANITATION PROGRAMME
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1. .s 1.6 1.7 1.8
l 1
2. 1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2. 10 2. 11
I I [
3. 1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8
IV
4. 1
4.3 4.4 4.5
CONTENTS OF VOLUME - 1
INTRODUCTION
Background State of Maharashtra Water and Sanitation programme Objectives of the Study Methodology Analysis of Data Operational Deflnations Presentation of Findings
SAMPLE VILLAGES AND HOUSEHOLDS SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE
Samp 1 e villages Village population size Location of sample villages Existing sources of water in sample uil lages Demographic characteristics of households Main occupation of the households Ownership of land and irrigation Ownership of assets Educational level Housing Cash income and monthly saving
HYGIENE : PERSONAL AND AT PUBLlC PLACES
Introduction Approach roads to the vii lages Construction and maintenance of gutters Garbage disposal Maintenace of cattle Sources of drinking water Personal hygiene Conclusions
DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
Background
Piped water supply
PRESENT CONDITIONS, PRACTICES AND DEMAND
EKtent of dependence on sources of water Distance from source of water Months of use Waiting at source of water
PAGE t-10.
1
s 6 6
14 15 18
20 20 21
22 23 24 25 26 :28 28
36 36 37 39 40 40 41 42
43
43
43 47 48 48
CHAPTER
SOCIO ECONOMIC STUDY OF THE BENEFICIARIES OF THE PROPOSED WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMME
4.6 4.7 4.8
4.9 4. 10 4. 11 4. 12 4. 13 4. 14 4. 15 4. 16 4. 17
l I
4. 1.B 4. 19
4.20
4.21
4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 I;. 29 4.30 4.31
! I I
4.32
v
5. 1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5
5.6
CONTENTS OF VOLUME - I
Time required for fetching water Who fetches water Types of containers used for bringing stot'age of water Use of water at the residence Treatment at source Treatment of water Bathing habits Washing and cleaning habits Water requirement for cattle Water requirement for other purposes Willingness to pay for piped water Demand for private water supply connections
Bore wei l supply
Backgl.'ound Dependence of vii lages on various sources of water Dependence of households on various sources of water Extent of dependence of householdes on various sources Distance from the source Months of dependence on various sources Who fetches water Time required for fetching water Waiting time at the source of water Method of taking water from the containers Treatment of water Bathing habits Washing clothes Consumption of water for different purposes
Water Samples
Analysis of water samples
LATRINES PRESENT CONDITIONS, PRACTICES AND DEMAND
Introduction Present situation concerning latrines Types o£ latrines used Ownership of Latrines Profile of the villages having a large population of latrines The Profile of households using latrines
PAGE NO.
48 49 49
50 51 51 51 52 52 53 53 54
57
57 57
59
60
60 61 62 62 63 63 64 64 64 65
66
66
69 69 70 70 71
72
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECT ION
SRCTlON
SECTION
SOClO RCONOMIC STUDY OF THE BENRFICIARIES OF THE PROPOSED WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMME
5.7 5.8 5.9 5. 10
v 1
a. 1 6.:2 6.3 6.4 s.s 6.6 €L 7
VI I
7. 1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5
V l I 1
B. 1 8.2 8.3 8.4 B.S 8.6 8.7
CONTENTS OF VOLUME - 1
Practices of non-users of latrines Requirement of latrine Willingness to pay for latrine Demand for Latrines
COHHUNITV PARTICIPATION AND ROLE OF VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS
Background Types of organisation Maitreyi - A case study Jyotana Arogya Prabodhan - A case study Nav Nirman Trust - A case study Conclusions List of Voluntary Organisations
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Soclo-eaonomlc profile Personal and community hygiene Water supply Latrines Role of non - Governmental agencies
STRATEGY FOR -IMPLEMENTATION
The ta.sk ahead Role of Non-Governmental organisations Organisational requirements Recommendations Motivating the voluntary organisations Training needs Financial implications
CONTENTS OF VOLUME- II
LIST OF VILLAGES COVERED IN THE SAMPLE
I! DISTRICT HAPS
Ill CASE STUDIES OF TWO VILLAGES
IV SOCIAL HAPS OF VILLAGES
V HOUSEHOLDS MAPS IN SAMPLE VILLAGES
VI DlSTRlCT TABLES
PAGE NO.
74 75 77 78
82 82 83 85 85 86 87
91 93 94 96 97
98 100 104 106 109 110 111
PAGE NOS.
i -- 12
13 - 24
2S - 32
33 - 46
47 ·- 80
81 - 77
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The rural water supply and sanitation are important factors that could improve the quality of life of the people living in vi! !ages. Though it cannot be said that this subject is neglected in India, it is a. fa.ct tha.t evan a.fter 43 years of independence, people in man·r villages do not have access to drinking water, more so in the summer. In Maharashtta, even in high rainfall areas, many vii lagas experience acute water scarcity. The decade of 1981-90 was declared as the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitaion Decade by the
United Nations General Assembly. The National Drinking Water Mission was launched in India in 1966 to give a sense of urgency to the task of covering all the problem villages by 1990. As per the reports the mission has made impressive progress in its work with the help of its five sub-missions appointed, respectively for li) Controlling of bra.kishness (iil Controlling of fluorosis <iii) Remova.! of excess iron liv) Guineaworm eradication lv) Scientific source finding, cons e r .,., a. t i on of ~fa. t e r a. n d r e c h a. r g i n g of a. c q u i fer s .
In addition, 55 Mini Missions were set up to provide sufficient attention to the most difficult parts of the country; two of them were in Latur and Satara districts of Maharashtra. This shows the recent interest in the subject of rural water supply at the Central Government level. These efforts will have to be strengthened by making additional resources available and by eliciting people's participation. While, for drinking water supply, there are considerable efforts being made, rural sanitation is mostly neglected. The disposal of domestic wasta, cattle waste, waste water and also of human excreta is allowed to take place in a most undesirable manner in most of the villages in India. Though personalities like Mahatma Gandhi have devoted considerable time and energy in teaching and demonstrating hygienic ways of doing things, we have not made much progress in five decades. There is a need for massive intervention in improving the rural sanitation and drinking wa.ter supply.
The interest shown by the World Bank in the project in Maharashtra is therefore a welcome step. The World Bank has placed emphasis on financial performance and steady institutional evolution and on the need .for universal access to minimal services in lending* activities in support of water supply and waste disposal development . The four important aspects of attention listed by the Bank are li) Institution Building, {ii) Training of staff for promotion, health and extension a.s well a.s technical a.nd commercial personnel, {iii) Proper choices to be made with regard to the technology to be used in different areas, the level of services to be made available, the phasing of improvements, the charging of consumers of different income groups, etc. and livl Selection of programmers with proper
• Refer Water supply and Waste Disposal, Poverty and Basic Needs series IBRD, 1980.
1
balance among the three essential complementary services, viz.,watar supply, waste disposal and hygiene education.
Since water and excreta are prominent factors in the transmission of the more serious diseases of the develop{~g world, a programme of safe drinking water, construction of latrines and rural sanitation has been taken up by the Government of Mahara~htra with the World Bank assistance.
The project envisages the improvement in the water supply and sanitation facilities of the beneficiaries and thereby reduction in the incidence of diseases due to impure water supply and poor sanitation. It is also desired that the general awareness of sanitation and the people's participation in expanding such awareness wil I increase in future, both because of these facilities as well as the communication efforts that are being planned, Since implementation of all these schemes involves sizeable capital and maintenance costs, it is expected that this cost should be equitably borne by the beneficiaries to the maximum possible extent.
The Government of Maharashtra, therefore, desired to undertake socioeconomic studies of the beneficiaries in order to collect benchmark information, which could be used in comparing with the results obtained in subsequent years; to collect benchmark information concerning the willingness and capacity to pay for the improved water supply and sanitation facilities and to provide guidelines for the implementation of the programme. The socio-economic study was conducted on behalf of the Government of Maharashtra by the Progressive Research Aids Pvt. Ltd. Puna, for the ten districts selected for the programme. Before we go into the objectives, methodology ate. of the study, we will present salient fe~tures of the St~ta of Maharashtra.
1.2 THE STATE OF MAHARAHSTRA
The state of Mah~rashtra was founded in the year 1960 by separ~ting
the bilingual S~ate of Bombay into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The two regions of Vidharbha and Marathwada which are presently part of Maharashtra belonged respectively to M~dhya Pr~dash and the Hyderabad State, prior to 1956. One, therefore,finds a distinct heterogenity among Vidarbha, Marathawada and the rest of the regions of the Maharashtra state.
The area of the state is 308 thousand sq.km. and is the third largest in the country. It has a population of 62.8 mil I ion parsons as per the 1981 census and is the third l~rgest state in the country on the basis of population. Its per c~pita income was the highest in the country earlier, but its current rank is third in the country with Punjab and Haryana states baing above it. The literacy rate of Maharashtra is 47.2 per cent and is higher than that of the ~ountry
as a whole which is 36.2 par cant. The state ranks high on many of the indicators of socio-economic develcipmant mainly due to substantial growth of industry and trade in and around the City of Bombay. The state has a tradition of stable government. The state government is generally known as comparatively more efficient.
2
Owing to historical reasons, much of the industrial development ha.s occured in the Bombay-Poona region although in recent years its influence has extended to certain isolated areas like Nasik, Aurangabad, Kolhapur, Solapur and Nagpur. Bombay, Pune and Nagpur cities are the three large cities with populations of over 10 lakh persons. There are 11 Municipal Corporations in the state.
The rural population of the state is 65 per cent of the total population. This percentage turns out to be 75 per cent when Bombay is excluded. Rural Maharashtra is still predominantly agriculture based. There are considerable differences in the cropping pattern between the regions, reflecting differences in the soil, climate, rainfall, etc. The Konkan with its heavy rainfall and hilly terrain, is a producer of rice, ragi (a small millet) and fodder crop~, which account for more than 80 per cent of the total cropped area of the region. The humid climate and the well drained soils have also made the region a natural home for such horticultural crops as mango, cashewnut and coconut. The 'Alphonso' mango of this region is popular, the world over. Large parts of Western Mahar.ashtra fall in the rain-shadow region with jowar, bajra, pulses and groundnut as major crops. The development of irrigation has contributed to widespread large scale cultivation of sugarcane in this region. The establishment of co-operative sugar factories and their spectacular success in this region has led to increase in acreage under sugarcane cultivation. The sugar factories have now expanded their activities beyond the production of sugar and byproducts; and have taken to education, health and other social development activities in their vicinity. The socio-economic scene in the sugar belt has changed considerably. Seeing this, the demand for establishing sugar factories is coming up from the other regions in a big way though the factories already started in these regions are yet to run on sound footing. The Marathawada region mainly bears features of agriculture as practised in a dry climate with jowar, bajra, pulses, cotton and oilseeds as major crops. By contrast, the pattern obtaining in Vidarbha is highly diversified, since the region has relatively high rainfall in its eastern districts and dry climate with moderate rainfall in the western area. As a result, the region grows in abundance, the wet crops such as rice in the east and rainfed crops like jowar, cotton and pulses in the west. Though the western part. of Vidharbha produces cotton on a large scale, the textile mills are not located in the region in a large number. The Vidharbha region is also endowed with good forest resources.Chandrapur and Gadchiroli districts and parts of Bhandara have major forest areas. Western ghats, where rainfall is heavy and some parts of Nasik, Sindhudurg and Thane also have forests.
The road passenger transport system is nationalised and the State Road Transport Corporation has done commendable work in the State. Almost all the villages are accessible by bus although difficulties are faced in reaching some villages in the rainy season. All the villages in the state are electrified.
Primary Credit Societies are in existence in every village in the state. Co-operative movement is much better developed in the Western Maharashtra, including; milk co-operatives.
3
Similarly, multipurpose co-operative societies are existance in all the regions. The Panchayati Raj system is also adopted in the state. As a result, in every village, either a milk co-operative society or a multipurpose co-operative society exists.
Although Maharashtra state is better placed compared to many other states, rural poverty is to the extent of 40 per cent. There is substantial unemployment in certain pockets and hidden underemployment exists everywhere. Village life, socio-economic conditions, housing patterns and rural culture are different in different parts of the state.
Scheduled tribes constitute 9.19 per cent of the population of the state. This is mainly concentrated in the district of Dhule, Naaik, Thane, Chandrapur, Amaravati, Gadchiroli and Nanded. If one goes by talukas, there are in all 14 talukas where the tribal population is more than 50 per cent of the taluka's total population. Of these, four are in Dhule, three in Nasik, five in Thane and one each in Amaravati and Chandrapur districts.
Let us look at the village settlements in these regions. In the Western Ghat districts,the villages are generally situated on high elevated ground alongside a stream, river or some other water source. Within the village site there is usually a temple and/or a 'chavadi' which serves as a centre for village meetings, where all social business is transacted. Surrounding the 'chavadi' stand the village houses, the scheduled castes usually having their houses on the outskirts of the village. Where the village site is not sufficiently large to hold the growing population, there arise hamlets (wadis/wastis) to which a section of the population shifts. The hamlets however, continue to be administered as part of the main village and are attached to the main village for social, religious and other matters. A hamlet is generally a cluster of hutments/houses belonging to one or more families whose fields lie in the immediate neighbourhood.
In the Konkan, the village type differs from the earlier type. Here, there are no well defined village sites or 'chavadis' and the villagers stay in clusters near their fields, generally on high elevated lands. In the case of garden lands, they have their houses on the land itself. Near the sea-coast, the villages are generally settled on both sides of the road and the houses stand in their own compound with their fruit and coconut gardens, fenced on all sides.
In the Vidarbha region, the population of the village is concentrated in one common residential site known as 'Gaothan'. In Marathawada districts the villages are often situated on unculturable stony land near a nalla and they are walled. Walled villages are also found in parts of Kolhapur and Jalgaon and some other districts of Western Maharashtra. In the coastal districts, none of the villages are walled.
4
1.3 THE WATER AND SANITATION PROGRAMME
The Goverement of Maharashtra has formulated a scheme to improve water supply and sanitation facilities including construction of twopit latrines and implement the same with the World Bank assistance. The scheme covers the following ten districts.
1. Thana 6. Bu I dha.na
2. Ahmedna.gar 7. Cha.ndrapur
3. Puna 8, Aurangaba.d
4. Satara 5. Sangli 9. Baed 10. Latur
These districts are henceforth referred to as project districts.
There are three schemes of water supply, namely, piped water supply, borewell and hydrofracturing of old borewells. For piped water supply, the vi lla.ge ~dong with its hamlets if any, is covered. The borewe\1 programme covers 148 villages along with their hamlets, if any and in addition, covers 621 hamlets. The number of vii !ages or hamlets covered and beneficiaries of the schemes are shown in Table 1.1.
TABLE 1. 1
Scheme
Piped water supply
Borewell water supply
Hydrofracuturing
Total
COVERAGE OF THE WATER SUPPLY SCHEME
No. of villages/ Hamlets
571 Vi I l ages 51 Hamlets
2 Towns
148 Vi l l a.ges 621 Ha.m lets
305 Vi\ \ages
1024 Vi I I ages 672 Hamlets
2 Towns
No. of Beneficiaries l La.khs)
11. 22
2.96
4.34
18.52
The districtwise details of the scheme are given in Appendix Table 1. The sanitation and latrine programmes are to be implemented in all these 1024 and 672 hamlets and 2 towns, which are col !actively referred to as project villages and towns in the subsequent analysis.
Coverage of the Study
The Socio-Economic Study conducted covers the villages and hamlets under the piped water supply scheme and borewell scheme only. The villages under hydrofracturing were kept out of the scope of the p r e sen t s t u d y • F u r the r , i t w a. s dec i d e d t h a t a I I the ten p r o j e c t districts should be covered in the study and hence the sample of vi lla.g8s w;;~.s dra.wn from each of these ten districts.
5
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The socio-economic study was conducted with the following major objectives :
il Assessment of socio-economic conditions of the beneficiaries with special reference to the existing sanitation and hygiene practices, including refuge and sullage disposal and rain water disposal.
iil Understanding willingness and capacity to pay for water-supply and sanitation facilities.
i i il Deb~rmina.tion
implementing faci 1 ities.
role which the community could play in planning and maintaining the water supply and sanitation
ivl Establishing a methodology for Community-Government intera.ction in the selection, planning and execution of these facilities.
1.5 METHODOLOGY
In conducting the study, following considerations were kept in view
a) The socio-economic part of the study would high! ight the aspects associated with water-supply, sanitation and health. It was decided to avoid the general purpose questions, <like names of family members and their details, agricultural practices followed by the households, etc. I as also those which had no direct or indirect relationship with the aspects under study, It kept the questionnaire tidy and also enabled the investigator to probe, in more details, into the aspects under study without causing the interviewer and respondent fatigue.
bl The provision of protected water supply does not stop with the supply of pure water at common taps or at wei Is. Many research findings indicate that water can and does get contaminated in the processs of transport, storage and handling. These aspects, therefore, were also listed to be probed into, for understanding the importance of this problem and for suggesting appropriate policy measures.
cl At present, the problem of water supply is viewed by the villagers only from the point of view of its adequacy and the distance of the house from the source. Its health implications are not always clear to them. It is possible that the willingness to pay for protected water supply might improve, if the respondents are made aware of these implications. It was, therefore, decided to ask questions concerning willingness both before and after informing them of the health implications.
dl The above aspect is also important in probing into the demand for latrines and the willingness of the respondents to pay for them. It is, however, slightly more difficult tha.n in the ca.se of water supply. While the •drinking wa.ter suppty• is a felt need and
6
therefore, its demand could be regarded as equivalent to its requirement, the need for latrines is yet to be felt by all classes of people. At one end of the spectrum therefore, one might gat households which may flatly deny any need of latrines while, at the oth~r and, there would be households who may be willing to pay for a privata latrine which has all the modern facilities like flushing. ln this respect the following hypotheses, which are frequently put forward, were set to be tested
il Women perceive the 'need' of the latrines more than man.
iil Women might be able to influence the decision of conitructing/using the latrine.
i i i )
i v )
Private latrines are preferable to pub! ic latrines.
Maintena..nca of possible.
public latrines is mora or lass not
v) Evan if latrines are constructed, children may not be encouraged to use them.
vi) Latrines, baing traditionally looked necessarily have to be away from premises.
1..1pon the
a.s uncI ea.n, residential
viii Persons who have shifted themselves from cities/towns to villages <like those employed in banks, offices etc.) or those who are more educated feel the need of the latrines more than others.
viii) Households having bio-gas plants are likely to be more receptive to the construction of latrines than others.
ixl If the respondent is made aware of implied health benefits of two-pit la.trines, their easy construction and maintenance, the absence of any obnoxious smells, the low costs of construction and maintenance and the requirement of vary small space, many of the presently unwilling respondents might change their opinion in favour of private/shared latrines and might even be willing to share their costs.
x) Village level characteristics such as population, nearness to urban centre,naarness to highway,atc.might have bearing on the level of awareness and tha demand as well as willingness to pay for various facilities.
e) The above considerations suggested that the demand for water supply and latrines was influenced by the attitudes of people and in turn it could be altered, through knowledge.Moreover, it wa.s evolutionary; changing with learning, demonstration and experience. In understanding the present demand, it we~.s therefore felt necessary to eKamine the following factors :
7
How much was it influenced by lack of knowledge 7 How much could it increase by improving knowledge ? How much could it be influenced by various factors education, urba.n influence, environment (ra.infa.ll ), a.vai la.bi 1 ity of water, bio-gas plants, etc. ? How much was it influenced by past experiences 7
l ike
What roles have the Government Agencies/Voluntary Agencies played in setting the present attitudes/demand patterns 7 To what extent would the supply of latrines improve public hea.l th 7
fl The willingness and ability to pay is, therefore not considered as the function of only economic factors. These were also seen to be influenced by social and psychological considerations, as also by the level of knowledge. The construction of the questionnaire, its administration and later its analysis, therefore required a lot of planning as also careful field-work and its supervision.
The examination of all these aspects needed a methodology which would use various sources and ways of collecting information. Thus, for example, the information concerning practices followed by the respondents in the case of hygiene can best be collected by observing the respondents' actual behaviour than, by putting to them questions like • Do you wash your hands before taking meals ?w. Similarly, the differences in attitudes of men and women cannot always be explained by the respondents themselves. They would be best explained by persons I ike' social workers, teachers, etc. !Je, therefore, collected information from various sources and then tried to correlate it. The various sources that we attempted were
il Secondary Sources (I ike available records, publications, etc.)
i i )
i i i )
Primary sources (viz. households), with a. pre-tested qtJestionnaire.
Village-level observations by the investigators, who were required to submit their reports in a prescribed format.
ivl Village-level observations by a special team of investigators called • Participant -Observers tPOl", who provided an intensive and often graphic picture of the present status, factors influencing the behaviour and attitudes and scope for improvements in future.
v)
vi I
Information provided by voluntary agencies working project districts and in the other districts. Information provided by the Gram Pa.nchayat.
viii Laboratory Analysis of drinking water samples.
in the
viii/ Collection of literature including religious literature on the subject and preaparing an exhaustive bib! iography.
8
1. 5. 1
l. 5. 2
Tapping all these sources was a unique exercise. Some of these sources (like laboratory analysis of drinking water) were not even included in the original terms of reference. However, when a! I these sources were tapped, a fund of information,both of qualitative ~nd
quantita.tive na.ture, sta.rted flowing in. The response from village panchayats and voluntary agencies was particularly very encouraging and provided much needed"optimism while drafting the recommendations.
These sources are described in detail below :
Information Collected from Secondary Sources
Statistical information concerning water supply and sanitation facilities, population, households,occuptaion,cropping pattern number of wells,etc, was collected from the recrods of
Vii lage Panchayat at village level Panchayat Samiti at Taluka level
Information collected fl'om Prima.r,x Sources
a.) Sa.mpl ing £f. Vi lla.gl3s
It was decided to cover about 90 projl3ct villages in thl3 sampl13. Thl3 number 90 was set both on consideration of general adequacy and costs. As stated earlier there are certain hamlets selected for the programme, specialy for providing borewells. Taking into consideration the average number of estimated beneficiaries per hamlet, it was decided to take three hamlets as equivalent to one village for sampling coverage purpose.
Since piped water supply and borewel l schemes of water supply are planned for different villages exclusively, the villages under these two schemes were treated separately. For each district the project villages were grouped into these two categories. From each of these lists, a random sample of about 9 per cent of the vil !ages was taken subject to the minimum of 6 villages in each district. While drawing the sample of villages, 2 extra villages were sampled, to be used as substitutes in case of extreme difficulties. The entire work of sampling of villages was carried out at Pune and lists of the selected villages were handed over to field staff in each district. Table 1.2 gives the number of villages and hamlets covered in the sample.
TABLE 1. 2
Scheme
Piped water supply Borewel l Borewe I I
Total
SAMPLE VILLAGES COVERED
9
Vi! !ages/Hamlets
57 Villages 18 Vil !ages 42 Hamlets
75 Villages 42 Hamlets
b) Sa.mpl ing g_f_ Households
In each sample village,complete out and the households were categories.
listing of households was carried classified into the following
i I i i )
i i i ) i v)
Farmers with irrigated cultivation Farmers with only dry cultivation La.nd less La.bour Business, salaried class, artisans and others.
A sample of 10 per cent households in a vii !age was drawn by the systematic random sampling method with a provision that the total number of sample households in any vii !age will not be less then 20 and not more than 70. Since number of families under category <ivl above is likely to be smal 1, minimum one family in this category was stipulated to be covered in each sample vii lage, disregarding the 10 per cent criterion. Thus, it was ensured that a cross section of the village population was covered in the sample. With random selection of vii !ages and with this procedure of sampling of households, the representative character was achieved to the maximum possible extent.
Since it was planned to obtain certain estimates, mostly in terms of percen~ages <like the proportion of population desirous of having latrines, percentage of these people willing to pay, etc. I it was necessary to have an adequate number of households i n the sam p l e at t h F.l d i s t r i c t 1 e v e l. F or t h i s , a. s i z e of a. bout 180 households was considered adequate, to ensure a maximum of 10 per cent error with 99 per cent confidence at the district I eve!.
The sampling plan adopted gave us the adequate number of households. Table 1.3 gives the district and schemewise number of villages/hamlets and households covered in the sample.
TABLE 1.3 DlSTRICTWlSE SAMPLE COVERAGE
District District P.\1. B.W. B.W. Total Code -------------- -------------- ------------ HHs
Villages HHs lJ i I 1 ages HHs Hamlets HHs
1. Thane 9 269 2 40 4 62 371 2. A'Na.gar 8 248 3 105 4· 44 397 3. Puna 7 147 3 41 10 94 282 4, Sata.ra 4 96 1 17 51 80 195 5, Sanga.l i 5 173 1 25 10 113 311 6, Bul dha.na 6 221 221 7' Cha.ndrapur 2 55 4 122 177 8. Aurangabad 4 160 2 51 1 18 229 9. Baed 6 216 2 82 4 40 338
10. La.tur 6 190 190
Total 57 1777 18 483 42 451 2711
Total Vi 1 1 a.ges a.nd Ha.ml ets covered 117 Tota.l Households covered 2711
10
cl Selection and Tra.ining Q_f_ Personnel
Post
We recruited four types of personnel for the study ll) inter·.,oiewers {2) super11isors, {3) pa.rticipant obser11ers and {4l
co-ordinators. All these had adequate aequaintance of rural areas. Males and females were recruited in each category. Interviewers were gerierally graduates. The supervisors and participant obser11ers were more eKperienced and generally post graduates. Area Coordinators were appointed with the responsibility of o11erseeing the field work in their district. They were senior lecturers or researchers. All the personnel were given training. There was class room training as wel I as field training, covering the details of conducting the survey.
Table 1.4 gives the educational background engaged in this study.
of the
TABLE 1. 4 EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF FIELD TEAM
Post Gra.duates Under Gradua.tes Gra.duates
personnel
Total
Area Co-ordinators Participant Observers Investigators
7 12
4
2 7
28
9 1 20 3 35
Total 23 37 4 64
d) Interviewing
Generally, a. tea.m of two investiga.tors, one ma.le and one f;:nna.le investigator visited the sample villages. In some cases this was not possible and both the members of the team were males. Generally the male investigator interviewed the male respondents and the female interviewed the female respondents. The respondent was not necessarily head of the household. He/she was an adult member between the a.ge group 20 and 60. Interviews were conducted at the house of the sample household. The interviewers mostly sta.yed in the sample vi lla.ge, for the purpose of the s•.u".,r8y, in some ra.re cases, they stayed in the nea.rby village, that being more convenient.
There ware unaided and aided questions in the questionnaire. The unaided questions were first asked to them and then the respondents were informed of the importance of latrines, health hazards of defecation in open, consequences of poor sanitation and unsafe water, personal hygiene etc. For t.his purpose, the material published by t.he UNlCEF was used. The aided questions were asked after this.
e) Village Level Questionnaire
The investigating covered general
t e a. m s f i 1 1 e d information
11
in I ike
t h e v i l l a. g a p o p IJ I a. t i on ,
schedule ma.j or
which crops,
families below poverty line and 8•h>ca.ted families and regarding the present water source, availability l<>trin8s a.nd th8ir condition, gtr:;,
f) Participant Observation
information of water,
It is the general exp8rience, that mere filling in of the household questionnaires is not sufficient, and the research worker should visit th8 villages and ggt a first hand feel of the situa.tion. This is helpful in developing a. proper insight. However this cannot be done in the case of large scale surveys. To overcome this, we adopted the methodology of participant observation. The participant observer stayed in gach village for 4-7 days. He made detailed observations regarding the present practices in the village and had discu~sions with villagers, vii !age leaders and prominent persons. He prepared vii lage maps and also filled in 4-5 household questionnaires. At the end, he prepared a. vi II age report.
The participant observer covered the following aspects
i ) i i )
i i i ) vi)
v ) vi)
v i i ) vi i i )
i X )
)( l X i )
Xi i ) X i i i )
Drinking water resources Water for other purpose Latrines Hygiene at public places Maintenance of public places Public institutions Development works Sanitation facilities Religious practices An average women's daily routine Personal hygiene Cleanliness Hea 1 th
We planned to prepare such reports for 50 sample vi! !ages, but actually obtained participa.nt observers'; reports for 90 villages.
gl Case Studies 9.f.Two Villages
Two villages where the water supply and sanitation facilities were provided adequately, and where they were functioning satisfactorily and the people were paying the fees more or less regularly were identified. These two villages were studied in detail and the two case studies are presented separately. The focus of the case studies is on identifying the factors and forces leading to successful functioning.
hl Role £f. Voluntary Agencies
In order to obtain information on the present activities of the voluntary agencies, a I ist of voluntary agencies was prepared and letters were sent to about 200 agen~ies, both operating in the project area and outside, giving them the informtion regarding
12
the rural water supply and sanitation project and seeking their opinion regarding the role they can play in this effort. A proforma was also enclosed in order to get information regarding the agency, such as area of their operations, number of voluntary workers, the infra.structura.l faci I ities, method of their wok ing, etc. About 50 agencies responded. These responses were studied and discussions were h~ld with some agencies before forrmulating the ideas regarding role of voluntary agencies in this programme.
il Correspondance with Gra.mpa.nchayats
Letters were sent to about 1400 grampanchayats covered under the programme, giving them information regarding the programme, and seeking their opinion in this regard. The proforma was enclosed with the letter, covering points such as general information regarding the village, present condition of water supply and sanitation, earlier efforts in the village, experiences of people's participation, possibilities of people's participation in this programme, names of individuals interested in these activities, etc. About 250 grampanchayats replied to the letters. They also helped us in formulating our recommendations.
j I Testing Q.f. Wa.ter Sa.mple
We decided to collect samples of water and get them tested for impurities. We col !acted about 400 samples and got them analysed in the district public health laboratories. These are presented in the report. For this purpose, the field investigators were given training and they were required to use sterilised bottles to collect the water samples, which were to be taken to the laboratories within a stipulated time period of time.
ld Prepara.tion Q.f_ Bib! iography a.nd Collection Q.f_ \.lriting Q.f_ Sa.ints Q.!l this Subject
We have prepared an extensive bibliography on this subject by visiting various libraries in Puna. This is presented in the Part I I o f the rep o r t. S om e o f the I i t a rat u r a was q 1..1 i t e us e f 1.1 I f o r o u r study.
During the course of visits to the voluntary agencies, and some of the villages, we came to know about the writings of many saints on the subject of village sanitation, personal hygiene, defecation practices and suggestions for improvement. We therfore undertook the work of collection of this material and visited various libraries in Puna and the Asiatic library in Bombay. The material collected included Gram Gaeta of Tukdoji Maharaj, writings of Gadge Maharaj and Eknath Maharaj, Gaon Geeta of Senapati Bapat, etc.
I l V i s i t to s e l e c t e d. v i I l a. ft.§!. s
We visited observations,
5-6 and
villages had discussions
to have personal with local level
workers, \ea.d~1rs, etc. These visits covered. a.ll a.spects of
13
field social study
a.nd were ma.de before la.unching t.h8 field survey. to plan our field work and also for the questionnaires and various proforma.
This wa.s usaf s .. d preparation of
1.6 ANALYSIS OF DATA
The data collected was both qualitative and quantitative in nature. The computer was used for processing of data, whereever necessary and useful.
1.6.1 The qual ita.tive information consisted of
al Maps of the villages bl Observations of the participant observers c) Impressions of the Interviewers and Supervisors dl Case studies of the two 'model' vii !ages el Response from voluntary agencies concerning their activities in
the district. f) Response from Village Panchayats gl Maps of Houses covered
1.6.2 The analysis of data collected through the household questionnaire included the following :
il The socio-economic profile of the households.
iii The present position concerning
i i i )
aJ Sources of drinking water bl Availability of drinking water cl Per Capita domestic consumption of water
(disaggragated into different usages like drinking, washing, consumption for cattle, gardening, ate.
dl Total consumption of water el Total requirement of wa.ter f) Quality of water in different seasons Cat source) gl Method of transporting water and its frequency hi Method of storage of water and the materials of vessels
used for storing il Method of handling of water j) Quality of water at the point of consumption kl General surroundings of the source of wa.b:Jr, its stora.ge, I I Availability of latrines and their usage.
ml Usage of water for sanitation n) The practices followed for defecation by adult males,
adult females and children in different seasons, distance travelled, payments (if any) made for the use of facilities,construction and maintenance of facilities.
ol Method and practice of solid waste disposal.
The knowledge and attitudes concerning
al Water usa.ge bl Health implications of wate~ cl Sanita.tion
14
dl Needs of latrines by men, women, children el Design and cost of latrines f) Distance of latrines from the residential premises gl Space required by latrines hi Mainteriance of latrines by the family members and taboos
associated with it. il Willingness to bay for water j) Willingnesso to pay for construction of latrines and for
rna. in tena.nce kl Ownership of latrines
ivl The change in attitudes, after imparting knowledge on the hygiene, importance of water quality and low cost latrines in the above factors
vi The relationship between practices, knowledge and attitudes (and changes in them) with
a) household income bl education of the respondent ci age of the respondent dl sex of the respondent e) community to which the respondent belongs f) village specific factors g I 1 oca t ion of the commu.n i ty
vii Recommendations concerning
a) Capacity to pay bl Present willingness to pay c) Efforts necessary to increase the willingnes dl Efforts necessary to increase hygienic conditions for
ensuring safe drinking water at the point of consumption and improving the sanitary environment.
el Strategy for implementation of water supply and sanitation schemes.
1.7 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
al Household groups
The households were grouped into four groups as follows ;
il Advanced communities (including minorities Christians, Muslims etc. I
iii Other Backward castes <OBCI i i i )
vi ) Scheduled castes and Nava Buddhas S c he d 1.1 l e d t r i be s
like Jains,
We followed the official procedure while making these groups.
bl Educational status
We took into account the highest level of education attained by the member:; of the ho1n;ehold and divided the households on that basis. Thus the groups were
15
Households having at least one member who is
i ) ii)
i i i ) i II )
II )
a graduate having some college education educated upto lOth standard educated upto 4th standard able to read and write
The sixth group consisted of those households with all illitrate members.
The grouping shows the educational better fashion and, therefore, is, ana.! ys is,
level of the households in a it is hoped, more amenable for
c) House types
The condition of residential houses could b8 understood from the material used for roofs and walls. We collected information on these.
l) The materials needed for walls were of three major types
I I )
i )
ii)
i i i )
The
i ) ii)
i i i ) i II )
II )
Wooden sticks mud/earth/clay, wa.l 1 l,
with mud plastering tins and similar other material
<Kudl, ( Kutcha.
Bricks and clay, stones and clay {semi pucca wall) Bricks and cement, stones and cement {pucca wal ll
materials used for roofs were of five types
GI:ass, 1ea.ves and similar products. Tins, cement sheets T i I es Earthen slab with wooden support from below ( Dha.ba. J RCC Sla.b
On the houses
basis of these two types of data, in to four types as follows
we to group
Type A
Type B
Type C
~Better• houses, having the use of cement in roofs or wa I 1 s,
•Good" houses, with semi-permenant walls and roofs
•fair• houses, with pucca wal Is and tin/cement sheet roofs
16
Type D Huts, with kutcha walls and roofs
These types can be shown in the following table
Mater ia.l of W3.l l s
1 2 3
1
D D
*
2
c B A
Material of roof
3
B B A
~ These cells will usually be empty.
4
B B A
5
A
dl The following items were included in computing the ca.sh income of the hosuehold.
i ) ii)
i i i ) i II )
.., l
Sale proceeds of agricultural produce Income from artisan works, provision shop, pan shop, etc. Salary income Money transfer received Wa.ge income
hotel
The aggregate of these incomes of all members of the household, gives the cash income of the household.
This is, of course, not a.n adequa.te mea.sure of 'income' le·.,r8l of the household. It excludes the value of goods consumed within the househo 1 d a.nd thereby, unde rest ima. tes the i naoma of the agriculturist families. The cash income data may not be comparable with other data on total household income. Howe~er,
the use of cash income has been made in a limited manner to support households capacity to pay for various services (like water and latrines) and purchase of assets, soaps etc.
e) Water consumption
As far as water comsumption is concerned, it is quite difficult to estimate the actual water consumption in rural areas, since water is consumed a.t various places {hou.se, wells, ta.ps, rivers etc.) for different purposes. Generally, the clothes are washed a.t riversides or we1ls, utensils a.re clea.ned both a.t the well a.s wei l as in the house, and bathing is done depending upon the availability of water apd shelter, anywhere i.e. home/river/well. The estimates of water consumption, therefore, are the estimates of the respondents. These are naturally affected by the usual bias, lack of proper understanding, and difficulties in estimating. It is however hoped that, used aggregatively, these biases would be cancelled out and the general trend would be visible. It should at the same time, be noted that the figures thus emerging would only represent the monsoon period and (a very b o u n t i f I.J. 1 p e r i o d. Cl. t t h a I. ! ) w he n the s u r v e y w a. s con d u c ted . l t
would ha.rdly reflect tl1f; months of summer when most. rivers a.nd wells dry out and water becomes scarce.
17
i.S PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
The findings of the study are presenl8d in two parts as follows
Part
Part I\
M01.in Report
Annexure such as lmporta.nt sketches districts.
and typica I vi l! age Vi lla.ge studies
ma.ps, house in different
The main report is divided into 8ight chapters. After the present chapter of Introduction, the socio-economic profile of the sample vi lla.ges and households is gh,en in chapter I I. Cha.pter Ill presents findings regarding personal and community hygiene in the sample villages. Present conditions, practices and demand for drinking water and latrines are dealt with in Chapters IV and V respectively. Chapter VI presents the role of Voluntary Agencies, Chapter VII consolidates the findings, and Chapter VIII presents the Strategy for Implementation. These Chapters are followed by the anneXltres.
18
~PPEilDll
tABLE D\StR\CtVISE SCHE"£ COVERAGE
PIPE YATER SCREI'IE BORE YELL SCHEME llYDROfi.C'TIJR.\RG SCHEnE
D\SiR\Ci : 1/i\ \ages : Beneficiaries : Vii \ages : Beneficiaries : lb111\ets : Beneficiaries : Vi\ \ages : Beneficiuries l
: TH~NE 142 186688 20 12271 43 13603 20
l ~1\I'IEDNAGAR 81 130366 26 26516 62 29373
l PUKE 79 206839 19 19569 m \3 22179
: SAiARA 50 72893 12 14012 119 29225 18 392()8
l SMiGLl 130 151636 10 103:}3 134 25179 12 26108
: BIJL!)I\MlA 441131 868 0 0
l CllANDRAPUR 21 30847 26891 1605 20 16752
l AIJRANGABAD 26 63911. 9 6084 14 8588 53
l BEED 77 1090"17 1 13486 64 17910 50
42 440111 708 2
: TOTAL 607 1040489 148 125738 621 1?107t 30!) 434694
19
CHAPTER II
SAMPLE VILLAGES AND HOUSEHOLDS SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE
2.1 SAMPLE VILLAGES
As stated '>~il!ages.
villages). ~v a. i I a. b l e hamlets.
in Chapter I, water will be supplied through pipes in 607 These village will be called Piped Wa.ter villages PW
New borewells will be constructed and water will be made from these wei Is through hand pumps in 148 villages and 621
T h e s a. m p I e ( s i s ted o f 57 P W v il 1 a. g e s , 1 8 v i l 1 a g e s , 4 2 h a. m l e t s f r om the borewel 1 scheme <Table 2. 1). The BW vi! !ages are smaller than the
PW vii !ages. The villages and hamlets under the borewell scheme are together called borewell villages <BW villages), for convenience in this chapter. The two schemes are likely to be implemented by different agencies, therefore, we have presented separate anafysis for the PW villages and BW villages. The profile of the households in P!J a.nd BW vi 1 I a.ges is presented in Annexure 2. 1.
In the total of 117 sample villages, 2711 households were contacted by the personal interview method. On an average, 31 households per 'Jillagl3 werl3 contacted in PW villages, 27 in villa.ges under the borewel l scheme and 11 in hamlets under the borewel l scheme.
TABLE 2.1 SAMPLE COVERAGE
Scheme
Piped water supply Borewell supply Borewell StJpply
Total
2.2 VILLAGE POPULATION SIZE
Number of Vii !ages/Hamlets
57 (Vi 1 l ages) 18 <Villa.ges) 42 <Hamlets)
117
HHs
1777 483 451
2711
Per cent
65.6 17. 8 16.6
100.0
The population size is an important characteristic of a village. Socio-economic profiles of smal I and big villages are generally different. Bigger villages are likely to have better infrastructural facilities such as roads, schools, bus services, health centres, etc. The non-farm occupations may exist in larger proportion in bigger villages, income level may be better a.nd so on. The small villa.ges and hamlets may have lowers level of socio-economic conditions. Therefore, we present below the distribution of our samples according to population size class of the villages in Table 2.2. It can be seen in Table 2.2 that 70 per cent of the BW villages have a population of upto 500 persons while only 12 per cent of PW villages belong to this population group. The average population of PW sample vii !ages was 2041, tha.t of BW vi ll;;~.ges was 489.
20
TABLE 2.2 DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE VILLAGES AND SAMPLE HOUSEHOLDS ACCORDING TO POPULATION Sl2E OF VILLAGE
No. of Villages Population size cla.ss :---------------------------' '
Upto 200 201-500 501-1000 1001-:-2000 2001-5000 5001-10000
Tota.l
PW
1 6
15 18 13
4
57
(* including hamlets)
2.3 LOCATION OF SAMPLE VILLAGES
26 16 6
1 1 1 0
60
Total
27 22 21 29 14
4
117
Household Sample
HHs
276 395 448 797 572 223
2711
% to total sa.mple HH
10.2 14.6 16.5 29.4 21. 1
8.2
100.0
The sample villages were generally well distributed geographically over the district. There was considerable variation in the distance of villages from the nearest highway or town. Average distance from the nearest town for a vii \age was 17 Kms in PW village group and 27
Kms in BW villages. However, the BW villages were found to be nearer the National/State highways. The distribution of sample vii lages according to distance from the nearest town and from the national or state highway, are presented in Tables 2.3 and 2.4 respectively.
TABLE 2.3 DISTANCE FROM THE NEAREST TOWN
Dista.nce No. of Vi lla.ges Tota.l <Kmsl -------------------
PW BW
IJ pto 5 h •../ 3 e
6 - 10 8 10 18 11 - 20 20 15 35 21 - 30 t2 11 23 31 - 40 6 9 15 41 - 50 2 6 8 51 a.nd Ab•:Jve 4 6 10
Tota.l 57 60 117
21
TABLE 2.4- DISTANCE FROM NATIONAL/STATE HIGHWAY
Dis ta.nce N o • o f 1./ i I I a g e s !Kms) ----------· ··-------
Upto 2 3 - 5 6 - 10 1 1 a. n d. Abo v e
Total
PW
16 11 19 11
57
BW
24 13 15 8
60
2.4 EXISTING SOURCES OF WATER IH SAMPLE VlLLAGES
Total
40 24 34 19
117
The main existing sources of water can be classified into four groups tii na.tura.l sources which include ri'..rer, strea.m etr::. {iii well {iii! bore wei I supply and <ivl piped water supply.The sample vii !ages are classified according to the existing in source of water. [Table 2.51. Of the 57 vii !ages which are under the scheme of piped water supply, 32 solely depend upon natural sources; 14 villages seem to have been taken up for augmentation, since these villages already have piped water supply, but are probably included in the project for augmenting this source. The remaining 11 villages in the P.W. group, are dependent on borewells as a main source of supply.
As far as BW vi! !ages are concerned, 45 vii !ages i.e. 75 per cent are dependent on natural sources. Only 4 have piped water supply and 11 are presently dependent on borewel Is.
TABLE 2.5 EXISTING MAIH WATER SOURCES
Scheme Natural Piped Borewe ll Tota.l
Piped wa.ter 32 14 11 57 Borewe I I 45 4 11 60
Total 77 18 22 117
2.5 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF HOUSEHOLDS
Of the 2711 respondents, 67.5 per cent were males and 32.5 per cent were females, all within the age group of 20 years to 60 years. lnspite of our desire to include an equal proportion of female respondents, this could not be achieved because of unwillingness of the female respondents.
Coverage of the sample by household groups is presented in Table 2.6.
22
TABLE 2.6 HOUSEHOLD GROUPS BY COMMUNITIES
Communities
Advanced communities Minorities Other backward communities Scheduled castes & Nav Buddhas Scheduled tribes
HI-ls per
52,3 6. 1
213.9 12.9 1.9
100.0
cent
Tota.l <Basel {2711l
Size distribution of households is presented in Table 2.7. The most common or modal size is 6. The average household size is 6.5
TABLE 2.7
Size <persons)
1 2 :J Lf
5 6 7 8 9
10 a.nd a.bove
Tota.l <Basel
2.6 MAIN OCCUPATION OF THE HOUSEHOLD
SIZE OF HOUSEHOLDS
\-IHs per cent
0.7 2.6 6 .. 2
13.3 17.5 16.5 12 .. 5 6.8 5.5
16.2
100.0 ( 2711>
The households were grouped into six major categories according to their main occupation. The distribution of sample households according to these categories, is presented in Ta.ble 2.6. it G~n b8 seen from this table that as the size of village (in terms of population) increases, the proportion of fa.rmers declines. The nonfa.rm occupations a.re thus relatively higher in larger villages.
2.7
TABLE 2.8 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF SAMPLE HOUSEHOLDS ACCORDING TO THEIR MAIN OCCUPATIONS
Popul<>.ticn size of Farmers Labourers Art i sa.ns Salaried Business Total Base the> vi lla.ge t.. others
Upto 200 68.5 20.3 2.5 3.3 5.4 100 276 201-500 59.2 28. 1 4.3 4.3 4. 1 100 395 501-1000 60.7 23.4 6.5 4.7 4.7 100 448 1001-2000 58.5 19.3 5.3 9.8 7. 1 100 797 2001-5000 47.5 22.6 7.0 16.8 6. 1 100 572 5001-10000 42.6 24.2 8.5 16.8 8. 1 100 223
Tota 1 56.4 22.5 5.7 9.5 5.9 100 2711
OWNERSHIP OF LAND AND IRRIGATION
Distribution of households with farming as main occupation is presented in Table 2.9. Among the farmers, 25.5 per cent were marginal farmers <i.e. owning less than 1 hectare) and 28.8 per cent were sma! l farmers. (i.e. owning between 1 and 2 hectares). Only 15.6 per cent households owned land more than 5 hectares. There were 4.1 per cent households whose main occupation was farming but they did not own land. Most of them had leased in land for cultivation, on a share basis. Average land holding was 2.4 hectares.
The distribution of farmers according to the irrigated holding is given in Table 2. 10. Of the 1526 farmers, 59.4 did not have any irrigation facilities; 22.2 per cent had irrigation of upto one hectare only. 14.9 per cent had more than one hectare and upto 4 hectares of irrigation, whereas only 3.5 per cent have more than 4 hectares of irrigated land. Average irrigated land per farmer household was 0.59 hectares.
TABLE 2.9
La.n.d Owner-ship (in. hectares)
Nil Up to 1 1.1 to 2. 1 to 3. 1 to 4. 1 to 5. 1 a.nd
Tota.l <Base)
2 3 4 5 Above
LAND OWNERSHIP OF HOUSEHOLDS REPORTING FARMING AS MAfN OCCUPATION
24
Households (per centi
4. 1 25.5 28.8 12.2 9.2 4.6
15.6
100.0 <152Bl
TABLE 2.10
Irrigated holding l. in hecta.res)
Nil IJpto 1 1.1 to 2 2. 1 to 3 3. 1 to 4 4. 1 and Above
To ta.l < Ba.se l
2.6 OWNERSHIP OF ASSETS
IRRIGATED HOLDING
H 0 1). 5 13 h 0 1 d G
(per cent l
59.4 22.2
9.6 2.7 2.6 3.5
100.0 {1528)
The ownership of assets by the sample households is shown in Table 2.11, for two groups of villages. Those villages (including hamlets) with population upto 1000 and those with population above 1000. Asset ownership is on the lower side in smaller villages, than in the larger villages in respect of bicycles, radios, TVs, sewing machines, tractors, stoves, gober gas plants and improved chul lahs.
The percentage of households owning bullock carts and (ca.ttle, sheep a.nd goats), on the other hand, is larger in villa.ges.
Asset
Bicycle Radio TV Sewing machine Bullock cart Tra.ctor Animals Stove Gobar gas lmprr)ved chulla.
Ba.se !. No. of households)
TABLE 2.11 : ASSETS OWNED
Percentage of Households in Villages with population
!Jpto 1000
45.5 34.0
4.2 7.0
23 ... 3 2.2
67.0 31.2
4.7 3.6
1119
25
Above 1000
49. 1 47.6 14.9 10.3 20.3 2.7
.54.2 52.0
7. 1 4.3
1592
lper cent)
To ta.l
47.7 42.0 10.5 8.9
21.7 2.5
.59.8 43.5
6. 1 4.0
2711
«.n i ma.l s sma l l e r
2.9 EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
As explained in the methodology, lhe households were classified according to the highest level of education attained in the household. The distribution of ths sample households is given in Table 2. 12. Seven per cent of the households have at least one graduate member and further 15 per cent have at least one member who has studied in col lege. Nearly half of the households have at least one member who has studied upto the 10th standard. In other words, 71 per cent households have at least one member who has studied upto lOth standard or above. Only 9.6 per cent households consist of all i I I i t e r a. t e me m be r s •
TABLE 2.12 EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF HOUSEHOLDS
HHs Households having at least one member being
per cent
2.10 HOUSING
Gra.dua.te College educated Educated Upto the lOth standard Educated Upto the 4th standard Able to read and write A l 1 I 1 l i t e r a. t e
Total { Ba.se)
7.0 15. 1 49.4 14.4
4.5 9.6
100.0 { 27 11}
We present below, the information on housing in terms of material of wal Is, material of roofs, house type and open space available around the house. The materials of walls are classified into three groups and materials of wall are classified into five groups. As explained in Chapter I, these groups are then used to classify houses into four classes A,B,C and D.
The information is tabulated in Tables 2. 13, 2. 14, 2.15 In 37.2 per cent cases the houses had poor wal I material,
cent houses had walls made of bricks or stones but without cement and only 15 per cent houses had pucca walls bricks/stones and cement was used.
a.nd 2.16, 47.6 per
the u.se of where the
As far as the roofs are concerned 17.4 per cent had thatched roof, 36 per cent used tins or cement sheets, 30.8 per cent used tiles, 12.6 per cent had cement concrete slabs.
The houses, as mentioned in Chapter I are classified into 4 types on the basis of material used for walls and roofs. Type A •better" houses, which used cement for walls or roofs, account for 17.4 per cent. Type B •good" houses, with semi-permenant walls and roofs, account for the bulk, i.e. 53.2 per cent. Type C "fa.ir" hou.ses with pucca wal Is and tin/cement sheet roofs account for 17.7 per cent and
26
Type D type houses which are huts with kut.cha.. walls a.nd roofs, account for 11.6 per cent.
There were 22.8 per cent houses without any open space around, 9.7 per cent had open space of upto 50 sq ft., 5 per cent had 50-100 sq ft. 17.4 per c:ent 100-200 sq ft., 9. 3 per cent 200-300 sq ft. a.nd as many as 35.8 per cent had more than 300 sq ft of open space.
TABLE 2.13 MATERIAL OF WALLS
Sticks with mud plastering (Kutcha wall I Bricks/stones and clay (semi puccaa wal lsi Bricks/stones and cement lpucca walls)
To ta.l (Base)
Ma.teri.a.l
TABLE 2.14 MATERIAL OF ROOF
Grass, lea.ves, a.gro wa.ste, etc. <thatched roof) Galvanised sheets, cement sheets Tiles Dha.ba. Cement slab
Tota.l !Ba.se)
Type
A - Better B - Good C - Fair D - Huts
Total !Base)
TABLE 2.15 HOUSE TYPE
27
HHs !.Per cent l
37.2 7.8
15.0
100.0 {2711)
HHs (Per cent)
17. 4 36. 1 30.8 12.6
3. 1
100.0 ( 2711)
HHs {per cenU
17. 4 53.2 17. 7 11.6
100.0 (2711)
TABLE 2. 16
Other space linsqft.)
No spa.ce 1 - 50
51 - 100 101 - 200 201 - 300 Above 300
Total <Base)
OPEN SPACE AROUND THE HOUSE
HHs (per oent)
9.7 5.0
17. 4 9.3
35.8
100.0 (2711)
2.11 GASH INCOME AND MONTHLY SAVING
Distribution of sample households according to their annual per capita, cash income is presented in table 2. 17. More than 90 per cent households had per capita cash income of lass than Rs. 2000 per annum. There were only 4.2 per cant with per capita cash income of more than Rs. 5000 per annum. The average annual per capita cash i n<::orne wa.s Rs. 1325.
More than 90 per cent of the households did not save any amount, 3.5 per cent saved less tha.n Rs. 50 per month, 1.5 per cent sa.ved between Rs. 50 and 100 per month, 1. 7 per cent saved between Rs. 100 a.nd 150. Only 1.2 per cent saved more than Rs.300 per month { Table 2.16 )
TABLE 2.17 :ANNUAL PER CAPITA GASH INCOME
Income group HHs I in Rs. l (per cent l
lJ pto 500 32.5 501 to 1000 34.9 1001 to 2000 24.2 2001 to 3000 7.9 3001 to 4000 3.9 4001 to 5000 2.4 Above 5000 4.2
Total 100.0 <Basel 1. 271.1)
25
TABLE 2. 18
Monthly sa11ing (Rs.)
No sa.ving U pto 50 51 - 100 101 - 150 151 -200 201 -250 2.51 -300 Above 300
Total <Basel
MONTHLY SAVING
HHs (par cant)
90.6 3.5 1.5 1.7 0.3 0.9 0.3 1. 2
100.0 {2711)
There is quite a close association between cash income and assets as seen from Table 2. 19. The percentage of respondents owning all assets except tractors, is significantly larger in the high-income bracket than in the low-income brackets. This indicates both the reliability of the two indicators in assessing the standard of li11ing of the respondents and also the scale of preference of the consumers as income rises. There is, thus, a. la.rga increase in the ownership of radios, TVs, b1;llock ca.rts, sto11as, gober gas pla.nts a.nd better housing. It is also interesting, though not unexpected, to observe that the amount of cash income is higher in the non-agricultural profession than in agriculture. Coupled with other indicators, one sees a clear hierarchy in living standards as income increases, village-size increases and the general occupational nature changes from agriculture, to some other occupa.t.ion.
29
TABLE 2.19 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN l.EVEL OF HOUSEHOLD CASH INCOME AND DIFFERENT FACTORS IN THE SURVEYED HOUSEHOLDS (N - 2711)
Fa.ctor
<Ba.se l
1. 0\J./ning Cycle
2. Owning Ra.d i o
3. Owning TV
4-. Owning SBwing Machine
5. Owning Bul lor::k Ca.r t
6. Owning Tractor
7. Owning Stove
5. Gob~u
Gas
9. Living in Houses with stronger wa 11 s
10. P1.;rsuing non-a.gri. profession
Those having ca.s h i ncorne of less tha.n Rs. 15,000
{2043)
{A l
43.8
35.7
5.9
7.8
18.6
2.2
37.9
4.0
11.5
15.3
Those h01ving ca.sh i ncorne of Rs. 15000 or more
{611)
{ B l
59.3
61.2
24.7
12.3
30.5
3.4
60.6
12.6
33.5
35.9
For the Bntire sa.rnple
{2711)
(c)
47.7
42.0
10.5
8.9
21.6
2.5
43.5
6. 1
16.9
21' 2
** Statisticaly significant at 1 per cent level.
30
.{per r::ent}
Whether thr::~
difference in percentages (A & Bl is statistcally significant
* *
* * * *
* *
NS
* *
* *
* *
* *
ANNEXURE 2. 1
PROFILE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN PIPED WATER AND BORE WELL WATER SUPPLY VILLAGES
Tables 2A. 1 to 2A. 10 of this Annexure present the differences in the profiles of PW and BW villages. As has been seen in chapter ll, the BW villages consist of both villages and hamlets smaller than villages. Moreover, the BW villages are also smaller than PW v i I I a g e s , A 1 thou g h , the dec i s i on s con c e r n i n g c on s t PJ c t i on o f borewells, in preference to piped water supply, are taken independently of the socio-economic conditions of villages, there are likely to be differences in these conditions due to the size and na.ture of the s8ttl8ments. Th8 Tables 2A. 1 to 2A.10 provide the information as to the extent to which the socio-economic conditions d i f f 8 r 01. m on g t h 8 s e s e t t l em en t s . l t s h o u I d , h 0\" e v e r , be no ted t h a. t these differences need not be stretched too far. There is no reason to bel iev8 that these differences would have remained present had we taken into account the entire villages rather than their selected hamlets in making such comparisons.
Generally, the BW villa.ges (including hamlets/ of living tha.n the PW villages. In BW villa.ges,
indica.te lower for ex a.m p l e
al The per cent share of farmers is higher (Table 2A. 11.
bl Average land holding and extent of irrigation are slightly lTable 2A.2 and 2A.31.
<:~) Educa.tional level is lower <Table 2A.4J
d) Housing conditions are poorer !Tables 2A.5, 2A.6, 2A.71
el Annual Cash Income is lower !Table 2A.91
f) Monthly saving is less !Table 2A. 101
lower
The only positive factor for BW vii !ages is that the houses have a lot more open space surrounding them, than in PW villages.
31
PROFILE OF HOUSEHOLDS IN P.W. and B.W. VILLAGES
TABLE 2A.l
Occu.pat ion
Farmers Labourers Artisa.ns Salaried class Business Others
Total l Ba.se)
TABLE 2A.2
MAIN
LAND
OCCUPATION
HHs par cant ------------ .... -
PW BW
52.2 64.3 2~~. 2 20.9 6.4 4.4
12.2 4.4 4.7 4.4 1,3 0.7
100.0 100.0 (1776} (935)
OWNERSHIP
lHHs with farming as occupation)
Land holding HHs per cant (hact.} ---------------
PW BW
0 4. 1 4. 1 Upto 1 23.6 26.5 1.1 to 2 26.6 32.0 2. 1 to 3 11. 4 13.4 3. 1 to 4 10.7 6.9 4. 1 to s:; ,_, 5.4 3.3 5. 1 and a.bova 16.0 11.7
Total 100.0 100.0 <Base) {946) (562)
Average ownership per farmer households 2.6 hect. 2.3 hect.
32
TABLE 2A.3
lrrigat.ed Land (in hec1::,are5)
IRRIGATED HOLDING (HHs with farming as main occupation)
HHs per cent
PW BW ----------·---------------------~------------------------
Nil Up to 1 1.1 to 2.1 to 3.1 to 4.1 and
Tot.al (Base)
2 3 4
Above
Average irrigated land per HH :
TABLE 2A.4
Level
61.0 20.3 9.1 2.9 3.1 3.7
100.0 (946)
56.9 ,..,1': ::\ '-• ,_) ' ·-10.1
2.6 1.9 3.3
100.0 (582)
0.6 heat. 0.57 heat.
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
HHs per cent
(At least one member in the HH) PW BW
Graduate College educated Upto lOth standard Upto 5th standard Literate Illiterate
Total Base
TABLE 2A.f>
8.0 16.1 51.7 12.5
~:3. 8 8.0
100.0 (1776)
MATERIAL OF WALLS
5.0 13.2 4E>. 3 17.9 6.0
12.5
100.0 ( 93E))
Haterial HH.5 per cent
Sticks with mud plastering : Kud (kutcha wall) Bricks/stones and clay (semi pucca wall)
Bricks/stones with cement (pucca walls)
Total (Base)
PW
35.2 47.1
17.1
100.0 (1776)
BW
42.2 49' 1
9.7
100.0 (935)
TABLE 2A.6
M<>. te rial
Gra.ss, leaves, a.growaste !.thached roof) Tins, cement sheets T i 1 es Dhaba Cement sla.b
Tota.l <Base)
TABLE 2A.7
Type of House
A - Better B - Good c - Fair D - Hut
Total I.Ba.se)
MATERIAL QF ROOF
HHs per cent
PW
12.5 26.8 37.3 29.9 29.2 34.0 15. 1 7.7 3.9 1.5
100.0 100.0 {17761 (935)
HOUSE TYPE
HHs per cent
PW BW
20.7 11. 1 53.0 53.7 17. 4 18.4
6.9 16.6
100.0 100.0 (1776) 1.935)
TABLE 2A.8 OPEN SPACE AROUND THE HOUSE
Open space class <sq.ft.J
No spa.ce IJpto 50 51 to 100 101 to 200 201 to 300 Above 300
Tota.l <Base)
HHs per cent
PW B!J
26.5 15.8 11.0 7. 1 4.9 5 .. 2
15.9 20.3 6.6 10.8
33.1 40.8
100.0 100.0 (1776) (935)
34
TABLE 2A.9
Inoome group I in Rs. l
!Jpto 500 501 -1000 1001- 2000 2001 - 3000 3001 - 4000 4001 - 5000 Above 5000
Tot;:d (Basel
Avera.ge per HH
TABLE 2A. 10
Monthly saving I. in Rs. )
Ho sa.ving 1 - 50
51 - 100 101 - 200 201 - 250 251 - 300 Above 300
Tota.l {Basel
35
ANNUAL CASH INCOME
HHs per cent
PW BW
28.5 40.0 24. 1 26.4 25.7 21.4
9.3 5. 1 4.3 3. 1 3.0 1.0 5.0 3.0
100.0 100.0 {17761 (935)
1445 1080
MONTHLY SAVING
HHs per oent
PW BW
88.8 94.0 4.2 2.3 1.7 1. 2 0.4 0.2 1.2 0.3 0.4 o. 1 1.6 0.4
100.0 100.0 ( 1776) (935)
CHAPTER I i!
HYGIENE PERSONAL. AT HOME AND AT PUBLIC PLACES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Health of individuals and of the community depends considerably on Cal personal health habits and lbl collective efforts to maintain surroundings and public places clean and free from contamination. It is common knowledge that many of the debilitating ailments and diseases can be avoided through inculcating healthy habits and sanitation practices. At personal level, pra.ctices rela.ting to brushing of teeth, use of soap, washing of clothes, storage of drinking water, cooking, serving and taking food, etc., reveal a lot regarding the extent to which individuals are aware of hygienic practices and take care to ward off diseases. Observation of healthy habits a.t the persona.! level is not eno1.;~gh. The immedia.te surroundings also need to be properly looked after. This depends on the system developed collectively by the group. In the village, this responsibility rests with the grampanchayat as we! l as on individual households who as a part of the village community, have to share it. Maintaining hygienic conditions on roads, with gutters, if any, places where water sources are located, public buildings like cha.va.d is, g rampancha.ya t off ices, schoo Is and open spaces, river banks, etc. become sources of diseases if no regular arrangement is made to keep them clean and in a good condition. In rural parts, the m o s t common d i seas e s a. r e d i a. r r hoe a , d y sen t e r y , j au n d i c e , t y ph o i d , paratyphoid, hookworms and cholera, etc. To these may be added diseases arising out of malnutrition and wrong food habits. Most of these diseases can be prevented through creation of awareness and a mechanism to keep the environment healthy.
In this chapter, we present information on this subject in regard to the project villages. In the household questionnaire, specific questions were included in order to understand health habits of household members. The participant observer <P.O.) was instructed to note observations in general about individual habits as wei l as group behaviour in regard to health and sanitation practices. Several reports of the POs present vivid account of the hygiene and sanitary practices in the villages. The present chapter is based on all these sources of information.
3.2 APPROACH ROAD TO THE VILLAGES
One gets a general idea about the prevailing sanitation conditions in the vii !age as soon as one enters the vii !age. Out of 92 vi! !ages studied by POs, the approach roads of BO villages can be classified as quite dirty. Often, the sides of the approach road are used by children and others for easing themselves. ln a few cases, the approach roads passed through the streams, the banks of which were the places where cleaning and washing took place. Occasionally, the same river/stream water is used for drinking purposes also. At some villages, the public transport as well as bullock carts and other vehicles have to wade their way to the village., through the stream.
36
This is obviously hazardous to health. During the monsoons, the situation becomes worse, cutting off the villages from the rest of the country for days together.
3.3 CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF DRAINAGE
Conditions in the villages regarding hygiene, were deplorable. Only in 10 out of 117 villages covered in the present study, were some efforts to keep the environment clean. These included 2 vii !ages each in Pune and Aurangabad districts, 1 each in Baed, Sangli and Buldhana a.nd 2 in Ahmedni:J.gar district. In these villages, there appeared a system to clean drainages, collect garbage from the street, and maintain cleanliness at the sources of water.
Some rudimentary outlet is prepared to let out the waste water. drains are not constructed in all villages, and therefore, only about 25 per cent houses had channe 1 s connected to common drains. In a.bout 5.0 per cent cases, the '"aste water is cha.nnelised into soak pits. In the case of a majority, consisting of 70 per cent households, waste water was drained out on to the vii !age streets. Good drains were reported by POs only in two villages lKund Khurd in District Sangli and Kund Budruk in Buldhana district). At Ohar <Aurangabad district! the work of covering open drains was going on at the time of investigation. At Shiregaon {Aurangabad district), Pokha~i Haveli (Ahmednagar district), the use collective effort to maint~in
clean! iness was seen. The vii !age Vidyanagar <Puna district! was reported to be a clean village. At Ambegaon !Puna district) and Chambharwadi (Bead district), villagers had a desire to maintain cleanliness as evinced by cleaniness maintained at the source of water. At Kendale Budruk IAhmednagar District) practice of disposing waste-water into soak-pits was common. These are, however, exceptions rather than the rule. Generally drains are not constructed and where drains are contructed, house channels to carry water to the drains do not exist. There are instances where open drain have been rendered useless through putting obstructions in them. At Samangaon (Ahmednagar district) the Vii lage Panchayat constructed drains from the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana Fund after a debate about whether the fund should be used for construction of latrines or drains. A fraction in the village did not approve of this decision. Subsequently, miscreants belonging to this faction, triad to destroy the drains and obstructed the flow, by dumping garbage and stones into it.
50 per cent of the villages ware having open drainage facility with the average length of 290 meters of drains per village. On an average, these drains were in existance for last 3 years. lt was also noted that only in 20 per cent of the villages, the condition of drains was good and was used by the villagers. In the remaining 30 per cent villa.ges, condition of drains wa.s poor, mainly becua.sl3 of lack of maintenance and due to faulty and incomplete construction of
dra.ins.
Even through ~early 73 per cent of the households facility available, only 24 per cent were able to facility constructed in th>o~ •Jilla.ge.
37
ha.d ba. th room use open drain
In genera.l Grampanchayats are not willing to take the responsibility sufficient grants
of maintaining and are made available.
G I ea.n i ng the drains unless
A large majority ( 80 per cent! hous~Jitulds wanted to ha.ve open dra.ins constructed in their respective vii !ages.
The present status of drains in few sample vii !ages from Pune and Sangli districts was as follows
Puna District
Ambega.on !Bkl
t.iarje l"la J wadi
V id.ya.nagar <Tingrewa.di I
t1oshi
Sa.ngl i District
Khatav <Gura.v + Mirje vastil
Chopdewa.di ( Borwa.n)
Kumthega.on
Aniwa.de
Dht.Jl egaon Karanje CShrimala Bhaskar vasti) Dudhalgaon
Kund !l<hl
300 metres drains constructed but due faulty construction waste water doe not drain properly.
Open drains are eKtremely narrow and are Drains are constructed only on one main the villa.ge.
Only 50 per cent of the villagers get benefit of open drains, which drains waste water properly.
Grampanchayat has constructed drains only in one va.st i.
Open drains are not complete does not drain properly,
hence waste water
Waste water gets clogged at various points due to incolmplete construction.
Open drains constructed only in two hamlets, even there waste water flow is not proper. Villagers throw garbage into the drains,
Open drains are filled up with mud due to which waste water flows get obstructed. Two conservancy workers are unable to clan open drains.
Since village roads are not constructed properly open drains are always clogged. In addition to this, villagers dump househol garbage in to the drains making it diffi6uit to clean regularly. Inadequate supply of water is also responsible clogging of drains.
Since 1950 Open drains were covered with help of Tarun Mandai. These are cleaned regularly by every household. Villagers were aware about cleanliness and actively participate in m a. i n hd n i n g the v i t' l a. g e c l ea. n ,
35
Only 9 per cent villages reported that on an average 50 soak pits were constructed in their villages, but majority of them were not in use. Only in Buldhana district there were 3 villages each with more than 100 soak pits and the most these soak pits were in good condition and were used by the villagers.
As far as households ware concerned only 5 per cent reported that soak pits were regularly used for disposing waste water.
Cl Clea.nl iness ar!_Q_ Hygiene
Efforts made by various NGOs with participation from the vii lagers have shown significant improvement in cleanliness and maintaining the drains. These aspects have been highlighted through case studies regarding efforts made to motivate vii lagers
a. n d c::: h a. n g e the i r out 1 o o 1< towards c 1 e <:~. n l i ness , h y g i e n e e t c . However, in some of the villages \1/here better clea.nl iness, was observed were mentioned in the report. The background of one such villa.ge is eK'plained below.
ln the village Shiregaon IAurangabad distric:::t) under JRY drains (open drains) were c:::onstructed and were cleaned regularly. This has helped to maintain the village clean. In addition to this, villagers regularly collect household garbage and dump it in a compost pit specially constructed. This has been acheived without employing paid labour. Strong leadership at the village level to create awareness and involving villagers in every programme are l<ey factors responsible for development of the vill<:~.ge.
In the villages surveyed, every household has a place set a.side to be used a.s a ba.throom. It is a. sheltered pla.ce in a. majority of ca.ses <.62.2 per centl. ln the remainig cases, it is not even she\ tared, being open on at l sides, the la.rge stone and some outlet indicating that the place is to be used as a bathroom for washing clothes and for bathing. Only one family reported to have a closed bathroom.
3.4 GARBAGE DISPOSAL
Arrangement for garbage disposal is an equally important aspect of the management of environmental sanitation. ln the vii !ages surveyed, it was found that while individual houses are kept clean through every day sweeping and dungwash, litter is dumped outside the houses on the street. This practice was reported by 67.2 per cent of the respondents. About 12.4 per cent of the respondents had some arrangement ma.de for disposing of the litter. Of these respondents, 14 (0.5 per c:::entl reported the pr<:~.ctice of burning the 1 itter, 7 were using it in gas-plants and lB (0.6 per cent) were putting it in pits on farms. Arrangements to col teet alL the garbage in the vii !age and dispose it of systematically was more or less non-existent. At Budhnerwadi. (Beed districtl, wa.ste water from the houses was drained directly to the places where garbage was dumped. Villagers defended
39
this practice by arguing that this way garbage is converted into man1.J.re. While this ma.y or may not b>3 true, it was certainly causing nuisance to the environment.
Compost pits
Nearly 12 per cent of villages reported that they have adopted garbage col !action on a regular basis. Some vii !ages were burning this garbage, whereas others have construdted compost pits and were dumping all the ga.rbage. For this purpose, these vi lla.ges ha.ve deployed workers on regular basis. Nearly 14 per cent of the households reported proper disposal of household garbage. Majority of them use compost pits near the house or the farm. Few either burn it or mix it in biogas plant.
In general awareness about waste water and garbage disposal is limited among few villagers. Vii !age panchayats do not discharge their duties in terms improving village cleanliness.
3.5 MAINTENANCE OF CATTLE
l<eeping cattle, sheep a.nd goa.ts, etc., within the residentia.l premises or very close to it is yet another aspect of hygiene. As many as 61 per cent of the households had cattle. Of these 53. 1 per cent kept cattle within the premises of residence, but outside the living rooms; 0.8 per cent kept cattle within living rooms; another 16.3 per cent kept cattle near the premises in the open; and the remaining kept cattle on the farm, presumably in a shed constructed for the purpose.
About 27 per cant had sheep and goats. Of these, about 14 per cent ware keeping them within the living rooms; while 71.3 per cent were keeping outside the rooms mostly in the open. The remaining were keeping sheep and goats either on the farm or elsewhere.
The floor, where animals are tethered was baing kept clean through sweeping everyday. Dung was col leoted and used for making dung cakes. Urine of animals was drained out of the house. While care was taken to keep the place clean, it appeared that it was not enough to ward off diseases arising out of the unkempt immediate surroundings. Vii lagers appear to be indifferent to the conditions outside the threshhold of the residence or the place where the animals are kept.
3.6 SOURCES OF DRINKING WATER
Unhygienic conditions at the source of drinking water are perhaps most harmful as water gets immediately contaminated and such contaminated water is distributed to every house. In the villages surveyed, it was observed that little care was taken in this regard.
Well sites were usually the most neglected places. were muddy due to spil I ing of water, which was drawing water from the well and filling the surrounding the wells was rarely paved with tiles outlets. A typical situation is a well illustrated
40
The surroundings inevitable while pots. The a. rea.
or with marked in the report of
Budhnerwadi lBeed district) In this village, two borewells, fitted with handpumps, provide adequate water to the entire population for drinking as well as for other purposes. The wells are so located that waste-water from a! l the houses flows in the direction of the wells. The well sites ara used for washing animals, clothes and utensils. All this results in the formation of pools of water and mud around the walls. Villagers fill in their pots with water for drinking in this environment. The objective of providing potable and safe water through the construction of borewells is thus defeated to a considerable eKtent. Whereever tap water is provided near the public standposts, a similar situation has bean noticed.
Absence of care to maintain surroundings of the water source is also surprisingly found in the newly established villages. The vii \age Talegaon Budruk Tanda No. 2 (Baed District) illustrates the point. This village has been established about 50 years ago by a group of 150 families, belonging to a nomadic tribe called "Laman". Nomadic tribes are in the process of settling down at various places in the state. The Government is offering facilities and assitanca to them through provision of employment, lands, housing, construction of we! ls etc. For this group, a borewell was constructed which provides a limited quantity of water. This facility together with some land and the availability of wage work in the vicinity, has contributed to the settlement of this group. It was however observed that the surroundings of the well were not well kept; water is consequently likely to be contaminated.
3.7 PERSONAL HYGIENE
Personal habits are important in determining the level of hygiene. Villagers apppaarad to be mora aware of these than of community hygiene. This is reflected in their responses to various questions concerning personal cleanliness. About 46 per cent of the respondents reported that drinking water brought home is first treated before it is used. Of these, about 87 par cent filter it through a piece of cloth; about 4 par cent treat it with chemicals; 1.8 per cant clean it through the application of alum, and a small minority lO.B par cant) boil it. About 23 par cent reported that water in the public source itself is already treated and therefore needs no further care.
Except 24 respondents, all reported that members take daily baths and that for most of them (95 per cent! it was possible to take a bath everyday, throughout the year.
About 75 per cent of the respondents replied that they use soap while bathing; 65 par cant of these required upto 3 pieces of soap in a month. [ lThe most popular brand was Lifebuoy (56 per cent! followed by Lux (31.4 per cent)], Most of the respondents 196 per centl reported the washing of their hands before taking food, mostly with plain water (93. 1 per cant). Soap is used by a small minority while washing hands before and after taking food.
The above responses. however, cannot be accepted at their face value. The participant observers and the interviewers have an entirely opposite observation to report. They mention that the anwsers, as
41
given by the respondents, at bast show th~t they are aware of the importance of personal hygiene and of what needs to be dona in maintaining it. The reported actions are rarely practised. If one ware to summarise the observations of the POs and the interviewers, the following picture emerges
'3 )
b)
Whenever water a.fter toilet.
is in shortage, no wa.ter is used for clea.ning
water is Drinking chemica.ls. clean cloth.
Even if it neither filtered nor treated with
is filterc~d, it is not always done with a
cl Villagers do not always take a daily bath. Bringing water home and taking a bath is generally avoided; bathing at public places, howsoever dirty they ma.y be, is preferred. At home, water used for bathing is inadequate. Washing and cleaning of hair is mostly neglected.
dl Washing of hands after meals is practised. The same cannot be said about washing of hands before meals.
el The use of soap, both for bathing and washing clothes, is
f )
exa.ggerated. The villagers ca.nnot a.fford it. At best, most of them use washing soap for bathing or washing hair. The utensils a.re clea.ned mostly with a.sh or mud. Similarly, a.fter easing themselves, villagers wash their hands by rubbing them on the grouhd and applying a little water.
Clothes a.re not regularly wa.sh8d. They a.l ways sme 1 1 of perspi ra.t ion and dii·t. Th8 sa. me clothes, especially by ladies, are used to f il tar water, wipe ha.nds, a.nd even, as towels, to wipe chi ldr8n ~.f ter their ba.th.
3.8 CONCLUSIONS
The general conclu~ion~ that emerge out of this analysis are :
al Shortage of water is responsible, among oth8r faders, for of ad8quate personal hygiene.
lack
bl People are only broadly aware of th8 importance of clean! iness.
c )
They are not aware of th8 germs and the media through which they carry diseases. Thus, a lot of extension effort is necessary to educate them about hygiene and th8 ways in which it can be maintained.
Thera are some age-old habits spitting, easing oneself in the etc., which need to b8 corr8cted. education cannot be over looked.
like lazin8ss in bathing, open, washing in the op8n, Here aga.in, th8 importa.nce of
CHAPTER 1V
DRINKING YATER SUPPLY : PRESENT CONDITIONS PRACTICES AND DEMAND
4. 1 BACKGROUND
Under the Rural Drinking Water Supply Programme, it is proposed to provide water with the help of the Piped ~ater Supply Scheme and Borewell Schemes. As we have seen in chapter 11, the villages covered under these schemes are different in character. We intend to present village and household data separately in two sections of this chapter. The first section will cover the analysis of vil \ages proposed under the Piped Water Supply and the second will cover vii lages under the Borewell Schemes.
Originally it was proposed to include in the project 75 large regional piped ~.S. schemes and 174 small individual piped W.S. schemes covering 500 villages, 12 wadis and 2 towns to be implemented in two phases. So far 56 large regional piped W.S. Schemes covering 462 villages, 19 wadis, 2 towns and 91 small individual piped W.S. schemes coverning 91 vii !ages and 32 wadis have been identified for being taken up under the project as under
PHASE :_ .!._
Large Regional P.W.S. Schemes - 18
Small Individual P.W.S. schemes- 37
Pha.se ll
Large Regional P.W.S. schemes - 38
Small Individual P.W.S. Schemes- 54 "
The above figures may undergo further changes.
195 vi lla.ges 19 habitations (wadis)
1 town
37 villages
267 v il l a.ges 1 Town
54 villages 32 habitations <Wadis)
Under the proposed schema it is planned to provide 40 I itres per capita per day C lpcd) for public stand-post 70 lpcd for House Connections with a single tap
This covers villages where no such scheme, is available at present, and where Piped Water has been made available, but needs to be augmented.
4.2 EXTENT OF DEPENDENCE ON SOURCES OF WATER
Under the Piped Water Supply Schema, we covered a sample of 57 villages from a.ll the ten project districts. An effort is made to s tu.dy t.he el< tent of depend cH1ce of vi I I ages on d iff a rant sources of water C.see4.U.
43
Dug wells are, by far, the most important source of water, followed by borewells and piped water supply. There are 16 villages which also depend on rivers/streams and 13 whicl1 require water supplied through tankers in the summer months.
TABLE 4.1
Source
River, stream Well Borewell Public stand-post Private connection Tanker (temporary)
SOUHCES OF WATER (Base-57 Villages)
(multiple response)
Villages Per cent
17 30 49 86 .36 63 33 58 25 43 13 22
There were 33 villages out of 57 villages, in which more than 80 per cent of the sample households depended only on a single source. Their distribution is given in table 4.2.
TABLE 4.2
Source of water
Stream, river, etc. Well Borewell Piped water
DISTRIBUTION OF VILLAGES DEPENDING ON A SINGLE SOURCE
Villages
1 16
8 8
33
Per cent
3 49 24 24
100
The following 17 villages have been identified which depend on a single natural source like a river or well.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
DistriGt
Pune Sa tara Sangli Ahmednagar Thane Beed Chandrapur
Villages
Khamundi, Kakhewadi, Hoshi Ukirde, Jarewadi Uple yede, Shelkewadi Kolegaon, Galnimb, Kurudgaon Wafale, Pachchhapur, Hahap Waghora, Borgaon Thadi Agra, Heti Nandgaon
Of these 17 villages, 8 villages were receiving per capita water supply in the range of 25-30 litres. whAreas 3 villa«es were getting between 31-40 litres, and the rest 6 were getting more than 40 litres
44
per capita per day. The water availability as noticed in rainy season may be on the higher side compared with availability of water in other seasons. Since the field work was carried during the months of July-August, the water consumption data relates to rainy seasons.
The eight villages which were depending exclusively on piped water supply were from the following 5 districts :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
District
Aurangabad Pune Beed Sa.ngli Latur
Villages
Karmad and Shiregaon Warje Malwadi Nagdara Dhulgaon Karla, Sayyadpur {Bk), Takli (Bk)
All these villages (except Warje Malwadi) were receiving a per capita water supply of between 20-30 litres. In the case of Warje Malwadi, which is located on the outskirts of Pune, supply was 60 litres per capita. All these villages reported inadequate supply of water mostly during the summer months.In Dhulgaon, water was supplied by tanker during the summer months of shortage.
Villages which were depending on borewells were receiving water supply in the range of 20-35 litres per day.
In the group of 24 villages which had more than one source of water [see table 4.3{A)], 21 villages were depending on open dug wells. There were 3 villages which were depending with one organised source; Inspite of this water availability in these 3 villages was reported to be inadequate.
TABLE 4.3 (A) VILLAGES WITH MORE THAN ONE SOURCE
Source
Piped Water + BoreWell Piped Water + Open dug well Borewell + Open dug well,
river
Villages
3 11 10
24
Per cent
13 46 41
100
After studying village level availability of water it would be necessary to know the present conditions and practices at the household level for the three categories of households.
Out of 1777 households covered, only 5 per cent were dependent on natural sources like rivers, streams etc., 51 per cent depended on wells, whereas about 64 per cent of the households covered had access to organised sources of water. Of these, a majority {36 per cent), were getting Piped Water Supply from stand-posts and private connections. Slightly less than one per cent of the households covered, reported that they depended on supply through tankers during the days of shortage. The details a:t.·e presented in Table 4. 3(B).
45
TABLE 4.3(B) : SOURCES OF WATEH FOR SAMPLE HOUSEHOLDS
Source Per cent Households (multiple response)
River 3 Stream/Nalla 2 Well 51 Tube-Well 27 Stand-Post 19 Private Connection 17 Tanker 1
Table 4.4 presents the distribution of households by the major source of water supply available to them.
TABLE 4.4
Sources
Wells stream
Piped Water
DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY MAJOR SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
Per cent Households
53
No of HH
942
(stand-post + Private Connection) 28 492
Borewell 19 343
All sources 100 1777
Since practices concerning water consumption habits relate to source of supply, we plan to describe present condition practices and estimate demand for these three sub-categories separately.
The extent of dependence on wells is observed to be about 55 per cent for all the three groups. It was nearly 78 per cent for households depending on natural sources, 32 per cent for the piped water group and 23 per cent for the Bore-well group. Nearly 73 per cent of the wells were owned by the community. More than 99 per cent of the wells both privately owned and community owned are of the open type. Table 4.5 shows group wise ownership of wells.
TABLE 4.5 OWNERSHIP OF OPEN WELLS
Natural Piped Water
(per cent)
Bore Well All sources
--------------------------------------------------------~--------Privately owned 20 57 44 35 Public 80 43 56 65
46
Eighty per cent of the households from the "Natural source group are at present dependent on public wells to meet their water needs. This proportion was 56 per cent for the group belonging to 'Bore-Well'. In the third group of "Piped-Water", this proportion was only 43 per cent, indicating the presence of a larger number of privately owned open wells.
4.3 DISTANCE FROM SOURCE OF WATER
The households were asked to indicate one way distance they are required to walk to fetch water every day. The average distance is worked out by adding distance for each type of source as large number of hoursehoulds depended on too or more sources. It was observed (see table 4.6) that, for well, river sources, by and large are in the range of 300 to 550 metres away from their homes while, Bore Wells are within the range of 140-235 metres. Relativaly Public Stand -Posts are closer, within 140 metres from the residence of the households.
TABLE 4.6 AVERAGE DISTANCE FROM SOURCE OF SUPPLY
Well River/Stream Borewell Public Stand-Post
Natural (942)
300 550 235 135
Piped Water (492)
140 N.R 140 135
Borewell (343)
500 N.R 220 137
(In metres)
All sources (1777)
313 550 198 136
TABLE 4.6 (A) : DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS BY DISTANCE FROM SOURCE OF SUPPLY
Distance (meters)
1 - 250 251 - 500 501 - 1000 1001 and more
Total
Average
(Per cent)
All sources {1777)
80 9 7 4
100
366 meters
In other words, where households depended on natural sources, persons had to walk a distance (one-way) of about half a kilometer; it was around ·150 meters (or one-third) where borewells or stand-posts were provided.
47
4.4 MONTHS OF USE
Dependence (in months) on various sources of water during the course of the year was also noted. Dependence on natural sources like wells is slightly lower when compared to the organised sources. The differences between these three groups are presented in table 4.7 :
TABLE 4.7 MONTHS OF USE OF DIFFERENT SOURCES
Sources
Well Piped water Borewell
Well River (942)
10 10 11
4.5 WAITING AT SOURCE OF WATER
Major sources
Piped Water (492)
9 11 10
Bore-Well (343)
9 10 11
All sources (1777)
9.5 10.3 10.7
It is imperative that most of the households who were dependent on common sources of water had to wait for some time at the source. This is seen from the table 4.8.
TABLE 4.8 PER OENT HOUSEHOLDS WHO HAD TO WAIT AT THE SOURCE
( Per cent )
Required to wait at source of water
Well/River
44
Piped Water
46
Borewell All Sources
76 51
In the case of households depending on natural sources; mostly wells, relatively a smaller proportion of households were required to wait (44 per cent). In the piped water supply scheme, among those who were dependent on public stand-posts, 46 per cent of households had to wait. Nearly 76 per cent of the households depending on borewells had to wait at bore wells (hand pumps).
4.6 TIME REQUIRED FOR FETCHING WATER
Even though distance from the water source is almost three times in the case of households depending on natural sources of water, it is not adequetely reflected in the time required for fetching water from this source. The average duration required varied between 65 to 80 minutes.
48
Sources
Natural source Piped Water Borewell
Duration ( minutes
80 70 65
The time so calculated includes waiting time as well as travel time. In other words, the waiting time at the organised sources, almost compensate for the travel time in case of the natural sources.
N.Q..,_ Qf Trips
The average number of trips made by each household to fetch water was around 3. This number was the same for households depending on natural as well as organised sources. The total time required for fetching water in a day, thus comes to around 3 to 4 hours, irrespective of the source.
4.7 WHO FETCHES WATER
Water is brought from the source to the residence mainly by women. Other members of the family also help in this activity. Fetching of water only by men is reported by about 12 per cent of the households. {see table 4.9)
TABLE 4.9 WHO FETCHES WATER
(per cent households)
Major source Water fetched by ----------------------------------
Men Women Women along with other members Not reported/required
Natural
11 51 27 11
Piped water Borewell
16 10 20 56 27 34 37
It is interesting that in the piped water source households, men had a little more involvement.
4.8 TYPES OF CONTAINERS USED FOR BRINGING STORAGE OF WATER
The traditional containers { known in local parlance as Kalashi. ghagar, handa etc.) which have narrow mouth and are round in shape are still used by the majority of households. They are mostly made of copper/brass (76 per cent). The use of buckets, which is relatively a modern containar, is reported by only about 16 per cent of households.
Similarly, the traditional containers known as Ranjans (earthen pots) Handas (metalic pots) etc. are still in wide use for storing water. The modern 1 drums' have, however, made an entry in the rural areas for storage of water.
49
Nearly 88 per cent of the households have at least one container made out of clay. Brass is the next major material used for storage containers {57 per cent) followed by steel {19 per cent) and copper (16 per cent). This is presented in the following table.
TABLE 4.10 MATERIAL OF CONTAINERS USED FOR STORAGE
Clay Brass Copper Stainless Steel Iron + Sheet Metal Aluminium Plastic Brick stone
Natural
79 60 20 24 11
6 2
20
4.9 USE OF WATER AT THE RESIDENCE
Piped water
93 49 14 14 20
3 3 9
Borewell
104 58 11 14 18
2 Neg
14
More than 94 per cent of the households, used water fetched from these sources for drinking and cooking.
This implies that other domestic activities li~e washing and laundry are conducted at sources, instead of at homes.
Method of taking water from storage vessels can be noted from Table 4. 11.
TABLE 4.11
Hethod
Hygienic Methods
Vessels with taps
Using a container with a long handle
By tilting the vessel
Unhygienic Methods
Using a container Without handle (Dipping hands in water,
METHOD OF TAKING WATER FROM HOUSEHOLD STORAGE VESSEL
(per cent households)
Well/River Piped water Borewell
18 18 15
2 6 4
12 4 9
4 8 2
82 82 85
54 51 77
use of unclean container etc.)
50
In all the three groups of households there is not much differennce in the habits. Only about 15-18 per cent households have developed hygienic habits of drawing water.
4.10 TREATMENT AT SOURCE
Table 4.12 presents information on the respondents' knowledge about the treatment of water undertaken at source.
TABLE 4.12 PERCEPTION OF HOUSEHOLDS ABOUT THE PURITY OF WATER
Treatment
Chemical treatment undertaken No treatment undertaken Treatment not required
4.11 TREATMENT OF WATER
Natural
34 52 14
(per cent households)
Piped water Bore well
12 7 51 36 37 56
Households were asked about potability of water they were drinking. Nearly 90 per cent households felt that the water they were drinking was potable. Of those who mentioned that water was not potable, 50 per cent found water 'murky' and 20 per cent found it either salty or without taste. The households, by and large, judged the purity of water by its taste and look.
Inspite of the fact that the water was reported as potable, on an average, 46 per cent of the total households were reported to be using some method for purifying water at home. A bulk of those reporting purification, used filtering through a piece of cloth (54 per cent}. Only about 16 per cent reported the use of chemicals. There was not much difference in this reporting, which any case appeared exaggerated in the households using different sources of water.
4.12 BATHING HABITS
Water required for bathing was estimated to be in the range of 60-65 litres per day, per household. Taking into consideration the average household size which varied from 6.3 to 6.8 members per household, the per capita water requirement works out to around 9.5 litres per day. This is comparable with the per capita water requirements in the states of Gujarat and Tamilnadu.
The number of persons bathing at the source of water, varied between 2 to 3 per household. It was also reported that due to limited availability of water, it was not possible to bathe everyday. The incidence of skipping the daily bath was found to be more in the households provided with piped water supply than those with natural or borewell supplies. This was because a large number of household2 depended on public stand-posts, for water, so it was not alway~ possible to get enough water for bathing.
51
4.13 WASHING AND CLEANING HABITS
Due to limited availability of water and lack of proper available in the house, many households undertake washing and other activities outside the house, generally at the supply. This is seen from the table 4.13
facilities of clothes
source of
In the case of households depending on Natural sources, per cent households wash clothes at the source of proportion is 38 per cent in the Piped Water group and for Borewell group. Wells and Rivers are generally sources where washing of clothes is carried out.
Quantity of water required for washing of clothes was the range of 40-45 litres per day, per household. It that water used for washing clothes at the source was than that for clothes washed at home.
TABLE 4.13 PLACE OF WASHING OF CLOTHES
more than 64 water. This
46 per cent most common
estimated in was observed
slightly more
(per cent households)
Home Well River, Nalla Standpost/Hand Pump Others (including combinations of the above)
Cleaning Q£ Uteneils
Major Source of Water
Natural Piped water Bore well
36 62 54 25 7 11 20 24 25
2 3 3
17 4 7
As many as 92 per cent of the households clean utensils at home. The remaining 8 per cent do so either at open wells, borewells or rivers. There is no difference between the three groups as far as this activity is concerned. On an average, 25 litres of water are needed per household per day.
4.14 WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR CATTLE
More than 90 per cent of the households take their cattle to water sources for drinking water, bathing,cleaning etc. This practice is almost uniform in all the three groups of households. Sources commonly used for this purpose are wells (30 per cent), rivers (28 per cent) and streams (18 per cent). Only 4 per cent of the households use water tanks, specially built for animals. The quantity of water required for cattle was reported to vary between 52-65 litres per day, per household.
52
4.15 WATER REQUIRE"ENT FOR OTHER PURPOSES
In every household, plastering the floor with dung and preparation o dung cakes is a regular activity, but use of water for this acti~it
was reported by only about 12 per cent of the households. Wat~r fc personal hy~iene was separately reported by 4 per cent of th households. About 8 per cent of the households reported wate consumption for various other activities like gobar gas plants washing of animals etc. Only 3 per cent of the households reporte requirements of water for kitchen gardens. Water is consumed fo household industry, profession etc. was reported by about 3 per cen households. 40-45 litres of water is required per households per day
4.16 WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR PIPED WATER
Households were initially asked about their preferences regardin house-connections and public stand-posts. They were also asked t indicate the amount that they ware willing to pay towards capita expenditure for house-connections and monthly maintenance charges G
house-connac t ions and stand-posts. { IJ na. idad response i.
TABLE 4.14 PREFERENCE AHD ijlLLINGHES TO PAY
Number Preferring House-Connections
Unaided Response Aided Response Decrease in Response
\1 ill ingness to llitl, towards capi ttl expenditure for ho,;.se-connections
Average - Unaided IRs) - Aided {Rs)
\ncrease <Rs)
~illingness to~ for Monthly Main tena.nce for pr i Vj! te-connec tions
Average - Unaided IRs.) - Aided ( Rs. )
Increase/Decrease IRs. l
Number Preferring ~ Post
Unaided Response Aided Response
Willingness To Pay For Monthly Maintana.nce 2f_ Stand Posts
Average - Unaided - Aided
Decrea.se
{Rsl IRsl
{per cent households)
Major eKisting sources of water
Natural
70 35
135)
P.·iped water
54 31
{23)
Per cent Per cent H.H.
285 61 210 35
25
11.20 60 11.00 35 10.20)
40 30
6.80 7.50 o. 70
53
H. H. 195 240
45
10.20 11.50
1. 30
23 15
8. 70 10.15
1. 45
50 31
51 31
Borewell
325 420
90
55 32
123)
Per cent H.H.
53 32
11. 10 10.20 0.90
23 22
6.00 6.50 0.50
50 32
After getting these responses they were informed about Piped Water Supply scheme, advantages of potable water and estimated capital expenditure towards house-connections, and monthly maintenance charges for both. The questions concerning preferences and willingness, then, were again asked to them (Aided response).
It was observed that in all the three groups aided response was siginificantly different from the unaided response.
In the section 4.17 demand for private water supply connection 13 explained in detail. Our basic premise is that this demand is not related to income alone. The factor of capacity to pay is important and was measured in terms of ownership of either a radio or a bicycle Hence those households who are willing to pay and having either of these two assets were considered for estimating demand for private connections.
The reasons for not considering cash income was also discussed in the section 4.17 hence it was not necessary to present the table on income and willingness to pay for private connection.
4.17 DEMAND FOR PRIVATE WATER SUPPLY CONNECTIONS
For estimating demand, the following methodology was used :
The households from only those villages which are included in the piped water supply projects are considered for estimating demand.
The response is obtained after giving the respondents information concerning the cost of connections.
In estimating demand, two factors are considered; willingness to I
have the connection and willingness to pay for it; as also the capacity of the households to pay the amount.
The factor of willingness was assessed from the respondents' answers to the question concerning this aspect. All the 1728 respondents answering the questions affirmatively and willing to pay at least Rs. 1 were considered to be demanding the private piped water connection.
The factor of capacity to pay was assessed using two approaches. One was the possession of either a radio or a bicycle. Since both cost more than Rs. 500;-, ~t was assumed that the respondent possessing any of these assets is in a position to spend for the capital expenditure required for a private pipe connection. Only those household_::; who were willing to pay and had either of these two assets, were considered for estimating demand for private connections. In the other approach, the cash income of the households was considered. Since these figures are rather under-reported and not all the households have sources of cash income, this approach was not put•sued further. There was e.lso the problem of deciding what level of income should be considered to determine adequate capacity to pay. The total demand is presented in table 4.15. The demand is given for various levels of the respondents' willingness to pay separately for
54
advanced and backward castes. The figures are expressed as percentages of households to be provided with piped water supply in their villages. The results suggest that, for all districts taken together, 9% households are willing to pay above Rs. 401/- per year for a private water supply connection.
The demand schedules vary between advanced and backward castes. latter are, generally, lower than the former. It is also seen the demand varies from village to village.
The conclusions emerging from this analysis can be stated thus :
The that
i) There is a decrease in the number of households preferring house connections, after the information on capital costs, etc. was given to them. Still, between 30 to 35 per cent households would like to have house-connections. While explaining advantages (Aided response) about piped water supply, households were also informed about the capital cost and monthly maintenance charges. Many households who opted for house connection in an unaided response declined to pay the specified amount towards capital cost. Hence there is a cle<:::rease in .. Aided Response".
ii) Those who prefer to have house connections are ready to spend between Rs. 250 to Rs. 400 towards capital cost. There is a difference in this willingness in villages having different sources of supply. The villages with borewell sources are likely to pay more than those which already have pipe water supply. The aided response in terms of willingness to pay has also shown an increase as compared to unaided response.
iii) The monthly maintenance charges for stand-posts at Rs. 7 to Rs. 10 seem to be acceptable to most. This amount, under aided response, ii an improvement over the unaided response.
TABLE 4.15
Amount willing to pay (in Rs.)
(Base)
TJpto 100 101 200 201 .300 301 400 401 500 f,01 7f,O 7[11 1000
1001 1250 12fd. 1500 1501 2000 More than 20QO
DEMAND FOR PRIVATE CONNECTIONS FOR WATER ,,
(per cent households)
Advanced Backward All castes castes castes
(1000) (728) (1728)
26.1 16.3 21.9 21.3 11.4 17.1 16.0 7.0 12.2 11.6 5.4 9.0 9.6 4.9 7.6 3.5 2.4 3.0 2.6 1. [, 2.1 1.3 0.8 1.0 1.2 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1
55
~ -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -750 -1000 -1250 -1500 -2000 -2500
0 AOV.CASTES WILLINGNESS AND ASJLITY TO PAY (RS.)
+ OTHEP CASTES
56
<> ALL CASTES
I
I I
l >2500
II BORE WELL SUPPLY SCHEMES
4 . 18 BACKGROUND
In the Borewell Scheme there are two components viz
i) Revitalizing (hydrofracturing) of existing bore wells ii) Digging of new wells
Under the revitalisation programme there are 305 villages from 10 districts, whereas, the new well programme is planned in 10 districts, covering 148 villages and 621 hamlets. It is proposed to provide one hand pump per 250 persons in these villages, in such a manner that the beneficiaries are not required to walk more than 250 metres tn fetch water and obtain 40 litres of water per day, per person,
As indicated in the first chapter, we have not included villages under hydrofracturing scheme.
We covered 934 households from 17 villages and 43 hamlets in 8 districts. The districts of Latur and Buldhana were not included in the samplej as there were only 2 villages and 2 hamlets proposed under the project in these districts.
4.19 DEPENDENCE OF VILLAGES ON VARIOUS SOURCES OF WATER
Out of 60 villages and hamlets, 85 per cent are get their supply from wells, 33 per cent from rivers, streams, canals etc., 48 per cent from existing borewells and 23 per cent from piped water supply. Twenty per cent villages are supplied water through·'tankers' during the months of March, April and May. (see table 4.16)
S1)Ul'Ce
River, St.ream
Wells Borewell
TABLE 4.16
Public Stand Post Private Connection Tanker
(Multiple ["{esponse)
DEPENDENCE ON SOURCES OF WATER FOR VILLAGES
No, of Hamlets/Villages
57
20
f) 1 29 12 14 12
Per cent
33
85 48 20 23 20
Thirty five of the 60 settlements \_ht:l per cent) exclusively on one source, in which mun;, than 80 per depended on one source while 25 (42 per cent) had source of water available to them. (see table 4.17)
were dependent cent house holds
more than one
TABLE 4.1'/ DEPENDENCE Oll VILLAGES ON SOURCES OF WATER
Dependence on one source
Dependence on more than o11t1
5ource
%Ltlarnl.!:: ts (Base 43)
a:_;
(in percentage) ~-Y~lla£~5- &_5~ttl~m~ht5
(Base 17) (Base 60)
39 58
f::i 1 42
The dependence on only one source was more for hamlets than for villages.
Exclusive dependence on natural and organised sources was studied further. It was found that dependence is more on natural sources than on the organised sources. (see table 4.18)
TABLE 4.18 SOURCEWISE EXCLUSIVE DEPENDENCE
Per cent Per cent Per cent Villages Hamlets Settlements
Natural sources 100 83 86 Borewell Nil 14 11 Pipewater Nil 3 3
Base 6 29 35
The following seven villages were depending exclusively on natural sources
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Villages
Ghurali Kalegaon fakir Kushire Kh.. Rodewadi 5hirsi Kokewada Ohar
58
District
Thane Ahmadnagar F'une Sang ali Chandrapur Chandra,pur Aurangabad
25 Hamlets which were dependent only on natural sources were from 6 Dir3tricts
----------------------------------------District
Thane Ahmednagar Pune Sa tara Sangali Beed
Total
No. of Hamlets
4 2 5 5 6 3
25
25 of the 60 settlements had access to more than one source. The distribution c,f settlements by combination of sources is presented in the table 4.19.
TABLE 4.19 DEPENDENCE ON MULTIPLE SOURCES FOH DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
Source Villages Hamlet.s Settlement.s
Bore well + Naturalsources Bore well and Pipedwater Piped water + Natural sources
7 1 3
11
(64) 9 ( 9) 1
(27) 4
(100) 14
(64) 16 (64) {7} n ( 8 ) G
(29) 7 (28)
(100) n~=: ~ .. .) (100)
Nearly 92 per cent villages depended on natural sources in combination with either borewells or pipedwat.er supply. Only 8 per cenV i.e. 2 settlemen~s did not depend on any type of natural source.
4.20 DEPENDENCE OF HOUSEHOLDS ON VARIOUS SOURCES OF WATh'R
Table 4.20 presents the sources of supply to the households covered in the survey.
TABLE 4.20
Gource
SOURCES OF SUPPLY OF WATER FOR HOUSEHOLDS
Per cent households using the sources
River, Nalla, Stream 22 Wells 64 Borewell 23 Stand-post 7 Private Connection 5
Ot.her:s
Tanker 9
(Multiple response)
Only 22 per cent of the households are at present depending on rivers, nalla, stream etc~ as compared to 64 per cent on wells, whereas 35 per cent of the households depend on organised sources like borewell, stand-post and private connection. 9 per cent of the households mentioned that during the day~ of shortage of water, they are required to get water from water tan~ers.
On the basis of the major source of supply of water in grouped villages into three categories viz ; Natural well and Piped water
a village we sources, Bore
The distrubution of households by these three categories is as follows :
Category
Natural sources Borewell Piped water
No. of households
687 175
72
Per cent
74 18
8
4.21 EXTENT OF DEPENDENCE OF HOUSEHOLDS ON VARIOUS SOURCES
anker
Table 4.21 presents dependence on various sources of water for these households.
TABLE 4. 21
Open wells River & others Borewell Piped water
KXTEN'l' OF DEPENDENCE OF HOUSEHOLDS ON VARIOUS SOURCES
Major sources of water
Natural Bore Piped All sources well water (934)
(687) (l?f>) (72)
482 (70) 45 (26) 26 (37) f>53 (59) 218 (32) 1 (neg) 2 ( 3 ) 221 (59)
88 (13) 129 (74) 5 ( 7 ) 222 (24) 26 ( 4 ) 2 (1) 48 (68) 76 ( 8 ) 83 (12) 0 ( 0 ) 0 ( 0) 83 ( 8 )
(multiple response)
(Figures in bracket indicate percentage)
The households ( 175) mainl)' depending on bore wells had to augment their water supply by taking water from open wells. From the group which mainly depends on natural sources, only 17 per cent had access either to bore wells or piped water as a secondary source. Nearly 32 per cent have to depend on seasonal natural sources like rivers, I streams, nallas etc. This group deserves bore well scheme most.
4.22 DISTANCE FROM THE SOURCE
Table 4.22 presents average distance between the source and the location of the households.
60
TABLE 4.22 AVEI~GE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE SOURCE AND LOCATION OF HOUSEHOLDS
(in meter:~. 1
Base
River
Well Borewt:dl Stanclpost Average Distance
Natural (687)
400
260 200 12fl 286
Bore well (175)
N.R.
450 215 125 277
Piped water (72)
250
400 12f) 140 225
All Source::;
(934}
306 187 115 280
Households depending on Natural sources had to walk more than 250 meters to reach wells. and nearly 400 meters to reach rivers. The second group which is dependent on bore wells requires to walk abOllt 215 meters to fetch water from bore wells. Those depending on standposts require to walk 140 meters to reach the source.
The average distance between the source and the residence for all households in borewell scheme villages and hamlets is estimated to be 280 meters.
4.23 MONTHS OF DEPENDENCE ON VARIOUS SOURCES
The extent of dependence in terms of months on various sources during the year was studied for these three sub-groups and is presented in table 4.23 .
'I' ABLE 4. 2~l MONTHS OF DEPENDENCE
(Figures in months)
Natural Bore well Piped Water All Source:"'·
(687) {175) (72) (934)
River 9.0 Nil 11.5 9.2 Well 9.6 8.4 4.4 9.9 Borewell 9.8 11.2 11. 5 10.2 Standpost 10.2 11.5 11.5 10.5 Private connection 9.4 11. 5 11. 5 10.6 Tanker 4 4 3.2
Average l1onth:3 10.5 9.2 9 . .3
61
The households depending on natural sources from all the three groups on an average, depend on wells and rivers for 8 months during the year. Compared to this, the average period of dependence on organised sources is 11 months indicating clearly that organised sources of water, wherever available, are more dependable than natural sources. Wells form the major source of water for about 70 per cent of the households in all the three groups. This proportion is the highest i.e. 75 per cent in the natural sources group. About 35 per cent of all the wells are privately owned. The following table shows distribution of wells by ownership
Private Public
TABLE 4.24
Natural
40 60
TYPE OF WELLS
Bore well
20 80
Piped water
8 92
More than 98 per cent of the wells are open type.
4. 24 WHO FETCHES WATER
All Sources
:34 66
The female members of the household is the single major group involved in fetching water, although this activity is also shared by male members in about 45 per cent of the households. In only about 14 per cent of the households male members fetch water, without any assistance from female members.
4.25 TIME REQUIRED FOR ~~TCHING WATER
Every day about 90 minutes are spent by a household in fetching water. The average time required for these groups is presented in the following table :
TABLE 4.25
Source
NatJ..lral Source Borewell Piped Water All Sourees
TIME REQUIRED
Time RequirE'd (Minutes)
90 70 60 84
In the group of households depending on natural sources, nearly 16 per fact about
cent did not spend any time in fetching water mainly due to the that they had wells in their backyards. This proportion was
7 per cent in the borewell group and 32 per cent in the piped water supply group.
Every day, water is fetched 2-3 times a day. About 46 per cent of the households do it once/twice a day and the remaining do it 3 times a
62
day. 4.26 WAITING TIME AT THE SOURCE OF WATER
Nearly 36 per cent of the households reported that they are required to wait at the source 6 for fetching water. This proportion was lowest in the case of households depending on Natural Sources (31 per cent) increasing to 50 per cent for households depending on Borewells and 56 per cent for households depending on Piped Water Supply Scheme.
TABLE 4.26 MATERIAL OF CONTAINERS USED FOR STORAGE
Mat.erial of containers
Clay Copper Brass Stainle.'3 steel Steel Aluminium Plastic Br i cl<::/Stone
Natural
83 27 56 20 1f>
6 1
1B
Borewell
97 8
59 9
23 5 0 7
Piped water All Sources
37 82 14 22
100 60 26 18
8 16 0 5 0 1 7 14
4.27 METHOD OF TAKING WATER FROM THE CONTAINERS
Table 4.27 presents the findings, on methods of taking water frnm storage cont~lner. Hygienic pr~ctices of drawing water are followed by only about 12 per cent households.
TABLE 4.27 : METHODS OF TAKING WATER FROM STORAGE CONTAINKR
(in percentage)
---------------------------------------------------------------------Method of tal<;:ing Natural Bore Well Piped Water All water Sources
Hygienic Practices
Vessel wit.h tap 2 0 8 3 Vessel with handle 4 3 0 4 By tilting the container 6 2 7 5
Unhygienic Practices
Ves5el without handle b8 70 64 61 By dipping other vessels 3 0 14 3 Combin.':l.tion of above 27 25 7 nr;
6 -:~
pract:lces
No re5ponse 3 2 6 3
63
4.28 TREATMENT OF WATER
Nearly 79 per cent of the household reported that water ovailable to them is potable. Those who mentioned that it was not potable have given the following reasons.
Reasons
Water is salty group
32 ~lostly from nat, ural & bore well
Water is murky
River water with moss
Other reasons like bad smell, water without taste
35
8
15
Natural source
Natu.ral source
Natural sourced
In order to test the knowledge of respondents, they were asked whether well water was chemically treated. Only 22 per cent households from all the three groups positively mentioned chemical treatment. Nearly 21 per cent were sure about non existence of such a facility in their village. The rest (about 57 per cent) were not aware of such a service undertaken by the Gram Panchayat.
When enquired about methods of purifying water at home, nearly 39 per cent mentioned that they treated water before use. 46 per cent of the households from the borewell group reported that they treat water, whereas 39 per cent households from the natural sources group reported treatment. Filtering of water using a piece of cloth is the major method followed.
4.29 BATHING HABITS
Less than 1.5 per cent of the households reported that it possible for the members to bathe at home. This proportion per cent in the case of households from the natural sources where as it was less than 3 per cent for households from th~ group. This was, as in the case of PW villages, contrary observation made by participant observer.
t. 30 WASHING OF CLOTHES
was not wa::> one
group, borewell
to the
Slightly more than one third households were able to wa:::.h clothes at home, this proportion was maximum ( 45 per cent.) in the households from the bore well group and minimum (26 per cent) in the Piped Water Supply group. The major places where clothes are washed are presented in the following table.
As regards cleaning of utensils, nearly 90 per cent of the households perform this activity at home. Of the remaining 10 per cent, about 9 per cent clean their utensils at wells, canals, nallas, rivers, etc. Only one per cent of the households do so at public stand-posts or borewells.
64
TABLE 4.28 WASHING OF CLOTHES
{Per cent)
-------------------------------------------------------------------Places Natural BoreWell Piped Water All
Source:3
Home ,~, 36 4f> 26 37 Well 17 9 43 18 Hiver, Nala 2.3 24 14 22 Borewell 2 6 4 3 Stand --post 5 2 0 4 Combination of above 17 14 13 16
4.31 CONSUt1PTION OF WATER FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES
A consolidated table giving the estimated per capita consumption of water for different purposes is given below (table 4.29).
TABLE 4.29 PER CAPITA WATER CONSUMPTION
Purpose
Domestic (Drinking and cooking) Bathl:r-.g Washing of clothes Cleaning of utensils Other purposes
All purpo.se.s
65
In litre:3
10 10
8 4 1
33
I II. WA'l'l~H SAf1Pt.El3
4.32 ANALYSIS OF WATER SAMPLES
There are 57 villages covered in the sample which are to be provided with piped water supply schemes. Out of these villages, samples from 50 villages were collected for chemical analysis, with a minimum of 3 samples per village, In all, thus 178 samples were collected for analysis. All these samples were collected from the households. These samples were collected in the bottles provided by the Public Health Laboratories. These laboratories the water collected analysed. The following observations can be made from the results obtained in these analysis.
From table 4.30 it can be seen that the water collected from nearly all villages is contaminated and not fit for drinking purposes. From only two villages (out of 50 ) all the samples were free of contamination. As against this in 23 villages all the samples were found to be contaminated. Moreover in 15 villages, faecal contamination was observed in the water samples.
Table 4.31 provides the information about the results of samples together with the sources of supply from which the respondent households brought the water. Nearly 80 per cent of all water samples were contaminated. This percentage remained the same irrespective of the fact that the source of water was an open well, river/nalla/tank or piped water. It is only in the case of the borewell, that the extent of contamintion was lower at 67 per cent.
This analysis stresses two facts, which require urgent attention.
i) It is likely that from most of the sources, including contaminated water is stJ.pplied. This must be stopped constant monitoring must be done.
pipes, and a
ii) It is also likely that water gets contaminated during storage, transport and handling. In other words, a mere supply of piped treated water does not ensure consumption of safe water. The people have to be ediJ.Cated in thi~· :eegard and it ::Lhc:.1Lld .iQr.m ~ Illi.r..1 Qf ~ p:rogramme cl supplying drinking water through borewells Qr piped water.
TABLE 4.30 ANALYSIS OF WATER S~JLES (village wise)
Villages from where water samples were collected Villages with all the samples contaminted Villages with at least one sample contaminated Villages with all the samples not contaminated
(Figures in brackets are percentages)
66
No. of Villages
50 (100) 23 (46) 25 (bO)
2 ( •1 )
ANALYSIS OF WATER SAMPLES
No. of Samples found Sources
Safe Contaminated Total
Open dug well 10 53 63 {16) {84) (100)
Rivet', NB.ll-3., Tt~.nl<: 1 7 8 (12) (88) (100)
Borewell 16 33 49 (33) (67) {100)
Piped Water 9 49 58 ( 16) {84) (100)
All sources 36 142 178 (20) (80) (100)
(Figures in brackets are percentages to the total)
67
ANNEXURE - 4 . l
PURCHASE OF WATER
About 1 per cent (18 households out of 1777) reported purchase of water during the summer mc.,nths. Thest.': household.5 were from 12 villages distributed over 7 districts. The details are as follows
District Village No. of households
Ahmednagar New as a BlL 3 Malibabhulgaon 1
Pune Khamundi 1 Warje MalwacU 1
Anphale 1 Nigadi 1
Sangli Upale-wangi 1
Buldhana Amdapur 1 Shelsur 2 Ekla1·a 3
Beed Salegaon 1
More than 90 per cent of these households were purchasing water at the rate of Rs. 0.5 - 1.00 per 10 litres. The sources which the~e households depend on throughout the year were as follows :
Sources
Open dug well River,nalla Borewell Public stand-post Private connection
Total
68
No. of households
7 2 2 5 .3
18
CHAPTER V
LATRINES PRESENT CONDITIONS, PRACTICES AND DEMAND.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
As explained in chapter I the discussion in this chapter is based on the information obtained from
a) Questionnaires canvassed for 2711 households in the sample project villages, spread over in 10 districts.
b) Reports of the investigators on the village situation.
c) Reports of the participant observers (POs) who submitted detailed village reports.
d) Records of the village Panchayat, Zilla Parishad, RUWAT data, Census and other publictions.
This chapter provides the aggregate information for all the districts together. The district-wise tabulation is given in Volume II.
5.~ PRE~ENT aiTUATlON OONOERNING LATRINES
Out of 2711 households, only 161 households {forming around 6 per cent) reported the use of latrines. This percentage varied between 0 (for Latur district) and 19 (for Thane district}. The major factors affecting a large incidence of latrines in Thane district were good availability of water and nearness to the suburbs of Bombay.
,,
TABLE 5.1 : PRINCIPAL SETTLEMENTS REPORTING USE OF LATRINES
Distict Name of Total No No of sample Per cent settlement of sample households households
Households reporting using latrJne use of latrine
Thane 1. Sat pale 51 27 52.9 2. Bhuigaon Bk. 54 22 40.7 3. Nale 22 7 31.8
Ahmednagar 4. New as a Bk. 60 12 20.0
Pune 5. Mal wadi 16 5 31.2 6. Moshi 30 5 16.7
Sangli 7. Dhulgaon 41 5 12.2 8. Kumthe 65 10 15.4
Buldhana 9. Amdapur 71 9 12.7
Beed 10. Borgaon Bk. 35 4 11. 4 11. Borgaon Tadi 11 5 45.5 12. Ghatnandur 71 9 12.7
527 120 22.8
69
The distribution of latrines among settlements also shows a wide variation. Out of 122 settlements covered, as many as 87 settlements (71 per cent) did not report any sample household, using latrines. The principal settlements reporting large usage of latrines are presented in Table 5.1.
Thus, these 12 settlements account for 75 per cent of the observed use of latrines, and in these settlements the percentage of sample households using latrines varies between 11 per cent to 53 per cent. The profile of these villages is discussed in section 5.5.
5.3 TYPE OF LATRINES USED
The distribution of households according to the type of latrines used by them is as given in table 5.2.
TABLE 5.2 TYPES OF LATRINES
Types of Latrines
Bucket/Trench One pit/Two pit Septic With Gobargas & Others
Total Base
Per cent Households
20.2 9.5
58.9 11.4
100.0 (161)
The incidence of septic latrines is t.he highest, nearing 60 per cent, followed by the traditional ones at 20 per cent. The latrines with gobar-gas utility are around 11 per cent. The incidence of one or two pit latrines is quite low, indicating partially a lack of awareness of such latrines and partially, the preference for the flush type of latrines.
5.4 OWNERSHIP OF LATRINES
The distribution of households using latrines according to ownership is given in Table 5.3.
TABLE 5.3 DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS USING LATRINES ACCORDING TO OWNERSHIP OF LATRINES
Ownership of Per cent Latrine Households
Own Public Relations Others (Landlord's etc.)
85.5 8.8 4.4 1.3
Total --------------------100-:o---Base (161)
';' ---------------------------------------
70
The rnajori ty of the latrine-users own the latrines. The household~. using public latrines are only around 9 per cent.
92 per cent of the respondents reported that the latrines are used by all the family members with almost all of them using them throughout the year.
Over 61 p~r cen£households reported constructing the latrines during the last 5 years, and further 13 per cent constructed latrinee between 6-10 years ago, the remaining 1.5 per cent constructed them 11 or more years ago~
The distribution of households according to capital expenditure incurred by them is given as follows
Up to Up to llpto
Rs. 500 Rs. 1000 Rs. 1500
4.2 per cent 12.6 per cent 83.2 per cent
(Base : 138 owned latrine users)
5.5 THE PROFILE OF THE VILLAGES HAVING A LARGE POPULATION OF LATRINES
Thane district
The three villages, Satpale, Bhuigaon Bk. and Nale have two common features. Firstly, all of them are at a very short distance from the suburbs of Bombay (Nale and Bhuigaon Bk. are 6 kms and 15 kms respectively from Vasai and Satpale is 8 kms from Virar). This, with nearness to the rail/road and a large number of buses and train~. serving them has increased the residential population of salaried classes in these villages, who come to Bombay and to other nearby suburbs of Bombay (like Vasai, Virar, Andheri and Borivali). They are more educated and also belong to advanced castes. (In Satpale, for example, there is a large population of Christians). The increase in population has also reduced the open space. The second factor is abundance of water. Nearly,every household has a well, with a water level at between 10 to 30 ft. and supply water throughout the year. Though, all this water is not fit for drinking and though there is some shortage of potable drinking water in summer; there is adequate water for irrigation, bathing and sanitation throughout the year. These villages are included in the area known as the "green" belt which is favourable for growing vegetables, fruits and flowers. The latrines are mostly of the septic type.
In this district, Newasa has a sizeable number of private latrines. Newasa is 60 kms from Ahmadnagar, the district headquarter. Ite population is around 6000 and the large number of latrines seems tr be due, according to the reports of the POs, to the abundant supply of water, both from borewells and piped water supply, and the relatively high income of the owners of the latrines, who have spent around Rs. 6 to 7 thousand each for the construction of latrinee which are mostly septic.
71
In this district also, the owners of latrines seem to come from the well to do class and have had urban contacts.
Sane;J.i
Kumthe village, with a population of 5000, is situated near Sangli city (11 kms) and Tasgaon (9 kms). A piped water supply scheme was implemented in 1981, but it is not functioning. So is the case with 8 community latrines constructed 6 years ago, All of them are not in use, for want of maintenance. All the private latrines that are constructed are by those who constructed bio-gas plants. Some of these latrines are also not in use because of the non-functioning of bio-gas plants.
More or less the same situation prevails in Dhulgaon (population 2500) which is 15 kms from Sangli city. Here also the latrines are constructed by the bio-gas plant users. Here again, 11 out of 26 bio-gas plants are not functioning.
Buldbana
Amdapur is a large, semi-urban area, having a population of around 10000. Although there is a piped water supply scheme operating in the village, it is thouroghly inadequate and there is a severe shortage of water in summer. Only those households which are from the salaried classes and which have had some contacts with the cities have constructed latrines, which are of the flush type.
In Beed, both Borgaon and Ghatnandur are large villages. The who have constructed latrines here are relatively well educated and have urban contacts.
people to do,
The discussion thus indicates that demand for latrines to those villages which are urban oriented and within to the relatively better off classes. Naturally, the found are of costly nature, mainly septic.
is restricted the villages, latrines thus
5.6 THE PROFILE OF HOUSEHOLDS USING LATRINES
The above analysis indicates that :
a) The latrine users are concentrated in few villages. b) Most of the latrine users own the latrines they use. c) Most of the latrine owners have spent on the latrines between Rs.
1000 to Rs. 1500. d) Most of the latrines are of the septic tank/flush types, with
quite a few attached to the gobar-gas plants.
In other words, the present latrine users should be coming from the relatively better sections of the society. This is borne out from the; following table (Table 5.4) which compares latrine users and non-:
72
following table (Table 5.4) which compares latrine users and nonlatrine users in Thane district with different indicators of level of living. There are distinct differences between these two sections. A significantly lower number of households which use latrines, own cycles, radios, TYs and stoves as compared to non-latrines users. They also have better houses and larger cash incomes.
Question 6 in section 1 of the household questionnaire referred to whether the household had any facility of a latrine. {n the entire sample, 161 households (from a total of 2711 households) replied a.ffirm.:il.tively <5.!3 per cent}. In Thane district alone, 71 hoi.Jseholds (19.1 per cent of 371 households in the district) reported the facility. To what extent is the profile of these households different from that of those who do not have latrines 7
The following summary of selected characteristics of households in Thane district is interesting.
TABLE 5.4
District Thane
( Ba.se) . Households having
Houses with walls made of stronger materials (brick&, stones, cement 8tc. )
Houses with roofs made of stronger materials. (tiles, tinsheets, concret~;~ etc.)
Cash income of above Rs.l5000 par year
Owning cycles
Owning ra.d ios
Owning T.V.s
Owning sewing machines
Owning bullock ca.r ts
Owning stoves
CHARACTERISTICS OF USERS AND NOH-USERS OF LATRINES
La. trine users
{70)
78.5
lHI
85.7
*ll
68.6
lHI
54.3
!HI
64.3 !HI
70.0
11. 4
11.4 .Jill
52.9
Non-Latr ina users
{301)
27.9
63.8
33.6
28.6
34.2
10.9
7.0
15.0
32.2
Total
{371)
37.5
67.9
40.2
33.4
39.9
22.1
7.8
14.3
36.1
Sta.nda.rd Error
6.4
6.3
6.5
8.3
6.5
5.5
3.6
4.6
6.4
(-liM Significantly higher than ths other group )
73
StiJdent.s -T8s t R<.l tic
7.9
3.5
5.4
4. 1
4.6
10.7
1.2
0.8
3.2
None of the households surveyed in Thane district had any private tap water connection.
Apparently, ownership of TVs, houses with stronger walls incomes more than 15000 seem to be the most discriminating from among those considered.
5. rr PRATIG'ES OF NON-USERS OF LATRINES
and cash variables
Questions places of frequented_ 5' 5).
were asked to the household respondents concerning the defecation. The percentage response concerning the places
by children, men and women are tabulated below (Table
TABLE 5.5
Place
Near the house In the farm River/stream In open spaces Others
PLACES USED BY CHILDREN, MEN AND WOMEN IN NON-USER OF LATRINE
Children
40.0 31.7 12.5 9.6 6.2
l1en
0.3 47.3 27.2 16.9 8.3
(Base - 2550)
1.3 48.5 17.9 18.7 13.6
The table reveals the general unhygenic surroundings of the households. As many as 40 per cent households reported that the children defecate near the house which indicates bad hygiene. If we take into aecount that it is likely to be an underestimat.e and that even the children in those households which have latrine facilities also defecate in the open, one is not surprised with the POs findings that most roads in the villages are seen to be defecated on, by children if not cleaned by natural scavengers i.e. pigs.
Defecating in the distant places is naturally more common among adults than children, and the farms seem to be the most convenient places for this purposes. The banks of rivers/streams come next, polluting the wate:t· in the process. The "open spaces", with wh~t t.ever shelter that is available, are also used for the purpose of defecation by adults.
5.7.1 The latrine practices are more vividly described by the POs. Their observations can be summarised as below
(i) The practice of covering of excreta by mud is rarely 'ollowed. The importance of this is not known to the villagers.
* In fact, even after explaining the importance of this practice, the persons were reluctant to accept it, saying that it would make them difficult to identify the dirty spots and there would be a risk of trampling over them.
74
(ii) Although the men/women prefer to go to distant places in the day-time, this practice is not strictly observered in the night or by the sick people.
{iii) Generally, for cleaning purposes, water in a small pot (approximately of 1 litre capacity) is carried to the place of defecation. If it is not available, any material (like leaves, stone, etc.) is used.
(iv) Although most households reported washing hands/feet defecation, it is not adequate. The use of soap/ash is made. At best, some mud is applied to the hands washing, if water is adequately available. If water available, the leaves are used for wiping the hands.
after rarely bef <::.'l'e
is not.
5.8 REQUIREMENT OF LATRINE .\
The requirement of latrines was assessed t-hrough questions ( 1 ike "do you need lat1·ines") and also by enquiring into their willingness t.o pay for the construction and maintenance of latrines. Since the knowledge of one or two-pit latrines was found to be lacking in the pilot survey, the interviewers were asked to provide this knowledge at a specific stage of interview with the help of pictures and posters and then repeat some questions. The latter response was called "aided" while the initial response, before t.he knowledge was imparted, called "u.naided". These questions were asked to 2f.>50 nonusers of latrines.
5.8.1 The conclusion of this analysis can be presented as follows :
A) To the direct question : "Do you need latrines ?", 77 per cent of the respondents answered affirmatively. Gender-wise, 80 per cent of the malr~ respondents and 72 per cent of the female respondents answered affirmately. The difference is statistically significant. The lower response on the part of women is somewhat puzzling and tends to refute the hypothesis that "women feel the need of latrines more than men."
According to the interviewers (especially the lady and the POs, these responses are influenced by ~~onsiderations.
interviewers) the follov1ing
i) Women will
feel have
maintenance can clean prepared to
that with the construction of latrines, to shoulder additional responsibilities
and cleaning. In fact, many women, while the houses, clothes and utensils, are undertake this "dirty" responsibility.
they of
t.:.hey not
ii) The expof:H.l.re to the plJ.blic latrines at places like ST stands has created a resentment more among women than men because at such places, women are forced t,o use t.hese lat1·ines while men can avoid them if they want t-o do so.
iii) Women are so accustomed to the use of open spaces that they do not want to change their practices. Men, on the other hand, are likely to be more inclined to change
75
iv) Women are more cost-conscious than men and have their priorities on other aspects like water, food, clothing, houses and education than latrines. Probably there is a difference in these preferences between women and men. This has also been reflected in their responses on the willingness to pay.
B) 38.6 per cent of the respondents are not willing to pay anything towards the capital cost of the construction of latrines. Genderwise, these percentages are 33.3 per cent for male and 49.6 per cent for female respondents. Again these differences are statistically significant indicating that relatively more men are prepared to pay towards latrine construction than women. Although, ultimately, the finances might be controlled by men, there is some evidence that women might put up some resistance. The same level of differences are seen in the gender-wise responses on the willingness to pay for construction cost, which are statistically significant and which indicate lower willingness on tho part of women.
C) On the ownership of desired latrines, 72.4 per cent (of those respondents who wanted lat1·1nes) preferred private, while 20.7 per cent opted for the public/cNnmunity latrines Gender-wise, 76.8 per cent of male respondents opted for private while 62 per cent female respondents opted for private. Here again the genderwise difference are statistically significant and indicate a possibility of the women respondents not willing to opt for cleaning and maintenance of their latrines. This, it should be noted, is an 'aided' response, indicating that the women respondents have not sufficiently been convinced about the advantages of the latrines.
D) As far as the types of latrines were concered, 39 per cent of the respondents (who desired to have latrines) preferred one/two pit latrines and an almost equal number (viz. 41.5 per cent) preferred to have septic or flush types of latrines.
Here again, there are marked difference in the response between male and female respondents. 41 per cent of male respondents opted for one/two pit latrines while 34.7 per cent of female respondents opted for such latrines. Conversely, 39 per cent of male respondents opted for septic/flush latrines while the percentage of female respondents preferring these latrines was 47.2. The gender-wise differences are statistically significant and indicate that women have yet to be convinced about the advantages of one or two pit latrines, especially concerning the troubles involved in maintenance and cleaning them. Again, this was an "aided" ref:!ponse.
E) Concerning the location of latrinef:!, only 3 per cent preferred within the houf:!e, 58 per cent very near the house, and 26 per cent preferred the latrine to be located ~ithin 100 ft. (around 30 meters) of the house. There were no gender-wise differences, in this regard. This again was the "aided" response.
76
F) On the direct question of willingness to maintain and clean latrines themselves 86 per cent respondents (of those desiring to have latrines} replied affirmatively. Gender-wise, these percentages were 87.9 for male respondents and 83.3 for female respondents. Again the gender differences were statistically significant, confirming that a relatively smaller number of women respondents are willing to take up the responsibility of cleaning latrines. This was again, an "aided" recall.
G) When asked whether the use of public/community latrines would be made by the respondents, 34.7 per cent respondents replied affirmatively. There was no difference in the gender-wise
H) responses. 57.5 per cent respondents replied affirmatively that public/community latrines will be used by all. Again, here, was no difference, in the gender wise response .. pa
t.he there
I) In the pilot study to assess demand for latrines, it was observed that two villages from sangli district reported their willingness to share latrines among limited number of households. Taking clue from this, we asked 3 specific questions to 2711 households during the main study.
The following points emerged
Nearly one third of the households covered have shown their willingness to share latrines among their neighbouring households. When asked about t-he amont they were willing to spend monthly for sharing latrines, they indicated that Rs.6 per month was the average amN:tnt they were willing to spend for this. The most common range of payment was between Rs.3 and 20 per month per h!)Usehol(l. About 7 3 per cent of the households reported that all the members of theit• households would u_se suc.h shared latrines. This clearly indicates that there is good scope for w6rking out strategy for those households who are unable to construct their own latrines but are willing to pay on regu.lar basis. b
fi1. 9 WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR LATRINE
We have already commented on the number of l"espondents who were not willing to pay for the capital cost of construction of latrines. This section probes a little deeper into this question because, it could reflect the true 'demand' picture for latrines. The tabulations are given in Tables 5.6 and 5.7.
The question was asked to understand willingness to pay both for the capital cost and maintenance cost. (Unaided and Aided)
After the information was given, there was a slight, statistically not significant, decrease in the number of respondents who were unwilling to contribute any amount and there was a corresponding increase in the number of respondents willing to pay more than Rs. 1500/. However, by and large, there is no significant change in the response. The bulk of respondents are either not willing to pay anything (37 per cent) or are willing to pay below Rs. 500 (40 per eent).
77
TABLE 5.6 WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR CAPITAL COST OF LATRINES
Amount of Capital cost (Rs.)
Nil 1 - 500 501 - 1000 1001 - 1500 1501 & more
Unaided
38.6 40.7 12.0 4.4 4.3
100.0
(Per cent)
Aided
37.4 40.2 12.7 4.4 5.3
100.0
The following table presents the distribution of respondents on the basis of the willingness to pay for monthly maintenance expenses.
TABLE 5.7 ; WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR MAINTENANCE EXPENSES
Amount of Maintenance Expenses (Rs.)
Nil 1 - 10 11 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 and Above
Total
(per cen~ respondents)
Unaided Aided
36.8 34.8 19.8 18.6 32.0 34.4 7.5 8.1 1.0 1.0 0.3 0.3 2.6 2.8
-------100.0 100.0
Here also, there is a slight rise in willingness to pay with aided recall; but the overall trend remains the same. Most respondents are unwilling to contribute (35 per c~nt) or contribute upto Rs. 20 (53 per cent} per month, towards maintenance expenditure.
>. 1"0 DEMAND FOR LATRINES
The above analysis indicates that while, theoretically, each household would require a latrine, there is very little felt need for latrines. The demand is therefore more clearly brought out in the willingness to pay for the capital cost of latrines.
In estimating demand therefore, two factors are considered willingness to pay for the latrine;:;, as also the capacity of the hou;:;eholds to pay the amount.
78
The factor of willingness was assessed from the respondents reply to the question concerning this aspect. All the respondents answering the question affirmatively and willing to pay at least Rs. 1 were considered to be demanding the private latrine.
The factor of capacity to pay was assessed on the basis of the respondents possession of either a radio or a bicycle. Since both cost more than Rs. 500/-, it was assumed that the respondent possessing any of these assets is in a position to spend for the capital expenditure required for a private latrine. It was also seen that the possession of these assets was closely related both to the existing latrine users, as well as to the cash income of the respondents. Only· those households therefore, who were willing to pay and had either of these two assets, were considered for estimating demand for private connections.
The demand includes all types of latrines, viz. One and two pit, flush and septic. If only two-pit latrines are to be provided, those asking for flush and septic latrines will have to be persuaded to opt for the two-pit latrines. A separate analysis only for two-pit latrines is also enclosed. These figures are quite low as compared to the demand for all types of latrines, and indicate the amount of extension required t1:> do this persuasion.
The total demand is presented in Table 5.8 and 5.9. The demand is given for various levels of the respondents willingness to pay, separately for advanced and backward castes. The figures are expressed as percentages of households in the project villages. The results suggest that 16.9 per cent of households in all districts taken together are willing to pay at least Rs. 500 for latrines (all types). The corresponding percentage for those demanding only one or two-pit latrines is 6.9 per cent.
The demand schedules vary between advanced and backward castes. The latter are generally lower than the former.
It is also seen that the demand varies from village to village. The type of latrines demanded by the households also varies, depending on the location of the villages. This aspect is discussed in the final chapter.
79
TABLE 5. 8 DEMAND FOR PRIVATE LATRINES
{per cent households)
Amount willing Advanced Baekwa.rd All to pay (in Rs.) castes castes castes
(Base) (1f,24) (1059) (2583)
Up to 100 42.7 28.6 36.9 101 200 36.9 22.4 31·0 201 300 29.6 14.7 23.5 301 400 25.0 11.3 19.3 401 500 22.1 9.6 16.9 501 750 11.2 4.1 8.3 751 - 1000 10.4 3.5 7.6 1001 - 1250 5.3 2.0 3.9 1251 - 1500 5.3 2.0 3.9 1501 - 2000 3.8 1.0 2.6 2001 - 2500 1.5 0.3 1.0
TABLE 5. 9 DEMAND FOR TWO PIT LATRINES
(per cent household.'3)
Amount willing Advanced Backward All to pay (in Rs.) castes castes castes
(Base) (1524) (1059) (2583)
Up to Rs. 100 17.9 11.0 15.0 200 16.0 8.6 13.0 300 12.3 4.8 9.2 400 8.8 2.8 6.3 500 6.9 1.9 4.9 750 3.3 0.7 2.2
- 1000 2.8 0.5 1.8 - 1250 0.1 0 0.5 - 1500 0.1 0 0.5 - 2000 0.4 0 0.2
More than 2000 0.1 0 0
80
DEMAND FOR PRIVATE LATRINES A.LL DISTRICTS
45~--------------------------------------------------~
-100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -750 -1000 -1250 -1500 -2000 -2500 >2500
WILLIN<>NESS AND AEHUTY TO PAY (RS.) 0 ADV .CASTES + OTHER CASTES <0 ALL CASTES
DEMAND FOR PRIVATE LATRINES (TWO-PIT) 4.LL DISTRICTS
18~--------------------------------------------------~
-100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -750 -1000 -1250 -1500 -2000 -2500 >2500
WILLIN<>NESS AND ABILITY TO PAY (RS.) D ADV.Ci.STES + OTHER CASTES <0 .A.LL CASTES
CHAPTER - VI
ROLE OF VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION
6. 1 BACKGROUND
The role of voluntary organisations in the process of development has now been well recognised. There are a few thousand voluntary organisations in the country, working in important fields of development and with the poor and socially deprived sections of society. Research studies available on this subject indicate that voluntary organisations have made significant contributions in improving our understanding of the development process as well as in enhancing it. The strength of voluntary organisations lies in their dedication, flexible and innovative approaches, capacity to reach the otherwise inaccessible sections of society, and in organising and conscientising them. Efforts of voluntary organisations have br('.Jiught the hitherto neglected and depressed classes in the main-stream of the development process and have helped them considerably in taking the benifits of development programmes. Limitations of voluntary organisations have also been laid bare. By and large, activities of voluntary organisations have remained severely localised. Their financial conditions are very precarious. Efforts to build up networks have achieved only very limited success. Relations with the bureaucracy, political parties and leaders at all levels, have llOt always been cordial. In spite of this, the voluntary sector has g~)Wn and expanded; their number is increasing and so also more var.lous kinds of organisations are coming into existence. Realising the important role they can play, the government has in the recent past, taken certain decisions for securing their collaboration and participation in implementing development programmes in important fields like health, education, social forestry, development of land and irrigation and especially in the upliftment of the rural poor.
The proposed 'water supply and latrine ' programme is one of the important development programmes, in the implementation of which involvement of voluntary organisations would be very crucial. The preceding chapters make it clear that successful implementation of the programme depends basically on the preparedness of the villagers to operate the schemes efficiently, on a long term basis. Organising and educating villagers is very essential, as a first ~tep in this regard. This is a difficult task and has to be handled with the help of concentrated action by Government agencies, voluntary organisations of all kinds, and financial institutions. It seems that voluntary organisations will have to play a leading role, appropriately supported by other agencies.
6.2 TYPES OF ORGANISATION
Voluntary organisations are of varied kinds, differing from each other in terms of ideology, objectives, methods, and procedures of work and fields of activity. We need not go into the details of thi~. For the purpose of the 'water supply and sanitation' project, it would be convenient to make two categories of voluntary organisations
Regional and village organisations. The former includes organisations which serve an area larger than a single village, and which have specific goals and objectives. The latter includes organisations which emerge at the initiative of local villagers BJld whose aci vi ties are confined to the village of origin and are mon-t~ly informal. The youth organisations, ( tarun mandals) women.'~)
82
organisations (mahila manclals), groups of devotional song singeJ (bhajani mandals), etc., are illustrations of the latter type.
In the present study, we made an effort to understand the role voluntary organisations in the village development process and car to the conclusion that both these kinds of organisations aJ potentially capable of playing an effective role in implementir water, sanitation and latrine programmes. Apart from studying a fE examples in some detail, we tried to gather basic information fr< about 450 regional organisations, out of which 39 responded. AftE sc:rutinising this information, we listed 31 organisations which > thought can be approached for participating in the programme. Tl list is enclosed. Needless to state that the list is not exhaustivE it only indicates that a sufficient number of voluntary organisatior can be indentified and their collabaration elicited, if we agree 1 use their services in the task. The village organisations are qui1 numerous. Each and every village has its own Tarun and MahiJ mandals, and similar organisations. By and large, they are passi\ and make their presence felt on certain occasions like election~ religious ceremonies, and some crisis - social or economic.
6.3 MAITREYI -A CASE STUDY
The manner in which both kinds of organisations can work hand in har in regard to WSL programme can be made clear with a f~ illustrations. The activists of Maitreyi, a voluntary organisatic with headquarters at Bombay are devoted to work for improvir conditions and status of women in Indian society. They decided work with rural women in a few villages ( Kurali, Bahul, Solt Kharabwadi, Dhanor in Khed taluka, of Pune district). The activisi being interested in sanitation wanted to explore whether the wom( would welcome latrine construction programme in their respecti~ villages. The response was encouraging. Women as well as men showf keen interest, but voiced their prejudices, doubts and difficultie~ A series of discussions-meetings were organised, in order 1 understand these doubts and difficulties, it was found that villageJ felt
i) that a latrine would cost not less than Rs. 10,000/-;
ii) that latrines required lots of space, which they could n( spare.
iii) that day to day maintenance would involve cost, time and large quantity of water.
iv) and that for construction of latrines, technical and financi1 support is not available.
All these and other points were taken up for detailed disscussion: The activists provided information about technical, financi.Bl a1 maintenance aspects. They also agreed to make secured financi1 support, which eventually they received from CAPART. In the toti cost of Rs. 2000, CAPART provided a grant of Rs. 1200; and Maitre~ provided an additional grant of Rs. 300/-. The beneficiaries weJ called on to bear expenditure of Rs. 500/- only. As a part of tl educational programme, a visit was arranged to Gandhi Bhavan Pune, where a permenant exhibition of different types of latrines h~ been established, and to Dehu ( Taluka : Haveli, Dist. : Pune ) wheJ a medical practitioner turned-social worker constructed more than 4t latrines. ( a reference is made to this work in this chapter )
Maitreyi activists were operating through the local Mahila Mandai. Once convinced, members of the Mahila Mandal became active. A few members voluntarily completed the spade work such as collection of initial contribution, filling in necessary forms etc. Interaotlon among villagers themselves proved to be of crucial importance and this became possible primarily through activisation of the Mahila l'1andal.
In a period of 15 months, 55 latrines were constructed, about 40 percent of which are close to the living rooms. The families are maintaining these satisfactorily. The following important observations are made by the activists
A) Voluntary organisations have a crucial role to play in implementing the scheme. Village level organisations are best suited to create a proper atmosphere in the village, through initiating interaction amongst themselves. The role of regional organisations is to activise village organisations, provide information, and ensure the necessary support technical, financial and moral.
B) The demonstration effect is of crucial importance. Visits to Dehu and Pune influenced the decisions of villagers to construct latrines. This implies that the educational programme should consist of three components :
a) Providing information and creating awareness;
b) Organising visits to sites where the scheme has implemented; and
c) Assurance of technical and financial back up.
been
C) Although Subsidies facilitate latrine construction, it is not true to say that villagers accept latrines only because subsldh:ts are available. A majority of the villagers can bear the expenditure; but they cannot pay it in one single installment.
D) Acceptance by a few families in the village, influences ~)ther families, and the influence spreads to the neighbouring villaQt:H'I also. The time and effort required for mobilising and trainipg is reduced in the course of time.
E) One trained village mason can construct one latrine in five days. In a month he can thus construct six latrines and earn an income of Rs. 1800 p.m. A team of four persons, local as far as possible, is required for supervision and monitoring the plan for five to ten villages.
6.4 JYOTSNA AROGYA PROBODHAN -A CASE STUDY
At village Dehu near Pune, which is one of the important cultural centr~s.of the.State,two-pit latrines were introduced by one me~~o~l practl tloner ln 1956. He took lead in establishing a village--ba81i!d organisation called "Jyostna Arogya Probodhan" and launched a campaign to persuade people to construct latrines. Being a medical practitioner, it was relatively easy for· him to convince the villagers of the need to accept latrines in order to improve health environment. He prepared slides to show how most of their ailments are due to bad hygiene and that the corrective step is to put a stop to the practice of defecating in the open. In carrying out this
84
campaign, he received active support from Gandhi Smarak Nidhi, Pune, which has done pioneering work in preparing designs of latrine5, appropriate to rural conditions. The two organisations together could construct about 450 ~atrines in the villages. In the process, new designs were developed, which were less expensive and could b·:: adjusted in small spaces. A new design of a bio-gas plant was also prepared, which does not have a floating dome.
The Nidhi was established in 1950 as a fund in memory of Mahatma Gandhi, in order to propagate Gandhian philosophy, in which sanitation and emancipation of scavengers occupied a central place. Mahatma Gandhi was an innovator himself and conducted experiments for developing suitable designs. His work was carried on further by his followers, notable among whom is Appasaheb Patwardhan. The Nidhi has been instrument~l in constructing several lakhs of latrines in thf state so far. This is one more example which shows how two types ot voluntary organisations can effectively work jointly in this field. ,,
6.5 NAV NIRMAN TRUST : A CASE STUDY
Experience of the Nav Nirman Trust (Pargaon, Taluka : Daund, Dist.; Pune) is of a different kind. NNT was established formally 1981, but had been working in the region for a longer time, informally. The village Pargaon was one of the villages included in the list of difficult villages ", i.e., villages which suffer from acute shortagE of drinking water. The Government had prepared the Water Supply scheme, costing about Rs. 4 lakhs,but its implementation was delayed, for some reason NNT decided to activise the local youtt organisations, collected contributions of Rs. 40,000/- anc pressurised the concerned offices to undertake implementation Qn ar urgent basis. In Feb. 1982, the work was completed and the scheme waf inaugurated ceremoniously. However, within a couple of hours, tht taps went dry. On investigating, it was found that the scheme wa[ techinically defective. Villagers were greatly disappointed. In the following two years they could do nothing.
In June 1985, NNT approached the Youth organisations and urged then to take some action. The youth organisations approached the Panchaya1 members to pressurise the concerned Government officials. To thei1 surprise, they were told that a new scheme worth Rs. 8.5 lakhs was ir the offing. The youth leaders tried to get the details, which werE supplied to them with a good deal of hesitation. The members of thE youth organisation, under the guidance of NNT experts, examined thE scheme, and suggested important modifications, which, withoui altering the overall budget, brought about an integration of foddeJ and social forestry schemes with the water supply scheme. ThE modified scheme, thus, could meet the fodder, fuel and wateJ requirements of the village. The response from officials was poor Since more than one department was involved, the scheme as suggeste1 by the villagers, could not get approval till June 1989.
6.6 CONCLUSIONS
The above experience shows that :
A) A voluntary organisation can create awareness among villagers train and motivate them to pressurise the Panchayat members anr Government officials to expedite the process of implementatiol of the scheme.
,,,_ ·' ··•" ,,,.:.,,.,;in t~ec:hnical matters and encouraged to participate even in the formulation of scheme. It is clear from the above account of a few experiences that voluntary action, if initiated and supported properly, facilitates and enhances the proces::o. of implementation of development programmes condsiderably, At present, such efforts are sporadic. What seems essential is to devise a strategy which will promote such efforts on a large scale and co-ordinate them in an effective manner. As stated earlier,several kinds of voluntary organisations exist. Most of them can be induced to participate in the WSL programme. ~or example, the Rotary and Lions clubs would be able to provide funds and technical guidance. Schools, colleges and u11iversities may be able to organise students' camps in villages and undertake specific construction work; there are examples of students undertaking technical surveys and planning also. There are voluntary organisations set up to provide technical guidance in many development programmes. Resources of such organisations may also be tapped. Several industrial houses have rural development programmes. Expertise and resources available with them may also be profitably exploited. Sugar co-operative industries and other kinds of co-operative organisations may also come forward to extend some support and participate in the p:c(,gramme.
We feel that the Government should explore this field thoroughly, identify organisations which would like to participate in the programme and prepare a policy-frame to support the programme in all possible ways.
G.7 LIST OF VOLONTP~Y ORGANISATIONS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------Name and Address Year of
Establishment
1. Krishak Seva Sangh 1973 [\oregavl'Ja:n, Taluka : Shringonda Dist : Ahmednagar
~. Society for Action 1975 in Creative Education and Developmenet : C/0 IMTR 49, Samarth Nagc:~r P. B. 8 7, Aurangabad - 431 001
Balaji Bahuuddeshiya 1986 ._T.':l.na Kalyan Satyashodhak Samiti; Chimur; Dist : Chandrapur
q, Kolaba : District 1956 Adivasi Seva Mandal ?ali, Dist - Raigad ;:'in - 410 206
Specific activities
Nc\. !)f i
activists M F
Drinl>:ing Wat.er; Supply; Irrigation; Social foresty; Dairy 30
Eudcation and Training for development.; Integrated Rural Dev~lopment 45
30' Bridge; Electrici·ty connecti,)n; restoration of land to tribals 90
Education Primary and Secondary for Development programmes. 25
15
01
17
08
Name and Address Year of Specific activities Est.ablishmen·t
5. Navajawan Tarun Mandal At post : Takalkarwadi Tal : Rajgurunagar Dist : Pune
6. Seva Trust, 537 Sadashiv Peth, Jondhle Chawk, Laxmi Road, Pune - 411 030
7. Nav Nirman Trust Pargaon ; Taluka Di.st : Pune
Daund
1977
1986
8. Vidnyan ashram; Pabal 1983 Tal : Shirur Dist : Pune
9. Rural Agricultural 1972 Institute, Narayangaon; Taluka ; .Junnar; Dist : Pune - 410 504
10. Kisan Shikshan Sanstha Valwa, Dist : Sangli
i [1. Mahikali Sahakari Sakhar I Karkhana Ltd. Rajaram
Bapu Nagar, Kawathe Mahankal, Dist. : Sangli
12. Hutatma Ahir Sah.akari Sakhar karkhana; Valwa
13. Priyadarshani Mandal; Near Ram Mandir, Asta Dis·t : Sangli
1948
194.8
1980
14. Vasant Dada Pratishthan 1976 Shetkari Sahakari Sakhar Karkhana; ~1adhavnagar Road, Sangli
15. Gramodyog Bio-gas Urja 1987 Vikas Sanstha; Sangli
16. Bhagini Nivedita Pratishthan; Rajwada Sangli
1970
Library, ::;ports, general education, water supply scheme.
Health education; de-addi\::t,ion.
Prohibition; preventive health education; drinking water supply stores; latrines. Education and organisation of youth.
Science, education rural technology,
Hybrid goat.:; smokeless c~lllahs; bio-·gas plants.
Education, Hostels Latrines.
Irrigation; social fol.'esty.
Education; Hostels; Latrine construction
Women's organisations Tailoring; pre-primary
t·1 F
08 ,, (•
\)()
07 04
10
07 10
10 1)0
75
15
education 111
Education; health service.
Bio-gas plants, educ:ation.
Organisation and education of women.
78 07
00
1)0 4 (> c,
Name and Address Year of Specific activities E.-=· t.abl i sl'J!flent
Ekata Samaj Kendra; Dr. Ambedkar Road, Miraj, Dist : Sangli Pin : 41D 410
_0. Verala Jalasinchan and V ik:=ts Prak:dpa 14/151 Kalanagar, Madhavnagar Raod, P.B. No. 49, S:=tngli - 416 416
1982
1970
~~. Prerana Pratishthan 1982 Rajwada, Shriram Mandir Phaltan, Dist : Satara Pin ·· 41f, f,23
~0. Udyog Vardhini; 219, Bhawani Peth; ~:~atarc:t
1988
:i. Sfurti Tarun Mandal 1982 Bibi; Taluka : Phalthan Dist : Satara
~~ Koregaon Taluka Magas Varg, Vikas Mandal; 20, Vidyanagar, Eoregaon. Dist : S.sttara
~ 3. Sam.aj>-wdi Pra·bodhini, 556/1, New Industrial Estate, Ichalkaranji, Di::.t : Kolhapur, F'in- 416 115
24. Gramin Vikas Mahila Mandal; At post Murud, Shivajinagar, Near Water Tank Dist : Latur
~5. Antar Bharati A1.n'.:'!d Shah.:dani; Tal: Nilang!').; I1i:=,t_, : LatUl' Pin 413 517
1982
1977
1987
1980
Collective farms of scheduled caste families, eduction.
Irrigation; social foresty; nomadic and denotified tribes.
Agricultural development; watershed development, drinking Hater supply; social fore.sty.
Entrepreneurship Training.
Youth Organisation, Education.
Backward Cl.:ts.s Development, Education.
Education.
Education of Women,
Rural Development.
No. of activists
M F
03 02
09 02
NR
12 04
29 07
05 03
02 07
40 120
-----------------------------------------------------------------------·-· Name and Address Year of Specific activities No of
Establisl·Hnent, ;:~<~i~i 'liSt~
26. Padmashri Yuva Seva 1979 Sanstha; Goraksham-Somnathpur, Udgir, Dist : Latur Pin - 413 517
27. ,Jana Kalyan Vikas 1987 Sanstha; Dadarao ,J adhav, At post Nilanga, Behind court, Tal : Nilanga Dist : Latur
28. Gramin Shramik Pratishthan; Budhoda; Taluka : Ausa; Dist : Latur
1980
29. Gramin Vikas Mandal; 1985 Bansarola; Taluka : Kej; Dist : Beed
30. Manavlok : Ambejogai; Saneguruji Vasahat P.B. No. 2.3, Ambajogai Dist : Beed, Pin -· 431 517
31. Gramayan; Pune Deepak, 720/18 Navi Peth, Pune - 411 030
1982
1974
Education and Developoment.
Education of denotified and nomadic tribes.
Electricity; Streets Social foresty; rehabilitation of denotified and nomadic t,ribes,
Public wells; drinking scheme; education.
Public wells; check dowaries; legal aid; womens problems; Education.
t"l F
20
07
06
''
Revival of defunct lift irrgation schemes : training in management of collective farms of S.C. and DNT families; economic activities for handicapped persons. 07 00
---------------------·-------------------------------------~--------------·---·~~-~
CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
This chapter presents the findings, as revealed in the earlier chapters, in a summarised form. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a direction towards planning and implementation of the proposed water supply and sanitation programme. The subseque11t chapter (chapter VIII) which outlines the strategy, is based mainly on these findings.
It should be noted, at the outset, that these conclusions are not merely based on the responses to the household questionnaires. A lot of qualitative information in the form of POs' reports, village schedules, personal visits and discussions with Government and NonGovernment organisations, have supplemented the quantitative information collected from the primary and secondary sources. Judging the importance of this information, it is our firm conviction that in all the socio-economic surveys of this nature, an equal stress needs to be given to the collection and analysis of both qualitative and quantitative information. In fact, such information should also form an important part of the monitoring system, proposed to be installed for the water supply and sanitation project of the Government of Maharashtra.
7.1 SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROFILE
The sample survey covered 75 villages and 42 hamlets. All these settlements are proposed to be provided with water supply, either through pipes or through borewells from these villages and hamlets (called hencefoith as villages), a sample of 2711 households was contacted by personal interview method. All the hamlets covered were in the bore-water sup~ly projects. The major socio-economic findings are given below
a) The average population of a village where piped water supply is to be provided was more (i.e. 2041) than that of the village where borewell water supply will be provided (viz : 741). The average population of a hamlet was 381.
b) The major source of supply in all these villages was the dug well. The dependence on natural sources like rivers, streams, etc., was very small. Out of the 57 villages where piped water supply is to be provided, 14 villages already receive water supplied through the pipes. In these villages, the proposeJ schemes are presently in the nature of augmentat.ion. In further 11 villages, the borewell was the main source of supply. Out of the 60 villages, where the bore -well supply schemes are prop,)sed in 4 villages, there is already a piped water supply in existence.
c) Around 58 per cent of the total households belonged to t,fle advanced communities (from all regions) 13 per cent from scheduled castes, 2 per cent from scheduled tribes and 27 pt:OH'
cent from other backward communities. The average size of t.h.:: household was found to be 6.5.
91
d) Farming as the principal occupation was reported by 56 per cent of the households, followed by agricultural labour (23 per cent.) The share of salaried business and professions increased with the size of the village.
e) Among the farmers, 26 per cent were marginal farmers and a further 29 per cent were small farmers. Thus the number of farmers owning less than 2 hectares, formed 55 per cent of the total farmers. The average land holding was 2.4 hectares. Irrigation was available for around 40 per cent of the farmers.
f) The bicycle was found to be the most popular asset owned by the households. Around 48 per cent of the households ·contacted, owned a bicycle. This was followed by the stove (44 per cent ), radio (42 per cent), TV (11 per cent) and sewing machine (9 per cent). Gobar-gas plants were owned by 6 per cent, while improved chullahs were owned by 4 per cent. Around 60 per cent of households, owned animals (cattle, sheep, goats,etc.)
g) As far as education was concerned, ten per cent of the households had all the members who could neither write nor read. At the other extreme, there were 22 per cent households who had at least one member who was educated in a college.
h) Twelve per cent of the respondents dwelt in huts, while 17 per cent in houses built with cement and other permenant materials.
i) The average annual per capita cash income was Rs. 1325. However, more than 67 per cent of the households had per capita income of less than Rs. 1000.
j) More than 90 per cent households reported no cash savings. Only 3.5 per cent reported monthly savings of upto Rs. 50, and a further 1.5 per cent between Rs. 50 toRs. 100.
k) There were significant correlations between several economic variables.
socio-
I )
These were :
i) Positive association between population of the village and per capita cash income .
ii) Positive association between cash income and house types.
iii) Positive association between cash income and ownership of assets.
iv) Positive association between cash income and education.
As compared to the villages included in the piped water supply schemes, those included in the bore~ell scheme showed a lower level of socio-economic profile. Thus, in the borewell scheme villages,
i)
ii) iii)
iv) v)
The share of farmers was higher. Educational level was lower. Housing conditions were poorer. Annual cash income was lower and Monthly savings were lower.
These villages had, however larger open households than the piped water supply differences were partly due to the lower borewell project villages.
7.2 PERSONAL AND COMMUNITY HYGIENE
spaces surrounding the project villages. These population size of the
It would not be entirely incorrect to say that this area is grossly neglected so far. Neither the State Government nor the Zilla Parishad have paid necessary attention to this aspect so that as years passed by and as the population increased, the rural areas have become more and more dirty, obnoxious and unhealthy. All the roads leading to the village are covered with dirt and excreta; in mansoons, these are washed out or even, in some cases, are submerged in the river or stream. Flies and mosquitoes are seen everywhere; the waste water comes on the roads; gutters, if in existence, are choked with garbage. The garbage pits, in turn, are never cleared in time and breed all types of insects. The cattle freely roam the streets. Almost without exception, this is the case in all the villages surveyed by us. Such a situation is the outcome of sheer neglect towards community hygiene. Saints like Gadge Maharaj and leaders like Senapati Bapat have graphically described the situation concerning village hygiene and called for community action; unfortunately, very little has been done so far in this respect. The situation has worsened over the years and if not attended to immediately, rural India will become"a threat to the health of the country.
It should be noted that merely providing education, health facilities and even job opporturlities in rural areas will not be sufficient to retain population in the villages. Equally important is the existance of a healthy and hygienic environment, in fact, the ultimate aim of improving village life should not be just to arrest migration towards cities. The objective should be to initiate a process by which the urban population is increasingly attracted towards villages. This process must start with improvement in the village hygiene to the extent that it be better than urban hygiene.
Equally important are the aspects of personal hygiene. Here also, precious little has been done or achieved. It has been observed that even simple things like washing hands, bathing, washing clothes, cleaning utensils etc. are not done regularly or properly. Hair is not cleaned regularly, so that infection of lice spreads in schools. All these practices ar.e the result of age-old habits, and steps must be taken to educate the people. The most encouraging finding of the survey in this regard is the wide coverage obtained by radio/TV and the extent of recall of popular advertisements. The use of these media could be investigated to promote healthy habits among the rural people.
7.3 WATER SUPPLY
a) Out of 57 sample villages , which are proposed to be provided water through pipes, 33 villages already have a partial supply through pipes. In fact, 8 of these 33 villages reported piped water supply as their main source of supply. Similarly, out of 60 sample villages and hamlets where proposed water supply would be through borewells, 14 villages already received piped watex' supply. Only one hamlet of these 14, reported exclusive dependence on piped water supply.
b) All villages, other than those which had as piped water supply as
93
the mainsource, depend on open wells or borewells. The dependence on natural sources like rivers or streams for drinking water, throughout the year was absent in all the sample households.
c) The average distance travelled by a household to a public stand post was around 135 meters. It increased to about 200 meters when the source was a borewell, to around 300 meters, when it was an open well and to 500 meters when it was a river/stream.
d) The total time spent in fetching water to the household was between 60 to 80 minutes a day. This included travel time and waiting time. There was no variation in this total time, due to the source of water. This was because, shorter distance for the piped water (viz. stand post) or at the borewell was compensated by the longer waiting time at these sources.
y
e) Women were mainly involved in fetching water. In the case of stand posts, however, this responsibility was shared by men in a large number of households.
f) Water was stored in clay containers in all households. Brass, stainless steel and copper came next in terms of usage.
g) Water brought home was used mainly for drinking, cooking, sundry washing. Bathing, washing of clothes and washing utensils were done mostly at the source.
and of
h) Most households used unhygienic methods of storing water and taking water from the containers. In the latter case, the methods followed involved dipping of hands.
i) There was a general lack of awareness concerning the purity of water. The water was regarded as pure if its taste and appearance were satisfactory.
j) Although 46 per cent households reported using some method of purifying water (filtering, using chemicals etc.), this figure was found to be highly exaggerated from the reports of the participant observers. At the most, the women used their own sarees to filter water.
k) The average per purposes, and all litres a day. Out 6 for washing of and the remainig utensils.
capita total consumption of water, for all available sources, was estimated at around 35 of this, 10 litres were required for bathing, clothes, 9 for animals (drinking and washing), 10 litres for drinking, cooking and washing of
1) This consumption figure pertained to the survey months of July and August, when the water was available in plenty. Almost all households felt shortages in the summer months when adequate water was not available for washing and bathing. Even for drinking water, 25 villages and hamlets have reported chronic dependence on the arrival of tankers.
m) There were 63 per cent households (from these sample villages which were to be provided with piped water supply) demanding house connections. On an average, they were willing to pay Rs. 268/- for capital expenditure and Rs. 11/-(per month) for maintenance. However, when the water supply scheme was explained to them, with an expected capital expenditure of Rs. 300 to Rs.
1000 and monthly maintenance expenses of Rs. 15 to 35 for private connections, there was a decrease in the number of persons desiring house connections. The percentage of these persons decreased substantially from 63 per cent to 33 per cent, while the average amount increased from Rs. 268/- to Rs. 312/- towards capital investments, and the monthly maintenance amount marginally from Rs. 10.90 toRs. 10.98.
n) Almost all the households were willing to take water from stand-posts. However, only 32 per cent households were willing to pay for it, with an average amount at Rs. 7.17 per month per household. When the scheme of piped water supply was explained to them, with an expected amount of Rs. 5 to 15 per month, then the proportion dropped to 25 percent, who were willing to pay an average amount of Rs. 8.04 per month.
o) As far as monthly expenses for the borewell were concerned, there were 65 per cent respondents willing to pay for it, with an average amount of Rs. 8.40 per household. When the information concerning borewell water supply was provided to the respondents, with an expectation of Rs. 3 to Rs. 6 per month per household, naturally, there was a marginal decrease in the per cent households willing to pay (which declined from 65 to 61) and in the average amount (which declined from Rs. 8.40 toRs. 7.80) per household.
p) When we consider both the ability and willingnes to pay for a private household connection, we find that there are about 17 per oent households which are willing to pay Rs. 500 or more towards capital expenditure and Rs. 10 per month towards maintenance expenditure. Since the activity is dependent upon ownership of assets and cash income, which is found to be more in larger villages (on the basis of population), the initial effort for this purpose could be made in such villages. In all other cases, the stand-posts could be provided with a monthly charge of Rs. 8 per household.
q) The hypothesis that after giving the information about assured water supply and its quality, there would more response for the individual connections has not been indicated by the study. This is because, in addition to this information, the information about the capital cost of these connections was also provided, and this cost was found to be on the highside by the respondents.
r) There are only two villlages, out of 50, where contaminated, whereas in 23 villages all water contamination and in 25 villages at least one contamination.
water samples
sample
was not showec showec
s) Nearly 80 per cent of all water samples were contaminated. was observed for all types sources of water.
Thiz
7.4 LATRINES
a) Out of 2711 sample households, only 161 households (forming 6 pe1
95
cent) reported the use of latrines. All the remaining households did n6t use latrines.
b) The latrines were concentrated only in few villages and within these villages, among few households. The villages where most latrines were found had sufficient 8Vailability of water, and were nearer to the large cities like Bombay. The households using latrines were distinctly better off in terms of socio-economic conditions, as compared to the non-users.
c) Most of these latrines (around 60 per cent) were of the septic type, followed by the bucket type (20 per cent) and one/two pit ( 10 per cent).
d) A bulk of these latrines (86 per cent) were owned by the households. Only 9 per cent were public latrines.
e) The non users of latrines frequent places near the farms, open spaces etc. Children defecate near the houses. It was reported by the POs' that even the children from latrine using households do not necessarily use latrines, although the respondents have not reported this to be the case.
f) Most of the respondents were not aware of the two-pit latrines, their advantages and costs.
g) Both men and women perceived the need of latrines equally; however their scales of preferences varied. The women had a rather cautious response since they believed that using latrines would add to their responsibilities in the form of fetching of more water and cleaning the latrines.
h) For these reasons, there were limitations in women influencing the decisions concerning the latrines. However, women were found to be more influential where there was sufficient availability of water, spread of education, and extension by the non governmental organisations.
i) A majority of respondents (72 per cent) preferred individual latrines. The non preference for public/community latrines arose from their past experience of community latrines and the lack of proper maintenance of the public latrines at places like bus stands, railway stations, etc.
j ) The latrines are not preferred inside the house. Only 3 per of households desired such a location. A majority (i.e. 84 cent) preferred to have latrines near the house, within distance of 100 ft.
cent per the
k) There were 39 per cent households which were not willing to pay any amount for latrines. When the information about two-pit latrines and their capital cost of Rs. 2000/- was provided to them, this percentage decreased sl ight.ly ·to 37 per cent. A bulk of the respondents (41 per cent} were prepared to pay upto Rs. 500/- and there was no change in this percentage even after providing the information. This absence of change was due to
96
rigid beliefs of the respondents and their scales of preferences. It was found from the experience of several NGO~. that it takes a great deal of time and effort to break these attitudanal barriers in the promotion and use of latrine.
l) In the existing situation, 17 per cent of households are willing to pay at least Rs. 500/- per latrine towards capital cost. These are mostly located in large size villages and near the large cities.
7.5 ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES
Maharashtra has earned fame for it's several non-Governmental agencies. Their involvement is observed to a great extent in water supply programmes. Some agencies and individuals have also done commendable work in the construction of latrines. They have, however, not done much in the field of hygiene. The non-Governmental agencies are, however, working at the grass root level and they can be extremely useful in changing attitudes and initiating behavioral changes. There are also other voluntary agencies wich can render financial assistance. The resources of the GOM can be augumented if these agencies are also involved in the programmes. The general impre~sion of these NGOs about the working of the Governmental Departments is not favourable. Several instances of complicated and tedious procedures, delays, red-tapism and, corruption have been cited by the NGOs. However if proper moti vat. ion is provided to them, the NGOs can become the strength of Maharashtra and aid in rapid infrastructral development of the state in the fields of water supply, hygiene and latrine construction.
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CHAPTER VIII
STRATEGY FOR IMPLEMENTATION
8.1 THE TASK AHEAD
The preceding chapters have highlighted the critical areas where appropriate programmes need to be considered. These can be listed as fc,llows :
A. Water Supply
1. Existing and Proposed Water supply connections
2. Stand-posts
3. Sources of water
4. Pipe-lines
5. Borewells
B. Hygiene
1. Personal and Household
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Nature ~ Action Programme
Collection of water charges from the beneficiaries
Maintenance of stand-posts Collection of water charges from beneficiaries Adequacy in number
Assuring purity of water.
Maintenance of pipe lines
Regeneration of existing wells Maintenance of borewells Assuring purity of water Collection of charges from beneficiaries.
Need of education/creating awareness concerning
Washing of hands; using proper methods of washing;
Bathing
Maintenance of cattle and animals.
Maintenance of the surroundings of the house.
Methods of transport,storage and handling of water
Toilet habits in the absence of latrine-use
Personal habits like spitting, cleaning of teeth, cleaning/ cutting of nails, etc.
2. Community hygiene
C. Latrines
Cleanliness at the sources of water (river,wells,standposts)
Garbage aollection and disposal.
Waste water disposal.
Rain water disposal.
Increasing awareness concerning health aspects of latrines.
Increasing awareness concerning two-pit latrines.
Constructing private two-pit latrines
All these areas require urgent and integrated attention. At present, the Zilla Parishads and the Village Panchayats are entrusted with the responsibilities in the fields of water supply and hygiene at the community levels. However, their performance in these respects has been rather unsatisfactory. If we have to improve living conditions in villages, it is not sufficient to provide electricity, roads and job opportunities there. It is equally necessary to provide cleaner habitat and hygienic conditions both within and outside one's place of residence. The entire village level activity, therefore, needs tc be toned up, and the Government has to provide training and extension input in this regard, in a sustained fashion.
There are instances of wrong planning in the water supply· programme, duplication, favouritism, political interference, lack of maintenance and construction of facilities like latrines without considering the needs and attitudes of the beneficiaries.
There are several instances, where the facilities that have been created remain unused or misused. The Government administration will have to renew its efforts and take action in a much more professional manner in all these areas. Some of the most urgent tasks that it can undertake in this regard are :
i) Regenerati6n of all the existing wells which are not useable for a variety of reasons.
ii) Collection of water charges from all the beneficiaries.
iii) Ensuring purity of water at all sources of drinking water in villages.
iv) Evolving technologies for the low-cost disposal methods and for recycling of household wastes/waste water/solid wastes.
v) Immediate repair of all pipes, wherever necessary.
99
These actions should be undertaken concurrently with the proposed water supply and sanitation programmes in the project villages.
As far as extension of knowledge and change in attitudes is concerned, the efforts of the Government will not be adequate. This is more so in the fields of hygiene and latrines. It will have to take the support of the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). The scope of this support is discussed in the next section.
8.2 ROLE OF NON- GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS
As we have seen in the having a large number progressive minded activities. These NGOs
earlier chapters, Maharashtra is fortunate in of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and individuals engaged in rural development can be classified into three main types as :
a) Village-level individuals with progressive attitudes, like doctors, teachers, sarpanchs, traders etc. who either through individual efforts or with the backing of the village organisations, initiate the development processes.
b) Village-level organisations like Women's organisations, Youth organisations, 'Bhajani Mandals' etc., which pool individual resources, create awakening and initiate programmes of developmental activities.
c) The agencies outside the village which include
i ) ii)
iii) iv) v)
vi)
vii)
Individual social workers Registered voluntary agencies Co-operative sugar factories 'co-operative dairy societies Industrialists/industries Charitable organisations like the Rotary club, Lions other trusts etc. International organisations like ,UNICEF, UNDP, etc.
Club,
Some of these outside agencies are merely financing agencies which provide the required financial assistance to the agencies/individuals which are actively working in the rural areas.
As a first step, the Government should prepare through field surveys, an exhaustive list of all the agencies/institutions which are working in the rural areas. To the extent the scope of the present survey permitted, we have prepared a partial list for the sample villages, giving the names of the village level active individuals/organisations. Naturally, all the villages do not have such agencies or individuals. But those which already have them are placed in a more advantageous position and the chances of success in implementation of development orientation schemes are better. We, therefore, suggest that such a list for all villages (including nonproject areas) should be prepared by the GOH as early as possible.
As far as the outside agencies are concerned, a partial list of individual social workers and registered voluntary agencies has been
100
prepared by us and the description of their activities anr willingness to get into the work involved has been obtained for thost agencies which replied to our questionnaires and those which we personally visited.
Since it is necessary to evaluate these agencies both in terms oJ their willingness/capacity (as also in terms of their organisatiol and mangement), a comprehensive study of these agencies is calle( for.
In addition to these agencies, there are agencies like co-operativf societies, dairy co-operatives, industries, etc., which undertake good deal of developmental activities in villages where they arE located. The list of these organisations giving details of theiJ activities should also be prepared. The procedures of financin~ adopted by agencies like the Rotary Clubs, Lions Clubs etc. shoul( also be documented and updated, so that their resources can be tappec for the proposed project.
In the following suggestions, it is assumed that all these lists are obtained, studied and the various organisations evaluated. However, <
beginning can be made with whatever information is provided in t.hi ~ report and available with the GOM.
6.2.1 Involvement~~ in Water Supply
The requirement of adequate water is a felt need and there is, probably, no extension effort required in creating demand for water. We, therefore, visualise the involvement of NGOs in the followin~ areas :
A) Village-Level Agencies
i) Preferences and conveniences of users.
ii) Super''ision of the construction of tube-wells and laying of pipelines and timely reporting in case of delays, qualit} of construction, etc.
iii) Maintenance of wells, pipes, stand-posts and other source;: of water.
iv) Collection of dues.
v) Periodic testing of water, both at the source and at the consumption level.
B) Outside Agencies
i) Selection of village-level agencies/individuals for the work relating to superv1s1on, maintenance, cleanliness and purification of water.
ii) Extension in the field of health and water-borne diseases through various media.
101
iii) Extension in the field of transport, storage and handling of water, through demonstration and media.
iv) Periodic collection of information concerning incidence of diseases through household surveys.
v) Provision of equipment for testing water, (including micropscopes) and training the village-level agencies in taking samples.
vi) Liaison between GOM/International funding agencies and village level agencies, passing the latest know-how
the and
vii)
resource availability. ·
Limited quality
Research of water,
in the field of etc.
.. water borne diseases,
The GOM, after the selection of outside agencies, should not only entrust them with these responsibilities, but should also ask some of them to promote vilage level agencies in those villages which do not have them.
As described earlier, the GOM should actively pursue the efforts of correlating the efforts of various other financing agencies. For this purpose, it should have a close contact with district offices of the Rotary Clubs and Lions Clubs, as also with industries and provide them guidelines in the selection of villages, active voluntary organisations, with which they can associate themselves and the financial and other support required from them. A good deal of public relations activity is called for in this regard.
3.2.2 Involvement Qf ~in village hygiene
In the field of hygiene, the entire responsibility can be given to the NGOs. We visualise that the following responsibilities can be assigned to the NGOs :
A) Village-Level NGOs
i) Supervision of the maintenance of cleanliness places like temples, wells, stand-posts, public etc.
ii) Extension in the field of personal hygiene.
at public latrines,
iii) Promotion of soak pits, gobar-gas plant conversion of manure from household wastes.
B) Outside NGOs
i) Training and extension to the village-level NGOs different media.
through
ii) Visits to villages, on the spot inspection and guidance to the Panchayat, village NGOs and people.
102
iii) Liaison with financial institutions/Government for subsidies, material requirements and schemes available.
8.2.3 Involvement Qf ~in Latrine ~rogramme~
The first task for the GOM is to construct individual household latrines whereever they are demanded and wherever the benefiaciaries are willing to bear part of the capital expenditure required for this purpose. If the percentages obtained in the survey are applied to all the project beneficiaries, around 5000 households belonging to the backward community are willing to pay a minimum of Rs. 500 and around 15000 households belonging to advanced communities are willing to pay Rs.lOOO for constructing their own latrines. In other words,around 20000 households can be provided with individual latrines, if the GOM provides a total of Rs. 225 lakhs as subsidy towards construction of latrines. This assumes that the average cost of construction of an individual latrine is Rs. 2000.
These households are, dispersed and spread over many villages. Moreover, the construction of these latrines will satisfy the need of only 5.8 per cent of the households in the project areas. If we assume that around 5 per cent of the households already have/use latrines, it means that it is still necessary to reach 90 per cent of the households. This would require construction of around 3 lakh latrines in the project villages alone. This is a big task because there is neither a significant 'felt' need for latrines, nor a willingness to pay for them. A good deal of extension work is obiviously required in these households about the construction of latrines.
The involvement of outside NGOs in this task is therefore, unavoidable. This involvement is necessary also because the extension in the field of latrines is more of a personal nature and the target group/person would vary from village to village and from household to household. The flexibility required for the extension, is not likely to be provided by the Government machinery.
The experience of the NGOs working in this field indicates that around 6 to 15"visits to the village are required to identify the local village-level target groups, hold discussions with them and create awareness. In other words, creating a felt need among the first say, 20 to 30 bouseholds in a village, requires an extension time of around 3 months for a team of 2 volunteers. Hopefully, if the latrines so constructed are properly used, they will have a multiplier effect without requiring additional extension effort.
The involvement of outside voluntary agencies in the field of latrine construction will thus be :
a) To identify the target group/persons in the village
b) Provide extension service and training
c) Construct around 100 latrines a year with the help of a team of 2 volunteers.
103
d) Supervise the construction and use of latrines. ,,
e) Liaison with Government agencies, material supplying agencies and masons during/after the construction of latrines.
In terms of simple arithmetic, thus, to cover 1000 project villages in one year, we will require 250 teams of volunteers. If the programme is to be spread over 5 years, f>O teams of trained volunteers will be needed. The above figures are quoted only to provide the dimension of efforts required. They require to be firmed up with a detailed feasibility study. Further, they cover only project villages and exclude a very large area of non project villages where the need for hygiene and latrines is equally urgent.
8.3 ORGANISATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
The task associated with the three activities of water supply, hygiene and latrines is, thus, a multi-agency task and the GOM will have to play a very important and crucial role of financing and coordinating the activities of various agencies.
At present, the construction of piped-water supply in a village is the responsibility of MWSSB for larger schemes and of the Zilla Parishad for the smaller schemes. ZPs are also responsible for the maintenance of the schemes and the Grampanchayat is supposed to look after the recovery of water charges. As far as borewells are concerned, GSDA is responsible for their construction, the Grampanchayat/Zilla Parishad for maintenance and the Grampanchayat for the recovery of water charges. The village drainage construction is the responsibility of the Zilla Parishad and its maintenance is the responsibility of the Grampanchayat. The Grampanchayat is also responsible for the village cleanliness. The soak-pits are to be constructed and maintained by the individuals at their own cost.
In the case of latrines, an individual beneficiary has to take the lead in approaching the Zilla Parishad for receiving subsidy. The subsidy of Rs. 200/- (Rs. 450/-for SC/ST) is given to the beneficiary by the Zilla Parishad, along with a pan after the construction upto plinth level is completed. The contribution of the Zilla Parishad (viz. Rs. 175/-) towards the subsidy is given by the Zilla Parishad after the construction of the latrine is complete.
The role of voluntary agencies at present is to motivate people and enable them to approach the authorities like the Zilla Parishad, for taking the benefit of subsidies. In all the cases reported to us, the delay in inspection, reporting and disbursement on the part of the Government agencies was found to be the major factor discouraging the large-scale involvement of NGOs in these tasks. In these circumstances, the experiences of Gujarat during the last two years in implementing the latrine programme (which was assisted by the World Bank) is worth noting. The chief features of this experiences are
a) The Government of Gujarat (GOG) undertook a programme of constructing 20,000 latrines in rural areas in three years (1989-1992)
104
b) This programme was handed over, for implementation, by the Gujarat Water Supply and Beverage Board (GWSSB), to the Enviromental Sanitation Institute, Ahmedabad (ESI), a volunt.ary organisation whose Director has been Shri. Ishwarbhai Patel.
c) The selection of NGOs for the village-wise implementation of the programme was done by ESI. Ultimately, 48 NGOs participated in implementation.
d) These NGOs selected villages and the beneficiaries.
e) ESI provided necessary training to
i) NGOs ii) GWSSB
iii) Village panchayat staff/village people iv) Masons"
f) ESI prepared and ]distributed pamphlets, forms and posters to the NGOs. '
g) NGOs were completely responsible for latrines, construction and recovery beneficiaries.
the of
site selection dues from
of the
h) NGOs were supplied material and finance by the ESI after the former submitted the required documents and after the inspection of these documents by the ESI.
i) The cost of each latrine constructed was Rs. 2357. Out of this, Rs. 100 were paid to ESI for supervision and guidance, Rs. 100 to the NGO for supervision and implementation, Rs. 100 to the beneficiary and Rs. 57 to GWSSB for supervision and monitoring.
j) For meeting the remaining cost of the latrine {viz. Rs. 2000/-), a grant in aid was paid to Harijans, Adivasis and economically backward castes at Rs. 1500/- and Rs. 1000/- to others, per latrine. Thus, the own contribution of the beneficiaries towards the cost of construction was Rs. 500 in the case of backward castes and Rs. 1000 in the case of advanced castes.
k) GWSSB provided ESI with funds in advance to pay the NGOs. ESI paid to NGOs on the basis of actual work done by them, after physical verification. Household beneficiaries were paid the subsidy by the NGO and copies of vouchers were sent by the NGO to ESI and Board office.
1) It was reported that under this programmes, upto April 1990, through 48 NGOs 12, 626 latrines were constructed in 3 7 6 vi llageE. from 46 blocks. Of these, 10354 latrines were for Harijans, Adivasis and economically backward households. Further, 820 latrines were under construction. ESI expected to cover the target of 20,000 latrines before March 1991.
105
Although critical evaluation of these available reports indicate that the construction of latrines is indeed attributed to the following factors
a) Complete absence of red-tapism;
efforts is yet to be made, achievement of Gujarat in
impressive. This success
the the is
b) Freedom to the ESI in selecting the NGOs and in laying down the procedures and to NGos in selecting villages/beneficiaries and in implementating the programme.
c) Precise demarcation of functions and responsibilities of GOG, GWSSB, ESI and NGOs.
d) A simple and straightforward information ahd reporting system.
e) A large amount of subsidy given to the beneficiaries. It should also be noted that ESI and NGOs concentrated only on the construction of latrines and did not attend to the hygiene aspects. Maharashtra, unfortunately, does not have an agency like ESI. It will also not be practicable to accord any one NGO, the status of an ESI and ask other NGOs to report to it. At the same time, in order to minimise the administrative delays, it is necessary to implement the programmes through one agency. We, therefore, make the following recommendations for implementing the programmes.
8.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
A. The GOM should create an independent, state-level autonomous agency ( called hereafter as Nodal Agency ) on the lines of ESI. It should have sufficient financial and administratative powers to work independent of the Zilla Parishad, MWSSB and other existing agencies.
B. The staff of this agency should consist of young and dynamic persons drawn on deputation from other departments/ offices. Experienced persons working in other voluntary agencies could also be apporached to work for this agency either as permanent members or as Experts/ consultants/ trainers.
r '-'. Initially the Nodal Agency should work only for the
villages; its scope, however, is expected to cover all in the state, in due course of time.
project villages
D. The functional areas of the Nodal Agency should include
a) Supervision and monitoring the regeneration of existing water supply sources.
b)
c)
Supervision and monitoring the construction of the water supply schemes.
Creating awareness among Village Panchayats/ concerning the importance of purity of water, hygiene and community hygiene.
106
proposed.
villagers personal
d) Construction of household two pit latrines.
e) Monitoring of the entire programme of water supply, and latrines, taking corrective actions and periodical reports to the GOM.
hygien-: send in[
E. The Nodal Agency will work entirely through the NGOs. It wilJ identify and select the NGOs in each district and provide then necessary ·training. The Nodal Agency will be responsible fo1 creating, training and extension material as also for givin€ publicity through state/ district level media. It will alsc evolve the necessary criteria, and procedures for selecting NGO~ assessing their performance, disbursing funds to them anc preparing the reporting/ monitoring system. A visit of thE officers of the Nodal Agency to ESI in Ahmedabad for this purposE is strongly recommended.
F. The NGOs will work as far as possible, through the village-leve1 agencies. If the latter agencies are not in existence, the NGOf should try to create them by identifying suitable persons, and b~ doing the necessary extension. It should be emphasised to thE NGOs that, if the sustained impact of all these efforts is to bE achieved, all the efforts should be made through the villagf' level organisations only. The involvement and active participation of the Village Panchayat should also be sought by the NGOs.
G. While the ,regeneration and construction of the water supply scheme is not the responsibility of the NGOs ( although theil supervision and monitoring does form one of their functions), the construction of two pit latrines will be the responsibility of the NGOs. Similarly, providing assistance in the construction of soak pits will be the reponsibility of the NGOs.
H. The NGOs will be free to identify their villages. They alsc identify masons for constructing latrines and sources of supply of materials.
I. The NGOs should prepare a status report on each of the selected villages and prepare, in consultation with the Nodal Agency, a time bound action programme. The Nodal Agency should pay the NGC for preparing the status report.
J. All the disbursements to the NGOs should be made by the Nodal Agency directly. They should not depend on any clearances, etc. from other departments or agencies.
K. The disbursments to the NGOs should be made on the basis of their achievements of the action plan.
L. It would be better if an officer in the Nodal Agency is assigned a specific di~trict so that he/she can co-ordinate all the activities (both of the Governmental agencies as also of NGOs) within the district and be responsible for the achievement in the district. He/she will, however, have to spend much of his/heT time in travelling within the district.
107
M. Separate cells within the agency will look after
a) Preparation of training, extension and publicity material.
b) Conducting training programmes for MWSSB officers, Panchayat officers, NGOs village level workers, and masons.
c) Providing publicity through various press and audio- visual media, arranging visits of villagers to demonstration sites, holding conferences/ meetings, etc.
d) Identifying the sources of supply for pans, pipes, etc. and arranging for their timely supplies to the NGOs.
items like adequate and
e) Planning, programmes.
monitoring, reporting and evaluation of the
f) Liaison with institutions granting financial (like UNICEF, Rotary cl.ub, etc.)
assistance
N. The payment to NGOs by the Nodal Agency could be for the following activities
Rate of Payment
a) Preparing the Status Report for each village and preparing a plan of action.
b) Getting the existing Bore-Wells repaired and making them functional; getting the existing pipes repaired and making them functional.
c) Arranging awareness camps for demonstration,exhibition, film shows etc. concerning personal/village hygiene, development of village level agency, involvement of Village Panchayats in hygiene activities and initiating the programmes of development. (The material to be supplied by the Nodal Agency.)
d) Motivating the households to construct soak pits at their own cost.
e) Construction of two pit latrines.
Rs.200/- per village to NGO
Rs.200/- per village (Rs.lOO to the NGO & Rs. 100 to local Agency.)
Rs.300/- per awareness camp to NGO (This includes extension effort of NGO & payment of NGO to local agencies for costs incurred) .
Rs.lO/- per soak pit so constructed to the NGO.
Rs.120/- per latrine to NGO.
These rates are only suggestive. These can be finalised after consultation with NGOs.
108
0. In addition, the Nodal Agency may also consider giving prizes for substantial achievements.
We suggest the follwing indicative prizes:
i) Achievement .in community hygiene
Each village should submit a hygiene report in the prescribed form every year. An Assesment Team, appointed for each Tahsil, should visit the village, assess the progress and give scores on each pre-determined item. 10 top ranking villages, on the basis of total village scores, should be visited by the Nodal Agency, which should select three villages in each district for the award of village hygiene. These awards could be:
JLirst £:t:i~e Rs. 5000/- to the Village Panchayat and Rs. 3000/- to its NGO.
Second £rize Rs. 3000/- to the Village Panchayat and Rs. 2000/- to its NGO.
Ihird Prize Rs. 2000/- to the Village Panchayat and. Rs. 1000/- to its NGO.
Similarly, all the village scores could be aggregated for a Tahsil. The first three top ranking Tahsils in the state could be awarded the prizes of Rs.10000/-, Rs.7000/- and Rs.3000/- and they could be given to the Taluka Panchayat.
These prizes would motivate both the Village Panchayats and Taluka Panchayats to implement better water supply schemes, to provide safe drinking water and to maintain village hygiene.
8.5 MOTIVATING THE VOLUNTARY ORGANISATIONS
Involvement of the NGOs in this task will require a considerable amount of motivation. Several NGOs are personality oriented, have their own styles of working and, also their own ideas of development. These ideas are, many a time, a product of their experiences in their specific areas of operations. It is better to respect these ideas and allow them to follow their own course in the extension and execution of the projects. It is therefore, necessary to see that the Nodal Agencies or the Government departments initiating these programmes, do not dictate their own terms or become 'bosses' of the voluntary agencies. Their role should be purely administrative and coordinating. Since the importance of all the three activities is recognised by most voluntary agencies, it will not be too difficult to solicit their co-operation, if freedom of action is assured tc them. If properly documented, their experiences will also provide guidelines to each other.
The voluntary agencies, at presen·t, lack proper communication bott among themselves, as also between the Government and themselves. If this gap is filled in by publishing a periodical, they can sharE
109
their experiences. Initially, the periodical can be devoted only to the selected district areas and later on, can cover other areas as well.
It is also necessary that before implementing, all the details scheme are discussed with the NGOs, including village organisations. Nothing should come only as a "GR"; everything be the outcome of deliberations with them.
of the level
should
The GOH, while providing centralised serives of publicity, supply of extension material,training etc. should also take cognizance of such services already provided by the NGOs. The Seminar/Workshops arranged to discuss these services will go a long way in expanding the reach of such services and obtaining the required co-operation from the NGOs.
8.6 TRAINING NEEDS
The above discussion points out that various required by the agencies implementing the tabulated below :
training inputs programmes. They
Recipient Agency
i) Nodal Agency
ii) NGOs
iii) Local NGOs/ Grampanchayat/ Villages
Area cl Training Required
a) Management and Organisation b) Financial Control and Accounting c) Details of schemes d) Technical details of the three
acti vi t.ies e) Monitoring and MIS
a) Management and Organisation b) Financial Control and Accounting c) Details of schemes d) Technical details Al ~nllAction of water/stools
~RmPlA/AnRly~is and reports f) Extension Methods g) Documentation
a) Details of schemes b) Technical Details of latrine, soak
pit construction c) Collection of Water/Stools samples d) SllnArvi si.on over schemes
are are
e) Maintenance of horAwAlls, lAtrinAR. ronrls.
iv) I1ason.s a) Technology of latrine construction
As suggested ·in section 7.4, a separate cell to look after these training, needs be created in the Nodal Agency.
110
8.7 FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS
While the detailed financial implications of the above suggestions are beyond the scope of the present study, some of the broad dimensions are presented in Table 8.1. The figures in this table are based on the follwing assumptions:
i) Subsidy amount of Rs. 1000 per latrine is given to the communities and Rs. 1500 per latrine is given to the communities.
advanced backwal'd
ii) The following targets in terms of construction of latrines are to be achieved in the project villages
Advanced communities
1st year 15,000 2nd year 30,000 3rd year 4f•' 000 4th year 60,000
Total 1,50,000
B~ck~ard communities
5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000
50,000
Total
20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000
2,00,000
There are around 3,44,000 households in the project villages (consisting approximately of 2,87,000 households of advanced communities and 57,000 households of backward communities). At the end of 4 years, thus, an achievement of 58 per cent coverage will be made.
iii) Status reports for all the 1650 project villages are prepared by the NGOs.
iv)
v)
On an (total
average, three awareness camps in each village : 5000 camps in 1650 villages during 4 years)
are
50 soak pits are to be constructed in each village. during years {Total No. of soak pits to be constructed in villages : 82500).
held
four 1650
vi) The following costs are not included in table 7.1
a) Organisational cost travelling, etc.)
of the Nodal Agency (salaries,
b) Cost of Associates, Experts, Consultants appointed by the Nodal Agency-.
c) Cost of Training conducted by the Nodal Agency
d) Cost of Training material, Equipment, Demonstration material, publicity material and publicity.
111
With these assumptions, the total cost comes to around Rs. 25 crores IRs. 250 million). Outofthisbulki.e. SSpercent is spent on subsidies to the benificiaries for latrine construction and 10.7 per cent given to the NGOs. If there are SO NGOs working in 10 districts (i.e. B per district) on an average, one NGO receives Rs. 67,500 per year, covering 20 villages and constructing 625 latrines par year. This amount and work should enable the NGO to maintain a staff of 3 social workers a.nd meet their tra.vell ing and overhead expenses.
The tota.l financial cost could be met from the resources World Bank and other financial agencies I ike Gov8rnment,
Rotary Clubs,
of ths:l IJNICEF,
TABLE 6. 1
Lions Clubs, etc.
FINANCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING IMPROVEMENT IN WATER SUPPLY, HYGIENE AND LATRINE CONSTRUCTION DURING THE FIRST 4 YEARS OF IHPLEHENTATION lH THE PROJECT VILLAGES
I. Rs. in l.;.khs)
Fa rt. iciJ.la.rs Pa.ym~;~nts To
Subsidy to NGOs Villa.ge Others Total beneficia.ries level-
organ i sa.ti on
1. P r101 pa.ra.t ion of 3.30 3.30 sta.tlJs report for 165-0 vi I bges.
2. Overseeing 1. 65 1. 65 3.30 repa. irs of the existing Bore-w el I s I pips water schemes (155-0 villages)
3 .. Arra.nging awareness 15.00 15.00 ca.mps
4. Motivating 8.25 8.25 households to r:::onstrur:::t soa.k pits a.t their IJ\110
costs
5. ConstriJction of 2250.00 240.00 2490.00 two pit la.trimls
6. Prizes for Best 2.40 4.00 6.40 Villages
7. Prizes for Best 0.80 0.80 Ta.hs i 1 s
To ta.l 2250.00 270.60 1. 65 4.80 2527.05
P8rcentage (89.04) ( 10.7) (0.07) r.o. 19 > (100.00)
112
VOLUME- II
TABLES AND IMPS
f:kheme
Fl " lt.J "
Total
Sc:heme No.
SECTION - I
No ..
1 "
":1 • .: .. 11
~· \-J "'
4 ..
L-.,,:\ . 1.:;.
7.
D.
9.
PHA CodP
...,...,. I ... )
74
... r,·-I .. J
76
(3::::;
106
107
1.20
1.2b
LIST OF SAMPL,E VILLAGES
DIST : THANE
1../ i 1.1 a.g 10
r.~)atpalr:)
l<u·:;h ival i
1"\.::th,:tp
~,Ia 1 e
P a c: h c: h h ~t p u. T'
Bhu i g a.(Jrl Bk . l;~afale
Dh a.mi3.1'1(;;J a.on
Jarnbhi·..;al i Ter·f l<hamba 1 a.
Total 1·-\H
32)4
32
l~.t,
~219
87
420
70
3:3,:S
81
------------·---·-------·---
f.3r. PR.A Cocle
1625
DIST : THANE
Vi 11 a.g e Total HH
...... ----------·---------·---.. ---·-·--------.. -----·----------B.W. 1 . 121 Sakharr0 48
(Dong ;,l rip a.d a)
2sa 1 ~~:2 Naclha.i.
"":!' ,.J . 1.24· C.:Jhu r'a 1 i
f.!. " 1 :2~:5 f< a r 11 E.' 1 ;;,,
(Ph an ast.,Jad t )
1
S.;:;.mp l e HH
2<)
2<)
'""'.., . .:· ... ~
:27
269
Sarnp 1'.? HH
19
! ~ •.
i ·'·
4(1
,,..;,.,•'
·\ /1 .L--r
i ~:,
No .. PR.f-::, Code
DIST : THANE
--·---·-----·-···----------------···---------o·-·-----···-····-·-----······----·-------------·-
Tot.::1l. HI .. ·!
f:)arnple 1·-11-1
_,_, _________________________ , ______ , ______________________________________________ .. _, ____________ _ F: .. VJ ..
TCJt -3. l
Scheme
F-:· t!.J "
T CJ t .3. 1 ·'
1 ·")"7 .. :../ Dhaban <Sukhapadal 368
i.. '-'" 127 Cha.lani.
( , ... ,,_,~_mi:J .::l.C: hap a.d a.)
10
102
-:: ·...1
13
1'".!' . .,.,
-------------------.. ··---------.. -·-··--------------·--------------·
c~ ·-'l Jl
1 . .-) ..:..
-=!' ._ .. ..
4 '
c\ ... ..
l:: .. "
7
C.') '·-' ..
DIST : AHMEDNAGAR ·--- ____ , ___________________ , ________________ , ____________ _
PR.A Cocle
., ..::.
3-4
.. ,. t= -..:..•-_!
:3~s
..,. .. , ._-_, /
Ll2
43
9 1
C3a1nirnb
~.1 (l t•J as .s. B k ..
f:::u r·u.cl~i aCJn
1'1al ibabht . ..1.lqa.on
Chan rJ t~ g a em
Du l ~" Ch a.n dg i3.Dfl
Tota.l Hl-·l
268
727
:1.19
:?t.j.r:_.,'
176
Sample HH
60
20
28
21
8
1.7
f:1
14
·-----·-·-----·---·-·----------.. ----------------·--·-·----------"---· 2204 248 l1
---- -·-----------·-·------------.. ··--·-----------.. ·-·-·---.. ·---.. ----·----............. _____________________________ _
2
Gc:heme 1\lo.
B . L'~ " 1. n
~,
.a:: ...
' • ... 1 n
,q. .
5 . b . 7 .
PH.f.~
Ccldf:.
1
-;~
'·>
,q.
!5
~-· .. .')· . .')
"<C:l ·-1 /
41.
DIST : AHMEDNAGAR
\/ :i. 1 1 -3. Cj (0
Hiva~gaon (Parasa)
F>clkha.r':i. H.::l.ve l i Cl,Pokha~:i. Haveli 2. lvlah,::;ob Cii.>J ad i )
~3 a1.•! a. rg a. on C!h u 112
CAmbelwad:i. Belsonda)
l<encl .3.1 e Bf:::
Sa.rc:lla. Bu.cldi
Total HH
1 4 1.
.q. .. q.7
127
51.
---------------------·---·-----------------·-------·---Tcd;al 1.4'.34
Sa1T!.[.l 1 e HH
l () -
(::
13
1 '7'
43
---·------·---·------···-----·---·-----...:~·, -------··---------·---··------·-··----------'
Sc:heme Sr n PRA \\lo . Code
p • L!J • 1. . ..,.,..\ ,,:,~.
,, ,,::.
" ,q. ~:i
-,. ·-+ 7 ,,:1 .
4. :.10
~l " r.?~l
f.J II C)C~
/ ~-.'
7 n 9'7
3
DIST : PUNE
Akc.llf:
Kh a.m' . ..l.rid i
t:::u Pkc.1nd i
1,'-l d. ,~ j '~'
( t1 21 l1.1J a c! i. )
L.a. kh r:: 1.11 a.cl i. <11a.r·\qu.Jas t i)
Be) r a. t 1 •. 11 .::t d :i.
Total HH
188
:Z.34
1.022
E349
Sample HH
2 1
. ..., ...::. .• .1
-::~
'" .. :...
1. 6
"7
1 8 .1.
~;o
147
1
l
1 ·'
1 J.
'
-7
e J.
12
C)
1 ·-:· J . ...:... .
1<)
1 J •
.-, _,:_
c").
.-;
..::.
't
i
...)
c; ·-'
No ..
1 "
·-:'• .. :.. " 3F3
::~ " 4lj.
4 " 4.':.;
5 " 48
L 49 0...!
::r s:\
DIST : PUNE
---------·-----·--------·---·----·--·-------------·---
4
F'eth
<Bu. t ·~' :.,J.::t '"' t i )
f<h -011~k e t?
\F-'<:.;.than G a i k \!.J ad t11 a. :::; t; :i. )
J D q a t>l a cl i (Ran j a.n(·?iTl-"1. J. a.)
t·1a. n cl a.r-lt•l ad i <r1 a.l E!l1! 3.'::; t i)
f<U':::ih i. T'E·1 f:::h.
Tot<:>l f··ll·-1
1 00
:2~5
20
::~ ::~
~:;o
f.j.(j
~)a.mp 1 (' HH
D
cj
f.:-.
:.:::o
7 (
"""Y I
15
D
24·
30
t17
'""\ --:r L· ... J
1 7
---·--·------------
Scheme No.
B. !AI • C.1 '-1 •
9 .
1.0 .
1. t
1.2.
1 ~::;.
Total
GchE~rne f.)r. No.
p • w. 1 . ,., .,_ . -:r • ... 1 n
~-~ .
Tota.l
PFf-1 Code
;5 f.:;
q-:r ' .... 1
94
96
C,?/r
1.01
PFU-1 CCJcle
10
:l 1
12
'7E~
5
DIST : PUNE
Tot3.1 HH
Malegaon Kh. 203 ( f::: a. t <:-~ ,_,; <:t <:.:.~ t i )
l<h <'l.f1 <:!.p Ll. !'
(Thc:lp<=ttf;!Vl-:tcli.)
l.Jn d a1.'' a.d i ( J i":!.dh2.VI,•!<:id i)
Murum <Ta.k<-11 i Sh i. n cl ·=~'·''a::.; t i. )
r-:ao ,,:~ I
20
3<)
3<)
Nigadale 25 <Bhimashankarwasti)
670
DIST : SATARA
\/i. 11 age
u j i T' ad t.~
l'·li \.;J acl i
J a T' •2 1.•1 a. d i.
~~n a.ph a 1 ~:~ ( f::: ar·1 k a. t 1~ :i. )
Total HH
107
1.40
120
043
HH
6
1. 7
8
6
b
12
~3amp1e
HH
5 q
clO
•""";'( -j . .:-' ..
-..:~ \ )
---------------·
15
44 9
1.6 1. 1.
23 1 '7
9t3 12
PR.?'1 Cod'?
DIST : SATARA
l.Ji. 11 a.gE! TcJtaJ. HH
~3a.mp 1 e HH
-···--··--------------··---------·----------·---·------------------·-----------------,.-, I.'J 1 77 r::• . . . Banpu r' i 189 30 16
( f::: an k '.'!ad i ) Pa.ta.11
. ..., 79 ..::. . Samg'.•!a.d 188 17 9
"":!" 80 ~· fO::h a r'ad e 168 15 t?
<Net•! Va.·:::;a.nt)
4 . 84· \ioluth 36 5 14 (Bam ant•! a.d i )
c· 8~\ . .J . lJi he '"'7-:r 5 2 ... ::. t ,,;,
(June Gao·tll an)
6 . 86 Gudhe 24· :.l ~~1
<Sh i d rukt•Jad i )
7 " 87 Sang vi ~3:2 6 19 (f:::arkha.na ?-~rea.)
C) 88 C..' t·1and v e 256 4· 11 < G a.'-'' a t an l•l a. s t i. )
9 . 89 Gua rel•Ja.d i 84· ~5 6 <Bhair-oa Bev<3.la.ya)
10 . 90 Targaon 24 ::) 21
97 9
Total F'.l.!J. + B.l...). 1897 195
6
Sr" No.
PR.f.\ Cocl e
DIST : SANGALI
\;'i.ll..::tcJe To -t:3.l HH
-----·-··-------··-----·----·---·----·--·----------··----··----------·---
P .. l;L 1 . 13 Dht.t l.g aon 313
2u 1·1· LJ ph i:1 l. I,A) c.~ 1'1 f;J i. 1.7<+
3 .. 1. ~5 f:::umthe 935
4. .s 1 f::)h e 1 ket•Jac:l :l 125
5 . t,,2 Upal!·? (Yed!:~ ) l '74
Total 17'41
DIST : SANGALI
Sc:h em<~ Sr. PHA \.! i. 11 ag \~ Total No. Code HH
Sample HH
41
65
2<)
24
173
Sa.mp le HH
------------·--·--------·---·-·------------·------·-------B. \L.) • 1 . ;::i7
2n 58
"'!' \-I .. 59
4 . 60
~.\ . 63
b. 64
7,, 65
Su kti t•J ~1d i ( BcJ r1.•J an )
l<ha.t<:l'-/ ( G u. r a v t•J a."'" t i )
S a.n tc:J·::;h ,_,Ja.cl i. <Bhaga. ti>Jast i)
f:::h at a.v ( M i. T' j e VJ as t i )
l<ar'an.je <BhaskaTma.l a.) <~;her·imala)
Nimbsode ( Doombt-•Ja·:::; t i. )
Dio;thanc:hi (t:lher'ima.la.)
<Hu.bl.et•Ja.-;::;ti.)
7
3.-! . ."t 10
~i .. • . .J• ... J 10
24 10
~· L -~I...J 9
122 2f)
~' ..::_,t) lO
54 8
13
·i L. 1. '·--'
1 ·-:a .t..::.. .
1 <)
P.erc.:ent
'""."•C) ... :_f .• .J
15
PH.A Code
---·--··--------·--------
TcJt.3.l
CJ w.
C' l •
10"
lL
66
81
----·-----·-·--------
No. PR.A CcJde
DIST : SANGALI
Tota.l HH
~3ample
HH
. --------·---··---------------J a. k r' a. i l•J 2td i
tAJa.l e kh :l nd i <Pa.rus;hr'a.rnt•Ja.sti) ( D f~ (= (lJ a. r 1.11 .::;. <::; t i
Ta.dsar-<t'-1 a i k t11 a::; t i )
48
300
708
DIST : BULDHANA
Tota.l HH
10
16
10
· l3B
Sample HH
-··-·----------------------------------------·----··-p - l,) 1 . 1 14· Ekl.-3.r'<:1 44
") 1 15 . .:.. . .. Dud h a.l g a on f<h • 124
' l 16 -...Jo ShE~ 1 s;u 1~ 2!~3C)
4. l 17 f:::und f:::h. :2~:!;<) 27
5 . 1 18 Kund Bk. 24
C.! II l 19 Amci apu r' 1393 71
T c;;t a 1 2671. 221
P tH'C en t
f.-3
17
Percent
1.6
1 1
1.2
1.2
8
Sch E!me
B. t!.J.
Total
Sc.:hem,:,~
p • l~J •
Total
No ..
Sr • No.
1 . 2.1
PRA Cod(::
PRA CodE!
1.09
U.l
DIST : BULDHANA
Total HH
Sa.mple Hl-l
----·--·-··-·· .. -· .. --·-·-··--··-·
-------------------· .. ··-·····-----
------------------·-----
DIST : CHANDRAPUR
Village Tota.l 1-·lH
--·-------------· Ag f'<'i 66
1·-leti Nan ad(] a. on 1 17
183
DIST : CHANDRAPUR
Sample HH
3<)
55
P·ercent
""C• . __ ) '-..1
:::;;o
------------·-··------
··-····-·-··--···-----····-.. ·-·· .. ··--··--.. ·---··--·--.. ··----·---·---·---·--·---·-------·-·----------------··-·
Sc:heme Sr. I:Jf~A
1\kl. Code
n.w. 1 .. 108
2.1 110
3D 1.1.2
4. 1.13
1·/i 11 a.qe
·-----Sh :i. r:::, i OHI
t<oke,,Ja.d a.
Shiv a.n i
Botha.l i
Total HH
43
111
!.!-1
11.1
--···--------·-··-·-.. ---···---------·--·-··-··---·--···-···-----
9
S.:J.mp 1 e HH
27
28
J.7
50
41
·------· ----·--·-
·------· .. -.... ---··--
1 "
:lb
j 7 . '
1 [)
------··---------------- ----
DIST : AURANGABAD
l<ar'ma.d
l< a r1 cj on i
Total I· .. IH
.q.J.s
1000
l::3-:.i.mp 1 <:.'
HH
35
26
160
F'ercent
1 c· ... )
17
1.0
60
16
--------------------------------·-----·-----·---------·-----···-·-·····------·-----------
.... !_.Lj
D L:)
•I 1 '
'" .. :~
'"""":!" .. .1 .•
::::~ -,-" ~~ CJ •
1 "
.-, ,;_ "
__ , "
'1·
FR.A c:cJd e
1 i:) I
:?.<)
.::; 1 ·~·'
PR.f.")
.-,;~
.. ::.-~
. .__..,I~;
..... · ...
-:: ., •• .1 J.
~~::.: 9
DIST : AURANGABAD
0~1 -3. T'
( G.s.ond a. r' j_
Dh -S. T'
f<umbh eph a.
T.;tnd -3.
1 ·'
)
Total HH
200
:L!:F1
:;::;s
DIST : BEED
(;.) .::t(;J ho Y' a
Be) r.-:;_, -3.01'"1
[)h -=.l.l"i9 a. r'tJ.J
Gh {:1 t n a.nc:l
Th ac:l i.
ad i.
I... I. r' l
Tot."ll 1··1! .. -1
3<)::~
{::..4
CJ":'t 1.1:-
(j l ~.:, ..
!:)amp 1 e 1··-!H
H3
8
q .,. --· ... )
~3a.mp 1 ,;:~
I .. ·IH
. .,. ... , ... J l
~?4
~:~~5
7' 1
r:;
c· .. J
1::,
1.0
Per'cent
··-· ····-·--·-··--·-·--·------------------------------------··-·----·-·-·-··----····----.. --~--............. -... ·-----·--·----·· .. --·-·······---· .. ·---------·-·-
10
Sc::h em~;~ No.
-----··----
P.W. t" . .J u
b.
Tota.l
Gc:h E~m~::: Nt! ..
D " vJ " 1 .
,., .. ::. .
"":!" ._,} . ,q. .
5 .
t, .
Tota.l
PH{:, Codr::
70
PH?~
Cocl'?
2 :1.
2~:2
2,q.
...,.(,, ,.t;Mt,,,/
r:"•O .~ •• • ... 1
~2c;;·
11
\/ :i. 1 l. -3.\J '"'
DIST : Beed
Tc.1ta.l 1··11··1
1. l]. ,q.
DIST : BEED
\i-.),,1. lu.n j ( f:::h a.d E•I .. \Ja·~:;. I·· • .. · ·'
T ·:1 l '"~ (J d.(Jr-1 Elk ( r a. f"l cl a. 1\!tJ
Dorr::J a.un Bk . r-·1 a.cl a. 1 1'1CJh i ( Buc:l!1n i. r''··'!a.d
E:(0 E~ c:l ( p ra.k a.·:";hn :3.(J
I i rnb~~ a.n i:!·oc,h '··
}
" '"' } .. :.:.
i )
a. r' )
Tota.l 1···11·-1
48
3.:S
284
96
48
40E:
92<)
~:;arnp 1 e HH
40
;"":\·l L .::~ J. '-·-'
::=;a.rnple HH
1./:.
l1
t::: ·-'
3<)
-·. '···· •:.:'\ i
-----····--····----···-·--·-·····
122
1 "
/! ''T"
T 1. 11.
F· nr-, CtJd •2
1 o::::
PR.A Code
DIST : LATUR
BhDy <'!. r·a.
Chikha.ltha.na.
I< a. r· l. B.
Sa.1 yyadpu. r·· E:k.
Sh i u r·
T:okli Bk. ( B a. r'd a.p 1 • ..1. T' )
Tota.l I···IH
16'5
:1.91
292
1~522
DIST : LATUR
Tota.l H\··1
~:3 ,;l. m p l ("~
HI .. ·!
50
:.31
40
f.-3arnp l e HH
1 ~3
13
1.2
19
ll
11
Per'cent
········-············-------·---·-·--·--·--·--·--------.. -----.. ·--·-----.. ----.. --·-·--·-.. ·-·-........... _ ... __ , ____ , _____ , ....... _, ____ ,, __________ . __ _ c· ~-~
!,-.; ..
.... ,.,_ .. , ··-········--··-···--·--··---····-·-·----···--··--~--·--···--·-···-·---·-··-·····---···-·······-···-····················-····-·-····-·-··-······ .. ··-·-.. ···-····--·-··· .................. \.... ............. _________ .... _ ... ___ ... ______ , ..
12
LIST OF DISTRICT HAPS
SECT ION - II
DISTRICT HAPS
Scheme Disb'icts of Ma.harashtra
Scheme & Sample Vi 1 1 ages in Thane Dist.r·ict
S~cheme & Sample Villages in Ahmed nagar District
~~cheme & Sample Villages in Pune District
Scheme &!. Sample Villages in Ba.tara District
~:;.cheme & Sample Vi l 1 ages in Sangli District
,!?.c:heme &. Sample Villages in Buldhana Dl.st-rict
S<~heme & Sample Villages in Chand:a.'apur Dish· let
t?:c: heme Si eample Villagea in AUi'angabad District
~::eheme & Sample Villages in Beed Disl"t'ict
:·:::c:heme &. Sample Villages in Latur Distdct
13
PAGll NO.
14
15
16
17
18
1.0
:ll ()
lll
22
23
24
DISTRICT c~/l( "------,
\
JALbACt-J
..... +:-
MAP OF MAHARASHTRA - --
~~---/'
! At1.i'Jl.I\VAT: -,
\_ NA6PUR_ bHANDARA
A KOLA
-,
I _ __,
I 'c __ j / / ~ -~ __./7-
/ \ ,//' CHANDRA~UR, \ ~--(-a.3,2-J /
, YAVATMAL '~- (L,,.,)- r / 'I
A /
0 - PROJECT DISTRICTS
+-PIPE WATER- (NO. OF SO-IE11E XIUAGES, Nc.pF SAMPLE VIL.l~6ES)
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1. ~olegaon
2.
SECTION- Ill
CASE STUDIES OF TWO VILLAGES
T.aluka District
Taluka Dist"i·lct
2S
Shevgaon Ahmednaga.r
Vasai Thane
PAGI?. NOS.
3CI
Name of the village Taluka District Population
Kolegaon is headquarter. difficult to
a.t a. distance The road is
use it.
; Kolegaon. Shevga.on Ahmed nagar 563 (1981 census) BPL Families 37; Soil Poor; 60 irrigation wells;
of 14km. mot.orable,
from Shevgaon,the but during monsoon
ta.l uka. it is
!Ja.ter for drinking and other purposes
There are two sources of water ~ One stream, three wells.
For drinking purposes, water is drawn from private wei Is on farm and from one public well.
The public wei l was deepened 15 years ago by the villagers through joint efforts to the depth of 45 feet. Prior to that it was shallow with a depth of only seven and half feet. Now water is available at 9 feet from the ground level; but in summer the level goes down to 40 feet. W;;.ter of this well is a little sa.lty a.nd villagers do not ma.ke much 1;se of it. .• l.later for drinking is, therefore, fetched from private we! Is on farms.
Ualls of the pub! ic wei l are built with stone & mortar and a 5 feet high wal I is constructed round the weiJ.Four pulleys are fitted for drawing water and spilt water is drained away properly. This water is used for washing clothes and utensils and for bathing.
During the famine of 1962-63, water was brought from outside in a tanker and pour~d into this wei I. In the process wal I of the wei I w~s r:;ia.ma.g ed .•
The second well wa.s constructed in 1950. It is 45' deep a.nd ha.s a .. diameter of 7 feet. Hormally water is available at 10 feet but in summer it sinks to 40 feet from the ground-level. This well was built by the villag~rs through voluntary labour contribution 'Shramadanl. It is also built with stone and mortar and is fitted with two pulleys. It's w~ter is also salty. Jt is,therefore used for wa.shing clothes, utensils and for bathing. Five feet radius of the well is covered with floor tiles and properly constructed outlets drain the waste water to village gutters. The surroundings of the well are kept ·~! 8a.n.
The third wei 1 in the village is located in the residential area of the scheduled caste fami J ies. It is fitf:.ed with four pt.!lleys. !Ja.ter level is 35 feet from the ground level. In summer the well goes dry, and the scheduled casts families h~ve to take water for drinking purpose from the well near the Panchayat Office.
26
On south of Kolegaon, there is a stream, which orginates within the village boundaries. Water from this ls used for washing and animals are taken here for drinking water. At present, the water is five feet deep but in summer the stream becomes totally dry,
Since there is no perennial source of water, a 'temparary watersupply scheme• was implementated in 1962-83; under the scheme a pipeline was laid for carrying water from a public well in the nearby viJ lage, which is at a distance of 2 kms. This water was stored in the public well of the village which was also constructed in 1982-83. This pipeline was made of plastic and was laid under the ground* but it was not very deep under the ground. Therefore during the mon6oon, the soil above it was eroded and the carts and other vehicles running over it caused considerable damage to the pipeline.
There is one percolation tank to the north of Kolegaon at a di~lance
of 2000 ft. lt was constructed in 1962-63 under the Employment Guarantee Scheme. Water-level in the wells in the vicinity of the percolation tank has improved considerably due to this work.During the 1982-83 famine 4 bore wells were attempted in order to solve the the water shortage problem. All the attempts failed. But two of Lhese wei Is started giving water after monsoon. Pump will be fitted to these from the funds available with the MLA of this region.
Latrines
There is not a single public or private latrine in the village. Villagers, therefore, use the open sp~ce. Men go eastward & women go northward. During monsoon, children defecate within the village nearby the garbage dumps and the residential houses and audults dafacate on the sides of the approach road.No trenches are constructed and villagers do not cover excereta with earth.
Most of the people are not prepared to construct latrines. They would welcome scheme of housing or any other scheme but they would not accept latrines. Because according to them latrine means consid~rable rtiFt ~n~ fRwl ~m~l l and nobody would take care to maintain them properly. When the importance of latrines was explained to them, a few families expressed desire to h~ve priva~e la~rines. Many preferred community latrines ~s they individually cannot afford to construct separate latrines. They insisted that their should be a provision to employ person to keep them clean.
Hygiene at Public places
To reach Kolegaon one has to cross the stream. Villagers use banks of the str~ams and sides of the approach road to defecate. Foul smell and dirt meet the visitor of the village. Water of the stre~m becomes murky due to w~shing of clothes; the State Transport bus also goes through the stream.
The residential houses are on a higher plane. They are made of l'ricks & earth and have thatched roofs. There is an open but covered space in front of most of the houses. During monsoon, roofs leak and walls become damp. As there are no windows or other provisions to \e\. in
27
the sun, walls remain damp for a long time. Inside the house therefore there is a smel I of dampness. Mosquitos are in plenty. Houses are small in size, At one corner there is an earthen chullah. Outside the house there is provision to wash, and.an outlet takes the waste water to the village gutters. Some families have constructed pits where the waste water gets acccumalated. Once the pit is filled, it is emptied on the street itself. Litter in the house is dumped outside. It gets accumuJatd and the children defecate nearby.
On festival days, the scheduled caste persons sweep the village. They receive some sweet eatables for this work. A lot of weed has grown around the village. Children defecate in this weed.
Daily Life of Women
Women get up early in the morning and start their daily chores with heating water for bathing etc. They take bath in the house itself. Soap is used very rarely. Instead, a. ha.rd stone is used. After bathing they start cooking daily food, which consists of Bhakari made of bajra or jowar and some vegetable & dal preparation. There after, they go to the well or stream to fetch water which is used for cleaning utensils. Later they then go to the field and work either on their farm or others' farm to earn wages while returning home they bring fuelwood. At home, immediatly they ha.ve to cook meals. If they go out for wage-work in EGS project they return late. On days of festivals, they give a. dung wash to the house. Periodically they carry out the work of keeping stored grains clean, making papad etc.
There is no weekly market in the village for making routine purchases therefore villag~rs have to visit markets at a distance of 4 km. For medical treatment they have to visit the dispensary which is at a distance of 1 km.
Persongl Hygiene
After defecation villagers wash their hands with earth only. Soap is never used. For brushing teeth, ash or roasted tobbacco is used. Villagers take bath at home but soap is not used regularly. Only on festival occasions like Diwali etc. soap is used. Before taking food, villagers wash their hands. Clothes in daily use are taken for washing to the stream. For washing clothes soap is rarely used. Thrashing on a rock is the usual practice.
Cleanliness in the Kitchen
A simple chul lah is used for cooking. Before starting cooking women wash it with water and plaster it with mud; then they worship it. The hearth is always kept clean. Tea is served without milk and rather excessive sugar is used. For breakfast the bhakri prepared in the preceding evening is used. Napkin is never used for drying hands. The corner of sari is used for this purpose. Uater is neither boiled nor filtered. For washing utensils only earth is used and not any detergent or washing powder. Drinking water is stored in earthen pots and water required for cooking is stored in copper pots. For taking water from the pots, smal I pots without handles are used. Bhakari is
28
kept in a cane basket which is hung on the wall. Vegetable or dal curry is k~pt in a pot. The kitchen floor is giyen a dung wash before cooking is commenced.
Institutions
The village has a grampanchayat for three villages viz KolBg~on,
f1angrool Khurd and Mangrool Budruk since 1956. In addit.ion to its routine functions the panchayat constructed a school buildinl al Mangrool Khurd from the funds available to MLA, office of panoh~yat from Jawahar Rojgar Fund in 1990, a Samajmandir (community plac~),
drainage Copen gutter) at Manqrool. A chavadi (meeting place! tor scheduted caste people was under construction.
There is a multi-purpose cooperative society with a ~embership of 150. Tarun Mandai was established 2 y~ar$ ago with a membership of 25. The same members are also members of another political organisation. Shiv sena. They organise festivals like Ganpati Fest.ival etc.
Bhajani mandal a group of 20 persdns, meet frequently to ~ing
devotional songs. There is no women's organisation.
The PHC is at Chapadgaon, 4kms away. One medical practioner Ylsits the village once in a week. At the time of inve~tigation there WH& 3 widespread incidence of influenza ln the village. VetRrnary dispensary is at Akhegaon.
There is no post office in the village, but a postman visit and collects and delivers Jetters.Thure is also no office village revenue official tTalathil.
ei!~J f' y'd<~Y
of the
There is no flour mill in the village. For this purpose villagers have to go to Hasanapur, which is 1 km away from Kolegaon. There is one grocery shop in the village ; it is owned by the sarpanch. Thera is no fair-price shop, villagers have to visit Limgaon, which is at a distance of 2 km.
There is one Anganwadi . 25 children in the age group 2.5 to 5 vears at.tend it.
The school run by Zilla Pa.rished sta.rted working in 1962. It h··!ill'i '+ standards but one teacher looks after all the classes. The vil !age has been demanding one teacher for each class ; but so far the demand has not been met. Consequently, t.he c1uaJity of t.JE~a.ching is poor. Th•J 4th standard students cannot even read correctly.
29
Na•e of the Village Taluka District Scheme
. . . . Hale Vasai Thane Piped Water Supply
Hale is about 6 km from the Bombay suburban railway station, Yasai. It is enjoying ample water supply and is therefore one of the few prosperous villages. A majority of families have private wells and no water supply scheme is needed in the village. Those who do not have private well take water from four public wells. No need of storing water in the house is felt as one can draw water from one's private well anytime when there is a need of it. On an average a family consumes between 150 & 200 liters of water every day.
Quality of water is on the whole good but during summer water level shrinks and being near to the sea, water become a little salty. Water is not properly drained and is allowed to seep, while using it for washing and bathing. This is likely to contaminate the well w~ler. The village and its region is attracting people and as a result construction activity is rapidly expanding. This in turn requires large quantity of water. Water level is fast going down.
Latrines
Only 12 years ago there was not a single latrine in the village. Growing urbanisation and modern housing made latrines inevitalbe and now 56 and of the total 115 families have private latrines in addition to one commom latrine used by 5 families. Four latrines are attached to bio-gas plants. Those who do not have latrines go to distant places for defecation. Five families have a common latrine. The owners have allocated among themselves the responsibility of maintaining the l~trine. This common latrine was constructed 5 years ago at a total cost of Rs. 25000/- , each family sharing an equal amount. This experiment h~s proved successful.
Private latrines are maintained olean through weekly washing with bleaching powder. All the latrines are constructed as permanent structures within the residential premises but a little apart (10 15 feet) from the Jiving rooms in the backyard. There is no water tank with tap in the latrines, one has to carry water while going to the latrine. One family has one pit latrine and an old woman in the family alone uses it; the rest of the members prefer the open fields or space near the tank. The tank water gets contaminated during rains when excreta is washed into it. The practice of covering excreta with earth is not only absent but is even rediculed. During mansoon street sides cue used for defeca.tion. Growing pop,Jla.tion a.nd eJ<panding construction activity are creating hardship for oldmen and children as the open space is getting reduced. All are feeling the need of a private latr~ne. The fact that out of 41 BPL families three have a private latrine, shows that the need is felt by all and that even the very poor are prepared to bear the e~penses. Public latrines are, however, not favoured by anyboby, But small groups consisting of 5-
30
10 families seem to be willing to have common latrin~s. The cost of a latrine with a 1:>ept.ic tank is now about. Rs. 10-12 i:.ilo\;:3a.nd.
Villagers want latrines because it saves their timu nd not because It is necessary for proper health environment. When ! iterature on latrine is shown to them, they find hard to believe it ~nd argue that the absence of latrines to which they are used, since childhood, has not caused ill neas ~.nd diseases so f ~.r. l,lhy then h :, ._ . . ;:: l a+.. r i n~;ts on health grounds 7 Private latrine is prefered as lhe problem of maintaining it clean becomes easier. Villager prefer latrine with a septic tank but cannot explain why they prefer it to other kinds of latrines. lt seems that they have no knowledge a.bout. other t:.yp8s.
Hygiene at Public Places
The village, wlth total area of about 47 hectares, is divid8d into four settlements. Even though the village is relatiue!y prosp~rous,
it is not in any way better managed as compared to other villages. The main road of the village as well as the roads I inking the settlements have gutters on sides to carry waste w~t r. But all the houses have no connection to these gutters, and consequently waste water gets accumulated in the backyards. More harmful is the ab~ence of any system for collection of Jitter which is dumped anywhere indiscrimenantly. During the rains these dumps breed mosquitos and flies and emit foul smell. Litter dumped in the gutt~rs obstruct the flow and cause futher health hazards. The village h83d told that once in a year the gutters and roads are cleaned; howev r, there was no staff to carry out this work.
Personal Hygiene
Villagers take bath daily and use soap and adequate w~ter. The houses are also kept clean. They wash their hands and foot after returning from work, defecation and before taking food. On th8 whole villagers have good health habits, but they do not real iss that proper maintainance of public places is as important as personal health habits.
Health
The PHC is at a distance of about 2.5 km. It was reported that only a few years ago water borne diseases like cholera etc. ~ere very common and recurring. Now such diseases are absent. Since tt18 villagers are enjoying good economic conditions, they take the services of private medical practitioners. The widespread ailments include cold & fever, skin cracking of feet due to working inthe rains, liver trouble due to liquor addiction etc.
Paily Routine of Women
Women spend whole of the time in the house. Food is cooked three times a day - break fast, lunch and dinner. Since every house has a backyard garden which is known as wadi, women are required to look after it and for this purpose they spend on an ave.sge 2-3 hrs. a day. Unlike women in most of the village, women at Hale are not
31
required to spend time and anergy for fuel collection and storing water. This village is fortunate as most of the families have private wells and fuel is available in wadis. Almost 905 of women are ! iterate, which is also a peculiar feature of this vii lage.
Village Institutions
A mahila mandal, established in 1965, was found working. It has a saving scheme and it conducts an excursion once in a year. In addition it organises ceremonies and festivals. The membership was reported to be 30 only, alI coming from reach famil las.
There was no other voluntary organisation in the village,
Gramsabha is held twice in a year but attendance is very poor. Nobody seems to be intrested in problems relating to village management and development.
32
SECTION - IV
SOCIAL MAPS OF VILLAGES
Di.stri.ct Taluka Name of the Page No. villa.gl3
Ahm13dna.ga.r Ra.h'..H' i Cha.ndegaon 34 K13nda.l bk. 35
Navas a. Nevasa. Bk. 36
Pune Dound Da.pod i 37
Sa. tara Koregaon Ja.rewad i 38 Pat an Sa.ngwa.d 39 Ma.n Ukin.~de 40
Sangli A tpa.d i Ka.ranje 41 Mal ga.on 42
Aura.ngabad Ganga.ptlr Siregaon 43 Sill od Golegaon Bk. 44
Latur La.tur Bho ira. 45 Chikhalthana 46
33
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35
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Latur
SECTION - V
HOUSEHOLD MAPS IN SAMPLE VILLAGES
Ta.lul<a Name of the vi 1 l a.g e
---------Bhiwa.ndi IJa.f a.le Va.sa.i Bhuigaon Bk.
Shev ga.r.:>n Sa.m<:J.ngaon Rahuri Chandega.on
J unna.r Kha.mund i Khed Kurkundi
Ka.ra.d Kha.rade
Al:.pa.d i Digha.nchi
Goda.-P impr i Ha.ti-Nandgaon
Bid Bid Ma.ja 1 ga.on Ta.l 13gaon Bk.
La.tur Chi kha.l tha.na. A usa. Ka.r l a.
47
46 49
50 51
52 53
54
55
56
57 58
59 60
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MYs. B.H.N!KAM (z..ocG)
MAHAR 1 AGRICULTURE
4 MEMBERS
PVT. CONNECTION
I ~----~-------------4 ---===--------------~
lATRt NE RE.QU fR..E..O[Rs.2.oocf-]
District
Tha.ne Ahmadnaga.r Pune SaUna Sangli Bu 1 dhana. Cha.drapur Au rangaba.d Baed La.t.ur
Total
S1f.GT 1 Ut•l V 1
TAIH.E 1. 1
... ______ B~.se IJ pto 3
-···~----~-·
371 9 397 8 299 6 195 10 311 8 221 1.4 1 T7 ;H 229 1''" • •J
321 14 190 7
DISTRICT TABLES
FAMILY SIZE
4 to 6
46 50 49 40 53 41} 57 55 46 47
7 to
28 23 27 22 22 29 19 20 23 25
-······--·-··--·-······--·-.......... ,_ .. ,,, ________ _ 2711 10 49 23
(in Per cent}
9 10 and Ave raga Above Size
17 6.8 19 6.8 18 7.0 28 7.5 17 5.7
9 5. 1 3 5.2
10 5.9 15 6.4 21 7. 1
16 6.5 -·-·····-···"······""""""''"'""""'"""'""'"""""" ............. -.. - ... ·--------.. ·--·-·-·- ....... ,., ___ , .. ,, .. ,,, ....... ,,.,_ .. ___ , ___ .. _____ _
TABLH 1.2 CASTE < in Per r:::en l.)
-·-----·-·-"'""'"'··-·--···--····--·--·-·-----·----····---·-----· ..... -... ~-- ... ~ .... ,.,_,~ District
Thane Ahmedna.gar Pun·e SC~.ta.ra
Sangli Bu l dh~.na Chadrapur Aurnagabad Bead Latur
Total
Adva.nce Communities
----·---~-·-·~·--.. --.... _, _____ " 371 41 397 71 299 60 19!) 70 311 73 221 47 177 37
22!3 63 321 53 190 51
---------2711 58
-----
TABLE 1. 3 OCCUPATION
·----------"-.. --··--··----.... ·--------
Other Back~~~~ rd
9 20 31 15 17 41 40 17 32 23
29
lin
District Bas1~ Fa.rmers Labourers ArUs ... ns S;;.la.r ied Cla.ss
·-·-·--·----~--· ... ---Th<:lne 371 ~~6 30 9 18 A hm13d n~.ga.r 397 !.}3 10 6 3 Pune 29H 56 n 6 9 s~.ta.ra 195 70 17 9 1 Sang! i 311 74 !:3 7 6 Bt.ll dhana 221 40 :39 3 12 Gha.nd ra.pur 177 54 35 5 1 Aura.ngabad 229 70 15 4 7 Bead 321 57 21 4 13 La !cur 190 60 3'') .{. 3 3
.~ .. ~·--... -.... -.... -.. d-·----~ ...... .,~., .. ,,._._, ________ ,, ___ TQ'lal 271i 56 2'' ... 6 10
~ .. ,~-----·ft .,w ___ ,_,. _______ ,._,_•~•-·~~"".,._....,.,_..,. ________
SCIST
50 9 9
15 10 12 23 20 15 16
13
Per oent)
Othet·s
7 10 12
3 4 13 5 4 5 2
6
-·--·--••·---·••n•---•• )istrict B<:~.se
----"hana 371 1hmednagar 39? )11ne 299 ;a tara 195 ;a.ng l i 311 !uldha.na. 221 :ha.ndrapvr 17? ,urangabad 229 )eed 321 ,ab;r 190
ota.J 2711
•i-otrict Ba.se
'hane 371 ,hmednagar 397 '1).013 299 :a. tara 195 :ang I i · 311 ~ul dha.na 221 :ha.ndrapur 177 , IJ r na.g a.ba.d 229 .eed 321 .... tur 190
'ota. 1 2711
TABLE 1,4
8 7 3 1 2 6 4 3 3 3
4
TALBE 1.5(a)
Bicycle Ratio
-· 32 38 69 !59 69 60 64 46 67 43 31 41 33 18 42 36 25 34 33 25
46 42
TABLE L5CbJ
2:~ 23 2;3 14 14 23 26 21 22 35
22
30 29 20 15 27 28 29 33 33 30
28
45 +
39 41 54 7Q 57 43 39 43 42 32
46
(in PGt' oent)
Avera..ge Age
40 40 43 46 44 41 40 42 41 39
42
OWNERSHIP OF HOUSEHOLD ASSETS
TV. Sewing Tra.di tionid I111proved Ma.china C 1 ull a.h Cl ulla.h
20 6 86 3 10 12 89 5 17 11 67 4 11 14 87 11 8 11 92 3
14 13 87 5 1 5 55 3
10 10 97 1 4 5 91 3 3 2 92 3
11 9 82 4
AGRICULTURAL ASSETS
(in Per cent)
<in
Stove
34 66 61 68 46 36 1
52 27 20
44
District Ba.se Animal Bullock Cart
Tractor
Tha.ne Ahmed nagar Puna Sa. tara Sa.ng l i Bu I dha.na. Ch<~.nd r a pur Aur anga.bad Bo1;1d
La.tur
371 397 299 195 311 221 177 22'.0 32:1 1.1310
50 12 67 26 66 18 71 27 77 21 47 22 63 31 65 33 42 21 IJ,. 7 11
---------------···"-"""'"""-"'""'""-"'""-'""'""'·--·· .. ··---·.-·-··--·----.. ·----····---··-·----Tota.l 27 ll 22
·-·-,·--.. ··~0,M04_, ___
------------·----··-·--·--··----·-···---·-·-·,.·-·-·----.. -----·-------
(J2
2 4 3 7 2 2 2 1
2
3
Per cent)
Goba.rgas
9 11 5
14 6 5 1 3 2 3
6
TABLE 1.6 LAND OWNERSHIP (in hetares) lin Ps:tr cent)
----·--· District Base No Upto 1.1 to 2 2. 1 to 4 4. 1 ~
Land 1 above
Th~.ns:t 371 60 25 9 3 3 A h m 8 d n a. g a. r 397 38 21 11 11 19 Pune 299 40 23 19 12 6 Sa tara. 195 40 21 20 12 7 S<~ng I i 311 43 :23 21 9 4 Bu l dha.na. 221 51 14 10 1:3 1';• . .. Ch.andrapur 177 45 15 15 11 14 A 1; r a. n g a. b a. d 2~~9 37 25 3 13 12 Seed 321 48 11 16 12 13 La.t1.1r 190 38 6 14 16 213
Tot.a.l 2711 313 20 17 12 12
TABLE 1.7 . IRRIGATED HOLDING (in haactara) . lin Per cant)
District Base Nill Upto 1 1.1 to 2 2. 1 ~ more Wtd AV
Than8 150 83 9 2 6 4.7 Ahmedna.gar 246 50 24 9 18 2.0 Pune 179 72 17 7 4 1.1 Sa tara 118 71 15 8 6 1.6 Sa.ng l i 178 74 20 2 4 1.0 Bu I dha.na. 109 92 2 2 h
•J
Chandrapur 97 99 1 1.0 Aurangabad 160 70 18 4 8 1.5 Be8d 1138 1)6 14 11 8 1.8 La.tur 117 48 5 18 19 2.7
Total 1522 71 14 6 7 1.7
~·· .. ----~--~--·-----·
TABLE 1.8 HIGHEST EDIJCA. '1'1 ONAL LEVEL OF HOUSEHOLD <in Par cent
----.. --·-·-··---District Ba.sa Gra.d1.1a.te Collage IJpto 10th Upto Literate I litera
Educated Standard 5th Std.
.-.. ---·--Thane 371 5 13 51 13 1 17 Ahmednagar 397 1.3 20 51 11 1 4 Pune 299 6 18 57 12 3 5 Sa.t.ara 195 1() 15 51 9 7 6 Sang 1 i 311 6 14 42 19 15 5 Buldha.na 221 l4 14 52 9 4 6 Chandrapur 177 2 7 34 27 7 23 Aurangaba.d 229 1 18 49 23 6 4 Beed 321 6 15 46 13 3 17 La +,t;r 190
,. •. ) 12 59 14 3 ?
Tota.\ 2711 7 15 49 14 5 10
District
Tha.ne Ahmedna.ga.r Pune Sa ta.ra Sa.ng l i Bu I dhana. Ghandra.pi.H Auranga.ba.d Beed Latur
Tota.l
District
Thane Ahmed nagar Pune Sa.ta.ra. Sangli Bu l dha.na. Chandra.pur Aura.nga.ba.d B~ed
La.tur
Tota.l
District
Tha.ne Ahmed nagar Pune Sa.ta ra. Sangli Bv l dhana. Cha.ndrapur Ahmednaga.r Beed La.tur
Total
TABLE 1. 9 AHHIJAL CASH 1HCOt1E AT HOUSEHOLD lin Rs.) lin Per cent)
Ba.s~ Nil \ up to 'J.pto IJ.pto:· up to up to a.bove Average 5000 10,000 15000 20,000 25000 25000 Income
371 1 26 35 14 9 5 10 10581 397 8 42 22 6 6 3 11 9165 299 19 44 16 7 4 4 6 7932 195 34 48 7 7 2 1 1 5227 311 4 54 23 8 3 3 5 692? 221 2 62 17 7 3 3 6 5584 177 19 60 17 2 1 1 4228 229 3 21 43 20 7 3 3 9253 321 4 39 27 11 6 5 8 9115 190 1 31 42 8 4 6 8 9268
2711 9 40 25 10 5 4 7 9608
TABLE 1. 10 PER CAPITA AHHUAL CASH lHCOt'\E
250 750 1500 2500 4000 6500 Ba.se up to up to up to up to up to 11pto Av,:~rage
500 1000 2000 3000 5000 5000
371 397 38 21 21 7. 7 6 1413 299 23 29 12 4 4 3 1213 195 40 11 11 3 1 1 787 311 36 29 16 6 3 4 1146 221 38 27 17 7 5 6 1318 177 53 16 10 3 1 1 750 229 13 16 26 12 5 3 1646 321 24 23 24 7 10 4 1552 190 18 35 29 8 8 2 1393
TABLE 2.1 TYPES OF HOUSES lin Per cent)
Ba.se Better Good Fa.i r Hut A B c D
371 37 35 2 26 397 20 46 18 16 229 17 59 17 7 195 12 67 16 5 311 11 58 15 17 221 15 32 48 5 177 2 83 2 12 229 23 42 28 7 321 15 53 27 5 190 4 85 8 3
2711 17 53 18 22
64
TABLE ~?.. 2 FLOORING OF THE HOUSE (in PEJr cent
-------·---·--·-·····"'""'""-·-·-.. ·····----······--·-----··- ·---- ____ ................ -----·---···-----District Ba1.1s €1 Shaha.ba.d
-------·-··-.. --·---·····"""""""'-'''""'""-·····-·---·--------·-··"'·----Tha.ne Ahmedna.gar P1Jne Sa. ta. ra. Sa.ng l i Buldhana Chad ra.pur Au r a.ngabad Beed La.tur
Tota.l
::.17 l ::JB7 :;~~,9
lHG 31.1 2~~].
17'"7 22!3 32:1 1HO
---· .. -·---· 27 ·~ 1
25 5~}
80 91 67 88 67 62 89 98
73
1 10 10
4 7 7 2
13 9 1
7
----------·-----·-------· TABLE 2.3 TYPES OF ROOF
District Base Area.s t 8-'j.l/85 Ga. I ra.nired or Agro waste cement shut
Thane 371 27 5 ·:·
Ahmedna.gar 397 ~~0 31 Puna 299 21 21 Sa t.a.ra. 195 13 48 Sa.ng l i 311 :H 8 Buldha.na 221 r~ 62 ._,
Chandrapur 177 11'.> 2 Aurangaba.d 229 6 45 Bead 321 u. 70 La.tur 190 ~ .. ~ 88
·--.... -·-·--""·-·-··~ .. -... --.. ..-....... ~ ... ---· Total 2711 16 35
..... ,_~ ... - .. -... , ..... _,,,_,_,,_, ...... _,,.., .. , ... _, _______ , TABLE 2 .. 4 OPUN SPACE AROUND THE HOUSE
--~·-·~,, .... , ............. ,_,,_,,,_ ..... --........ --·--·-
Combna.tior """""""""""'"''-'"-··--·--·"'""'" __ _
T i las
58 8
52 37 51
1 82
1)
13 6
::~'I __ ........ ,.., ...
16 4 2 2
3 7 2
1
4
58 3 8 3
23 2
23 21
2
16
lin Per cs:Jnt)
Concrete Sla.b
1 3 1 1 4 3 1 4 3 1
3
Dha.ba.
31 2 1 3
29
38 13
13
{in aq.ft,) {in Per oent)
District. Base No upt:c~ up to up to up to above Avera.ge Spa.oE! 51) 100 zoo 300 300 Arrn.
... -··-··---···---.. -Tha.ne 37.1 17 8 5 12 12 46 289 ~~hmedna.gar 397 19 6 5 18 8 42 273 Pune 299 28 15 9 16 6 28 220 Sa.t.a.ra. 19~) 16 16 3 7 6 52 285 Sangli 31.1 13 5 4 21 10 47 286 Bul dha.na. 221 7 2 3 7 5 12 254 Chandra.pur 177 15 4 6 18 15 42 260 Auranga.bad 229 9 1 6 23 18 43 262 Beed 321 21 23 3 22 10 21 190 Lat.ur 190 28 11 8 33 4 16 184
.. --... -.... ~., ............. _ ... ..,.,_ .. ,. .. ,,., .. , ... ~ .... ---·-.. -------, Tot.a.l 2711 2::J 10 5 17 9 36 25"1
--·-·-·-·--.. ·-·-·-----·· .. -·--.. -···-·--·
TABLE 3.2 TYPES OF WELLS ( i n Par cant)
District Ba.sa Provide Couunity Open Closed <No. of we l l s)
Tho.n8 Ahmed nagar 255 50 50 99 1 Puns:~ 190 36 59 90 Sa. tara 119 41 59 70 1 Sa.ng I i 224 32 68 88 2 Buldhana 165 22 78 93 5 Ch3ndra.pur 157 14 86 97 1 A u r an g a. b a d 78 32 68 76 Beed 79 25 72 56 1
La.tur 25 96 96
Tota.l
TABEL 3.3 (WHO FETCHES WATER)
District Ba.ss:~ t1a l e Female A l l f a.m i l y me.•mbe [':.i
Thane 371 3 90 7 Ahmedna.ga.r 397 k 58 37 . ., Puns:~ 299 10 43 42 Sa.ta.ra 195 24 10 59 Sa.ng l i 311 35 6 48 Bu I dha.na.. 221 5 45 37 Chandrapur 177 2 83 15 Auranga.ba.d 229 6 34 38 Bs:~ed 321 6 27 44 La.tur 190 43 7 19
Total 2711 13 43 :34
TABLE 3.4 : MATERIAL OF VESSEL USED FOR FETCHING ijATER
ist.rict Base Copper Brass
ha.ne 371 hmednaga.r 397 2 62 IJne 299 4 14 a ta. r 01. 195 4 19 01ngli 311 11 6 'J l dha.rn. 221 8 9 handra.pur 177 19 unngaba.d 229 k 24 ·./
eed 321 1 18 a.tur 190 2 10
ot3l 2711 4 20
66
Tin
1 2
17 9 5 2 2
23 31
8
Clay
2 9
15 15 5
4
Stainless. steel
2
3
5 5
1
1
Aluninium
1 1 1
1
neg neg
2
Plastic
2 neg
1 neg
neg
1
Other
213 70 40 55 63 74 6t 51 57
60
TABEL 3.5 : METHOD OF DRAWING WATER TO THE CONTANER
District Base Conta.iner Vessel By fitting Vessel \IIi t.h tab w i \.h handle t.he container without
handle
Tha.ne 371 2 6 1 91 A hm8d na.g<:>. r 397 4 6 3 137 Pun8 299 3 ~ 2 92 •J
S<:>tara 195 4 2 7 87 Sa.ng l i 311 8 3 10 79 Buldha.na. 221 3 12 21 64 Chand ra.pu.r 177 6 5 89 Au r a.ngabad 229 1 32 2 65 Beed 321 2 k
•J 3 90 Latur 190 2 1 97
Total 2711 4 7 5 84
TABEL 3.6 PERPOSE WISE PER CAPITA WATER REQUIREMENT
District Be~.se Domestic Bathing Clothing Cleaning Others {in litresl Utensils A 11 per poses
water required
Thane 371 14 11 8 6 3 42 Ahmedne~.gar 397 13 11 10 3 3 40 P11ne 299 14 13 10 5 2 44 S.:~.ta.ra. 195 11 12 11 7 2 43 Sa.ng \ i 311 5 9 4 3 2 26 But dha.na. 221 15 9 10 3 neg 37 Cha.ndrapur 177 8 10 8 4 1 31 Aurangabad 229 6 9 8 4 3 29 Beed 321 5 9 4 1 1 29 Lab;r 195 5 10 4 5 24
Tota.l 2711 10 10 5 ·~ 1 33
TABLE 3.5 PLACES FOR WASHiNG CLOTHES
District Base In the River Well Stream Sta.nd Not House Cana.l Post Specified
Thane 371 11 11 35 12 1 30 Ahmedna.ga.r 397 47 15 20 11 6 2 Puna 299 33 2 13 22 1 25 Sa.ta.ra. 195 47 6 11 24 7 Sa.ng I i 311 68 4 15 4 1 8 Buldha.n<J. 221 58 30 6 6
Chanra.pur 177 32 2 15 29 22
Aurang<Jb<J.d 229 65 3 25 neg 4 3
Beed 321 57 25 11 neg 5 2
Lal:ur 190 25 59 1 11 1 1
Total 2711 44 15 16 10 2 12
67
TABLE 3.9 PLACE OF CLEANING .UTENSILS
District Base In the Well Stand post house and ot.hers
Th~.ne 371 78 15 17 Ahmednag.;u 397 98 1 1 Pune 299 88 9 3 Sa ta.ra. 195 96 1 3 Sa.ng! i 311 96 4 Bu l dha.na. 221 98 1 1 Cha.nd r~.pu r 177 96 2 2 A 1..1 r a nga.ba.d 229 100 Beed 321 99 1 Latur 190 99 1
Tota.l 2711 92 5 3
TABLE 3. 10 PLACE WHERE ANIMALS ARE TAKEN FOR DRINKING WATER
listrict Base No River Well Stream Bore Stand Ca.na l taking We I l Post Tank out
r ha.n e 186 20 19 32 2 2 25 ,hmedna.gar 265 33 11 30 14 12 :>une 199 27 8 17 25 6 17 ;a tara. 139 33 10 11 35 5 6 3angli 244 43 13 26 6 5 3 4 lu l dha.na 103 7 43 18 4 4 24 ~handrapur 112 13 9 9 56 3 10 1ura.ngaba.d 148 18 7 61 9 1 1 3 3eed 196 16 45 21 7 4 3 4 ,atur 146 19 78 3
otal 1734 24 23 22 18 3 2 8
TABLE 3. 11 WILLINGNESS FOR INDIVIDUAL WATER CONNECTION ( •Jn.:J. ided l
District Base Individual I n d i v i d ua. l No connect. ion connection response wanted not wanted
Tha.ne 371 44 23 33 Ahmed nagar 397 70 15 11 Pune 299 44 13 48 Sa. !:a ra. 195 49 7 44 Sangli 311 78 9 13 Bu l dha.na. 221 73 23 4 Cha.ndrapur 177 26 3 71 Auranga.bad 299 69 24 7 Beed 321 32 23 45 La.tur 190 38 6 56
Total 2711 51 16 33
68
TABLE 3.13 WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR THE CAPITAL COST OF INDIVIDUAL WATER CONNECTION lUnaided & Aided)
I par cent
District Base No of Up to Up to Up to Upto Up to Up to Upto 100 willing 100 200 300 400 500 ?50 1000 abo to pay
.. ------·-~N-Tha.ne 371 I) S5 5 5 7 5 3 14 1 5
A 87 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 2 Ahmednag<H 2713 IJ 35 6 11 13 3 4 18 2 e
A 56 1 6 9 2 4 14 2 € Pune 289 IJ '>7 2 11 4 4 2 12 2 ~
A 1)6 2 2 4 3 rl ~. 11 3 i
S:a ta.ra 195 u 57 12 12 11 2 ~~ 3 A 52 3 11 14 7 4 8
Sang l i 311 IJ 32 4 32 23 4 2 3 n IJ ~~ n~
A 29 4 32 24 5 2 3 neg l Bv.ldh;wa 211 u 33 7 22 19 10 l 6 1 l
A 100 Cha.nd r a.pu r IJ 77 11 4 3 1 1 1
A 100 Aurangabad 229 u 52 5 17 19 7 nag neg
A 50 1 14 6 20 5 2 Bead 321 I) 68 3 9 8 7 3 2
A 71 2 6 6 7 2 2 La.tur 190 u 60 4 25 6 2 2
A 77 2 12 4 2 2 1
Tot.a l I) 54 5 14 11 4 2 7 1 A 67 2 9 6 4 2 5 1
TABLE 3.14/15 WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR MAINTENANCE AND WATER CHARGES FOR INDIVIDUAL WATER CONNECTION (Unaided & Aided)
(in Rs. (monthly)] ( i n Per cent
District Base Nil Upto Upto Upto Upto 31 and 5 10 20 30 a.bove
Thane 371 Un 56 2 8 21. 9 4 A 87 1 2 5 3 2
Ahmed na.ga.r 276 Un 40 2 10 21 18 9 A 58 9 l.lJ. 13 6
P1Jne 299 Un 59 1 9 22 7 2 A 66 1 3 25 3 2
Sa tara. 195 Un 57 14 21 5 3 A 51 1 14 1B 11 4
Sa.ng l i 311 Un 31 4 27 ao 5 3 A 28 4 29 32 4 3
Bu l dhana. 211 Un 36 1 14 a3 10 6 A 100
C h 3. n d r a. p 1; r 177 !Jn 77 3 15 5 . A 100
Au r a.n ga.ba.d 229 Un 46 28 25 1 Hag A 47 8 42 2 1
Beed 321 IJn 64 neg 11 21 2 1 A 67 neg 9 21 3
LatiJr' 190 Un 60 6 31 3 A 80 3 16 1
Total 2711 Un 54 1 14 22 6 :3
A 67 1 9 17 4 2
TABL.E 3.16 WILLINGNESS TU t"AY t'U.K MAlf'lll:.f'll\f'lvr. nnu wn&~,;on.
CHARGE FOR PUBLIC STAND POST (Unaided ~ Aided) ( i n Rs. l
District Base No of IJ pto Up to Up to IJ pto 31 and willing 5 10 20 30 Above to pay
Tha.ne 371 I) 83 1 4 9 3 1 A 89 1 2 6 1 1
Ahmed n a. g a. r 276 I) 76 1 71 10 3 3 A 77 1 6 10 4 2
P11ne 299 u 57 1 17 23 1 1 A 55 2 11 20 2 neg
Sat.3ra 195 u 87 5 4 2 2 A 86 1 7 5 1
Sangli 311 I) 51 7 28 10 2 2 A 45 10 33 9 2 1
Bu I dhana. 211 u 67 6 19 5 2 1 A 100
Chandrapur 177 I) 79 3 14 3 1 A 100
Aurangaba.d 229 u 62 6 21 11 Nag A 57 4 13 16
Bead 321 I) 71 2 21 6 Nag A 74 1 20 5
La. tu r 190 I) 74 8 16 2 A 81 7 11 1
Tota.l 2711 I) 72 2 14 9 2 1 A 78 2 10 8 2 nag
TABLE 3. 17 WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR t1AINTEHAHCE AND VATER CHARGE FOR HAND PUPtP ON BOREUELL (Unaided & Aided)
(in Rs. l (per cent)
District Base No of Upto Up to Upto Upto 31 and willing 5 10 20 30 Above to pa.y
Thane 371 u 74 .., ... ,::; . .... 16 2 1 A 73 2 3 19 2 1
Ahmed n<:~.ga.r 276 I) 58 39 1 1 1 ( 121) A 56 2 13 21 5 2
Pune 299 u 58 6 12 9 3 12 A 58 6 12 11 1 12
Sa. tara 195 u 55 13 20 6 3 3 A 70 11 12 6 1
Sangli 311 u 44 8 25 16 4 3 A 46 10 31 11 2 neg
Buldhana 211 u 100 A !0~~
Gha.ndrapur 177 I) 61 4 20 14 1 A 68 5 20 7
A 'J r a.n g a.ba.d 229 IJ 64 14 9 11 2 neg A 68 16 :g 7
Beed 321 u 55 1 23 12 3 6 A 55 1 27 9 3 5
Le~tur 190 I) 77 10 11 2 A 77 1 11 10 1
Tota.l 2711 u 67 5 11 11 3 3 ......... "' 1':1 0 ? ?
District
II agar lMv.l Magar !Back. l Magar WI l At;ranga.bad fi\dv.) Aurantalm.! !.Sack.!
Aurangabad (All)
Ssed !Adv. l B1311d IBac\:.) Bl3ed lAlli Buldhana IMv.l Buldhana !Back. l Buldhana. IA!Il Cha.nd r <1 pur lMv.l Cha.ndrapur l.lhck. l Chandrapur lAIII l.atur I.Adv.) Latur (Back. l La.t.ur !All) Pune I.Adv.) Pune !.Back. l Puna I.A! I)
TABLE 3.18
Rs.
DEftAMD FOR PRIVATE CONNECTIONS FOR VATER lTowards Capital Expenditure!
I.Per cent Hill
hse -100 -:roo -300 -400 -500 -75-0 -1000 -1250 -15-00 -2000 ./25()0
185 35.1 31.8 27 23.7 20.5 5.9 4.8 2.1 1.6 o.s 0
91 26.3 21.9 14.2 14.2 13.1 5.4 2.1 0
276 32.2 28.6 22:8 20.6 18.1 5.7 3.9 1.8 1. 4 o. 7 0
116 37.9 30.1 23.2 23.2 6.8 2.5 0 0 0 0 0
45 26.6 13.3 6.6 2.2 2.2 0 0 0 0 0 0
161 34.7 25.4 18.6 5.5 2.4 0 0 0 0 0 0
106 8.39 8.39 5.6 1.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
112 10.7 6. 2 1.7 l), 8 0 0 0 0 0 0
218 9.6 7.3 3.6 1.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
105 I) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
116 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
221 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
~3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
56 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
101 6.9 5.9 3.9 3.9 2.9 0.9 0.9 0 0 0 0
66 3 1.5 1.5 1.5 0 0 0 0 I) 0 0
167 5.3 4.1 2.9 2.9 1.7 0.5 0.5 0 0 0 0
66 46.5 46.5 41.8 36 34.8 17.4 12.7 5.8 5.8 0 0
66 31.8 27.2 24.2 22.7 22.7 13.6 9 3 3 1.5 I)
152 40.1 38.1 34.2 30.2 29.6 15.7 11.1 4.6 0.6 0
71
TABLE 3.t8 DERAND FOR ~RlYAiE COlMECTIOMS FOR VATER IContd .. l lTov•rds Capital Eapenditurel
IPer cent HHl
R:;. District Base -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -750 -1000 -125-0 -1500 -2000 12500
S:,ng l i 107 o\6.1 25.2 11.2 &.5 5.6 1.8 1.8 0.9 0.9 0 0 I A.rlv, l
Sang! i 56 58.9 35.? 12.5 5.3 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 \Back. l s~ngl i 163 50.9 28.8 11.6 6.1 4.9 1.2 1.2 0.6 0.6 0 0 lA lll Sa tara 70 46.5 35.7 18.5 12.8 8.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 i.Ad'l. l Sa. tara 28 10.? 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I Back. l s~ tar a 98 3?.7 26.5 13.2 9. 1 6.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Udll !hanB 81 14.8 14.8 14.8 13.5 12.3 7.4 3.7 3.7 '3.? 1. 2 1.2 IAdv. l Thane 135 e.e 1.4 6.6 4.4 4.4 2.9 2.2 2.2 2.2 0.1 0.1 \Back.) Tha.r.e 216 11.1 10.1 9 .• ? ?.8 1.4 4.6 2.1 2.? 2.1 0.9 0.9 lAlll All Dist 1000 26.1 21.3 16 11.6 9.6 3.5 2.6 1.3 1.2 0.2 0.1 ~~~h.)
All Dist 728 16.3 11.4 7 5.4 4.9 2.4 1.5 0.8 o.e 0.4 0.1 IB.o.cl. l AlI Dist 1?28 21.9 1?' 1 12.2 9 1.6 3 2. 1 1 0.2 0.1 lA! I l
TABLE 4. 1 . TYPE OF OWNERSHIP OF LATRINES DESIRED . District Base Self CommtJn i ty Owned by Land lord
owned group and others
Tha.n8 278 46 22 29 2 AhmBdnaga..r 310 75 21 3 2 Pune 263 61 29 9 2 Sa. tara. 179 78 15 5 " .!.
Sangli 279 91 5 2 2 awl qlunii t. 7~) 69 22 :3 6 Cha.ndrC~.pur 102 66 30 4 Aurnagabad 226 77 12 10 1 Beed 267 78 20 1 1 La. t1J r 180 82 14 3 1
Total 2254 72 18 7 3
72
TABLE 4.2 TYPE OF LATRiNE PREFERED
District B-3.s e Bucked One Septic, Flush Not or Trench Two Pit Gobar Gas Specifie(
Tha.ne 278 1 36 58 5 Ahmed no>.ga. r 310 2 60 29 9 Pun8 263 2 50 33 15 S.;,. ta.r3 179 4 92 4 Sang I i 279 19 5 64 12 Buldhana 170 1 9 74 16 Chandrapur 102 76 24 A IJ r na.ga.ba.d 226 neg 54 41 5 Beed 267 12 51 23 14 L .:>. t u. r 180 3 e 12 17
To ta.l 2254 5 39 44 12
TABEL 4.3 PREFERENCE FOR THE LOCATION OF LATRINE
( per cent l
District Ba.se Inside Nea.r ~ i thin 100' a. way the the 100' for house house h01Jse
ThC~.ne 278 1 42 38 19 Ahmed nagar 310 3 56 32 10 Pune 263 3 19 49 29 Sa. tara. 173 6 64 17 13 Sangli 279 4 73 19 4 Bu I dha.na. 170 7 56 25 12 Chandra.pur 102 6 43 32 19 Aura.ngabad 226 2 76 12 10 Beed 267 5 73 16 6 Latur 180 1 74 17 8
Total 2248 3 58 26 13
73
TABLE 4.5 : WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR MONTHLY MAINTENANCE OF THE LATRINE (in Rs. )
lper cent)
District Base No of !) pt.o \Jpto Up to Up to 31 and willing 5 10 20 30 Above to pa.y
Thane 371 l) 33 1 19 36 7 4 A 31 3 16 39 5 3
Ahmed nagar 276 1) 51 1 12 18 8 10 A 50 2 13 17 8 10
Pune 299 u 30 11 41 12 neg 6 A 26 1 10 44 13 6
Sa tara 195 u 35 5 18 26 10 6 A 30 5 17 28 15 5
S a.n g l i .311 I) 27 1 19 44 7 2 A 26 1 16 44 8 3
Bu l dha.na 211 u 55 1 14 21 5 5 A 51 3 13 23 I'; 5 ...,
Cha.ndrapur 177 IJ 73 1 15 11 A 70 1 19 10 1
Aurangabad 229 lJ 19 36 43 2 A 20 neg 21 56 2 1
Be>?d 321 l) 36 3 32 29 neg neg A 33 3 32 29 1 2
La.t.ur 190 IJ 11 11 49 27 2 A 11 9 55 23 2
Total 2711 u 37 1 19 32 7 4 A 35 2 17 34 8 4
tABLE 4.6 WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR THE RENT OF COMMUNITY LATRINES
District Base response 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Thane 91 8 7 1 20 10 49 5 Ahmed n<;~.g<:~. r 71 1 7 4 4& 24 6 13 Pune 128 1 1 35 2 44 8 9 Sa ta.ra 22 27 18 45 10 Sangli 97 2 10 48 30 6 4 Buldhana 39 3 13 5 5 32 8 26 3 5 Clundrapur 34 3 18 50 29 Auranga.ba.d 63 2 25 60 13 Beed 79 16 54 30 La t1Jr 167 20 54 2 24
To tal 805 3 6 1 1 35 2 40 5 7
74
\)istrid
Nagar IMv.l II agar IBa~K. l liaga.r 1./dll Auranga.bad \Adv.) Aurangabad IBa.ck. l l.urangabaJ:l !Alll Bl3ed IAdv. l Seed !Back. l S!'!ed I A\\ l Buldhana. lAd~. l Bu\dhana lBaclc.) Buldhana !Alll Chandrapur \Mv. \ Chandra pur !Back. l Chandra. pur \All! La.tur !Adv. l La.tur IBa.cK. l La\ur t.Alll ?une !.Ad<t.)
Pun1a l_h,:k. l Pune \Alll
TABLE 4.?
R;;,
DEKAKD FOR PRIVATE LATllMES \Tov~rds capital expenditure}
lfs:lr c1mt HHl
ll-3.S!J -100 -200 -300 -41)1) -500 -150 -1000 -1250 -1500 -2{)00 -2500 )2500
20.1 45 6.1 6.1 5.3 1.7 Q
114 33.3 26.3 19.4 18.4 18.4 11.4 6.1 6.1 6.1 1. 7 o.a 0
397 43.8 43.8 39.5 32.9 29.9 18.3 17.3 6.5 6.5 4.2 1.5 0
346 50.6 45.8 39.7 26.7 18.4 13 13 .,12.3 12.3 7.5 2 0
83 42.1 38.5 19.2 12 12 7.2 6 6 6 2.4 0 0
229 47.5 43.2 32.3 21.3 16.1 10.9 10.4 10 10 5.6 1.3 0
170 25.6 24.7 20.5 12.9 7 3.5 3.5 2.9 2.9 1.1 0 0
151 27.8 21.8 14.5 11.2 9.2 3.9 3.9 1.9 1. 9 0.6 0 0
321 26.7 23.3 11.7 12.1 8 3.7 3.7 2.4 2.4 0.9 0 0
105 29.5 27.6 20.9 16.1 16.1 3.8 3.6 0 0 0 0 0
116 19.8 15.5 10.3 9.39 8.6 3.4 1.? 0.8 o.e o.e 0 0
221 24.4 21.2 15.3 12.6 12.2 3.6 2.7 0.4 0.4 0.4 0 0
65 10.7 9.2 6.1 6.1 6.1 4.6 4.6 0 0 0 0 0
112 10.7 5.3 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 0.6 o.8 o.8 0 0
117 10.7 6.1 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.9 3.9 o.s 0.5 o.s 0 0
111 47 1.6 1.6 6.6 3.4 0
73 21.9 20.5 15 12.3 8.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
190 37.3 35.2 32.1 28.9 26.8 9.39 8.69 4.1 2.1 I)
181 46.4 39.2 34.2 30.9 28.1 11.6 11 4.9 0.5 0
118 28.8 21.1 16.9 15.2 10.1 3.3 2.5 0.8 0.8 0 0 0
299 39.4 32.1 27.4 24.7 21 8.3 1.6 3.3 3.3 1.3 1.3 0
75
District
Sangli I Adv. l
Sang\ i iBi!ck. l Sang I i ! A l \I
S<~ t,..ra
Satan iE.i!d.: Sat..ra ! A 1 \)
Thane !Adv. l
ThanB : llacl<. i
Than8
iA I\ 1 AI\ Dist \Ad~. I
Ill I Dis r.
i.P.ad. l
AlI Dis t i A\ ll
District.
Beed I Adv. l Bead iBack. l
!}')IJQ
i All i Buldhana i Adv, l Buldha.na !Bad. 1
Buldhana I A. l! l Chandra pllf
lA.dv. l Chondrapur 1 Bac~. l · Chandra pur i Alii
TABLE 4. 7
R:;,
DEftAMD FOR PRIVATE LATRINES \Tonrds ca.pilal I!Xp9nditurel
(Gontd., l
Base -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -750 -1000 -1250 -1500 -2000 -2500 >2500
2.27 s2.a 34.3 2o.z 18 14.9 4.4 0.8 o.e 0 0
42.8 25 15.4 9.5 7.1 0 0 0 () 0 0
311 ~9.8 31.8 13.9 15.7 12.8 3.2 0.6 0.6 (),!) 0
3.1) !), 7 r: -.;. i 0 ()
:o.' 28.8 16.'1 e.'Js ~· 0 0 0 0 () 0
38.9 2&,ij \B.9 \3.~ 0.5 0
29.7 28.7 27.6 22.3 20.2 19. 1 19. 1 17 11), 6 0
\49 32.8 27.5 17.4 11.4 10.7 2.fl 2.!3 2.6 2.6 2 0
2.l.2 18.\ 17.2 lfi.l ~.3& 9 1},2 0
1524 42.7 36.9 29.6 25 22.1 1t.2 10.4 1.5 0 ,. I
I
1059 28.6 22.4 14.7 1' s 6 ~.1 2 0
2S83 16.9 31 23.5 19.5 16.9 6.3 7,1) 3.9 3.9 2.6 0
TABLE 4.8 OEKAMD FOR PRIVATE LATRINES ITVO Pltl IP<:!r r.ent llHl
Rs. s~sij -100 -200 -300 -aoo -500 -750 -1000 -1250 -1500 -2000 11~00
170 H.l 13.5 11.7 ~. 7 t. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
151 9.2 6.6 3.3 6.6 3.3 0.6 0 0 0 0 0
321 11.8 10.2 7.7 2.8 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 Q
105 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0 0 Q 0 0
116 o.e o.e o.B o.e o 0 0 Q 0 0 0
221 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
65 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
112 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
177 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7f3
l)istrid
Sa tara 1/ldv. l Sa tara lBack. l Sa tara IAlll Sangli I.Adv.) Sa.ngli \Bad. l Sangli \All) Thane IMv.l
TABLE 4.8 1 DEKAND FOR PRIVATE LATRIHES ITVO PITI IContd •• l
IPar ~.:ant Hill
Rs. Base -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -?50 -1000 -1250 -1500 -2000 12500
136 49.2 43.3 27.9 20.5 16.9 6.6 3.6 0.7 o. 7 0 0
59 27.1 25.4 15.2 8.39 5 1.6 1.6 0 0 0 0
195 42.5 37.S 24.1 16.9 13.3 5.1 0.5 0.5 0 0
227 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.4 0 0 0
84 3.5 2.3 1.1 1.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
311 1.6 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.3 0 0 0 0
94 6.3 5.3 2.1 0 0 0 0 0
Thana 149 l!J 8.? 6 3. 3 3. 3 l. 3 0 0 0 0 0 lhck. l Thane 243 8.6 7.4 4,5 2.4 2.4 1.2 0 0 0 0 0 Ifill) Pune 181 18.? 16 11.6 8.8 6.8 2.2 2.2 0.5 0.5 0 0 lfldv, \
Puna 118 15. 2 10. 1 5. 9 4. 2 0. 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 IBa~:k. l Pune 299 1?.3 13.? 9.3 ? 4.3 1.3 1.3 0.3 0.3 0 0 lA.ll) Nagar 283 31.4 28.8 24.3 22.6 21.5 12.? 11.6 3.5 3.5 2.4 0.7 llldv.) Magar 114 21.9 14.9 9.6 8.? 8.? 4.3 4.3 0.8 0.8 0 0 \Back.l Hagar 39? W.7 24.6 20.1 18.6 17.8 10.3 9.5 2.? 2.7 1.7 0.5 \All l Latur 117 3.4 3.4 3.4 2.5 2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 IAdv. l Latur 73 5. 4 4.1 2. 7 2. 7 2. 7 Q 0 0 0 0 0
IB~ck, 1 Latur 190 4.2 3.6 3.1 2.6 2.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 lA.lll Aurangabad 146 32.1 28 21.9 8.89 1.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1/.d~.)
Amangabad 83 25.3 22.8 7.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 !Back. l Aura.ng<lb<Jd 229 29.6 26.2 16.5 5.6 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 \All l All Dist 1524 17.9 16 12.3 8.8 6.9 3.3 2.8 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.1 11\dv. i All Dist 1059 11 8.6 4.8 2.8 1.9 0.7 0.5 0 0 0 0 \Back. l All Dist 2583 15 13 9.2 6.3 4.9 2.2 1.8 0.5 0.5 0.2 0 11\lll
)
PROGRESSIVE RESEARCH AIDS PVT. L TO. 18, SITABAG COLONY
PUNE - 411 030
