Report of China - South China Sea Project - SCS Home

UNEP/SCS/National Report 2 - ChinaUNEP/SCS/National Report 2 - China

National Report of China on the FormulationNational Report of China on the Formulationof a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis andof a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis andPreliminary Framework of a Strategic ActionPreliminary Framework of a Strategic Action

Programme for the South China SeaProgramme for the South China Sea

NATIONAL REPORT OF CHINA

on

Formulation of a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis and

Preliminary Framework of a StrategicAction Program for the South China Sea

State Environment Protection Administration

September 1998

Project Directors:

Dr. Guo Zhen-Ren, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Mr. Zhao Yanzhang, China Academy of Environmental Science, SEPA

Report Authors:

Mr. Huang Zhengguang, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Dr. Guo Zhen-Ren, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Mr. Zhao Yanzhang, China Academy of Environmental Science, SEPA

Mr. Liang Mingyi, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Mr. Lan Fangyong, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Ms. Zhang Yihuan, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Ms. Peng Haijun, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Mr. Wang Junsan, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Mr. Cai Xinde, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Contributing consultant:

Mr. Zhang Yongliang, China Academy of Environmental Science, SEPA

Mr. Jiang Cuncai, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

Mr. Dong Lin, South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, SEPA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ................................................................................................ 1

1 Introduction......................................................................................... 11.1 Aim of China National Report................................................................................. 11.2 Major Water-related Environment Problems........................................................... 11.3 Country Background ................................................................................................ 21.4 Geographic Divisions Used in the Analysis ............................................................ 41.5 Physical Oceanography and Coastal Geomorphology of the SCS .......................... 61.6 Socioeconomic Information..................................................................................... 7

1.6.1GDP .................................................................................................................. 71.6.2Import and Export............................................................................................... 71.6.3Agricultural Production, Aquaculture and Forestry Production............................... 71.6.4Tourism ............................................................................................................. 7

2 Detailed Analysis of Major Water-Related Concerns and PrincipalIssues ................................................................................................. 132.1 Pollution................................................................................................................. 13

2.1.1Sources of Pollution...........................................................................................132.1.1.1 Rivers.........................................................................................................................................132.1.1.2 Coastal Cities and Coastal Population.................................................................................142.1.1.3 Industrial Pollution from Coastal Installations...................................................................162.1.1.4 Discharge from Upland and Low-land Based Activities ..................................................162.1.1.5 Ports and Harbors – Maritime Transport.............................................................................172.1.1.6 Seabed Exploration and Exploitation...................................................................................202.1.1.7 Marine Dumping......................................................................................................................202.1.1.8 Atmospheric Inputs to the Aquatic Environment ..............................................................20

2.1.2Pollution Hot Spots............................................................................................212.1.3Sensitive and High Risk Areas ...........................................................................22

2.1.3.1 Sensitive Areas.........................................................................................................................222.1.3.2 High Risk Areas.......................................................................................................................23

2.2 Freshwater Shortage and Degradation of Its Quality............................................. 242.2.1Surface Water ...................................................................................................24

2.2.1.1 Resources of Surface Water and Current Status ................................................................242.2.1.2 Demand and Shortage of Surface Water .............................................................................25

2.2.2Issue of Lancang River ......................................................................................252.2.3Groundwater .....................................................................................................26

2.2.3.1 Current Groundwater Status ..................................................................................................262.2.3.2 Groundwater Extraction and Current Status.......................................................................262.2.3.3 Areas with Shortage or Low Quality of Groundwater......................................................26

2.3 Exploitation of Living Aquatic Resources............................................................. 262.3.1Living Freshwater Resources .............................................................................26

2.3.1.1 Current Status...........................................................................................................................262.3.1.2 Endangered/Transboundary/Migratory Species .................................................................282.3.1.3 Key Problem / Focus...............................................................................................................282.3.1.4 Economic Losses Because of Over-exploitation................................................................28

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2.3.1.5 Market Situation......................................................................................................................282.3.1.6 Impacts of Global Change......................................................................................................292.3.1.7 Countermeasures .....................................................................................................................29

2.3.2Living Marine Resources ...................................................................................312.3.2.1 Current Status...........................................................................................................................312.3.2.2 Endangered / Transboundary / Migratory Species.............................................................322.3.2.3 Key Issues / Focus...................................................................................................................332.3.2.4 Losses Because of Over-exploitation...................................................................................332.3.2.5 Market Demand.......................................................................................................................342.3.2.6 Impact of Global Change .......................................................................................................342.3.2.7 Countermeasures .....................................................................................................................34

2.4 Modification of Aquatic Habitats .......................................................................... 362.4.1Freshwater ........................................................................................................36

2.4.1.1 Freshwater Wetlands and Species ........................................................................................362.4.1.2 River Habitats Modification and Causes .............................................................................372.4.1.3 Impacts of Global Change......................................................................................................372.4.1.4 Countermeasures .....................................................................................................................38

2.4.2Marine ..............................................................................................................382.4.2.1 Estuaries and Embayments....................................................................................................382.4.2.2 Coral Reefs ...............................................................................................................................402.4.2.3 Mangroves ................................................................................................................................432.4.2.4 Seagrass Bed.............................................................................................................................48

2.4.3Critical Habitats, Ecosystems and Species with Transboundary Implication...........50

3 National Analysis of the Social and Economic Costs of the IdentifiedWater-related Principal Environmental Issues................................. 553.1 Costs Due to Pollution and Shortage of Fresh Water ............................................ 553.2 Costs Due to Pollution and Degradation of Sea Water.......................................... 553.3 Loss Due to Over-catching..................................................................................... 56

3.3.1Living Freshwater Resources .............................................................................563.3.2Living Maritime Resources ................................................................................56

3.4 Costs Due to Modification of Aquatic Habitats..................................................... 563.4.1Freshwater ........................................................................................................563.4.2Marine ..............................................................................................................56

3.5 Loss Due to Biodiversity Declination.................................................................... 57

4 Analysis of the Root Causes of the Identified Water-related PrincipalEnvironmental Issues ........................................................................ 58

5 Constraints to Action ........................................................................ 665.1 Information, Scientific Uncertainties and Public Awareness ................................ 665.2 Financial and Economic......................................................................................... 665.3 Legal, Institutional and Managerial....................................................................... 66

6 On-going and Planned Activities to the Identified Water-relatedPrincipal Environmental Issues ........................................................ 686.1 Legislation and Regulation.................................................................................... 686.2 Chinese Trans-century Green Project Program...................................................... 696.3 Chinese Biodiversity Protection Action Plan........................................................ 69

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6.4 Determination of Water Quality Objectives for Coastal Waters ........................... 696.5 Pollution Reduction from Land-based Sources ..................................................... 706.6 Total Load Control to the Seas from Land-based Sources .................................... 706.7 Ship and Seaport Pollution Control....................................................................... 70

7 Specific Action Proposed for Each Identified Issue/ Problem........... 717.1 Habitat Modification.............................................................................................. 71

7.1.1Marine Dumping................................................................................................717.1.2Determination of Water Quality Objectives of Coastal Waters..............................717.1.3Chinese Biodiversity Protection Action Plan........................................................717.1.4Coastal Nature Preserves ...................................................................................71

7.1.4.1 Mangrove Preserves ................................................................................................................717.1.4.2 Coral Reef and Seagrass Preserves.......................................................................................72

7.2 Pollution................................................................................................................. 727.2.1Water Pollution Control Plan of Shantou City......................................................75

7.2.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Scheme.............................................................................................757.2.1.2 Schedule of Implementation..................................................................................................76

7.2.2Water Pollution Control Plan of Zhanjiang City...................................................767.2.2.1 Present Status of Pollution Discharge..................................................................................767.2.2.2 Wastewater Treatment Scheme.............................................................................................76

7.2.3Water Pollution Control Plan for Pearl River Delta ..............................................77

7.3 Freshwater Shortage............................................................................................... 787.3.1Coastal Cities Deficient of Freshwater ................................................................787.3.2Coastal Cities with Surface Water Degradation....................................................78

8 Implications of the Proposal Actions by Sector................................. 798.1 Finance................................................................................................................... 798.2 Economic Development ......................................................................................... 798.3 Fisheries ................................................................................................................. 798.4 Agriculture ............................................................................................................. 798.5 Forestry.................................................................................................................. 808.6 Manufacturing........................................................................................................ 80

9 References and Sources of Data and Information............................. 81

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Demography of the SCS coastal cites and counties ............................................... 3

Table 1.2 Geographic divisions used in the analysis............................................................. 4

Table 1.3 GDP in year 1996 (thousand RMB Yuan) ............................................................ 8

Table 1.4 List of top 10 Export commodities...................................................................... 9

Table 1.5 List of top 10 import commodities......................................................................10

Table 1.6 Agricultural production......................................................................................11

Table 1.7 Fishery data ......................................................................................................11

Table 1.8 Aquaculture data ...............................................................................................11

Table 1.9 Forestry data.....................................................................................................12

Table 1.10 Tourism..........................................................................................................12

Table 2.1 Information of major rivers................................................................................13

Table 2.2 River freshwater volume discharging into the SCS ..............................................14

Table 2.3 Pollution loads from major rivers .......................................................................14

Table 2.4 Pollution and municipal population loads directly to the sea.................................16

Table 2.5 Industrial pollutants to the sea from coastal installations ......................................16

Table 2.6 Agricultural/animal husbandry/aquacultural sources (1995) .................................17

Table 2.7 Forestry............................................................................................................17

Table 2.8 Number of ships/boats .......................................................................................18

Table 2.9 Major seaports/harbors (1996)............................................................................19

Table 2.10 Airborne emission (1995).................................................................................21

Table 2.11 Current utilization of freshwater resources........................................................27

Table 2.12 Utilization of current marine resources .............................................................32

Table 2.13 Freshwater areas and cultivable areas (in year 1982) ..........................................37

Table 2.14 Marine aquaculture areas .................................................................................40

Table 2.15 Species of recorded hermatypic coral in China ..................................................41

Table 2.16 Coral reefs......................................................................................................42

Table 2.17 Species and distribution of mangroves in China .................................................44

Table 2.18 Species and distribution of half-mangroves in China ..........................................45

Table 2.19 Common accompanying plant of mangrove.......................................................45

Table 2.20 Mangrove species and distribution in China ......................................................46

Table 2.21 Change of mangrove areas and mangrove-related species ..................................47

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Table 2.22 Areas of coastal seegrass bed and related species...............................................49

Table 2.23 Biodiversity of coastal areas and coastal waters.................................................50

Table 4.1 Main pollution issues, impacts and causes ..........................................................59

Table 4.2 Main fresh water issues, impacts and causes .......................................................61

Table 4.3 Over-exploitation of living aquatic resources, effects and causes ..........................62

Table 4.4 Modification of habitats, effects and causes ........................................................63

Table 4.5 Main environmental problems/issues and causal chain analysis ............................64

Table 7.1 Existing waste treatment facilities ......................................................................73

Table 7.2 Waste treatment (in year 2003)...........................................................................74

Table 7.3 Pollution loads of Shantou City (1995) ...............................................................75

Table 7.4 Planned wastewater treatment plants...................................................................75

Table 7.5 Pollution discharge to the sea from Zhanjiang urban area.....................................76

Table 7.6 Wastewater treatment in Zhanjiang City..............................................................76

Table 7.7 Industrial wastewater treatment facilities in the Pearl River Delta .........................77

Table 7.8 Water projects in the Pearl River Delta ...............................................................77

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List of Figures

1.1 Geographical Position of South China Sea (SCS)

1.2 Boundaries of SCS in PRC

1.3 Population Distribution and Coastal Developing Centers (1996).

1.4 Boundaries of River Basins (Zhujiang,Hanjiang Basins etc.) in South China .

1.5 Surface Current and Surface Temperature Distribution in SCS (August).

1.6 Surface Current and Surface Temperature Distribution in SCS (February).

1.7 Distribution of Sea-Surface Salinity in SCS (August).

1.8 Distribution of Sea-Surface Salinity in SCS (February).

1.9 Geomorphologic Characteristics of Continental Shelf and Length of the SCS’Coastline in PRC.

2.1 Main International and Domestic Sea Lanes.

2.2 Hot Spots of Environmental Pollution in terms of Water Quality.

2.3 Distribution of COD Loads Directly Discharged to SCS.

2.4 Distribution of Oil Loads Directly Discharged to SCS.

2.5 Distribution of Inorganic-N, P Loads Directly Discharged to SCS.

2.6 Pollution Sensitive Areas

2.7 High-Risk Areas of Pollution

2.8 Boundaries of Lancangjiang Basin in People’s Republic of China (PRC)

2.9 Marine Living Resources in SCS

(1) Distribution of Marine Economy Anchovy

2.10 Marine Living Resources in SCS

(2) Distribution of Marine Benthos and Seagrass

2.11 Distribution of Coral Reefs

2.12 Distribution of Mangrove

TDA and SAP for the South China Sea National Report of China

Preface

The 12th National Focus Point Conference was held by UNEP in 1996 at BangkokThailand to discuss the ‘Regional Program of Action for Protecting and Developing theMarine and Coastal Environment of the East Asian Seas’ (the East Asian SeasAction Plan). The East Asian Seas Action Plan is an important component part forthe implementation of the 21st Century Agenda and the Global Program of Actionfor the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities.

The formulation of the project recommendations for a Transboundary DiagnosticAnalysis and Preliminary Framework of a Strategic Action Program for the SouthChina Sea was adopted by the 12th Conference of the Coordinating Body on theSeas of East Asia and the project will be financed by the GEF.

The objectives of the regional project recommendations are:

l To make a transboundary diagnostic analysis on the main environmentalproblems and their causes;

l To identify all types of land–based sources of pollution along the coast ofperiphery states;

l To indicate the modification of the living aquatic resources;

l To identify the pollution hot spots and sensitive areas; and

l To determine the priority and the management goals.

On the basis of above actions the preliminary framework of a strategic actionprogram will be formulated to protect the South China Sea from pollution of land-based activities.

The regional project recommendations will be based on the 7 national reports ofthe member states. This national report of China, about the transboundarydiagnostic analysis and strategic action program for the South China Sea in Chinapart and as a component of the regional project recommendations, has been writtenaccording to the Secretariat’s demand of the Coordinating Body on the Seas of EastAsia.


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1 Introduction

1.1 Aim of China National Report

The national report of China is compiled in accordance with requirements by thesecretariat of the coordinating body on the Seas of East Asia. It is aimed throughthis report to provide data and information on major water-related environmentalproblems/issues in South China Sea and its associated watershed areas in Chinapart, and to provide causal analysis of the problems.

1.2 Major Water-related Environment Problems

Under the pressure of both rapid economic development and large population in theSouth China Sea associated watershed areas, the environment in China part has theproblems as below:

l The catch amount of both fish and other living aquatic resources in rivers andcoastal waters of the sea decrease year by year. The percentage of precious andhigh value species of living aquatic resources in rivers and shallow marinewaters decrease due to over exploitation of living aquatic resources.

l Near-shore seawaters in part of estuaries and bays and by big cities are pollutedand the major pollutants are nutrients (N &P) and oil although as a whole,seawater quality maintains good level. Red tide occurs frequently in inner baysand estuaries in past years due to nutrients coming from domestic wastewaterand industry wastewater discharge, rivers and marine aquaculture.

l Organic and nutrient pollutants pollute freshwater in most rivers. Freshwaterpollution is serious in the down stream of such bigger rivers as the Pearl Riverwhich is the biggest river in south China empty to the South China Sea, HanRiver, Rong River, Moyang River, and Jian River in Guangdong Province, andNandu River in Hainan Province.

l River water quality deterioration causes freshwater shortage. In Pearl RiverDelta, freshwater pollution in several river courses at cities is so serious thatthe water quality is not suitable for drinking water resource although thesecities are rich in freshwater.

l Aquatic habitats in rivers, estuaries and coastal waters have changedsignificantly. In past years, mangrove area and both coastal wetland area andinland wetland area decreased due to inappropriate coastal and wetlanddevelopment.


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1.3 Country Background

China is a big country with 9.6 million square kilometers of territorial landincluding many islands. Total area of the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East ChinaSea and the South China Sea is more than 4.7 million square kilometers. China alsohas a large population more than 1.2 billion.

China coastal areas of the South China Sea, including Guangdong Province, HongKong, Macau, Guangxi Zhuang Nationality Autonomous Region and HainanProvince, are relatively developed and densely populated areas in China. There arethree metropolises with population more than one million (Hong Kong, Guangzhouand Shenzhen) and many medium-sized and small-sized cites located in the coastalzone of the South China Sea. The coastal zone, with favorable weather andeconomic geographical conditions, is the most rapidly developing area in China inthe past years. It is expected that this area will keep quick development in comingyears. Demography data of coastal cities and counties is listed in Table 1.1.


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Table 1.1 Demography of the SCS coastal cites and countiesRegion Total

populationAverageannualpopulationgrowth(‰)

Averageannual birthrate(‰)

Averageannual deathrate(‰)

Average annualmigration rate(‰)

Guangdong Province(1996) Provincial average from 1991 to 1996Chaozhou City 2,338,040Shantou City 4,072,900Jieyang City 4,919,360Shanwei City 2,520,330Huizhou City 2,600,810Shenzhen City 1,033,840Dongguan City 1,452,460Guangzhou City 6,560,510Zhongshan City 1,268,430Zhuhai City 653,660Jiangmen City 3,743,620Yangjiang City 2,425,140Maoming City 5,813,570Zhanjiang City 6,160,160Subtotal 48,562,830 16.36 18.76 5.92 3.53Guangxi Region(1996) Average from 1995 to 1996Beihai City 1,354,200 12.11 11.22 4.07 4.95Qingzhou City 3,046,300 11.74 14.89 5.24 2.09

Fangcheng Port C. 747,800 14.90 13.27 4.76 6.41Subtotal 5,148,300 12.92 13.13 4.69 4.48Hainan province (1996) Average from 1991 to 1996Haikou City 499,350Qiongshan City 633,050Wenchang City 521,300Qionghai City 435,950Wanning City 532,190Lingshui City 307,650Sanya City 420,980Ledong County 453,860Dongfang City 341,640Changjiang County 219,040Danzhou City 783,210Lingao County 382,400Chengmai County 444,110Other Islands 243Subtotal 5,982,880 15.50 21.06 5.85 0.66

Average from 1991 to 1995Hong Kong (1995) 6,156,000 1.71 11.88 5.12 -4.99Macau (1995) 424,430 3.93 16.56 3.64 -8.32


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1.4 Geographic Divisions Used in the Analysis

The area of the South China Sea (SCS) is about 3.5 million square kilometers, awidth of 1667 kilometers from west to east and a length of 2693 kilometers fromnorth(23°40'N) to south(18°09'N). The average depth of the SCS is 1212 meters.Also see Figure 1.1- Geographical Position of the South China Sea and Figure 1.2– China’s Boundaries of SCS. China has 6,888 kilometers of coastline along theSCS including 403 kilometers coastline in Hong Kong and Macau) from RaopingCounty at Guangdong Province to Beilun estuary of Guangxi Zhuang AutonomousRegion. There are five administrative regions located along coast of and in theSCS: Guangdong Province, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, Macau,Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Hainan Province.

Because a major part of concerned statistic data is totaled up from counties tocities, then from cities to provinces or autonomous, and finally to nation, thecoastal area of the South China Sea in China part is divided into five subregions inthe analysis. They are Guangdong, Hong Kong, Macau, Guangxi and Hainan.Major rivers in each subregion are seen in Table 1.2 and Figure 1.4 – River Basinsin South China.

Table 1.2 Geographic divisions used in the analysis

Subregion Major City Name of majorrivers

Total area(km2)

Total population(1995)

Guangdong Chaozhou, Shantou, Jieyang,Shanwei, Huizhou, Shenzhen,Dongguan, Guangzhou,Zhongshan, Zhuhai, Jiangmen,Yangjiang, Maoming andZhanjiang

Han, Rong, Pearl,Moyang, Jian

83,332.8 47,918,660

Guangxi Beihai, Qingzhou andFangcheng Port

Nanliu, Qing,Maoling

20,361 5,088,000

Hainan Haikou and Sanya Nandu,Changhua,Wanquanhe

33,920 5,733,100

Hong Kong Hong Kong No 1,068 6,190,000Macau Macau No 21.45 424,430

Total 21 11 104,783.25 65,354,210

Guangdong subregion

There are fourteen coastal cities and many offshore islands including DongshaIslands. Fourteen coastal cities from east to west in Guangdong subregion are:Chaozhou City, Shantou City, Jieyang City, Shanwei City, Huizhou City, ShenzhenCity, Dongguan City, Guangzhou City, Zhongshan City, Zhuhai City, Jiangmen


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City, Yangjiang City, Maoming City and Zhanjiang City. Guangzhou City andShenzhen City are metropolises. There are five major rivers and 66 small riversdirectly discharged to the South China Sea. Six geographic subdivisions inGuangdong subregion are:

l Chaozhou City, Shantou City and Jieyang City are located in Han River basinand Rong River basin at the east of Guangdong subregion. Han River andRong River empty to the SCS at Shantou City;

l Shanwei City and Huidong County in Huizhou City in the middle east ofGuangdong subregion. There are tens of small rivers flow to the SCS in thissubdivision;

l The rest part of Huizhou City, Shenzhen City, Dongguan City, GuangzhouCity, Zhongshan City, Zhuhai City and Jiangmen City (not including Taishancity) in the Pearl River basin at middle part of Guangdong subregion. The PearlRiver forms eight major outlets at the Pearl Delta;

l Yangjiang City in Moyang River basin at the middle west part of Guangdongsubregion;

l Maoming City in Jian River at the west part of Guangdong subregion; and

l Zhanjiang City and Taishan of Jiangmen City at the west part of Guangdongsubregion. There are tens of small rivers directly entering the SCS in thissubdivision.

Guangxi subregion

Three coastal cities from east to west are Beihai City, Qingzhou City andFangcheng Port City. Nanliu River, the biggest river in Guangxi subregion directlyflowing to the SCS, joins the SCS at Hepu County of Beihai City. Other riversentered the SCS in Beihai City are Dafeng River, Baisha River, Tieshan River,Sanhe River, Qixing River, and Ximen River as well as several other small rivers.Qing River and Maoling River enter Qingzhou bay at Qingzhou City. In FangchengPort City, Fangcheng River enters Fangcheng Port bay, Beilun River, a boundaryriver between China and Vietnam, enters the SCS.

Hainan subregion

This subregion includes main island - Hainan Island which is the second biggestisland of China and other offshore islands where there are small permanentpopulation: Zhongsha Islands, Xisha islands as well as Nansha Islands in the SouthChina Sea. Of nineteen cities and counties in Hainan subregion, thirteen coastalcities and Counties are: Haikou City, Qiongshan City, Wenchang City, QionghaiCity, Wanning City, Lingshui County, Sanya City, Ledong County, Dongfang City,Changjiang County, Danzhou City, Chengmai County and Lingao County. Haikou


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City and Qiongshan City are located in Nandu River basin, Wanning City is inWanquanhe River basin and Changjiang County is in Changhua River basin.Besides, there are many small rivers entering to the SCS.

Hong Kong subregion

This subregion covers Hong Kong Peninsula and several islands at the east bank ofPearl Estuary. The urban area covers Hong Kong Island and Kowloon at VictoriaPort. Only several small streams enter the SCS.

Macau subregion

This subregion consists of Macau peninsula and two islands at the Right Bank ofPearl Estuary. There is no river or stream in it.

1.5 Physical Oceanography and Coastal Geomorphology of the SCS

Survey conducted by China in seventies shows that the ocean current of the SouthChina Sea is mainly under the control of warm current in northeast direction insummer and the maximum velocity is above 1 nautical mile per hour in most partof the sea. Whist the current is relatively complicated in the areas around NanshaIslands, of Beibu Gulf and around Hainan island, as is seen in Figure 1.5. In winter,the ocean current is very complicated. On one hand, warm current from Pacificgoes through the seas around Philippine islands then drift to south China coast. Onthe other hand, cool current from northwest Pacific goes along China’s coast in thedirection from northeast to southwest, through Hainan Island and Beibu Gulf, thenalong Vietnam’s coast, finally to Gulf of Thailand, as is seen in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.5 and Figure 1.6 show that, corresponding with ocean current, surfaceseawater temperature distribution is rather uniform and temperature difference isonly one degree in all the South China Sea. Whist in winter, surface sea waterisotherms parallel to coast of China, the temperature of surface sea water nearChina’s coast due to the control of cool current is lower by 6 to 8 degrees than thatfar away from the coast.

Figure 1.7 and Figure 1.8 shows salinity in the SCS in summer and in winterrespectively. Due to freshwater discharged to the SCS from land is much more insummer than in winter, iso-salinity is farther from coast in summer than in winter.

The SCS has four types of coastline in China part: silt bedrock bay, river delta,sandy bedrock bay and sandy plain. Figure 1.9 shows the length and location of alltypes of coastline.


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1.6 Socioeconomic Information

1.6.1 GDP

It is known that China is a developing country. In the SCS coastal zone of China,averaged GDP per capita is only 10,143 RMB Yuans in 1996 although the SCScoastal zone is one of the most rapid economic developing areas in China in pasttwenty years. The three subregions of Mainland China are in the course ofindustrialization, its GDP service industry composes of 43.2% of GDP,manufacturing industry of 40.8%, and agriculture 15.8%. The GDP in 1996 of theSCS coastal subregions in Mainland China is shown in Table 1.3.

1.6.2 Import and Export

Since China has carried out opening up police, import and export in China’s coastalzone at the SCS has increased quickly. Processing products, manufacturingproducts and agriculture products are main export commodities. The top ten exportcommodities of the SCS coastal zone in China and major countries/regions ofdestination are listed in Table 1.4. Steel, nonferrous metals, materials are majorimport commodities in the coast zone. The top ten import commodities of the coastzone in China and major countries/regions of origin are listed in Table 1.5.

1.6.3 Agricultural Production, Aquaculture and Forestry Production

Agricultural production/aquaculture/forestry production involves a major part oftotal population in the SCS coast zone in China although GDP of agriculture/aquaculture/ forestry sectors is only a small part in GDP. Due to dense populationand family economy in countryside, only in a small part of the area usedmechanical techniques are used. In the Pearl Delta, for instance, since the middle of1980s, mechanized techniques have been introduced in rice plantation andaquaculture. Statistic data on agricultural production/aquaculture/forestryproduction is listed in Tables 1.6 to 1.9.

1.6.4 Tourism

Thanks to its unique natural scenery and splendid national culture, China’s tourismis developing quickly in past years. The SCS coast zone is one of quickest tourismdeveloping areas in China due to its favorite resources and geographical position.

With the increase of income, China’s tourism will keep growing. Tourisminformation in the SCS coast area in China is listed in Table 1.10.


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Table 1.3 GDP in year 1996 (thousand RMB Yuan)

Subregion Agriculture Industry Service Other Sectors

Guangdong

Chaozhou 3286350 5062820 4059110 707810

Shantou 3787050 11702890 13673910 2207780

Jieyang 5832190 1332620 6819090 1474510

Shanwei 3221290 2022650 3165680 933030

Huizhou 4655340 13088870 7932500 1758800

Shenzhen 1570360 38238720 45621360 10109080

Dongguan 2885450 12101420 8542490 985790

Guangzhou 8116300 58145660 68838840 9662120

Zhongshan 2194920 8833020 6532680 554140

Zhuhai 1161430 8837740 8831740 1975020

Jiangmen 6061500 18989940 16282110 1836080

Yangjiang 5187970 2477250 3420230 683020

Maoming 10004080 11512520 10586410 3001790

Zhanjiang 9472110 9353750 10796260 2369670

Subtotal 73415200 234491210 237856200 40478600

Guangxi

Beihai 3101000 2228050 3834980 540840

Qingzhou 5225070 1948540 3033390 1024790

FangchengPort

1641750 851850 1241420 234930

Subtotal 9967820 5028440 8109790 1800560

Hainan

Haikou 249200 2570070 7067690

Qiongshan 1115480 1128500 881730

Wenchang 1028670 606820 566410

Qionghai 1468600 546970 765410

Wanning 995050 645620 579350

Lingshui 513520 156870 187360

Sanya 846310 568570 716840

Ledong 957170 123610 316900

Dongfang 541360 465790 443860

Changjiang 418210 531730 249600

Danzhou 2315520 625430 1070640

Lingao 1034430 118080 112600

Chengmai 886340 606030 293390

Subtotal 11959720 7440940 15406000


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Table 1.4 List of top 10 Export commodities

Commodities Production Export Value (millionUS$ per year

Major countries /regionsof destination

Annually average of Guangdong province (1994-1996)

Clothing N/D N/D 8644.43

Shoes (thousand pair) N/D 1284320 3416.75Fabric N/D N/D 2938.29

Toys N/D N/D 2593.27

Articles for journey N/D N/D 1770.23Plastic products N/D N/D 1669.04

Watch (thousand ) N/D 692450 937.33

Telephone (thousand N/D 11340 744.02Furniture N/D N/D 715.53

Precious matters and jewelry (kg) N/D 97879 664.33

Aquatic products(ton) N/D 160915 441.13 in which: living fish N/D 64638 142.98

frozen shrimp N/D 2814 17.47

Hong Kong, Taiwan,Macau, Singapore,Malaysia, USA, Japan,Germany, Netherlands,UK, France, Italy,Australia, Canada(exported Value > 108

US dollars)

Annually average of Guangxi region (1995-1996)Sugar ton 2073350 254108 91.56

Rosin (ton 255775 76029 51.53

Cotton cloth (thousand meters) 147740 73990 49.43Pottery and porcelain (thousand ) N/D 794580 48.31

Can (ton) 208700 67848 43.43

Tin (ton) N/D 7098 42.78Cement (ton) 19569950 920761 39.75

Barite(ton) N/D 1420906 32.90

Firework thousand boxes N/D 800 22.76Paint ton N/D 29699 20.50

Aquatic products (ton) 1130352 2915 20.46

Exported value > 108 USdollars: Hong Kong,Japan, USA.Exported Value > 107

US dollars): Macau,Netherlands, Germany,France, Russia, UK andSingapore.

Annually average of Hainan Province (1995-1996)Ferroalloy thousand ton N/D 2280 59.87

Antimony ton N/D 49206 30.82

Cotton cloth (thousand meters) N/D 7200000 20.21Pig iron ton N/D 92846 13.77

Pottery and porcelain (thousand ) N/D 57830 11.69

Silks and satins(thousand meters) N/D 4220 10.19Tin (ton N/D 1429 8.47

Aquatic products (ton) 454107 N/D 7.78

In which: frozen fish N/D 396 1.34Shirt thousand piece N/D 1530 7.45

Gloves(thousand dozen N/D 2340 6.73

Exported Value > 108

US Dollars: Hong Kong,Japan.Exported Value > 107

US dollars: USA,Germany, Taiwan,Russia, UK andSingapore.


10

Table 1.5 List of top 10 import commodities

Subregion Commodities Total volumeimported

Value

(million US$/a)

Major countries/region oforigin

Annually average of Guangdong Province (1994—1996)

Steel products ton 7184705 2837.46

Electronic element 1648.71

Polystyrene (ton) 1860220 1635.52

Paper & cardboard ton 2606779 1212.31

Oil ton 7674610 1070.68

Cotton cloth 103m 1238870 948.34

Chemical fiber 103m 1375740 909.79

leather ton 312635 832.57

Copper material ton 294362 691.30

Guangdong

Machine 629.49

Hong Kong, Taiwan,Macau;

Singapore, Malaysia,Indonesia;

Japan, USA, Swiss,Germany, Canada, Russiaand France

Annually average of Guangdong Region (1995—1996)

Fertilizer ton 345469 98.83

Sugar ton 2344154 82.46

Palm oil ton 70529 53.27


Chemical material ton 23563 29.59

Metal ore ton 578785 26.96

Copper ton 7735 13.83

Synthetic fiber ton 6403 12.18

Natural rubber ton 8503 12.16

Guangxi

Paper ton 9805 6.88

Hong Kong, Singapore,USA, Japan, Russia,Canada, Australia

Annually average of Hainan Province (1995—1996)


Fertilizer ton 261700 50.53

Oil ton 5880600 20.14

Medicine N/D 8.52

Rice ton 68400 6.38

Hainan

Clothing N/D 2.82

Russia, Ukraine, HongKong, Singapore, Japan,Vietnam, USA, Korea,Germany, Italy


11

Table 1.6 Agricultural production

Subregion Valuemillion Yuan

Growth rateper year %

Involvedpopulation

Growth Rate per year %

Type oftechnology

Guangdong * 57737 8.09 30,457,700 2.78

Beihai

797 2.99 1,007,700 0.35

FangchengPort

489 13.09 582,300 0.15

Qingzhou

2772 9.01 2,723,700 0.65

Guangxi **

Subtotal

4058 8.28 4,313,700 0.38

Hainan* 3839 8.92 5,332,100 0.74Total 65634 8.43 40,103,500 1.30

Mechanization and halfmechanization

Note: * average of five years from 1992 t0 1996

** average of three years from 1994 to 1996

Table 1.7 Fishery data

Subregion Production(103 ton)

Growth rate peryear (%)

Value***million Yuan

Increase rate%

Involvedpopulation

Guangdong* 1689.1 6.78 14985 11.03 N/DGuangxi** 546.1 23.62 4845 26.345 N/D

Hainan* 349.3 8.95 1980 15.81 N/DNote: * average of three years from 1994 t0 1996

** average of two years from 1995 to 1996

*** including the value of aquaculture

Table 1.8 Aquaculture data

Subregion Production(103 ton)


Value**million Yuan

Increaserate %

Involvedpopulation

Guangdong* 1855.9 17.34 N/D N/D

Guangxi* 461.4 32.27 N/D N/DHainan* 82.9 19.94 20.40 N/D

Note: * average of three years from 1994 t0 1996

** Being included in the value of fishery


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Table 1.9 Forestry data

Subregion Production(ton)


Value(millionYuan

Increase peryear %

Involvedpopulation

Guangdong* 147500 5.79 1250 -1.30 N/D

Guangxi** N/D N/D 279 1.96 N/D

Hainan* 188800 7.07 2292 7.84 N/DTotal 336300 6.43 3821 2.83 N/D



Table 1.10 Tourism

Number of visitors (per year)Subregion

Domestic OverseasChinese

From SCScountries

From othercountries

Total number

Ofhote

Guangdong* 26490500 5008100 191001 883402 148393

Guangxi** N/D 128954 24632 304952 N/D

Hainan* 3041698 231791 12254 40685 20117




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2 Detailed Analysis of Major Water-Related Concerns andPrincipal Issues

2.1 Pollution

2.1.1 Sources of Pollution

2.1.1.1 Rivers

With a climate condition of tropical/subtropical monsoon, the SCS coastal area ofChina is rich in freshwater resources and has a dense river network. Twelve majorrivers discharging into the SCS are: the Pearl River, Han River, Rong River,Moyang River and Jian River in Guangdong subregion, Nanliu River, Qing Riverand Maoling River in Guangxi subregion and Nandu River, Changhua River andWanquanhe River in Hainan subregion. Averaged annual freshwater discharginginto the SCS through rivers in China is listed in Table 2.2. The freshwater volumeof the Pearl River, which is the largest one that enters into the SCS in China,

composes 73.1% of total freshwater volume into the SCS from China.

Table 2.1 Information of major rivers

Name of river Length (km) catchments area (km2) Freshwater volume (km3)

Han 410 30112 24.10

Rong 185 4408 2.81

Pearl 2129 442100 349.20Moyang 199 6091 5.95

Jian 231 6091 1.95

Nanliu 287 8635 6.83Qing 179 2457 1.96

Maoling 112 2959 2.90

Nandu 334 7022 5.96Changhua 232 5150 3.82

Wanquanhe 157 3693 4.95


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Table 2.2 River freshwater volume discharging into the SCS

Subregion River freshwater

Volume (km3) Percentage (%)

Han River 24.1 5.0

Other rivers in East Guangdong 17.2 3.6Pearl River 349.2 73.1

All rivers in West Guangdong 31.7 6.6

Guangdong

Subtotal 422.2 88.3Guangxi 24.9 5.2

Hainan 31.0 6.5

Total 478.1 100

The rivers discharging to the SCS are the major pollution sources of the SCS. Theyreceive a huge volume of industrial/domestic/agricultural/aquacultural wastewaterfrom their drainage areas and discharge into the sea a large amount of suchcontaminants as SS, BOD, COD, nutrients (N & P), oil and heavy metals. ThePearl River, for instance, discharges through the eight outlets to the sea asignificant volume of COD that is 87% of total COD load discharge through riversfrom Guangdong Province. The watershed area of the Pearl River is 442,100square kilometers. There are seven major cities in the Pearl River Delta. The sevencites are Guangzhou, Zhuhai, Dongguan, Zhongshan, Jiangmen, Fuoshan andZhaoqing. Total population in the Pearl River Delta is over 20 million. The PearlRiver Delta is in the course of urbanization and industrialization. Pollution loads ofmajor rivers are listed in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Pollution loads from major rivers

Subregion COD(ton/a)

Inorganic-N(ton/a)

Inorganic-P(ton/a)

SS (ton/a) Oil (ton/a)

Guangdong 1994 1472600 340050 3768.10 58531000 9697.8

Guangxi (1996) 149936 8602 506.78 N/D 822.96

Hainan (1997) 3.63 N/D N/D N/D 368.25

2.1.1.2 Coastal Cities and Coastal Population

There exist 14 coastal cities in Guangdong subregion, 3 coastal cities in Guangxisubregion and 13 coastal cities/counties in Hainan subregion. Among coastalcities/counties, only 15 cities/area discharge pollution directly to the sea. Othercoastal cities and coastal population discharge pollution to the rivers, streams orchannels. Section 2.1.1.1 has described the pollution sources of the rivers / streams/ channels.


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Subregion Major coastal cities/area Receiving waters

Guangdong

Shantou City Shantou Port

Shanwei City Honghai Bay

Daya Bay developing area of Huizhou City Daya Bay

Shenzhen City Pearl Estuary

Panyu City of Guangzhou City Pearl Estuary

Zhuhai City Pearl Estuary

Taishan City of Jiangmen city Zhenhai Bay

Zhanjiang City Zhanjiang Port

Haikang City of Zhanjiang City Leizhou Bay

Leizhou City of Zhanjiang City Qingzhou Strait

Guangxi

Beihai City Beibu Gulf

Qingzhou City Qingzhou Bay

Fangcheng Port City Fangcheng Port

Hainan

Haikou City Qingzhou Strait

Wenchang City Qinglan Port

Sanya City Sanya Bay

Municipal wastewater discharged into the sea is listed in Table 2.4. Municipalwastewater includes domestic and commercial wastewater and part of industrialwastewater discharged to the drains of the urban areas. The major pollution loadsof municipal wastewater include SS, organic pollutants, and nutrients resulting ineutrophication and red tide.


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Table 2.4 Pollution and municipal population loads directly to the seaSubregion Total COD (ton/a) Inorganic-N (ton/a) Inorganic-P (ton/a)

Population To River Direct to thesea

To river Direct tothe sea

To river Direct to thesea

Guangdong 1995 47918700 / 54637 / 4028.12 / 523.63Guangxi 1995 5088500 / 7761 / 1164.70 / 87.11

Total-N Total-P

Hainan 1997 6100000 20353 27138 3052.81 470.76 4070.40 5427.67

2.1.1.3 Industrial Pollution from Coastal Installations

Industrial pollution source is a very important factor causing impact on marineenvironment. Industrial pollution loads to the sea not only result in seawater qualitydegradation, but also endanger marine ecosystem, marine biodiversity and habitats.In China, there are tens of coastal industrial centers of different size. Industrialpollution discharged directly to the sea from coastal installations is listed in Table2.5. Only a small part of industrial pollution load from coastal cities/counties islisted in the Table. The rest from industrial installations located in the catchmentsof the rivers have been included in river pollution load and municipal pollutionload.

Coastal waters receiving relatively more industrial pollution load from coastalinstallations are: the Pearl Estuary, Shantou Port, the Han River Estuary, ZhanjiangPort and Beibu Gulf near Beihai City.

Table 2.5 Industrial pollutants to the sea from coastal installations

Subregion Wastewater(m3/a)

COD(ton/a)

Inorganic-N(ton/a)

Inorganic-P(ton/a)

Oil(ton/a)

Heavy metals(ton/a)

SS(ton/a)

Guangdong (1994) 55440000 9494.9 260.95 16.23 133.87 22.906 12902.5Guangxi 1996 24574670 17401.9 108.73 1.06 52.98 2.742 4402.0

Hainan (1997 26309000 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D

Hong Kong 47960000 N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D

2.1.1.4 Discharge from Upland and Low-land Based Activities

l Agriculture

Pollution source from upland and lowland-based activities is a non-point source.Rice field, other seasonal crop field and plantations are major pollution sourcesfrom upland-based activities. The main pollution loads from these activities includeBOD and nutrients (N & P), and therefore, are major factors resulting ineutrophication and red tide. Poultry/Livestock waste is another water pollutionsource. Aquaculture contributes to water pollution too.


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South China is one of major regions of rice field and fruit plantation.Poultry/Livestock farms increased rapidly in recent years and scatter all over thecoastal regions. Fruit, poultry and livestock not only meet domestic market demandbut also are exported to other countries. It is estimated that loads discharge fromagriculture/ poultry and livestock husbandry/aquaculture activities contribute amajor part of organic loads and nutrients directly to the sea or through rivers.Agricultural/livestock husbandry/aquacultural sources are presented in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Agricultural/animal husbandry/aquacultural sources (1995)

Subregion Rice fieldha

Other seasonalcrops ha

Plantations ha

Number ofpoultry(chickens,duck and quail)

Number oflivestock

Guangdong Province 1698653 618660 885993 N/D 50506900Guangxi Region 1540300 1073900 922600 N/D 33958400

Hainan Province 186341 242844 546725 73040000 6929200

Table 2.6 (continue)

Subregion Total fertilizerused(ton/a)

Total pesticideused(ton/a)

BOD ton/a Fresh wateraquaculture (ha)

Seawateraquaculture (ha)

Guangdong Province 1957100 80400 N/D 494500 1742300

Guangxi Region 1228600 N/D N/D 150200 41000

Hainan Province 450985 9023 N/D 40906 6931

l Forestry

South China needs timber import due to insufficient forest. In South China, forestarea decreased before late 1980s whist it has increased year by year since late1980s. Forestry information is presented in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7 Forestry

Land forest MangroveSubregion

Area(ha) Rate of loss(%, per year)

Area (ha) Rate of loss(%, per year)

Erosionrate

(m/a)

Timberproduction

(m3/a)

Timberexported

(%)

Otherforestryproducts(ton/a)

GD P. 3205300 0 3813(1990) N/D N/D 1986000 N/D N/D

GX R. 6021700 0 5654(1990) N/D N/D N/D N/D 445062

HN P. N/D N/D 4836(1990) N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D

Note GD P. —Guangdong Province;

GX R. —Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region;

HN P. —Hainan Province.

2.1.1.5 Ports and Harbors – Maritime Transport

With its favorable location, South China has many seaports and harbors including


18

tens of small ones for fishing boats. There exist at least one sea port in each coastalcity or county. In Figure 2.1 major sea ports and international and domestic sea-lanes are presented. Due to rapid development of economy in coastal zones andforeign trade, maritime transport and fishing in the South China Sea are veryprosperous. China has hundreds of thousands of vessels. Among them eightypercent are fishing boats.

It is reported that 327 thousand vessels visited seaports in Guangdong Province in1985, the number is 533 thousand in 1990, with an average increase rate of 10.5%per year. In the same period freight of oil vessel increased 6.5% per year. In 1990,Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region has 5734 maritime fishing motor vessels.5560 vessels visited Beihai Port and Fangcheng Port in 1995.

The number of vessels (including fish boats and riverine ones) in three coastalprovince/region is listed in Table 2.8. Table 2.9 shows statistics of seaports andharbors.

Table 2.8 Number of ships/boats

Motor vessel Barge Sailing boatProvince/Region

number Total nettonnage

number Total net tonnage number Total nettonnage

Guangdong p. 30432 7818419 1856 407991 41 2289

Guangxi R. 9930 862542 300 81990 0 0

Hanna P. 1142 748967 75 22637 92 5147


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Table 2.9 Major seaports/harbors (1996)

Name of port Vessel visits Major cargo type Volume of cargo transfer 103ton/a

Chaozhou 2573 230

Shantou 15892 10820

Jieyang 1308 60

Shanwei 1972 480

Huizhou 104 200

Shenzhen 76419 29410

Dongguan 1332 3320

Guangzhou N/D 85160

Zhuhai 8029 6100

Zhanjiang 930924

Commodities, oil,coal, food, aqua-products

17690

Beihai 3081 1990

Qingzhou 2124 N/D

Fangcheng 486

Commodities, oil,aqua-products

5090

Haikou N/D 9470

Sanya N/D 310

Basuo N/D 2650

Yangpu N/D

Commodities, oil,coal, ore

540

Part of major oil/natural gas terminals/ports is as follows:

l Daya Port, Huizhou City, Guangdong Province oil terminal

l Guangzhou Port, Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province oil terminal

l Shuidong Port, Maoming City, Guangdong Province oil terminal

l Zhanjiang Port, Zhanjiang City, Guangdong Province oil terminal

l Weizhou Island, Be City, Guangxi Region oil terminal

l Yanan, Sanya City, Hainan Province natural gas terminal

l Dongfang, Dongfang City, Hainan Province natural gas terminal

Discharge from vessels contains mainly oil. Averaged oil concentration inoperational wastewater is about 2000 to 5000 mg/l. Effluent of operationalwastewater treated by a separator contains oil lower than 15 mg/l. Due to lack ofseparators, poor public awareness and surveillance/ monitoring capability, part offishing boats discharge oily wastewater without treatment.


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In 1980s number of oil spill accidents occurred in the South China Sea. In February1984, for example, a ship run on the rocks near Henglan island at outer PearlEstuary. 685 tons of oil discharged to the sea. In July 1989, a ship sunk at ShantouPort with 50 tons of oil discharging to the sea. It is reported that on average oneserious marine accident occurs in near shore waters every one or two years andresults in oil spills.

2.1.1.6 Seabed Exploration and Exploitation

In China seabed exploration and exploitation in the SCS is only for oil and naturalgas. In China, seabed oil/natural gas exploration started in 1980s, the exploitationstarted in 1990s. In 1996, China exploited about 12 million tons of oil and 3.45billion m3 of natural gas in its continental shell in the South China Sea. Over tenmillion m3 of wastewater containing about 300 tons of oil was discharged to the seafrom oil/natural gas exploitation of China in the South China Sea. Activities ofoil/natural gas exploration in the South China Sea are increasing. Therefore, it isexpected that wastewater and oil discharge to the sea from oil/natural gasexploration and exploitation will increase.

2.1.1.7 Marine Dumping

China government abides by 1972 London Convention and strictly bans marinedumping of productive and domestic wastes. China initiated a scheme ofdeclaration requirement and license requirement for marine dumping in 1985.Regulation on Marine Dumping stipulates that any marine dumping activities mustregister with marine administrative authorities. Licensed dumping in the SouthChina Sea is only dredged sediment.

2.1.1.8 Atmospheric Inputs to the Aquatic Environment

Study on atmospheric inputs to the aquatic environment is insufficient in China.Acid rain to the aquatic environment is the major concerns. In the coastal areas,acid rain results mainly from local airborne emission and long distancetransportation. Due to massive fossil fuel consumption, the Pearl River Delta andsurrounding areas become an acid rain center. Airborne emission data is shown inthe Table 2.10.


21

Table 2.10 Airborne emission (1995)

Subregion Coal consumption(ton/a)

Oil consumption(ton/a)

Number of cars,trucks, etc.

Number ofMC

Forest fire Volcano

Guangdong 37,695,149 10,967,779 1,525,206 3,429,133 N/D no

Guangxi 23,298,500 1,764,500 609,637 456,925 N/D no

Hainan 1,647,139 361,575 125,113 162,161 N/D no

2.1.2 Pollution Hot Spots

China has a large coastal population, long coastline and many pollution dischargepoints. Pollution hot spots are defined using following criteria:

l Relatively larger Riverine loading to the sea;

l Coastal city/cities with population>40,000; and

l Pollutants, which may significantly affect or have potential serious impact onpublic health, economy, freshwater/marine ecosystems and biodiversity.

Amount of wastewater, COD, nutrients (N & P), suspend solids and oil dischargedto the sea are taken as major elements in assessing pollution hot spots.

Pollution hot spot Major coastal city/cities Main pollutants

Han River mouth toShantou Port

Shantou COD, nutrients, SS

Pearl Estuary Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Dongguan,Guangzhou, Zhuhai, Macau

Bitto

Zhanjiang Bay Zhanjiang Bitto

Coastal water nearBeihai City

Beihai City Bitto

Coastal water nearHaikou City

Haikou Bitto

Above pollution hot spots relate pollution receiving waters and source cities andmain pollutants as well. Locations of the pollution hot spots and associated citiesare shown in Figure 2.2. COD, oil and ammonia nitrogen loads to the hot spotsfrom major cities are presented in Figure 2.3. Municipal wastewater and industrialwastewater discharged directly to the sea from coastal areas are presented in Figure2.4 and Figure 2.5, respectively.


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2.1.3 Sensitive and High Risk Areas

2.1.3.1 Sensitive Areas

The sensitive areas means those river mouths and near shore waters with relativelyhigh social/natural value and the value easily damaged by pollution. Sensitive areasin China part are as follows:

Subregion Seawater Sensitive element

Guangdong

Green turtle preserve at Huidong Port green turtle

Aquatic resource preserve at Daya Bay living aquatic resources

Pearl Estuary living aquatic resources

Futian natural preserve at Deep Bay mangroves

Zhanjiang mangrove protected area mangroves

Haikang “White butterfly” shellfishPreserve at Leizhou Bay

“White butterfly” shellfish

Guangxi

Dugong preserve at Tieshan Port Bay Dugong

Shankou mangrove preserve at TieshanPort Bay

mangrove

Silver beach and scenic spots near BeihaiCity

beach and naturallandscape

Coastal waters near Beihai City living aquatic resources

Mangrove reserve at Beilun River mouth mangroves

Hainan

Coastal waters near Haikou City beach

Mangrove reserve at Dongzai Port mangroves

Coastal water near Sanya City beach


23

2.1.3.2 High Risk Areas

The high-risk areas mean those sensitive areas or other near shore waters, whichmay be easily damaged by or threatened with pollution or human activities.

Subregion High risk areas Risk factor

Guangdong Daya Bay, HuizhouCity

l aquatic resources;l pollution from Daya Bay developing zone,;l risk oil spills resulting from oil terminal

Pearl Estuary l aquatic resources; mangrove ecosystems;l pollution from rivers/coastal cities and population/

coastal industries;l waste and oil spills from maritime activities/ports/

harbors/ oil terminals

Shuidong Port,Maoming City

l oil spills from oil terminal

Zhanjiang Bay l mangrove ecosystems;l pollution from coastal cities and population/coastal

industries;l waste and oil spills from maritime activities/ ports/

harbors

Guangxi Tieshan Bay, BeihaiCity

l mangrove ecosystem;l Dugong;l Pollution from coastal population/agriculture

Coastal waters nearBeihai City

l beach;l scenic spots;l pollution from rivers/ Beihai City/coastal industries

Hainan Coastal waters nearHaikou City

l beach;l pollution from Nandu river/ Haikou City/coastal

industries

Coastal waters nearSanya City

l beach;l pollution from rivers/ Sanya City and population/

coastal industries;

Yangpu Bay l industrial pollution

Sensitive areas and high-risk areas are mapped on Figure 2.6 ad Figure 2.7,respectively.


24

2.2 Freshwater Shortage and Degradation of Its Quality

2.2.1 Surface Water

2.2.1.1 Resources of Surface Water and Current Status

In general, south China is rich in surface water. In a major part of the coastal zone,surface water can meet the demand of drinking water and production water. Due touneven spatial distribution of freshwater a part of the coastal areas has a shortageof fresh water. In some densely populated coastal areas without river and offshoreislands, fresh water shortage is very serious.

Rainwater is main source of surface water. Groundwater composes only a smallpart of the sources. Due to uneven temporal distribution of precipitation, in a year,the averaged surface water volume from April to October composes eighty- percentor more whist that of the rest months composes only twenty-percent or less.Besides, surface water significantly varies yearly in the coastal areas.

l Guangdong Subregion

Averaged surface water in the subregion is 323 km3 per year. Among that only 95.5km3 per year of surface water comes from local areas. The Pearl River basin, HanRiver basin, Jian River basin and other river basins are rich in surface water.However, the areas in the Middle East part and the west wing with only shortrivers, particularly Zhanjiang City and Leizhou Peninsula and island in the PearlEstuary, are lack of surface water.

l Guangxi Subregion

Total averaged surface water volume is about 25 km3 per year. Becauseprecipitation is only 1000 to 1600 mm per year, Beihai City except Nanliu Riverbasin in the East part has a lack of surface water.

l Hainan Subregion

The rivers flow from the middle mountainous country outward into the sea. In thewest part particularly the North west part and South West part, averaged yearlyprecipitation is only about 1000 mm. Therefore, above mentioned areas are lack ofsurface water.

l Hong Kong Subregion

There are only several small rivers in the area. Water shortage is very serious.Ninety-percent of water supply comes from the East River of the Pearl River.

l Macau Subregion


25

There is no river in the area. All water supplies in the subregion come from thePearl River.

2.2.1.2 Demand and Shortage of Surface Water

In south China, demand of surface water by agriculture takes about eighty percent.In Leizhou Peninsula and west part of Hainan Province, surface water cannot meetthe demand by agriculture and drinking water.

Areas affected by low quality surface water include Guangzhou City, ChaozhouCity, Shantou City, Fuoshan City and Maoming City. Due to no larger rivers, theareas with surface water shortage include Daya bay Developing zone, ShenzhenCity, Hong Kong, Macau, Zhanjiang City and Beihai City. Surface water needs tobe transported from rivers or reservoirs 30-50 kilometers away to these areas.

Problems in the impact areas with surface water shortage are:

l In the coastal areas from Huilai County to Haifeng County in Middle-East partof Guangdong Province, surface water is short for agriculture use.

l In Leizhou Peninsula in west Guangdong Province. Surface water is short foragriculture use and drinking water.

l In west part of Hainan Province, surface water is short for agriculture use anddrinking water.

2.2.2 Issue of Lancang River

Lancang is a transboundary river. Originating from the north foot of TanggulaMountains, it flows in Tibet Autonomous Region and Yunnan Province in China,Laos, Burma, Thailand and Cambodia, and finally empties into the South ChinaSea in Vietnam. The river is also called Mekong River in other countries. Thelength of the river in China is 2,161 kilometers. The watershed area in China is167,486 km2. The averaged annual water volume in China is 76 km3. The LancangRiver basin is seen in Figure 2.8.

The river basin in China is an economically backward area with few industrialpollution sources. The monitoring results in China indicate that water quality ofLancang River is quite good. Affected by global change of climate, the basinbecame worse and worse in forest and vegetation degradation and soil erosion.This results in heavy pressure on water conservation and flood control in the areaparticularly in lower reaches. On the other hand, economically backward andpopulation increase in the area form pressure on the environment and make theproblem of forest decrease and soil erosion worse and worse. Total population inthe area increased 12.1% from 1982 to 1990.


26

2.2.3 Groundwater

2.2.3.1 Current Groundwater Status

In general, the coastal area of South China is rich in groundwater with total annualvolume of groundwater 24.89 km3. Among that, Guangdong Province and HainanProvince have annual volume of 23.88 km3, the rest (1.01 km3) exists in Guangxisubregion.

2.2.3.2 Groundwater Extraction and Current Status

In South China, only in such cities where surface water is short as Shenzhen City,Haikou City and Beihai and in rural areas groundwater is extracted for drinkingwater and industrial use. In Guangdong Province and Hainan Province currentvolume of groundwater extraction is 2512 thousand M3 a day which takes twentytwo percent of the total daily extractable volume. In Guangxi subregion, currentvolume of groundwater extraction is 164 thousand M3 a day.

2.2.3.3 Areas with Shortage or Low Quality of Groundwater

Groundwater extraction is a supplementation to surface water. In Zhanjiang Cityand Leizhou Peninsula, over-extraction of groundwater has resulted in lower watertable, reduction of extractable volume and degradation of water quality. In someareas in Shenzhen City, Zhanjiang City and Beihai City, groundwater has beenpolluted, therefore cannot serve as drinking water supply.

2.3 Exploitation of Living Aquatic Resources

2.3.1 Living Freshwater Resources

2.3.1.1 Current Status

Living freshwater resources in the coastal area of SCS are mainly comprised of theresources from Guangdong Province, Hainan Province and Guangxi ZhuangAutonomous Region. As for the quantity of freshwater and scale of rivers,Guangdong ranks the first while Guangxi and Hainan are relatively smaller. Livingfreshwater resources of Guangdong are therefore account of a large percentageamong that of coastal area of SCS.

Existing data has indicated that hydrophyte, benthos and plankton in the estuariesof rivers entering into the SCS are very rich. The average biomass in estuary ofPearl River of Guangdong Province is 36.61 g/m3 while that in the west and east ofGuangdong is 100.68 g/m3 and 89.82 g/m3 respectively.

The average distribution of estuarine creature in Hainan Province is: 73.25 g/m2 of


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biomass and 159 individual/m2 of creature density. Due to the difference ofgeographic environment of the rivers entering into the SCS, an uniquecharacteristic of living freshwater resources of Hainan Province has been formed:tropical species of living resources tack a large portion. During the wet season alarge quantity of freshwater flows into the estuary while in dry season a largeamount of oceanic fish enters into the estuary due to flow distance of the rivershere are relatively short, most being within 100 km.

There are a limited number of small scope rivers entering into the sea in Guangxi.Taking Dafeng River month as an example, fish resources is 1.78 t/km2 andbenthos is 50-100g/m2. This river month is also a breeding zone of natural oyster.

There are over 300 species of freshwater fish in inland rivers of Guangdong coastalarea and among which 208 are species of pure freshwater fish, 7 are migration oneand others are marine fish frequently or accidentally appear in the estuaries.Among freshwater fishes half are economic fish which mainly include Carp,Crucian Carp, Grass Carp, Big-head Carp and Black Carp. The yield of 1996 is80.9 thousand ton with annual increase of 9.9 %. The aquaculture area of the wholeprovince is 350.8 thousand hectares with annual increase of 6.4%. Besides,aquaculture freshwater species also include river shrimp, river crab, turtle and soon. This has become an important sector of rural economy

There are 200 species of freshwater fish in inland rivers of Hainan coastal area andamong which 106 are species of pure freshwater fish, 94 are estuary one. Thefreshwater yield of 1996 is 9.3 thousand tons and freshwater aquaculture yield is74.1 thousand ton with the aquaculture area of 42.2 thousand hectares.

In Guangxi, the freshwater harvest of 1996 is 62.3 thousand tons, cultivation yieldis 444.6 thousand tons and cultivation area is 208.9 thousand hectares.

The utilization of freshwater resources is shown in Table 2.11.

Table 2.11 Current utilization of freshwater resources

Region Fish harvest(ton/y)

Fish MSY(ton)

Bottom layerfish MSY

Invertebrateharvest (ton/a)

Invertebrateanimal MSY

Freshwaterculture yield

(ton/a)

Guangdong 80900 N/D N/D N/D N/D 1766900

Hainan 9278 N/D N/D N/D N/D 83340

Guangxi 62338 N/D N/D N/D N/D 506901

Total 152516 N/D N/D N/D N/D 2357141

Note: MSY—Maximum Sustainable Yield

Due to unreasonably using fishing gears and fishing methods, overfishing andpollution of part lakes and rivers, living resources has tended decrease. Recently,the situation has changed gradually because the management of the major waterresources that area has been strengthened. Particularly, due to great development of


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freshwater aquaculture, harvest of aquaculture has exceeded harvest far of fishcatching. This means that meeting the need to freshwater living resources no longerdepends on the natural source.

2.3.1.2 Endangered/Transboundary/Migratory Species

The distribution of endangered and migratory species in the coastal area of SCS isas follows:

Species of endangered freshwater fish of Guangdong Province include: Acipensersinemsis Gray, Angailla marmorata, Tanichthys albonubes Lin, Dasyatisakajei(miiaer et Hewe), Angailla japonics Temmindk et Schlegel, Anguilla nigricans chuet Wu, Macrura reevesl (Richardson) and etc.

Species of endangered freshwater fish of Hainan Provinces include Angaillamarmorata, Angailla japonics Temmindk.

2.3.1.3 Key Problem / Focus

l Overfishing

Overfishing has caused a number of economic fish species to be endangered or rarespecies such as: Acrossocheilus beijiangensis

l Water body pollution

Water pollution in lower course of Pearl River and estuaries is severe, fish andshrimp is hard to be found in some severe polluted river courses.

2.3.1.4 Economic Losses Because of Over-exploitation

l Predatory exploitation of freshwater aquatic resources has caused the yield ofeconomic fish reduce dramatically and lead to economic loss directly orindirectly.

l The devastation of habits of living freshwater resources severely influence thebreeding places of some species of fishes and caused the recession ofpopulation.

2.3.1.5 Market Situation

With the decrease of freshwater living resources in coastal area, the naturalresources can not meet the needs home and outside. But the freshwater resourceshave been complemented with the rapid development of artificial freshwatercultivation. The supply and needs are basically balanced in Guangdong, Guangxiand Hainan, the marketing situation of aquatic product of Guangdong is taken asthe example:


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The sales of aquatic product of Guangdong Province in 1994 is 1.5197 milliontons, the storage of yearend is 53.9 thousand tons; sales in 1995 is 842.1 thousandtons and yearend storage is 27.2 thousand tons, in 1996 sales is 831.6 thousandtons and storage is 27.2 thousand tons. It is shown that that the sales of aquaticproduct have a trend of decrease.

2.3.1.6 Impacts of Global Change

The impact on freshwater living resources of SCS coastal area by globe change aremainly come from climate change such as Greenhouse and El Nilo effect.

Due to global climate Change, unequal precipitation distribution, excessive rain,flood and soil erosion, the silt content in rivers has increased, the turbidity of waterhas risen, and the habitats of living aquatic resources have been destroyed. Somepollutants from inland entered into rivers together with polluted surface runoff haveposed an aquatic ecosystem severely. In recent years in Guangdong Province, iscontinuously influenced by natural calamities such as flood, typhoon, tornado anddrought. Flood occurred in Pearl River Delta area has resulted in losses of fisheryindustry while the drought has caused the rivers dried up in Leizhou Peninsula andled to direct economic losses of hundreds million Yuan (RMB) of aquatic productsindustry.

Besides, rise of water temperature caused by global climate change has impact ondisadvantageous living freshwater resources.

2.3.1.7 Countermeasures

(1) Strengthening control and management of industrial pollution source

Industrial wastewater is the major pollution source for regional freshwater. InChina coastal area bordering SCS the total quantity of wastewater discharged fromoutlets is 154,285 thousand tons in while that from Guangdong Province, GuangxiAutonomous Region, Hainan Province and Hong Kong are 51,440 thousand tons,26,309 thousand tons, 47,960 thousand tons respectively in 1995.

In past ten years, the treatment of industrial wastewater has been strengthened inGuangdong Province. Comprehensive management of industrial pollution sourceswith legal, economic and administrative measures has also been carried out. TheEffluent Standard of Water Pollutants of Guangdong Province, The EnvironmentalManagement Regulation for Construction Projects of Guangdong Province andmore than ten local environmental protection laws, regulations and standards havebeen promulgated successively. In 1996, the dispensing rate of “ThreeSimultaneous Principal”* for construction projects in Guangdong

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------* “Three Simultaneous Principal” is environmental protection policy of China. It requires that environment protection

facilities must be designed, constructed and put in operation simultaneously with the principal for a new project.


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Province has got to over 86% while that of the large- and medium-sized projectsreached to 100%. Industrial wastewater treatment rate and standard compliance ratewere 71% and 57% respectively.

(2) promoting treatment of municipal sewage

Exiting data indicate that in 1995 the total quantity of municipal sewage of Chinacoastal area of SCS is 495329.1 thousand tons among from Guangdong, Guangxiand Hainan are 274,118.8 thousand tons, 89,070.3 thousand tons and 132,140thousand tons respectively. The governments at all level pay increasingly attentionto municipal sewage treatment. The secondary sewage treatment plants have beenset up in Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Zhuhai cities. In Guangzhou the extensionproject of Datansha Sewage Treatment Plant has already been finished and theLiede Plant is being built now. In Shantou and Zhanjiang cities some sewage plantswill be built. Mawan sewage sea disposal project in Shenzhen, the first sea disposalproject in China, provided a demonstration of this kind projects. All above-mentioned measures have important effect on protecting living aquatic resources inthe area.

(3) Promoting ecological agriculture

As an effective way to eliminate agriculture pollution, ecological agriculture cangreatly reduce the impact of chemical fertilizer and pesticide on living freshwaterresources. Huadu City, the famous vegetable base of Guangzhou City, is also atypical region of developing ecological agriculture, the agriculture productsproduced from the city have a good sale in whole country, at the same timeeconomic, social and environmental benefits have been achieved.

Besides, it is also an effective measure for protecting living freshwater resources toconstruct municipal ecological demonstration region. In a number of cities andcounties in Guangdong, such as Zhuhai, Zhanjiang, Lianjiang and Zenchengecological cities are being pursued.

(4) Prohibiting overfishing freshwater living resources, restoring aquaticecological balance

Overfishing has caused a lot of species of economic fish to be endangered or rareone. To protect the spawner and fish fry the aquatic product departments havedesignated fishery preserves in large reservoirs and rivers and prohibit fishing inthe zones; meanwhile, bred fish fry to freshwater. For instance, ZhongshanAquatic Bureau of Guangdong Province breeds 10 million fish fries in Pearl RiverMouth every year. This has momentous effectiveness in protecting and recoveringliving aquatic resources.

(5) Protecting the population of living freshwater resources.

The quantity of some rare species and economic fish has reduced sharply. For


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example, the catch yield of black carp, grass carp, silver carp and variegated carp,the famous “ Four Species of Fish Cultivated ” in China, has gone down to 20% --30% of the total yield of freshwater fish in the country nowadays from 50% of thatin middle 1960’s. It is the most effective way of protecting fishery resources tosafeguard fish natural breeding grounds and to protect the reproduction population.For this purpose, the ecological store has already been set up in Yanze River(Changjiang) few years ago and will be spread in the whole country.

(6) Invitro-culture of living freshwater resources

In order to lastingly store and sustainable utilize fish resources, it is necessary torefrigerate fish sperm and embryo. In China, considerable progress for refrigerationof fish sperm has been made and this measure has already been applied to practicefor “ Four Species of Cultivated Fish”.

(7) Controlling pollution load from inland

Since late of 1980’s a series of comprehensive river regulation projects have beenconstructed in Guangdong Province, such as Guangzhou section of the Pearl River,Cangjiang River, Qijiang River, Shenzhen River, Xiaodongjiang River andQianshan River. In addition, river water quality management has beenstrengthened, a whole set of laws and regulations have been promulgated, the “Clean River Water Project”, with 20 million Yuan (RMB) of investment, is beingcarried out now in Guangdong Province will significantly reduce pollutants to thesea.

2.3.2 Living Marine Resources

2.3.2.1 Current Status

There are plenty species of living marine resources in SCS, including 15 species ofReptilia such as sea turtle, sea snake, nearly 1,000 species of fish most of which iswarm water fish, over 2,000 species of plankton and various benthos (see Fig. 2.9and Fig. 1.0). Natural catch is dominant and aquaculture is a supplement in marinefishery. In the shallow waters with an area of 135 Km2 of north SCS and BeibuGulf, the annual allowed fish catching yield is 489.3 thousand tons from the waterdepth of less than 40 meters. While the yield is 397 thousand tons and 260thousand tons from 40 – 90 meters and 90 - 120 meters depth respectively. Thetotal allowed catch yield is 996 thousand tons each year. There exists 39 fishinggrounds with total area of 530,000 Km2 in SCS of China, including eastGuangdong, west Guangdong, Beibu Gulf, Xisha Island, Dongsha Island, andNansha Island. Most of this ground mainly distribute in offshore of north SCS inwhich the water depth is less than 40 m. In these regions the primary productioncapacity is higher and fishery resources are abundant. The fish resources in SCScan be calculated as follows:

If 40 gram carbon are produced from each square meter water area, and the


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ecological efficiency is 15%, then the fish yield from middle and upper layers ofwaters is 1.4 tons / Km2 in shallow water while the yield is 0.7 tons/Km2 inoffshore waters. Therefore, the theoretical annual catch yield from the 3,500 Km2

total area of SCS is 9,450 thousand tons. If only 50% of the theoretical yield isaccounted, then the maximum sustainable yield can be 4,720 thousand tones.Among which, the fish catch from middle and upper layers of waters can be over2,480 thousand tons, the bottom fish yield from offshore can be 1,660 thousandtones, the bottom fish yield of deep sea can be 580 thousand tons.

It is indicated in “The Comprehensive Investigation Report on Island Resources ofGuangdong Province” that the swimming organisms are the major marine fisheryresources of marine waters around the islands of Guangdong Province. It accountfor 97% of marine catch yield of the province, in which fish is the major populationof swimming organisms and comprise of 90% of the total biomass”. Therefore thecatch yield of fish and marine invertebrate animal from different sea areas ofGuangdong Province, Guangxi Autonomous Region and Hainan Province can beestimated (Table 2.12).

Table 2.12 Utilization of current marine resourcesRegions Middle and

upper fishharvest(ton/y)

Middle andupper layerfish MSY(ton)

BottomfishHarvest(ton/y)

BottomfishMSY

MarineinvertebrateHarvest(ton/y)

MarineinvertebrateMSY

AquaticProductionYield(ton/y)

Guangdong 790,110 N/D 711,100 N/D 218,390 N/D 2183,900

Hainan 170,143 N/D 153,129 N/D 47,028 N/D 392,400

Guangxi 275,271 N/D 247,744 N/D 76,085 N/D 727,200

Total 1235,524 2480,000 1111,973 2240,000 341,503 N/D 3303,500

Note: MSY – Maximum sustainable yield

Aforementioned analysis shows that the total fish catch of the three provinces /regions bordering on SCS is 2,689.1 thousand tons, if the yield of other provincesor surrounding countries is included, the total fish yield maybe exceed themaximum sustainable yield of SCS. Experts point out that the dominant economicfish population in coastal waters and shallow offshore waters in north SCS isreducing gradually. The decreasing trend of catch efficiency also shows that thecatch intensity has already exceeded natural reproduction capacity of fisheryresources, so it is a pressing task to protect marine resources.

2.3.2.2 Endangered / Transboundary / Migratory Species

The endangered marine species include Dugong, Tridacna (Dinodacna) cookiana,Coralliam japoncam, Bahaba favolabiata,Glossobalanus polybronchioporas,Saccoglossas hwangtauensis, Cassia (cccornata), Natilus pompilius, Branchiostomabeleheri, Cypraetigris Linnaeus, Gassidiadae, Pinctada maxima(Jameson),Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, Balaenoptera acturostrata,


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Balaenoptera acturostrata, Delphinus, baleen whale, fish whale, pilot whale,pollack whale, etc.,

The transboundary species include shark, tune, Dugong, Sparidae, Ilisha eloongata(Bennett), Nemipterus virgatus (Houttuyn), Stromuleidae,etc.

2.3.2.3 Key Issues / Focus

(1) Effect of over-fishing on living marine resources

Because of over-fishing, the marine ecological species has been utilize fully, andthe fish resources are declining. The fish catch yield is unstable in offshore watersof Guangdong in recent years, the fact shows that the living marine resources isreducing and there is no fishery development potentiality in coastal waters of SCS.

(2) The impact of marine pollution on living marine resources

Du to discharging of domestic sewage and industrial wastewater, extensive use ofchemical fertilizer and rapid development of marine aquaculture, the coastal watersare polluted gradually and a part of waters is eutrophic in recent years. FromOctober 1997 to May 1998 an unprecedented red tide occurred in South FujianProvince, East Guangdong, West Guangdong and the estuary of Pearl River, as aresult, the fish and shrimp cultured in net pens all died.

Because of sea dumping, oil-spill and chemical leakage the marine resources wereharmed directly and the marine biodiversity reduced obviously in Shantou harbor,Zhanjiang harbor and Pearl River Estuary.

2.3.2.4 Losses Because of Over-exploitation

In the early 1970’s the average yield per horsepower is 1.51 tons for motor fishingboats while the yield reduced to 0.55 tons in 1983, namely went down by 66%. Atthe same time the quality digression of species of caught fish also shown thedecrease of fishery economic benefits. From 1963 to 1983 the proportion of highquality fish population caught has already fallen sharply by a big margin: from10.03% to 2.9% for Lutianus, from 16.7% to 5.3% for Tune and from 9.8% to 5.2%for Ilisha.

Sewage discharge and unreasonable marine aquaculture made the waters eutrophic;bloom has already become the ordinary disaster for coastal waters. For example,the alga bloom, which occurred in SCS from March to April 1998, caused directeconomic losses of 200 million Yuan (RMB).

According to statistic data, 442 fishery pollution accidents occurred in 13 provinces/ regions in 1993 and result in economic losses of 42 million Yuans (RMB).


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2.3.2.5 Market Demand

It is essentially the same to demand of living freshwater resources.

2.3.2.6 Impact of Global Change

The impact of climate warming-up and sea level rise on coastal ecological systemis as follows:

(1) Seawater warming-up is advantageous for expansion of biologicalgeographical zone that consists of coral reefs, mangroves and tide-marshcommunity.

(2) Sea level rise will make tidal zone community move to land and accelerategrowth of coral reefs. Great number of mangroves will vanish. Level rise willreduce the marsh areas distributing in lower places, especially seriouslyimpact the coastal mangrove mashes, narrow the habitats of fish, shrimp andsea turtle. Temperature rising by 2 or 3 degrees will result in death of manycoral polyps and seriously affect various marine organisms roosting on thecoral reefs.


(1) Setting up marine nature preserve

Marine nature preserve has important strategy significance forprotection and sustainable use of biodiversity. The governments at alllevels have set up a lot of preserves for living marine resources in theSCS.

Guangdong Province

l Pearl Estuary Preserve for Breeding Ground of Economic Fish,which located in the waters bordering Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Panyuand Dongguan cities.

l Huidong Sea Turtle Preserve, with total area of 1,400 ha, whichlocated in Huidong County, a breeding area for sea turtle.

l Daya Bay Aquatic Resources Preserve, Huiyang City, with 300species of fish, 506 species of shallow water benthos and 253species of island tidal zone organisms. The protect objects are:pearl shellfish, precious fish, shrimp and algae

l Yamen Outlet Preserve for breeding ground of economic fish

l Haikang White-butterfly Shellfish Preserve


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l Wanshan Archipelago and Around Waters Preserve, therepresentative of subtropical estuary ecosystem in China, located atouter Pearl Estuary. The protection objects are estuary and marineecosystem and species, especially the Macaca mulatta in DanganIsland and the original golden bamboo forest in Zhuzhou Island.

l Pseudosciaena crocea Fry Preserve. It located in the coastal waters,with a depth less than 20 m, around Shantou City, Kaiping County,Shangcuan Island, Xiacuan Island and Zhanjiang City

l Nan’ao Island Nature Preserve

l Fish Fry and Small Shrimp Preserve. It located in the shallowwaters from Xuwen County to Nan’au Island with a depth less than20 meters.

l Zhanjiang Mangrove Preserve and Shenzhen Mangrove & BirdPreserve.

Guangxi Region

l Shatian Coastal Dugong Preserve, with 120 Km2 of areas, locatedin the coastal waters of south Shatian, Hepu County where isteeming with Haloduie uminervis and Halophila ovalis that ismajor food for Dugong.

l The Preserve for Maragyropsedita Tanaka Fry and Small Shrimp,located in the waters from north Weizhou Island to HaikangCounty.

l Hepu Pearl Shellfish Preserve.

Hainan Province

l Lingao White-buttery Shellfish Preserve

l Wenchang Eucheuma okamurai Preserve

l Dongzai Port Mangrove Preserve

l Sanya Coral Reefs Preserve, with area of 4,000 ha; the protectionobjects are coral reef ecologicalsystems

l Shaodong Island Sula sula Preserve, with the area of 180 ha. XishaIsland, with typical tropic seaside, island ecosystems, well-growingtropic coral reefs and tropic reef-island forest, is the solereproduction area for Sula sula in China; besides, there exists greenturtle sea cucumber and other precious sea products.


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(2) Making laws and regulations on marine environment protection

In China, a whole set of laws and regulations has been made in whichthe “Marine Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic ofChina” is an important law to prevent the sea from pollution. Theprincipal contents of the law is as follows:

1) To prevent the marine environment from ship pollution;

2) To protect the marine environment from damage caused by marinepetroleum exploitation;

3) To prevent the marine environment from sea dumping;

4) To protect the marine environment from contaminants dischargingfrom inland; and

5) To protect the marine environment from harming caused by coastalengineering.

Other laws and regulations on marine environment protection are listedin section 6.1.

(3) Tightening up marine environment management and land-basedpollution sources

This includes: drawing up the “ Trans-century’s Green Project Plan ofChina” and “The Biodeversity Protection Action Plan of China”;determining environmental functions of coastal waters; strengtheningtreatment of wastes from land-based sources; and carrying out theregulation of total pollution load control.

2.4 Modification of Aquatic Habitats

2.4.1 Freshwater

2.4.1.1 Freshwater Wetlands and Species

The freshwater wetlands in China coastal areas bordering SCS fragmentarilydistribute in the mud flats along with rivers, the dominant species in wetlands arefreshwater benthos, fish, shrimp and aquatic plants such as Phragmites communis,Cyperus malaccensis rarbrevifolins and Alternanthera philoxeroides.

A few wetlands distribute also beside the large and middle-sized reservoirs.

According to statistical data, in 1996 the freshwater aquaculture areas inGuangdong, Hainan and Guangxi were 350.8 thousand hectares, 42.2 thousand


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hectares, and 151.8 thousand hectares respectively. The data of freshwater areasand cultivable areas in two provinces is seen in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13 Freshwater areas and cultivable areas (in year 1982)

Total area (thousand hectares) Cultivable area (thousand hectares)Region

Total Ponds Lakes Reservoir Rivers Total Ponds Lakes Reservoir Rivers

Guangdong 680 80 0 200 400 287.5 80.8 0 20 6.7

Guangxi 466.7 31.3 0 110.7 324.7 136.1 28.5 0 105.7 1.9

Note: The data of Guangdong Province include that of Hainan Province

Above mentioned data shows that freshwater aquaculture areas in 1996 are morethan that in 1982. This indicates that freshwater aquaculture areas are fully utilizedalready in the regions.

2.4.1.2 River Habitats Modification and Causes

River habitat modification is very striking. It is shown that river waters are pollutedseverely and turbidity rises in recent years. The causes are as follows:

(1) Denudation and unreasonable hilly area agriculture

Denudation, reclamation of fields on the hills and improper farming methodshas led to silt content increase of rivers and reservoir siltation. From 1985 to1989, 27.526 thousand hectares of forest were in whole nation were destroyedand converted as agriculture use while the areas of forest destroy went up to440 thousand hectares in 1993 from 7.898 thousand hectares in 1990.

Moreover, mining also caused severe soil erosion.

(2) Water pollution and eutrophication

Municipal sewage, industrial wastewater and surface runoff with chemical fertilizerand pesticide are discharged into water bodies and pollute severely freshwater andriverside mudflats.

Besides, Guangdong is an acid rain area, the precipitation with lower pH value candecrease pH of freshwater and dissolve metal ions from soil such as aluminum ionwhich is harmful to living aquatic resources when it inter into water body togetherwith surface runoff.

2.4.1.3 Impacts of Global Change

Global climate warming-up causes a series of natural calamities, such as flood anddrought and so on, and brings on negative influence on water bodies and wetlands.


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(1) Afforestation

In order to recover the destroyed or degraded forest ecosystem, all provinces/autonomous regions have made great efforts to cover the barren mountains withtrees. For example, all barren mountains in Guangdong province have been coveredwith trees. Moreover, the shelf-forest project for Pearl River has started from 1996.

(2) Making laws and regulations on protection of aquatic resources andwater bodies

“The Regulations on Reproduction of Living Aquatic Resources”, “The Lawon Water Pollution Control”, etc.

(3) Making laws and regulations for nature conservation

l Forest Law of People’s Republic of China (1984)

l Mineral Resources Law of People’s Republic of China (1984)

l Land Management Law of People’s Republic of China (1984)

l Law on Water and Soil Conservation of People’s Republic of China(1991)

(4) Strengthening wastewater treatment and strictly control sewagedischarging into rivers.

2.4.2 Marine

2.4.2.1 Estuaries and Embayments

(1) Distribution

The estuaries and embayments in South China coastal area mainly distribute infollowing regions:

Guandong Province

Han River Mouth, Pearl Estuary, Moyang River Mouth, Daya Bay, HailingshanBay, Zhanjiang Bay and Leizhou Bay.

Hainan Province

Nandu River Mouth, Changhua River Mouth, Haikou Bay, Qinglan Port Bay andYangpu Bay.


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Guangxi Autonomous Region

Beilun Mouth, Tieshan Port Bay, Qingzhou Bay, Fangcheng Bay and Pearl Port.

(2) Living resources species in estuaries and embayments

In Pearl Estuary, one of three major estuaries of China, there are 224 species ofphytoplankton, 133 species of zooplankton, 456 species of benthos, 185 species oftidal zone organisms. The ecological style in the estuary mainly consists of tropicand subtropic species, and plankton mainly belongs to warm-water species. Thevegetation on riverbank is herbosa, such as Cyperus malaccensis varbrevifolins,Phragmites communis and mangroves with Group of Bruguiera and Group ofKandelia.

Large tracts of mangroves and shoals extensively distribute in Beilun Estuary withbounder significance. The estuary is a principal area for fish, shrimp, crab andalgae to grow, reproduce, migrate and roost.

(3) Causes of habitats modification

In past tens years the habitats of estuaries and embayments bordering SCS havemodified violently: the wetlands areas narrowed, the nature situation of estuariesand embayments disappeared, the water bodies were polluted due to radical humanactivities and water pollution. The causes are as follows:

l Reclaiming land from the sea

19.6 thousand hectares of shoals have been reclaimed in Pearl River Delta ofGuangdong Province, especially in Doumen, Panyu, Zhongshan and other coastalcities or counties with more shoals. Some reclamation actions with 14 thousandhectares of shoals in total to be occupied are being carried out or to be atModaumen, Yamen and west Lingdingyang.

l Embayments development

Recently, heat power plants, ports, docks, tourism regions and economicdevelopment areas increases sharply in coastal area, for instance, Daya BayNuclear Power Plant, Mawan Power Plant of Shenzhen City and Hailin IslandDevelopment District of Yangjiang City, etc. These projects caused habitatsdecreased and made their ecological functions degraded.

l Marine aquaculture

Before 1960’s China marine product industry mainly depended on marine fishing,took the first place in. Since 1960’s marine aquaculture has played a more andmore important role. In early 1980’s aquaculture yield took 14% -- 15% of totalmarine yield while in 1995 the percentage went up to 28.6%. With development ofmarine aquaculture the remarkable economic benefit has been achieved. At the


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same time the water body has been polluted partly.

The marine aquaculture area of three provinces (region) is shown in Table 2.14.

Table 2.14 Marine aquaculture areas

Regions In year1980 (ha) In year 1996 (ha) Increase rate (%)

Guangdong 21,540 138,520 543

Hainan 680 7,594 1,017

Guangxi 1600 48,400 2,925

Total 23,820 194,514

l Water pollution

Water pollution brings evident impact on fish migration, sea culture, growing andreproduction of fish fry and young shrimp living in the estuaries.

(4) Countermeasures

Many natural preserves are set up. To protect the most sensitive areas inembayments according to law. The names of natural preserves have been listed inSection 2.3.2.7 (1). Establishment of these preserves has effectively protectedmarine ecological environment as well as marine resources.

2.4.2.2 Coral Reefs

In China the coral reefs ecosystems exist only in SCS. Flourishing coral reefs arethe suitable place for reef-roosting organisms to live, to hide and to grow.

China is rich in species of hermatypic coral (see Table 2.15). Non-hermatypic coralhas 21 genera, over 40 species. The distribution of hermatypic coral in the SCS canalso be seen in Fig. 2.11.


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Table 2.15 Species of recorded hermatypic coral in China

Region Number of genera Number of species and sub-species

Nansha Islands 33 94

Dongsha Islands 27 70

Xisha Islands 38 127

Huangyan Island 19 46

Taiwan 58 230

Hainan Province 34 110

Hong Kong 21 50

Guangdong & Guangxi 21 45

Fujian Province >10

In China most coral reef resources distribute along the seaside of Hainan Province,one fourth of its seaside (about 400Km) has reefs. There are abundant livingmarine resources in reef areas such as 81 species of algae, 42 species ofCoelenterat, 15 species of Annelida, 186 species of Mollusca, 104 species ofArthropoda, 34 species of Echinodermate, 27 species of Pisces. The areas of coralreefs in coastal regions are seen in Table 2.16.


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Table 2.16 Coral reefs

Regions Current totalareas (Km2)

Vanishedareas/year

Total species ofhermatypic coral

Amount of related species (fish,algae, Mollusca ,vertebrate andother invertebrate)

Dongsha Island 96 – 300 N/D 70 N/D

Coelenterata 42

Annelida 15

Mollusca 186

Arthropoda 15

Echinodermata 34

Algae 81

Pisces 27

Corpus cavernosum 1

Hainan Province 400 Km Length N/D 110

Platyel mimthes 1

Pisces >300Zhongsha Island 139 Km Length,

61 meters width

N/D 46

Sea cucumber, lobster, turtles,hawksbill, etc.

Crabs 73

Mollusca 180

Nansha Island N/D N/D 94

Pisces 195

Xisha Island N/D N/D 127 N/D

Drifting fish roe / fry 61

Algae 3

Polychaeta 11

Mollusca 47

Crustacea 40

Zenmuansha 2.2 N/D 6 SP of soft coral

Echinodermata 16

Guangxi(Weizhou Island)

>5.15 N/D 45 One species of fish, some speciesof jellyfish, Mollusca, Hydrozoa,Asteroidea, Echinoidea andVarions Mallusca

Huangya Island 150 N/D 46 N/D

Taiwan N/D N/D 230 N/D

Hong Kong N/D N/D 50 N/D

Fujian Province N/D N/D >10 N/D

Total N/D N/D .200 N/D


43

l Damage caused by human activities

In some places, such as in Sanya of Hainan Province, coral reefs were quarried asbuilding material; coral hydranth was taken for tourism souvenir and so on; as aresult, this resource has been destroyed severely, the reefs distributing in seaside ofHainan has decreased by 95%.

l Impacts of global change

During the recent years, albino of coral reefs caused by greenhouse effect has beenpaid close attention in whole world as well as in China.

l Countermeasures

Setting up preserves to manage and protect coral reefs by operation of law. Thenature preserves for coral reefs in China are as follows:

1) Beijian Nature Preserve, Shaodong Island, Hainan Province

2) Yongshu Nature Preserve, Nansha Islands. Yongshu reefs are typical tropiccoral atoll with nearly 100 species of coral polyps

3) Sanya Nature Preserve, Hainan Province

4) Lingao Point Nature Preserve, Lingao County, Hainan Province, with an areaof 3,457 ha

5) Lingao County Coral Reefs Nature Preserve, Hainan Province, with an area of32,400 ha

6) Dadonghai Coral Reefs Nature Preserve, Sanya City, Hainan Province, with anarea of 13.45 ha

7) Linqiangshi Island Coral Reefs Nature Preserve, Danzhou City, HainanProvince, with an area of 131 ha

8) Weizhou Island and Xieyang Island and near waters Preserve, Beibu Gulf,Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, which is a transitional area fromtropical zone to subtropical one.

2.4.2.3 Mangroves

l Change in area and species composition

In China mangroves naturally distribute in some coastal provinces / regions:Guangdong, Hainan, Guangxi, Fujian, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macao.Guangdong, Hainan and Guangxi are the major distribution areas, among themHainan has the most widespread distribution of mangroves along coast.


44

Nowadays, large tracts of mangroves with areas more than 667 ha can only befound in four places: Dongzai Port of Hainan Province, Qinglan Port of HainanProvince, Tongminghai in Zhanjiang City of Guangdong Province and Malanji Portin Fangcheng City of Guangxi Autonomous Region. The two ports of HainanProvince aforementioned are the places with the largest areas and richest species ofthe tree and also the principal mangroves regions of China.

There were 420,010 thousand hectares of mangroves in the country in early 1950’s.But at present, the areas have sharply fallen to 148,690 thousand hectares, with adecrease of 65%. Meanwhile, part of tree has degraded to half mangroves orsecondary sparse woods. The species and distribution areas of mangroves are listedin Table 2.17 to Table 2.20.

Table 2.17 Species and distribution of mangroves in ChinaProvinces / RegionsFamily name Species name

Hainan H .K. Macao Guangdong Guangxi Taiwan Fujian

1. Bruguiera cylindrica +

2. B. Bymnorrhiza + + + + + +

3. B.Sexangula +

4. B.s.var.rhynchopetala +

5. Ceriops tabal + + + + +

6, Kandelia candel + + + + + + +

7, Rhizophora apiculata +

8. R.stylosa + + + +

Rhizophoraceae

9. R.mucronat +

10. Acanthus ebracteatus + +

11. A.ilicifolius + + + + + + +

Acanthaceae

12. A.xiamenensis +

Bamingtoniaceae 13. Bamingtonia racemosa +

14. Lumnitzera littorea +Combretaceae

15. L. Racemosa + + + + +

Euphorgiaceae 16. Excoecaria Agallocha + + + + + +

Meliaceae 17. Xylocarpus granatum +

Palmae 18. Aegiceras comiculatum + + + + + + +

Rubiaceae 19. Nypa fruticans +

Palmae 20. Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea +

21. Sonneratia alba +

22. S.caseolaris +

23. S.hainannensis +

Sinnedatuaceae

24. S.ovata +

Stercykuaceae 25. Heritiera littoralis +

Verbernaceae 26. Avicennia marina + + + + + + +

Total 24 9 4 10 9 9 7


45

Table 2.18 Species and distribution of half-mangroves in China

subregionFamily name Species name

Hainan H.K. Macau Guangdong Guangxi

+ + + + +1. Acrostichacee 1. Acrostichum aereum

2. A.speciosum + + +

2. Apocynaceae 3. Cerbera manghas +

3. Bignoniaceae 4. Dolichandron spathacea + +

4. Compositae 5. Pluchea indica + +

5. Hemandiceae 6. Hemadia sorona +

6. Leguminosae 7. Pongamia pinnata + +

7. Lythraceae 8. Pephis acidula +

+ + + +8. Malvaceae 9. Hibiscus tilisceus

10. Thespesia populnea + + +

9. Verbenaceae 11. Premna obtusifolia + + +

Total 11 2 1 2 5

Table 2.19 Common accompanying plant of mangrove

Species name

Woody plant Clerodendron inerme

Myoporum bontioides

Scaeola sericea

S.hainanensis

Scolopia chinesis

Crateva reliqiosa

Calophylun inophyllum

Vine or epiphyte Denis trifoliata

Hoya camosa

Dischidia chinensis

Flagellaria indica

Lygodium sp.

Herb Cynodon dactylon

Zoisa matrella

Sporobolus virginicus

Paspalum distichum

Phragmitas communis

Cyclosorus intenus

Pityrogramma calomelanos


46

Table 2.20 Mangrove species and distribution in China

Mangrove areas (ha) Number of mangrove speciesName of rrovince /region

In 1950 In 1990 Decrease rate Mangrove Half mangrove Total

Hunan 9,992 4,836 52% 24 11 35

Guangdong 21,289 3,813 82% 10 8 18

Guangxi 10,000 5,654 43% 9 5 14

Hong Kong 85 9 2 11

Macao 1 4 1 5

Fujian 720 360 50% 7 2 9

Taiwan 120 9 8 17

Total 42,001 14,869 65%

The related species in mangroves (fish, bird and others)

A number of living organisms including hundreds of species of bird, tens of speciesof fish and many species of invertebrate live in mangrove ecosystems of the SCS.For instance, in Zhanjiang mangrove preserve, Guangdong Province, there are 73species of bird including 37 species of resident and 36 species of migrant, 26species of zooplankton, 111 species of benthos and 133 species of Insects.Moreover, various organisms stay in Shenzhen Futian mangrove preserve, such asnearly 40,000 birds, belonging to 112 species, including Egretta jarzeta Ardeotabacchus and Bubulcus; 36 species of ordinary marine invertebrate , including 18species of lame llibranchiata 9 species of Gastrooda and 9 species of Crustacea.In Dongzhai port mangrove preserve, the representative of mangrove ecosystems inHainan Province, there exist 118 species of bird, 4 species of beast, 8 species offish and 85 species of other aquatic animal. Change of distribution areas ofmangrove in recent years in coastal regions and composition of mangrove-relatedspecies are shown in Table 2.21.


47

Table 2.21 Change of mangrove areas and mangrove-related species

Lost areas (Km2/a)Region Existingtotal areas(Km2)

1950-1990 Last 5-10 years

Number ofmangrovespecies

Number of related species

(bird, fish and invertebrate)

Bird 121

Fish 11

Coelenterata 11

Cladocera 2

Ostracoda 1

Copepoda 6

Euphausiacea 1

Sergestenae 2

Tunicata 3

Shellfish 49

crustacea 44

Guangdong 38.13 4.37 0.03-0.44 18

Insecta 133

Bird 118

Fish 8

Beast 4

Shrimp 5

Crab 2

Annelida 2

Hainan 48.36 1.29 0.10-0.40 35

Other species 76

Bird Some

Fish 4

Mollusca Dozens

Guangxi 56.54 1.09 0.28-2.5 14

Shellfish Some

Reptilia 4H.K. 0.85 N / D N /D 11

Maniralia 7

Macau 0.01 N / D N / D 5 N / D

Fujian 3.6 9.0 N / D 9 N / D

Taiwan 1.2 N / D N / D 17 N / D

Total 148.69 6.78 1.26 37 N / D


(1) Reclamation and construction of salt pan;

(2) Marine aquaculture practice; and


48

(3) Land demand expansion for coastal cities, roads, ports and industrialinstallations.

In Dongzai Port of Hainan Province the forest areas destroyed by reclamation were53 ha in 1957, while in 1972 and 1976 it were 80 ha and 533 ha respectively; 133ha of mangrove trees were destroyed for construction of salt pan in 1957 and 67 hain 1973. As a result, total areas of 866 ha of mangroves were destroyed. Besides,40 ha of mangroves and mudflats were occupied by construction of ponds from1994 to 1995.

The total areas of Futian Mangrove & Bird Preserve, Shenzhen City used to be304.4 hectares, but from 1989 to 1993, 148.4 hectares of mangrove trees (48.76%of total areas of the Preserve) were changed for other purpose.

l Causes of change

The hydrology condition of mangrove ecosystem has been changed by humanactivities. For example, project of reclamation blocks the waters around part ofmangroves of Futian Mangrove & Bird Preserve, then the original tidal movementhas been changed and the shoal ecological environment has been turned into aninland pond one. As a result, 6.1 ha of original mangroves distributed in the centraldistrict and the experiment mangroves introduced from whole country have beendestroyed.

l Impacts of global change

As has been discussed in section 2.3.1.6, it is possible that global climate becomingwarm has reverse impact on the mangrove ecosystem

l Countermeasures

At present three national-level mangrove preserves, five county-level ones andeight provincial-level ones, in which three in Taiwan and one in Hong Kong, havealready been set up in China. They cover 6,965 ha areas of mangroves, whichcomposes 47% of total areas of existing mangrove. Meanwhile, as the effectivemeasures to recover and to develop mangroves and afforestation are in progress. InDongzai Port Mangrove Preserve, Hainan Province, 122.6 ha of mangroves havebeen planted from 1981 to 1987. And the surviving rate is 61.5%. At the sametime, series of scientific studies on mangrove has been conducted.

2.4.2.4 Seagrass Bed

l Change in area and species composition

The seagrass distributes along all the seaside of SCS (Fig. 2.10). The larger areas ofseagrass beds distribute in Pearl River Mouth and Hepu County, Guangxi Region.During past 40 years the areas of seagrass beds along seaside of the SCS have


49

reduced sharply due to reclaim land from sea and reclaim mudflats.

The dominant species of seagrass growing in Pearl Estuary are Zostera mana andmarine Zosstera marina; the dominant species of benthon living in seagrass bed areNeritina variegata , others are crustacea and Mollusca.

In Guangxi Region the seagrass beds, with total area of 4,200 ha, mainly distributein coastal waters from Hepu County to Dafeng River mouth. The beds consist ofHaloduie uminervis and Halophila ovalis while organisms dwelling in the bedsinclude 24 species of Mollusca, 9 species of Arthropoda, 4 species ofEchinodermata, 3 species of Annelida, 2 species of Coelenterata , 8 species ofPiscesand, and 1 species of Maniralia — Dugong, the marine endangered animal.The areas of coastal seegrass bed and the related species are seen also in Table2.22.

Table 2.22 Areas of coastal seegrass bed and related species

Subregion Current areas (

Km2 )

Area lost or

will lose/ year

Number of seagrass

species

Number of related species (fish,

Mollusca, other invertebrate)

Guangdong Small N / D 2 Neritina variegata 1

Mollusca 24

Coelenterata 9

Echinodermata 4

Annelida 3

Arthropoda 2

Pisces 8

Guangxi 4.2 N / D 2

Maniralia 1

Hainan N / D N / D N / D N / D

Mollusca 25

Coelenterata 9

Echinodermata 4

Annelida 3

Arthropoda 2

Pisces 8

Total .4.2 N / D 4

Maniralia 1


Reclamation has caused decrease of seagrass bed areas.


50

l Causes of change

(1) Natural calamity

Typhoon, especially windstorm wave caused by typhoon can violentlydestroy seagrass by rushing grass down, or burying them in soil or sand.

(2) Human activities

l Economic losses

Habitats modification can result in tracts of seagrass beds vanish or make Dugongmigration or death due to shortage of food.

l Major impacted areas

Pearl Estuary and Dafeng River Mouth.

l Countermeasures

(1) Setting up nature preserves

Nowadays Dugong Nature Preserve of Shatian-Dafeng River Mouthand Dugong Nature Preserve of Yingpang Port-Yingluo Port have beenset up.

(2) Enforcement of laws and regulations

2.4.3 Critical Habitats, Ecosystems and Species with Transboundary Implication

The biodiversity of coastal areas and coastal waters is seen in Tab. 2.23.

Table 2.23 Biodiversity of coastal areas and coastal waters

Distribution Areas Number of species Number oflocal species

Number ofharmedspecies

Number ofmigrationspecies

Guandong Province 321 species of freshwater fish 4 4 6

Hainan Province 200 species of freshwater fish 29 >1 >1

Guanxi Autono.Region

Freshwater N / D N/D N/D N/D

SCS 104-260 species ofphytoplankton

N/D N/D N/D

1064 species of marine fish N/D 5-10 Over 30

Over 200 species of shrimp N/D N/D N/D

North SCS

130 species of zooplankton N/D N/D N/D

South SCS 535 species of marine fish N/D 5-10 Over 30


51

58 species of Polychaeta N/D > 2 N/D

250 species of zooplakton N/D N/D N/D

Esturaies waters ofGuangdong

319 species of benthos N/D N/D N/D

Coastal waters ofmiddle and westGuangdong


Coastal areas ofHainan


Caostal areas ofGuangxi


Xisha Island 135 species of benthos N/D N/D N/D

Guangdong 18 species of mangrove N/D N/D N/D

Hainan 35 species of mangrove 14 > 1 N/D

Guangxi 14 species of mangrove N/D N/D N/D

Fujian 9 species of mangrove N/D N/D N/D

Hong Kong 11 species of mangrove N/D N/D N/D

Macao 5 species of mangrove N/D N/D N/D

Taiwan Province 17 species of mangrove 1 N/D N/D

120 species of bird in mangrove Over 30 Over 21 About 36Guangdong

250 species of invertebrate inmang

N/D N/D N/D

100 species of bird in mangrove N/D N/D N/DHainan

100 species of invertebrate inmang

N/D N/D N/D

Over 3 species of bird inmangrove

N/D N/D N/DGuangxi

Dozens of species of invertebratein mangroves

N/D N/D N/D

70 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/DDonsha Island(GuangdongProvince)

Hundreds of other organisms N/D N/D N/D

110 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/D

186 species of Mollusca in reef-building coral

N/D N/D N/D

104 species of Arthropoda inreef-building coral

N/D N/D N/D

81 species of algae in reef-building coral

N/D N/D N/D

27 species of fish in reef-buildingcoral

N/D N/D N/D

42 species of Coelenterata N/D N/D N/D

Hainan

34 species of Echinodermata N/D N/D N/D


52

45 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/DGuangxi

Dozens of other marineorganisms in reef-building coral

N/D N/D N/D

94 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/D

195 species of fish in reef-building coral

N/D N/D N/D

180 species of Mollusca in reef-building coral

N/D 1 N/D

Nansha Island

73 species of crab N/D N/D N/D

127 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/DXisha Island

Over 300 species of fish in reef-building coral

N/D N/D N/D

6 species of soft coral N/D N/D N/D

61 species of drift fish roes &fries in reef-building coral

N/D N/D N/D

Zenmuansha

47 species of Mollusca ,40species of Crustacea

N/D N/D N/D

Huanya Island 46 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/D

Taiwan 230 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/D

Hong Kong 50 species of reef-building coral N/D N/D N/D

Fujian Over 10 species of reef-buildingcoral

N/D N/D N/D

Pearl River Estuary of

Guangdong Province

2 species of seegrass 2 N/D N/D

2 species of seegrass 2 N/D N/D

24 species of Mollusca inseegrass

N/D N/D N/D

8 species of fish in seegrass N/D N/D N/D

9 species of Coelenterata inseegrass

N/D N/D N/D

Guangxi

1 species of Manniralia inseegrass

1 1 1

There are over 30 of transboundary species, as discussed in Section 2.3.2.2.

Beilun River Mouth Mangrove Preserve in Guangxi Region, the national-levelpreserve, is one of key ecosystems with transboundary implication.

It covers 2,680 ha of total areas of Mangroves, including 213 ha of key zones,1,260 ha of buffer zones, 1,193 ha of experiment zones and 14 ha of other lands.The protection objects are mangrove marine ecosystems. In the preserve themangrove community, with the largest tract of woods in the nation, can be divided


53

into Group of Bruguiera, Group of Aegiceras, Group of Kandelia and Group ofRhizopophora. In the mangroves mudflats biomass is 650 g/m2, shallow watersbenthos biomass is 67—175 g / m2 and shallow waters plankton biomass is 75 –254 g / m2. The preserve is also rich in marine product resources, such as hundredsspecies of fish, dozens species of shrimp, sea snake and Mollusca; also blue crab,nude crab, squid, inkfish, octopus, sea cucumber, pipefish and sea horse andvarious species of shellfish.

l Momentous significance for sustainable fishery production

Mangroves are a special woody plant community growing in the tidal zones oftropic water, also the major regulator of ecological balance of estuaries andembayments. The mangrove is the suitable place for fish, shrimp, crab, algae andother marine resources to grow, reproduce, migrate and stay. It is obvious that therootage becomes a natural marine cultivation region. On other hand, the woods arealso the perching places for bird and insect. Therefore, mangroves have abundantbiological resources.

Seagrass is fodder for Dugong as well as the habitats for fish, shrimp, shellfish, etc.

Coral reefs are appropriate regions for reef-staying organisms to live, hide andreproduce.

Above-mentioned special ecosystems supply the phytoplankton and zooplanktonwith growing and reproducing environment. Meanwhile, these plankton becomebiats of fish, the higher level organism in the food chain. Therefor, theseecosystems have important significance to stabilize ecosystem structure and topromote cycling of mater.

In marine ecosystems located in boundary areas there exists an inter-dependentrelationship between water body, living organism and habitat. To strengthenprotection and management of boundary area preserves will play an important roleto sustainable development of fishery resources in local and boundary zones.

For instance, before establishment of Beilun River Mouth Mangrove Preserve,because of mangroves destruction the habitats of marine resources have narrowedand the marine product yield decreased gradually. In Fangcheng County, GuangxiAutonomous Region the fish yield went down to 5071 tons in 1987 from 5,541tons in 1980; and the shrimp yield decreased to 16 tons in 1985 from 109 tons in1983.

l Importance in regional / global biodiversity

Protection of key habitats, ecosystems and species not only guarantees sustainabledevelopment of marine economy, but also enrich the regional / global biodiversity.

For example, in Beilun River Mouth Mangrove Preserve, in pace with increase of


54

species of marine resources staying under mangroves trees. Fish, shrimp and othermarine products resources also goes up while a number of birds are led to thepreserve for perching and looking for food, so regional biodiversity rises.Moreover, every year thousands of migrant birds from Siberia or Australia perch inShenzhen Futian mangrove preserve for spending winter.

Dugong, a species living in boundary area, is the first – grade protection animal inChina. Only one species survive. Protection of Dugong habitats will beadvantageous to the growth and reproduction of the endangered species.

l The vulnerable habitats

Because of over-fishing, environment pollution, human activities and externalvariety introduction, the marine biodiversity is threatened gravely. As for above-mentioned key habitats and ecosystems, due to long-term disturbance of humanactivities their stability has degraded and their structure is weakened, thus someimprudent actions maybe destroy the whole system or even extinguish species.Therefore, we must be very careful in conducting any development activities in theareas with existing key habitats, ecosystems and species of transboundaryimportance.

l Losses associated with degradation of habitats

Because mangroves have the function of withstanding storm and resisting tide, if itis destroyed or cut down, the anti-calamity capability of coastal areas is weakened.As a result, local industrial and agricultural production is impacted gravely.Excavation of coral reefs disturbs original ecological balance and lends to seashoreerosion. These key habitats, ecosystems and species also contribute more tomaintaining ecosystem diversity, inheritance diversity and gene diversity.

l Countermeasures

(1) Set up nature preserves Nowadays, 15 nature preserves for mangroveecosystems, 8 nature preserves for coral reefs ecosystems, 3 nature preservesfor estuaries and embayments and 7 key nature preserves for other rarespecies and aquatic resources have been set up in China coastal areas of SCS.

(2) License for fishery. All fishing activities, determination of major fishinggrounds and in fishing seasons are all licensed or arranged by responsiblegovernment departments or their authorized organizations.

(3) Designate fishery preserves, forbidding catching production of motor craftswith trawlnets in the preserves

The no fishing seasons in SCS are June to August for Guangdong Provinceand Hainan Province, June to July for Guangxi Autonomous Region.


55

3 National Analysis of the Social and Economic Costs of theIdentified Water-related Principal Environmental Issues

In China there is no quantitative analysis on the social and economic costs of theidentified water-related principal environmental issues. Due to no quantitative dataavailable, here qualitative analysis of major costs is discussed.

3.1 Costs Due to Pollution and Shortage of Fresh Water

In China the social and economic costs due to pollution and shortage of fresh watercomes from following aspects:

l Additional investment and operational costs are needed for moving waterplants due to water quality degradation by pollution. This happens inGuangzhou, Fuoshan, Zhuhai and Zhanjiang.

l Loss of riverine fishery resulted from pollution. Fish catch in the lower coursesof Pearl River and Han River basin decreases year by year. In some seriouslypolluted river courses, living freshwater resources are hard to be found.

l Loss of fresh water aquaculture. The Pearl River Delta has a tradition of freshwater aquaculture. Fresh water aquaculture develops quickly in past years inthe coastal areas. Pollution and degradation of fresh water quality has resultedin increased costs of fresh water aquaculture year by year, quality degradationof aquaculture products and therefore value reduction.

l Loss due to modification of biodiversity in the coastal areas.

The problem of shortage of fresh water in China is very serious. Estimatedeconomic loss of shortage of fresh water in China is 120 billion Chinese Yuans peryear. In many islands of outer Pearl Estuary, fresh water demand continues toincrease, fresh water shortage is very serious, therefore, water price goes upper andupper. Precious water price is a heavy economic load on the inhabitants on theislands. For example, Water price on Guishan Island and Dachan Island is 28Chinese Yuans and 17 Chinese Yuans a ton respectively.

3.2 Costs Due to Pollution and Degradation of Sea Water

l With rapid economic development, municipal and industrial wastewaterdischarge into the sea from coastal zone increased sharply, fertilizer used andmaritime aquaculture area increases rapidly in recent years. Therefore,concentrations of organic pollutants and nutrients in the estuaries and baysincreased, areas of eutrophication and red tide have extended, and frequency ofoccurrence has increased. The loss of fishery and maritime aquaculture in near


56

shore waters increases surprisingly year after year. For instance, red tideoccurred in the estuaries and bays at south Fujian Province and Guangdongprovince from October of 1997 to May of 1998, in the waters where red tideoccurred all net cultured living maritime resources died. Estimated loss of thered tide in the period from Match to April of 1998 is around 20 millionChinese Yuans.

l The costs caused by maritime pollution accidents are very big. For instance, inMay 1995, an oil supplement ship collided with a fish boat in Fangcheng PortBay. Oil spilled on the water and contaminated area covered over 25 km2 ofseawater and over 4.5 km2 of inter-tide mudflat. A large part of cultured livingmaritime resources was killed. Estimated loss is 16 million Chinese Yuan.

l Entertainment and tourism value reduction of the related seawater sandbeaches is caused by seawater quality degradation.

3.3 Loss Due to Over-catching

3.3.1 Living Freshwater Resources

Over-caching of living fresh water resources has resulted in sharp reduction ofcatch production of high-value fresh water fish. Particularly over-catching ofspawning fish and young fish has resulted in some species becoming endangeredspecies and rare species, such as Acipencer sinemsis Gray, Macrura reevesl(Richardson) et al.

3.3.2 Living Maritime Resources

Please see sections of 2.3.2.3 and 2.3.2.4.

3.4 Costs Due to Modification of Aquatic Habitats

3.4.1 Freshwater

Modification of habitats affect spawning fields of fish and, therefore, make thepopulations of species declined.

3.4.2 Marine

Modification of habitats in estuaries and bays particularly inappropriately extensivereclamation results in huge loss. Cheng-Rao acclamation in Han River mouth, forexample, is the biggest reclamation project in east of Guandong Province with anarea of 48.6. The reclaimed land is lower than sea level. Arable land is only 58% ofthe total area. Only 41% of the total area were used till 1982. The reclaimed areaused to be a shallow bay with an area of 135 hectares of oyster culture. The yield of


57

oyster was over 100 tons per year. The yield of other living maritime resources wasover 100 tons per year too.

Some species of mangrove cannot stand with the modified habitat, correspondinglybecame endangered species.

3.5 Loss Due to Biodiversity Declination

Serious loss arose from disruption of coral reef ecology balance. In Bangtangvillage, Wenchang City of Hainan Province, for example, disruption of coralhabitat from human activities has caused serious coastline erosion, the coastline hasbeen eroded away over 200 meters.

Due to destroy of mangrove, maritime living habitats and spawning habitatsdecreased. Therefore, living marine resources in some estuaries and bays decreasesrapidly. Also due to destroy of mangrove, coastal dykes loses biological protection.The damage to coastal reclaimed land, aquatic culture practice and salt pans causedby typhoon has increased.


58

4 Analysis of the Root Causes of the Identified Water-related

Principal Environmental Issues

The coastal zone is one of the rapidly developing areas in China also a dense-populated area. Wastewater discharge and pollution loads increases quickly inrecent years. About twenty-percent industrial wastewater and eighty-percentmunicipal wastewater discharged into rivers and the sea is not treated. So, pollutiondischarge from coastal areas is the major cause of identified water-related principalenvironmental issues.

Urban area extension and industrial development in the coastal areas demand moreland. Therefore, extensive reclamation for urban and industrial developmentdecreased the area of wetlands.

Population boom and the improvement of living standards are stimulating thedemand for food, vegetables, fruits and aquatic products. Therefore, the increasinguse of fertilizer and pesticide for meeting the demand for aquaculture is also aimportant cause of pollution and degradation of fresh water and near shore waters.

Population boom and the improvement of living standards have also increased thedemand for seafood. So, over-exploitation of living marine resources has resultedin the decrease of marine catching in the estuaries and bays year by year.

In brief, large population, lack of founds and poor management are major causes ofwater-related issues/problems. But, each specific environmental issue and its causediffer from one another. According to the data and information presented in chapter2 and general circumstance of the South China Sea and its associated freshwatercatchments, in Table 4.1 to Table 4.2, all specific identified water-relatedenvironmental issue/problem are listed. Table 4.1 to Table 4.4 involves issues ofpollution, fresh water, exploitation of living aquatic resources and modification ofaquatic habitats, the sources, main impact areas, particularly the analyses of theroot social-economic causes, potential transboundary consequences and severityrespectively. The severity is graded as 3 for severe effects, 2 for major effects, 1 formoderate effects, 0 for no effects.

According to analyses and evaluation in Table 4.1 to Table 4.4 and present status ofthe coastal areas, major environmental problems/issues, the causal chain analysesand proposed actions are listed in Table 4.5. Main environmental problems/issuesinclude pollution of nutrients (N & P) and organic materials (COD & BOD), redtide, widespread modification of aquatic habitats, oil pollution and naturaldisasters.

Tables 4.1 to Table 4.5 are helpful for transboundary diagnostic analysis for theSouth China Sea and its associated freshwater catchments.


59

Table 4.1 Main pollution issues, impacts and causes

sources Impact areas impacts Root/ social-economiccauses

Trans-boundaryaspect

Severity

1. Municipal wastewater:

N/P, BOD/COD, bacteria,metals and chemicals loadsto rivers and sea waters

l Pearl Estuary

l Shantou Bay

l Guangzhou Bay

l Near shore water of Haikou City

l Near shore water of Beihai City

l water qualitydegradation

l eutrophication

l anoxia/fish kills

l bioaccumulation

l human health

l lack of treatmentfacilities

l lack of investment

l biodiversityloss

3

2. industrial wastewater:chemicals, heavy metals,POPs, BOD, COD andSS loads

l Pearl Estuary

l Shantou Bay

l Guangzhou Bay



l acute/chronic toxicityl anoxia/ marine

animal asphyxiation

l lack of incentives forlow-consumption/wasteproduction

l lack of adequatetreatment technology

l lack of resource forpollution control

l biodiversityloss

1

3. agricultural/rural/townpollution:

l Rice farms/domestic/aquaculture wastewater

l N/P, BOD/COD,chemicals, POPs andpesticide/ herbicide loads

l Sediment/ silt

l Pearl Estuary

l Shantou Bay

l Guangzhou Bay



l water qualitydegradation

l eutrophication

l anoxia/fish kills

l human health

l improper use offertilizer /pesticide

l lack of integratedmanagement

l poor enforcement oflaws and regulations

l biodiversityloss

3

4. oil/hydrocarbons:

l ship-based operationaldischarge

l ports/ oil terminals spill

l exploration/exploitation

l municipal wastewater

l Pearl Estuary

l Shantou Bay

l Guangzhou Bay



l anoxia/ marineanimal asphyxiation

l lack of resource forpollution control

l lack of integratedmanagement

l biodiversityloss

2


60

Table 4.1 continue

sources Impact areas impacts Root/ social-economiccauses

Trans-boundaryaspect

Severity

5. solid waste:

l landfill fields

l solid waste/ litter/marine debris

l chemicals seepage

l waste dumping

l Pearl River Delta l surface waterdegradation

l urbanlandscape

l public health

l lack of regulation forrecycle, reuse anddisposal

l lack of resource

No 1

6. ship-based discharge:

l dumping( dredged materials)

l ballast waste

l exotic species bilge-water

l normal/accident waste discharge

l Pearl Estuary

l Shantou Bay

l Guangzhou Bay

l Near shore water ofHaikou City

l Near shore water ofBeihai City

l acute/chronictoxicity

l anoxia/ marineanimalasphyxiation(e.g. accidentaloil spill)

l Lack of legalenforcement

l Lack of regulation toenforce

l Lack of capability ofsurveillance/monitoring

l Biodiversity loss

l Potentialtransboundarypollution(e.g.accidental oilspill)

2

7. sediment:

l pollutants accumulation

l benthos/coral asphyxiation caused bytrawlnets

l soil erosion/sediment caused by waterconservancy project construction

l Pearl Estuary l anoxia/benthosasphyxiation

l sedimentation

l lack of coordinationbetween developingactivities andenvironmentprotection

l biodiversity loss 2

8. atmosphere inputs:

l carbon inputs from power station and fire

l acid inputs(smoke, NOX , SOX) frompower station and plants

l heavy metals from industrial process andvehicles

l POPs formed in industry and burning

l Pearl River Delta

l Coastal region in eastGuangxi

l long-termpoisonousdamage

l improper energycomposition

l lack of adequatetechnology to controlair pollution

l lack of financialresource

l possibility of longdistancetransportation

2


61

Table 4.2 Main fresh water issues, impacts and causes

Issue impact areas Impacts direct causes root/social-economic causes

tran-sboundaryaspects

severity

Freshwatershortage

l rural areas in the threecounties in eastGuangdong Province

l Leizhou Peninsula

l cities: Beihai,Guangzhou, Shantou,Shenzhen, HongKong, Macau

l pause/closure ofa part of plants

l economic loss

l insufficient precipitation/over extraction of groundwater: Leizhou Peninsula,Zhanjiang City and BeihaiCity

l natural shortage: the threecounties in eastGuangdong Province andShenzhen City

l quality degradation:Guangzhou City andShantou City

l lack of incentivesfor saving water

l lack of policy toencourage wastewater treatment

l lack of investment

No 1

Qualitydegradation

l Guangzhou City,Fuoshan City,Shantou City

l Public health l Untreatedmunicipal/industrialwastewater to rivers

l Non-point sources

l lack of funds forwaste watertreatment

l backwardindustrialtechniques/highwater consumption

no 2


62

Table 4.3 Over-exploitation of living aquatic resources, effects and causes

over-exploi-tation effects immediate causes root/social-economic causes transboundaryconsequence

severity

Fresh water l significant decrease offish catch

l endangered species

l over-fishing

l water pollution

l population growth/demandincrease

l failure in understandingimportance of ecosystems

l lack of public awareness

l lack of sustainable developmentstrategy

l biodiversity loss

l productivityreduction

2

Marine l increase of productioncosts

l rise of price of marineproducts

l growth of capability ofmarine catch

l profit pursuance

l growth of demand

l marine productivityreduction

1


63

Table 4.4 Modification of habitats, effects and causes

habitat impact areas effects immediate causes root/social-economic causes transboundary asoects priority

mangrove l Pearl Estuary

l Leizhou Bay

l Tieshan Bay

l HainanProvince

l loss of amenity value

l aquatic productivityreduction

l coastal erosion

l weakening capability ofseashore against naturaldisaster

l improper coastaldevelopment/reclamation

l massive coastal populationgrowth results in growingpressure for land reclamation


l failure in evaluating theecological/ economicalvalues of mangrove


coral reefs l HainanProvince

l marine productivitydecrease

l mining to makelime and roads

l extraction forhandicraft articles


l failure in evaluating theecological value of coralreefs

l profit incentive


seagrass l Pearl Estuary l marine productivitydecrease

l decrease caused bytrawlnets

l covered bysediment

l over-exploiting bypeople

l fail in understanding itsecological importance

l lack of legislation


wetlands l Pearl Estuary

l Beihai City

l decrease of food/spawning ground ofliving marine resources

l decrease of coastalbuffer zone for land-based pollution

l improper coastaldevelopment/reclamation

l massive coastal populationgrowth and rapiddevelopment result ingrowing land demand

l failure in understandingenvironmental andecological importance ofwetland



64

Table 4.5 Main environmental problems/issues and causal chain analysis

problems/ issues impact areas sources immediate causes intermidiate causes

nutrient(N&P)/organic pollutants(COD)

l Pearl Estuary

l Shantou Bay

l Guangzhou Bay



l domestic wastewater

l industrial wastewater

l agriculture activity

l aquaculture activity

l untreated domestic/ industrialdischarge

l wash-away of excess N&Pfrom fertilizer use

l improper agriculturaltechnique

l poor management ofagricultural waste

l lack of treatment facilities fordomestic/industrial wastewater

l high-consumption of water

harmful algaeblooms

l Pearl Estuary

l Han River mouth & adjacentwaters

l Industrial/domestic/agricultural wastewaterdischarge

l Nutrients (N&P)fromfreshwater/ marineaquaculture practice

l Eutrophication l excess nutrients dischargedfrom domestic/industrialsources

l nutrient fluxes to water bodiesfrom fertilizer application/intensive animal husbandry/aquacultural practice

l storm run-off

oil pollution l Pearl Estuary

l Shantou Bay

l Guangzhou Bay



l ports/harbors

l riverine/marinetransportation

l lad-based discharge

l ship accidents

l oil spills

l discharge from ports/ harborsand ships

l oil-containing wastewaterdischarge

l malpractice

l lack of sufficient facilities forcollecting oily wastewater

l lack of treatment facilities

Modification ofhabitats(mangrove,coral reefs, seagrassand wetland)

widespread:

- the coastal areas

- sea waters in the SCS

- freshwater bodies

l coastal development l coastal reclamation

l exploitation of coral reefs

l intensive aquaculture

l demand growth for land

l trying to increase income

Natural disaster widespread:

- the coastal areas

l natural element:

- El Rhino

- tropic storm

l Typhoon

l storm surge

l tsunami

l improper seashore protection

l improper coastal development

l improper alarm system


65

Tables 4.5 continue

problems root causes social/economic costs needed actionsNutrient(N&P)/organicpollutants(COD)

l lack of funds to adopt adequateproduction/ treatment technology

l poor enforcement of environmentallaws/ regulations

l improper water price

l loss of freshwater/ marinefishery

l capability building (e.g. planning, training, monitoring andinformation system)

l construction of treatment facilitiesl legislation: revision of existing laws, making necessary new

lawsl management improvementl research on pollution mechanism and control technique

harmful algaeblooms

l lack of low-cost technology fornutrient removal from domestic andindustrial sewage

l improper fertilizer applicationl failure in understanding the

mechanism of harmful algae blooml lack of forecast capability

l loss of marine aquaculture l more efficient agriculture technologyl sustainable development strategyl research works and information collectionl improvement of capability for forecast and of emergency

measure

oil pollution l poor enforcement of regulationsl lack of public awareness on oil

pollutionl lack of funds for management

l loss of freshwater/ marinefishery

l loss of marine aquaculturel negative effect on tourisml cost growth of emergency

measure for oil spill accident

l improvement of management for treatment of oily containingwastewater and oil spill

l capability building of emergency measures for oil spilll increase of investment to improve oil recovery facilities

Modification ofhabitats(mangrove, coral reefs,seagrass andwetland

l too large population and povertyl lack of public awarenessl failure in evaluate/value the

ecological resourcesl lack of legal enforcementl public policy failures

l loss of amenity valuel huge cost for restorationl biodiversity lossl loss of fishery

l set-up of nature preservesl habitat restoration projectsl environment education/ pubic awarenessl legal/regulation enforcementl ecological resource evaluationl capability buildingl database/information

natural disaster l lack of forecast capabilityl lack of coastal planning

l casualtiesl loss of property

l capability buildingl research work on potential effects of climate change and

natural disasterl improvement of coastal planningl guideline for coastal planning and management


66

5 Constraints to Action

5.1 Information, Scientific Uncertainties and Public Awareness

The water environment systems and aquatic ecology systems are composed ofmulti-subsystem; i.e. they are intricate and complicated. Therefore, obtainedinformation on the state of pollution may be inadequate. Information acquisitionfor the public is difficult. Particularly gained information on living aquaticresources and habitants is usually inadequate, incomprehensive, unsystematic andsometimes contradictory. Both the data provision and information acquisition needsa lot of time.

There exist scientific uncertainties in description and assessment of environmentsystems, living aquatic resources and habitats. This sometimes makes it difficult toconvince public and decision-makers of social-economic profit of environmentalimprovement, and social-economic loss of environmental quality degradation andcost for restoration. Further more, since environment is an open system and thereare interactions among its various parts, decision-makers may have difficulty inexpecting direct reward of action.

China is a developing country. Up to now, its GNP per capita is only about 600 USdollars. Most people received just preliminary education. Therefore, lack of publicawareness on the environment is an important constraint to action. Public anddecision-makers usually give economic development high priority but environmentprotection low priority. More attention is paid to improvement of living standardthan improvement of environment quality. Public particularly decision-makerswithout environmental consciousness are a much more severe constraint to actionthan information and scientific uncertainties.

5.2 Financial and Economic

To protect surface water from pollution, a huge funds for treatment of domestic andindustrial wastewater is needed. In China coastal areas, financial and economicrestraints to action are key points. Only in few big coastal cities are there domesticand mixed wastewater treatment plants. Treatment rate of domestic wastewater inthe coastal areas is less than twenty percent.

5.3 Legal, Institutional and Managerial

The legislation on environment protection and natural resource protection in Chinastarted from early 1980s. Up to now, China has 6 laws which relate to identifiedprincipal environmental issues and 8 laws on natural resources protection. It isobvious that China should have more laws on environment protection and


67

resources protection particularly for wetland and habitats. As a signatory state ofmany international conventions, China legally promises to fulfil its obligations fortransboundary pollution control action.

Up to now, China has no national agency responsible for the management ofaquatic resources, wetlands and habitats. For example, wetlands are managed bydifferent agencies from different sectors. The mechanism of cooperation amongsectors is unclear, which often causes overlaps and conflicts.


68

6 On-going and Planned Activities to the Identified Water-related Principal Environmental Issues

6.1 Legislation and Regulation

Laws promulgated, which are related to identified principal environmentalissues, are as follows:

l Marine Environment Protection Law of People’s Republic of China

l Fishery Law of People’s Republic of China

l Marine Traffic Safety Law of People’s Republic of China

l Mineral Resources Law of People’s Republic of China

l Wildlife Protection Law of People’s Republic of China

l Water Pollution Control Law of People’s Republic of China

The relative regulations of China are as follows:

l Regulation on Preventing Seawater Pollution from Boats and Ships

l Regulation on Marine Environment Protection from Oil Exploration andExploitation

l Regulation on Marine Dumping

l Regulation on Preventing Environmental Pollution from Ship Dismantling

l Regulation on Preventing and Controlling the Pollution and Damage of MarineEnvironment from Land-based pollutants

l Regulation on Preventing and Controlling the Pollution and Damage of MarineEnvironment from Coastal Construction Activity

l Regulation on Cooperative Exploitation of Marine Oil with Foreigner Partners

l Regulation on Nature Reserves

l Regulation on the Protection of Reproduction of Aquatic Resources

l Regulation on Abroad Boats and Ships


69

l Regulation on Drinking Water Source Protection

l Seawater Quality Standard

6.2 Chinese Trans-century Green Project Program

The program has been started from 1995 and will be finished by 2010. It coversChina’s seven major river (including Pearl River) catchments. Thirty-six projectsincluding thirteen sewage treatment plants are planned in Pearl River basin in theninth Five-year period (1995 to 2000). It is expected that the treatment plants willhave a capacity of 1.54 million per day with 190,000 tons per year of CODremoval (including 150,000 tons per year of COD from domestic wastewater and40,000 tons per year of COD from industrial wastewater).

In the program are also planned ninety-nine projects for coastal cities and nearshore waters. The planned capacity of sewage treatment is 1.04 million tons a day.Expected annual COD removal is 300,000 tons (including 110,000 tons fromdomestic wastewater and 190,000 tons from industrial wastewater).

It is expected that the planned projects will reduce significantly the pollution loadsparticular COD and oil to the South China Sea. Therefore, it can improve themarine environment.

6.3 Chinese Biodiversity Protection Action Plan

The Chinese Biodiversity protection Action Plan was completed by NationalEnvironment Protection Agency (NEPA, now it is called State EnvironmentProtection Administration, SEPA) of China in 1993. Seven protection objectivesand corresponding actions were planned. The action five is about the protection ofcoasts and seas. The objectives of action five are to protect marine ecosystems, toprevent the marine environment from pollution, to ban over-catching, to protectmudflats from pollution and reclamation, and to protect seawaters from marineaquaculture.

6.4 Determination of Water Quality Objectives for Coastal Waters

To coordinate the relationship of regional development and environment of coastalareas, to improve the ecological systems of near shore waters, and to protect marineenvironment from pollution, the SEPA of China started an action to determinewater quality objectives of coastal waters in 1990. Water quality objectives weredetermined according to the utilization purpose of the near shore waters. The nearshore waters of China were determined four type of utilization based upon currentnational marine water quality standard which includes three comprehensive sets ofmarine water quality standards. Correspondingly, water quality objectives were


70

defined in four categories of utilization:

l Waters for marine nature reserves and waters where there exist rare marinecreatures

l Waters serving for marine-related industrial production such as salt processingand food processing

l Waters for fishery, mariculture and swimming

l Waters for general amenity purpose

It is expected that the action will improve the management of marine environmentand the coastal waters.

6.5 Pollution Reduction from Land-based Sources

To protect the coastal waters from land-based pollutant discharge eleven sewagetreatment plants with a total capacity above 2 million tons a day have been inoperation in the coastal cities up to now. The treatment rate of industrialwastewater in the coastal areas is eighty percent.

6.6 Total Load Control to the Seas from Land-based Sources

Total load control to the seas from land-based sources is a key measure to resolvemarine pollution problems. China initiated recently the plan of total load control.The initial stage of the plan is to investigate pollution sources and pollutant loads tothe seas. The total load to the sea is determined based upon the assessment ofassimilative capacity.

6.7 Ship and Seaport Pollution Control

In view that severe pollution may result from oil spill from ship and marineinstallations, China has developed oil spill emergency program. In the mean timeresearch and development of technologies for oil spill emergent reaction have bestrengthened.

To control pollution of seaports, seaport pollution program has also beendeveloped. Facilities have been installed to collect and treat oily wastewater andchemical or hazardous water from ship and harbors. Above-mentioned measureshave suppressed pollution from sea-based sources.


71

7 Specific Action Proposed for Each Identified Issue/ Problem

7.1 Habitat Modification

7.1.1 Marine Dumping

Environment protection law, marine environment protection law and the law ofpollution protection from solid waste and relative regulations of China prohibitdomestic and industrial waste to be dumped to any water body including sea.

China has set report requirement and license requirement for the management ofmarine dumping. This management requirement came into force in 1991. Anymarine dumping activity must be reported to relative agencies and be licensed inadvance. Most licensed marine dumping waste is dredging material. The dumpingsites were located in the seas where the marine dumping has only slight effect or noeffect on aquatic creatures.

Laws strictly ban dumping to any freshwater bodies in land.

7.1.2 Determination of Water Quality Objectives of Coastal Waters

The SEPA of China carried out an action to determine the water quality objectivescoastal waters in 1990. Top level of water quality objectives were given to thecoastal waters with important marine habitat value or endangered/ rare species. Theaction plays a very important role in the protection of marine ecosystems andendangered/rare species.

7.1.3 Chinese Biodiversity Protection Action Plan

The action 5 of Chinese Biodiversity protection Action Plan is about the protectionof coasts and seas. Marine ecosystem protection, coastal mudflat protection andcoastal pollution control are the essential contents.

7.1.4 Coastal Nature Preserves

Facing to great pressure of massive coastal population and coastal reclamation onmarine habitats, China has set up coastal nature preserves to protect importanthabitats from being destroyed.

7.1.4.1 Mangrove Preserves

China has set up mangrove preserves in the coastal areas. They are:

l Futian, Guangdong

l Shenzhen River mouth to Baishizhou, Guangdong


72

l Beitan, Guangdong

l Haitian, Guangdong

l He’an and Xincha, Guangdong

l Yinluo Bay, Guangdong

l Shankou, Guangxi

l Qingzhou Bay, Guangxi

l Beilun River mouth, Guangxi

l Dongzai Port, Hainan

l Qinglan, Hainan

l Caiqiao, Hainan

l Qingmei Port in Yalong Bay, Hainan

l Sanya River, Hainan

l Xialan, Hainan

7.1.4.2 Coral Reef and Seagrass Preserves

With respect to coral reefs preserves in China, please sea section 2.4.2.2.

With respect to seagrass preserves in China, please sea section 2.4.2.4.

7.2 Pollution

Pollution from human activities is major cause of identified environmental issues/problems. So, pollution reduction and loads reduction to the sea is a key point ofthe actions to resolve water-pollution problems

Several wastewater and waste treatment plants were constructed in the coastalcities (please see Tables 7.1). The existing treatment plants have alleviated thepressure of pollution discharge from the coastal cities on marine environment.

All levels of government in China in the coastal areas have paid much attention towaste/wastewater treatment in past years. All major coastal cities have made acomprehensive plan for pollution control and waste/wastewater treatment in a shortterm and a long term. The investments for waste/wastewater in the coastal citiesstarted to increase greatly from 1997. A number of treatment plants are beingconstructed or will be constructed in recent years (please see Table 7.2) to reducepollution to rivers and the sea. Here treatment plans in few typical coastal cities andPearl River Delta are briefly introduced. The coastal cities and Pearl River Delta aremajor cities/ area of identified pollution hot spots.


73

Table 7.1 Existing waste treatment facilities

Mixed wastewater

treatment facilities

Domestic wastewater

Treatment facilities

Industrial wastewater


Subregion

Number Capacity

(103 ton/a)

Number Capacity

(103 ton/a)

Number Capacity

(103 ton/a)

Guangdong (1997)

Chaozhou 0 0 0 0 72 3557.5

Shantou 1 3270 0 0 220 16873.6

Jieyang 0 0 0 0 43 4103.3

Shanwei 0 0 0 0 13 1296.0

Huizhou 0 0 0 0 150 7978.3

Shenzhen 7 152010 0 0 485 33760.9

Dongguan 2 3410 0 0 139 47176.8

Guangzhou 2 97040 0 0 1061 218532.7

Zhongshan 10 11260 0 0 247 50885.3

Zhuhai 3 28920 0 0 117 18755.3

Jiangmen 0 0 1 7300 270 73374.3

Yangjiang 0 0 0 0 43 16672.8

Maoming 0 0 0 0 159 49262.1

Zhanjiang 0 0 0 0 223 59145.6

Subtotal 28 295910 1 7300 3242 601374.5

Guangxi (1996)

Beihai 0 0 0 0 N/D 15205.4

Qingzhou 0 0 0 0 N/D 18380.5

Fangcheng Port 0 0 0 0 N/D 2713.1

Subtotal 0 0 0 0 N/D 36119.0

Hainan (1997)

Haikou 2 4030 0 0 12 4533.4

Wanning 0 0 1 840 4 171.5

Others 0 0 0 0 158 39772.3

Subtotal 2 4030 1 840 174 44477.2

Hong Kong N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D N/D

Macau 2 294410 0 0 N/D N/D


74

Table 7.1 continue

Solid waste treatment facilitiesSubregion

Number Type Capacity

Volume of solid wastegoes to landfills(ton/a)

Guandong (1997)

Shenzhen 1 Incinerator 139600 ton/a 826300

Dongguan 1 Incinerator 100 ton/d N/D

Other cities 0 2883700

Subtotal 2 37100

Guangxi 0 N/D

Hainan 0 N/D

Hong Kong N/D N/D

Macau (1996) 2 Incinerator 198000 ton/a 480

Table 7.2 Waste treatment (in year 2003)

Mixed wastewater


Domestic wastewater


Industrial wastewater


Subregion

Number Capacity

(103 ton/a)

Number Capacity

(103 ton/a)

Number Capacity

(103 ton/a)

Guangdong (1997)

Shantou 1 3270 2 69350 N/D N/D

Jieyang 1 10950 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Shanwei 0 0 0 0 13 1296.0

Huizhou N/D N/D 2 43800 N/D N/D

Shenzhen 10 323400 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Dongguan 2 3410 3 60220 N/D N/D

Guangzhou 5 128700 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Zhongshan 10 11260 1 36500 N/D N/D

Zhuhai 3 73000 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Jiangmen 1 32850 1 7300 N/D N/D

Yangjiang 1 3650 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Maoming 1 18250 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Zhanjiang 1 36500 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Guangxi (1996)

Beihai 1 73000 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Hainan (1997)

Haikou 3 116800 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Wanning 1 2190 N/D N/D N/D N/D

Sanya 1 29200 1 1820 N/D N/D

Ledong 1 3650 N/D N/D N/D N/D


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7.2.1 Water Pollution Control Plan of Shantou City

Present Status of Pollution Discharge

In the urban area of Shantou City, total amount of wastewater is 481.97 milliontons a year. Among that, industrial wastewater directly to the sea is 45.98 milliontons a year, domestic wastewater directly to the sea is 73.23 million tons, andwastewater through four channels to the sea is 362.75 million tons. The plandivides the urban area into eight drainage sub-areas. In Table 7.3 pollution loads ofeach sub-area are listed.

Table 7.3 Pollution loads of Shantou City (1995)

Sub-area Load to the sea (t/a)Wastewater

(ton/a) SS CODcr BOD5 Ammonia-N Total-P oil

New development 176723700 10523.06 20587.24 6235.21 1115.10 163.98 118.44

North old area 54438000 2639.85 7060.28 3744.58 950.5 150.64 89.94

West Port 111069000 10300.76 5752.42 2207.77 911.15 117.78 27.58

Meixi SE (-1256000) 3286.60 5562.93 2829.78 692.74 105.16 79.40

Meixi NW 18471700 1062.93 2704.11 1175.48 207.27 38.66 19.05

Dagang River 49145700 2377.04 1512.48 825.26 156.62 60.43 20.30

Dahao 20871400 1122.97 3215.80 1017.39 201.87 49.94 27.55

Hepu Town 4416500 N/D 728.72 326.82 64.48 16.25 5.61

7.2.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Scheme

Four wastewater plants have been planned to be constructed in the urban area withtotal capacity of 422000 tons per day. The capacity of each plant is listed in Table7.4.

Table 7.4 Planned wastewater treatment plants

Name of wastewater treatment plant Capacity (ton/day)East subregion 222000

Niutianyang 26000

Qishan 139000Da’an 35000

Total 422000


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7.2.1.2 Schedule of Implementation

Stage 1 (by year 2000)

The capacity of East subregion plant will be extended to 140000 tons a day.Niutianyang plant No. 1 with a capacity of 19700 tons a day will be constructed.Estimated total cost is 287.4 million Chinese Yuans.

Stage 2 (2001 to 2010)

Four treatment plants will be constructed. Total cost is estimated to be 579.7million Chinese Yuans.

7.2.2 Water Pollution Control Plan of Zhanjiang City

7.2.2.1 Present Status of Pollution Discharge

The investigation result shows the major pollutants in the coast waters are COD,inorganic nitrogen and oil. Loads of effluents at four discharge points are listed inTable 7.5.

Table 7.5 Pollution discharge to the sea from Zhanjiang urban area

Locations CODcr (ton/a) Inorganic-N(ton/a)

Oil (ton/a)

Shawan 6435.0 454.8 77.71

Developing zone 2496.6 228.5 64.71

Huguang District 2752.1 155.9 47.89

Potou District 7.3 0.37 0.15

7.2.2.2 Wastewater Treatment Scheme

By year 2000 four planned wastewater treatment plants will be completed. Totalcapacity is 199,000 tons a day. The estimated cost is 239.2 million Chinese Yuans.The operational cost is estimated to be 199,000 Yuans a day.

Table 7.6 Wastewater treatment in Zhanjiang City

Nameof plant

Capacity(ton/d)

COD removal rate(%)

Cost(million Yuan)

Operation cost(Yuan)

Shawan 94200 78.9 113.0 94200

Lutang 23200 61.8 27.8 23200Bifeng 35400 83.8 42.5 35400

Chemical P. 46200 62.2 55.4 46200

Total 199000 23.9 199000


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7.2.3 Water Pollution Control Plan for Pearl River Delta

Pollution discharge from city group in the Pearl River Delta is the major source ofwater pollution and quality degradation of Pearl River network and Pearl Estuary.To improve water quality, sixteen major industrial wastewater facilities (see Table7.7) and seven comprehensive projects (see Table 7.8) in Pearl River Delta havebeen planned. The estimated cost for the sixteen facilities is 6904.8 million Yuans,and the estimated cost for the seven projects is 6523 million Yuans.

Table 7.7 Industrial wastewater treatment facilities in the Pearl River Delta

Name of facility Cost estimation(million Yuan)

Guangzhou papermaking plant 40Guangzhou monosodium glutamate plant 20

Guangzhou Huangpu ship-making plant 16.97

Guangzhou chemical plant 0.65Panyu Meishan sugar refinery 20

Lianhuashan papermaking plant 6

Panyu fertilizer plant 12Fuoshan Huanan decorative cloth plant 7.5

Fuoshan textile mill 4.5

Shanshui Qiangli brewery 3.5Jiangmen papermaking plant 233.77

Huizhou brewery 2

Huidong sugar refinery 2.5Doumen Baijiao sugar refinery 6.5

Zhuhai Pingsha sugar refinery 3.5

Zhuhai brewery 2.4Total 381.79

Table 7.8 Water projects in the Pearl River Delta

Name of project Cost estimation(million Yuan)

Sixianjiao dam 1100

Guangzhou-Humen regulation project 3900

Second stage of Fen River regulation project, Fuoshan 1260Qi River regulation project, Zhongshan 1350

Yisha River regulation project, Jiangmen 113

Star Lake regulation project, Zhaoqing 100Shenzhen River regulation project 1100

Total 6523


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7.3 Freshwater Shortage

7.3.1 Coastal Cities Deficient of Freshwater

Coastal cities being deficient of freshwater are Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Macau,Zhanjiang, Beihai and Sanya. In the cities the demanded amount of freshwater islarger than maximum sustainable freshwater supply. Due to massive populationgrowth, urban expansion and industry development in past years, surface waterdegradation is so serious that it cannot be used as drinking water source. Thefreshwater supply in these cities has to be dependent on surface water of otherareas.

Hong Kong and Shenzhen City

Since 1987 a part of freshwater supply has come from Dongjiang River that isthirty kilometers north from Shenzhen City. At present, freshwater supply fromDongjiang River composes about eighty percent of total freshwater supply in thetwo cities.

Macau

All freshwater supply comes from Muodaomen outlet of Pearl River. Thefreshwater pipeline is about forty kilometers long.

Zhanjiang City, Beihai City and Sanya City

Water diversion works have been constructed for these cities. The distance from thecities to freshwater sources is between forty to eighty kilometers.

7.3.2 Coastal Cities with Surface Water Degradation

Guangzhou City, Fuoshan City and Jiangmen City in the Pearl River Delta are richin surface water. Freshwater sources of these cities were local rivers before. Due tofreshwater degradation caused by pollutant discharge from the cities, freshwatersources had to be moved to upper reaches of the rivers.


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8 Implications of the Proposal Actions by Sector

8.1 Finance

l Central government and provincial government will provide subsidies for keypollution control projects in the coastal zone.

l Municipal and/or county budget is for domestic wastewater treatmentfacilities.

8.2 Economic Development

l Chinese government will launch environment-friendly economic developmentpolicy. In the course of urbanization and industrialization sustainabledevelopment is the essential target of economic development. Cleaningproduction and material recycling are encouraged to reduce resourceconsumption and pollution.

l Environment-friendly master plans are promoted at provincial, regional andmunicipal levels.

l Favorable policy is made for foreign and domestic investment in environmentprojects (clean water, wastewater treatment, waste treatment and so on) andlow pollution production.

8.3 Fisheries

l Set up fishery-banned zones in reservoirs, rivers, lakes and the sea to protectspawning fish and young fish. Setting up fishing forbidden season in the sea.

l Encourage freshwater and coastal aquaculture, technology transfer, breedingand supply of young fish.

l Put young fish into rivers to increase fish population.

l Encourage offshore fishing, technology transfer and assistance.

l Strengthen education, propaganda and public awareness on environmentprotection.

8.4 Agriculture

l Make sustainable agriculture policy to reduce pollution causing eutrophication


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and red tide.

l Encourage technology transfer and assistance of chemical fertilizer utilization.

l Use pesticide of low poison.

l Launch non-poisonous vegetable program and clean water project in ruralareas.

l Strengthen propaganda and education to rural population on environmentprotection.

8.5 Forestry

In the coastal regions, decrease of area of forest stopped in 1980s and forest hasincreased significantly in 1990s in Guangdong subregion. It is still needed to

l Forbid cutting land and wetland forest and promote afforestation;

l Accomplish green-cover program for bare hills and mountains;

l Establish more nature reserves; and

l Construct green projects.

8.6 Manufacturing

l Conduct environment impact assessment for new project and expandingproject

l Set deadline for all sectors to meet effluent standard by year 2000.

l Implement total load control scheme.


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9 References and Sources of Data and Information

1. Tang Yongnan, et al. The Investigation Report on Coastal Zone and MudflatResource of Guangdong Province, Marine press, Beijing, 1987

2. Pan Junhua, et al. The Freshwater Fishes of Guangdong Province, Guangdongscience and technology press, Guangzhou, 1990

3. Statistic Yearbooks of Guangdong Province, China statistics press, Beijing, 1992-1997

4. Statistic yearbook of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China statistics press,Beijing, 1995-1997

5. Statistic yearbook of Hainan Province, China statistics press, Beijing, 1992-1997

6. Wang Yuqing, Chen Changdu, et al. An Research Report on Biodiversity in China,Chinese environmental science press, Beijing, 1994

7. Agriculture division committee of Guangdong Province, An Summary Report onAgricultural Resources of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou, 1988

8. Wang Xianfu, Liu Yukai. The Theory and Practice on Biodiversity, Guangdongpeople’s press, Guangzhou, 1994

9. Chen qingchao, et al. “The Exploitation Status, Potential and Developing Strategyof Living Resources in the South China Sea.” Research and Exploitation of theSCS. The SCS Marine Institute, Guangzhou, 1991(2)

10. The SCS fishery bureau. An Atlas of Fishery Field in the South China Sea.Guangdong map press, Guangzhou, 1994

11. A Collection of Laws and Regulations on Marine Environmental Protection.Chinese environmental science press, Beijing, 1991

12. Chines Trans-century Green Project Program. Chinese environmental sciencepress, Beijing, 1994

13. Jin Jianming, et al. China Biodiversity Protection Action Plan. Chineseenvironmental science press, Beijing, 1994

14. Zhang Jinquan, et al. Nature Reserves of Guangdong Province. Guangdongtourism press, Guangzhou, 1997

15. Research on Environment Quality of Nansha Islands and Adjacent Seawaters.Marine press, Beijing, 1996

16. Protection and Research on Rare and Endangered Plants. Chinese environmentalscience press, Beijing, 1991

17. Lin Peng, Fu Qing, Environmental Ecology and economic Utilization of


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Mangroves in China. High education press, Beijing, 1995

18. Chen Qingchao, et al. Studies on Marine Biodiversity of the Nansha Islands andAdjacent Waters ( ). Marine press, Beijing, 1990

19. Mo Yinliang, et al. A survey Report on Islands of Guangdong Province. Scienceand technology press, Beijing, 1995

20. An Investigation Report on Islands of China and Resources. Marine press, Beijing,1996

21. China Environment Yearbook. Chinese environmental science press, Beijing, 1996

22. Xue Yuanda, Jiang Mingkang, et al. Set-up and Management of Nature Reserves inChina. Chinese environmental science press, Beijing, 1994

23. Water Resource in China. Geology press, Beijing, 1991

24. A Report of Population, Resources and Environment in China. Chineseenvironmental science press, Beijing, 1995

25. Ma Yingliang, et al. Collected works of Survey and Research on Coastal Zone andMudflat Resource in the Pearl Estuary. Guangdong science and technology press,Guangzhou, 1985

26. Jiang Mingkang et al. Collection on Efficient Management of Nature Reserves.Chinese environmental science press, Beijing, 1992

27. Present Status and Management of mangrove Resources and Mangrove Coastlinein China. Tropic marine research ( ), 1997

28. Collection of studies on Marine Creature of Nansha islands and Adjacent Waters.Marine press, Beijing, 1991

29. Xu Gongzhao, et al. Environment and Resources of Daya Bay. Anhui science andtechnology press, Hefei, 1989

30. Marine Fishery Environment of China. Zhejiang science and technology press,Hangzhou, 1991

31. A Survey Report of Coastline and Mudflat Resources of Guangxi ZhuangAutonomous Region. Marine press, Beijing, 1986

32. China Bays, volume XIV. Marine press, 1993

33. Studies on the Environment of Pearl River and Pearl River Basin. Guangdong higheducation press, Guangzhou, 1995

34. Trans-century Green project Program of China, volume I, Chinese environmentalscience press, Beijing, 1996


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