Report No. 3306-UV FILE COPYUpper VoltaLivestock Subsector Review

November 30, 1982

Western Africa Region

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

Document of the World Bank

This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipientsonly in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwisebe disclosed without World Bank authorization.

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FISCAL YEAR

January 1 - December 31

EXCHANGE RATES-/

1970 US$1.00 = CFAF 277.711971 US$1.00 = CFAF 277.031972 US$1.00 = CFAF 252.211973 US$1.00 = CFAF 222.701974 US$1.00 = CFAF 240.501975 US$1.00 = CFAF 214.321976 US$1.00 = CFAF 238.981977 US$1.00 = CFAF 245.671978 US$1.00 = CFAF 225.641979 US$1.00 = CFAF 212.721980 US$1.00 = CFAF 210.00

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: METRIC SYSTEM

Metric British/USequivalent

1 Kilometre (Km) 6.2 miles1 hectare (ha) = 2.47 acres1 liter (1) = 1.057 quarts1 metric ton (MT) = 1.1 tons1 Kilogram (kg) = 2.2046 pounds

1/ Period average

FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY

UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table of Contents

Page

I. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................. 1

II. COUNTRY BACKGROUND ....................................... 8

III. LIVESTOCK RESOURCES .11

Livestock Population .11

Animal Health .16

Feed Resources .18Agricultural Byproducts .20

Water .23

IV. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND USE ............................. 25

Production ............................................... 25Exports ........... ....................................... 28

Transit ........... ....................................... 30Imports ........... ....................................... 31Consumption .............................................. 32Processing ............................................... 35

V. ECONOMICS OF LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR ......................... 38

Production ............................................... 38Livestock Marketing ...................................... 41Credit ............ ....................................... 46Taxes and Subsidies ...................................... 47Prices ............ ....................................... 54

VI. INTEGRATION OF LIVESTOCK AND AGRICULTURE .... ............. 59

VII. SUPPORT SERVICES .65

Government Institutions .65Parastatals .69

Other Agencies .71Training .73

Research .75

VIII. PAST LIVESTOCK PROJECTS .77

Bank Projects .77

Other Aid Agencies .79

| This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance oftheir official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization.

Table of Contents (Cont'd)

Page

IX. GOVERNMENT LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY .... ............ 81

Description of Current Strategy ........... .. ............. 81Evaluation of Government Strategy ..... ................... 84

X. DISCUSSION ........................ ....................... 90

TABLES:

1. Geographic Distribution of Livestock Population and

Agricultural Products

2. Evolution of Estimated Livestock Population

3. Geographic Distribution of Livestock Production

4. Evolution of Livestock Production

5. Imports of Livestock Products

6. Destination of Livestock Exports

7. Animal Feedstuffs

8. Estimated Market Prices for Livestock and Livestock Products

9. Prices of Veterinary Products

10. Price Trends

11. Value of Livestock Labor

12. Estimated Government Revenues from the Livestock Subsector

13. Government Investment

14. Export Tax Rates for Livestock

15. Import Duties on Livestock Products

16. Operating Costs, Staffing, and Salaries of Government

17. Infrastructure and Personnel of Livestock Services

18. Geographic Distribution of Vaccinationand Treatment of Cattle in 1978

19. Evolution of Incidence, Vaccination and Treatmentof Cattle Diseases

Table of Contents (Cont'd)

CHARTS:

1. Herdgrowth for Cattle, Sheep, and Goats2. Cattle Exports3. Livestock Price Trends4. Livestock Vaccinations5. Densities6. Organigram of Livestock Service

MAP: Livestock Subsector Resources, IBRD 14895

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ACRONYMS

AIDR Association Internatinale de Developpement Rural

ARCOMA Atelier Regional de la Construction des Materiaux Agricoles

AVV Autorites des Amenagements des Vallees des Volta

BND Banque Nationale de Developpement

BOAD Banque Ouest Africaine de Developpement

CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia

CEBV Communaute Economique du Betail et de la Viande

CENATRIN Centre National de Traitement Informatique

CERCI Centre d'Experimentation du Riz et des Cultures Irriguees

CFDT Compagnie Francaise de Developpement des Fibres Textiles

CILSS Comite Permanent Inter-Etat de Lutte contre la Secheressedans le Sahel

CITEC Societe des Huiles et Savons de Haute Volta

CNCA Caisse Nationale de Credit Agricole

COVOC Conseil Voltaique de Chargeurs

CRED Center for Research on Economic Development

CRTA Centre de Recherches sur les Trypanosomiases Animales

ELAT Ecole de Lutte Anti Tse-tse

ENESA Ecole Nationale d'Elevage et de Sante Animale

FAC Fonds d'Aide et de Cooperation (France)

FED Fond Europeen de Developpement

FU Feed Unit

IEMVT Institut d'Elevage et Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux

INSD Institut National de la Statistique et de la Demographie

IRAT Institut de Recherche Agronomique Tropicale et des CulturesVivrieres

MDR Ministere de Developpement Rural

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ACRONYMS (Continued)

MPC Ministere du Plan et de la Cooperation

ONERA Office National de l-Exploitation des ResourcesAnimales

ORD Organisme Regional de Developpement

PEOV Projet de Developpement de l'Elevage Ouest-Volta

PHANAVET Pharmacie Nationale Veterinaire

RAN Regie Abidjan-Niger (railroad)

RDF Rural Development Fund

RHV Republique de Haute Volta

SCET Societe Centrale pour l'Equipement du TerritoireInternational

SCP Societe de Commercialisation des Peaux

SODEPRA Societe de Developpement de la Production Animale

SODEXPAD Societe d'Experimentation, d'Exploitation et de

Promotion des Produits Agricoles et Derives

SOFITEX Societe Voltaique des Fibres Textiles

SOLVOCOM Societe Voltaique de Commercialisation

SOSUHV Societe Sucriere de Haute Volta

SOVICA Societe Voltaique de Montage de Materiel Agricole

SVCP Societe Voltaique des Cuirs et Peaux

USAID United States Agency for International Development

I. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1.01 This study was prompted by efforts to identify a second livestockproject for Upper Volta.l/ Because of the complexities of the subsector,difficulties with the first project, and the.dearth of past studies,2/ it wasdeemed necessary to evaluate the subsector as a whole.

1.02 Major points from the study include:

(a) Livestock is one of Upper Volta's important national resources,contributing importantly to GDP and foreign exchange earnings.However, the subsector has not lived up to the label given to it bythe Bank in 1964 as "probably one of the most promising economicactivities." 3/

(b) Evaluation of the Voltaic livestock sector is difficult becausethere are so few firm data on herd size, offtake rates, carcassweights, livestock exports, and levels of domestic consumption.

(c) The subsector faces severe physical constraints on expansion of herdsize and output, which may explain why herd growth and offtake arelower now than in the early 1960s, despite allegedly better animalhealth. Lack of water and pasture inhibits the further expansion ofextensive livestock producton in areas free of tse-tse flies, andfurther herd growth there may reduce future productivity if thecarrying capacity of rangeland is injured and livestock cannot beadequately fed. Trypanosomiasis suppresses production in the wetterzones with more pasture, both by keeping livestock out and bylowering the performance of those that are grown there. Althoughmost agro-industrial byproducts are exported, traditional agricul-tural byproducts are already being used in traditional extensive andintensive livestock production.

1/ This report has been written largely by Svend Steengaard (WAPA 4) andCharles Humphreys (West Africa Programs), based on several missionsto Upper Volta in 1979 and early 1980. Eugene Sinodinos (RMWA) partici-pated in one of the missions and provided valuable commentary.

The report was submitted to Government in mid-1981. The Governmentappointed an ad hoc commission which reviewed the report and conveyedwritten comments to the Bank in January, 1982. Representatives of theGovernment and the Bank met in Ouagadougou to discuss these comments inMay, 1982. The present version of the report reflects the main points ofthis discussion.

2/ The last full study was Republique de Haute Volta (RHV), Ministerede l'Agriculture et de l'Elevage, La Production Animale Voltaique--Perspectives de Developpement, by SCET International under FAC financing,Ouagadougou, 1972.

3/ World Bank, The Economy of Upper Volta, Report No. AF-22A, Washington,1964.

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(d) If herd size under existing herding methods cannot be significantlyincreased, higher output in the future must come from more pastureor better production parameters. More pasture is already availablein the east and the south, but access to it requires additional water

and control of trypanosomiasis. Otherwise, the carrying capacity ofpastures already in use must be improved. Improved productionparameter includes lower mortality, higher calving rates, largercarcasses, and slaughter at younger ages.

(e) Although herd size and offtake numbers appear to have generallyincreased--albeit at low rates, there is little evidence to suggestthat productivity (in terms of kg of meat produced annually peranimal or per hectare) has increased. There are even signs thatmore slaughter stock is being sold younger (and smaller), reducingcurrent productivity and pointing to a possible future decline inherd growth. Exports declined following the drought as the herd wasreconstituted, and it is not yet certain they will recover, in partbecause of growing domestic consumption.

(f) Major economic constraints include stable or bearish world exportprices in the face of rising costs of extensive livestock herdingand high or rising prices of feedstuffs and young stock, which willtend to reduce the profitability of more intensive productionmethods unless coastal markets restrict their imports of beef fromoutside West Africa.

(g) The government's strategy to develop the subsector, while coherentlyformulated and basically oriented in the right direction, hasremained largely unimplemented because of insufficient public funds,difficulties in coordinating various administrative services,and some unsound policies (like feedlots and efforts to exportmeat). Donors, however, must share part of the blame for poorimplementation. Finally, there may be insufficient knowledge tocarry out the strategy.

(h) Major epidemic livestock diseases have been successfully combatted--reflecting concentration on prophylactic animal veterinary care.But the present situation is precarious because of a decline in theability of the livestock service to provide vaccinations and anincreasing risk of contamination from abroad.

(i) The livestock extension service is not well equipped to provideadvice to improve both animal health and husbandry and to furnishcurative animal health treatment. These would be critical to helpintensify livestock production.

(j) Land tenure appears to be a growing problem for livestock produc-tion, especially as expanding crop cultivation takes over formergrazing lands. The government has not yet defined or enforced aland tenure policy that would both protect the rights of herdersand encourage farmers and herders to conserve and improve pastureresources.

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(k) In most of the country, the association of agriculture and livestockis already a fact, reflecting the traditional relationships betweenherders and cultivators. The large transfer of livestock ownershipto farmers brought about by the 1968-73 drought and the increasingcost of extensive herding have strengthened this association. Aspopulation density increases, the development of a fully integratedmixed farming system is a prerequisite to increasing the produc-tivity of Voltaic livestock. On this point, most Voltaic officialsconcur.

1.03 It is important to realize that extensive livestock herding in muchof Upper Volta in the long term will be a declining subsector -- owing toincreasing constraints on resources caused by growth of population and expan-sion of agriculture. If a fall in livestock production and exports is to beavoided, government interventions must be designed that can give herders andother livestock owners new opportunities to raise livestock.

1.04 While it is obvious that there are a number of small, separateactions that might aid the livestock subsector, it appears that these wouldnot necessarily constitute a major donor involvement in the subsector.Moreover, it appears that there may be insufficient knowledge at the moment todevise major projects focused on expanding production. In light of this,there are perhaps five options for donors to consider.

Options

1.05 Indirect Support to the Subsector. Donors could choose to supportthe livestock subsector indirectly, effectively side-stepping the thorny issueof how to design and implement successful livestock projects. Any assistancefor livestock would thereby be contained in components in agricultural develo-pment projects (e.g., mixed farming), RDF, and small and medium scale enter-prises (e.g., poultry processing). Such piecemeal intervention is incon-sistent with the importance of the subsector in the economy and would fail toaddress the major constraints faced by the subsector. This option will notstop a mediocre situation from further deteriorating.

1.06 Animal Health. Health care is a prerequisite for protecting exist-ing livestock production, and protection against epidemic diseases is along-term, inherently deficit operation for which foreign funds are perhapsnecessary. Donors could limit their direct support to strengthening pro-phylactic veterinary care against major epidemic diseases, which might beprovided free to herders. This would come at a time when the danger ofepidemic outbreaks is considered by some to be imminent and could helpforestall a future decline in output. The support could perhaps be expandedto improve the livestock service's capability to provide routine diagnosticand curative treatment for individual animals, which herders would pay for.To provide a viable health service, given the Government's severe financialconstraints, two approaches need to be pursued more vigorously: (a) theestablishment of an effective revolving fund at the national level to financecosts of veterinary products and their delivery, and (b) greater reliance on

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collaboration between groups of livestock owners and private health agents toarrange for veterinary services on a cost covering basis. While healthprotection is vital insurance, it will not raise productivity unless itimproves fertility, reduces calf mortality, and combats parisites, which maybe more difficult and costly than vaccinating against epidemic diseases evenif herders pay for the drugs. Gains from improved health could even be offsetby a decline in productivity caused by lack of feedstuffs in the face of moreanimals.

1.07 Grazing/Herding. Donors could try to expand and to ameliorateextensive livestock production, which is traditionally and still the mostimportant source of Voltaic livestock output. The option would involve twoapproaches: (i) moving livestock from overstocked areas to pastures thatare not now fully grazed (east and south); and (ii) improving or increasingpastures where stocking rates are already high (center and north). In someways, it is an extremely attractive alternative because it makes greater useof unemployed resources. It is also possible to envisage better livestockmanagement and better use of pastures than practiced by traditional herders.Such improvements would enhance the gains made possible by better healthand expansion of grazing into new areas. But there are several impedimentsto a program with this focus. Areas that are not grazed now exist becausethey lack water or are infested with tse-tse flies. Given the cost ofcontrolling trypanosomiasis at the present time, however, use of pastures intse-tse areas may not be economical for extensive livestock herding wherereturns per ha are low. The best approach to confront the tse-tse challengeat the present time is a continuation of drug treatment of susceptible animals,coupled with a gradual multiplication of the trypano-tolerant herd. Provisionof more water in the east will be technically difficult and expensive becauseof scarce groundwater and the importance of minimizing disease that might becaused by surface water. There will also be the institutional problem ofcontrolling the use of this water and surrounding pastures. There is littleevidence that donors know how to deal with the social problems associated withlivestock keeping. Pasture improvement through better range management andforage cultivation is only in initial stages, and few, if any viable tech-niques are available even for pilot schemes. Finally as crop cultivationadvances, extensive livestock production must be linked with measures toimprove the land tenure for herders; but this problem is hardly being addressed.

1.08 Perhaps most importantly, donors lack the knowledge to aid extensivelivestock production successfully in the sudano-guinean zone, beyond basicveterinary protection. The highly structured group ranch component of theBank's first livestock project was intended to develop a method of assistingherders, and after initial delays and difficulties there are now signs thatthe component has been successful in delivering some benefits, like veterinarycare and facilities and some security of land tenure, to herders. There isnow even a waiting list of herders who wish to participate and have expresseda willingness to finance future ranches themselves by using credit from theBND. Experience so far suggests the following lessons:

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(a) Ranches take time to create and become workable--perhaps 10 yearsor more; thus donors should proceed slowly and be prepared for aprotracted involvement;

(b) Herders must be involved from the beginning in the design of bothphysical infrastructure and social organization, so that investmentscorrespond to their needs and they--not a government agency--willtake responsibility for managing the ranches;

(c) Initial investments should be simple--like watering places, dips,and squeeze chutes, which would avoid the heavy investment inbuildings and other structures under the first Bank project that nowseems excessive after the number of ranches has been reduced from9 to 3;

(d) Rights of land tenure have to be clarified and enforced by thegovernment if conflicts between herders and farmers are to be dealtwith in a coherent fashion;

(e) Potential disease problems--like trypanosomiasis--should be plannedfor (e.g., by surveying the distribution of tse-tse flies) beforereplacing traditional, migratory herding with ranch schemes; and

(f) There is unlikely to be empty, unclaimed land that can simply betaken for pastoral schemes, and thus relations between farmers andherders will usually be an important issue to resolve.

Numerous problems remain to be solved, such as improving management andquality of pastures, controlling herd numbers on the ranches, and developingland tenure codes. The Government recognizes these problems and has asked forfinancing of master plans of land use potential, hydrology, and socio-economicstudies, particularly in the East. Such studies should assess the actualpatterns of land usage as well as their theoretical potential and shouldengage the cooperation of other concerned ministries in the design of any landdevelopment schemes.

1.09 A less ambitious alternative to group ranches is small pastoralassociations, similar to those the Bank supports in eastern Senegal. Suchassociations lack the heavy investment and overly supervised management ofthe ranches. They also focus on the use of collective pasture and waterresources and the management of them by stock producers. These are consideredappropriate for eastern Upper Volta where lack of water appears to causeunderutilization of pastures. It is unclear, however, whether herders wantthese and whether they could successfully provide the range management calledfor, especially in light of existing conflicts over land use with farmers--whohave primary claim on land; possible tse-tse problems; and the donor's lack ofexperience in implementing them in ethnically heterogeneous areas.

1.10 Intensification. Intensive livestock production--based on a closerintegration of crop cultivation with raising animals--seems to be consistentwith efforts to augment livestock productivity in the face of physical(pastures and water) and institutional (land tenure) constraints to extensiveproduction. This option would probably concentrate on livestock production byfarmers and by herders that are more or less sedentary. Greater attention

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would be given to animal husbandry and feeding. Additional feed-stuffs wouldcome from agricultural by-products, cultivated fodder, and improved pastures.Of all proposals, this production system would have the greatest impact onproductivity since it includes the gains from better health, careful manage-ment of herds, and supplemental feeds. However, financially viable technicalthemes for improving animal husbandry and forage cultivation must still beresearched, tested with producers, and elaborated into packages for extension.The economics do not yet appear terribly encouraging, and government servicesare not yet adequate to promote this type of livestock production.

1.11 It is here that donors may be able to provide a substantialsupport in the form of technical assistance to help both with necessaryinstitutional changes in the government and with applied research and pilotschemes to develop models for eventual production projects. Although manyfacets could, in fact, be carried out piece-meal through other credits, theneed to make changes throughout the sector probably requires a separateprogram. In any case, progress is likely to be achieved only over thelong-term.

1.12 Marketing/Processing. Instead of focusing on livestock productionitself, the fifth option would be to intervene in marketing and processing.While improvements in transport infrastructure are clearly possible, there islittle evidence that marketing problems constitute one of the major constraintsin the subsector. The available evidence suggests that further development offacilities for processing of livestock--in particular to export meat asopposed to live animals--would not be economical because of inefficiencies inthe utilization of processing infrastructure, higher transport costs, and theloss of valuable byproducts (such as the fifth quarter of cattle) which arelikely to occur. Investments in either marketing or processing are thereforenot recommended at this stage.

Next Steps

1.13 Although there may not be an overall approach that is ready to befunded, there are a number of individual actions to be considered--some ofwhich may be included in an eventual technical assistance, or pilot project.There are also some actions that might best be avoided for the present,including additional group ranches, large commercial feedlots, eradicationof tse-tse flies, most marketing and processing facilities, and--in mostcases--support to parastatals. On the positive side, actions to be consideredinclude financing for:

(a) Pilot schemes, perhaps in the context of agricultural developmentprojects, to explore models for closer integration of crop cultiva-tion and livestock production. The most obvious place for these ison the crowded Central Plateau or in the agriculturally rich south-west, although trypanosomiasis may be a problem in the latter. Theycould also possibly include agro-pastoral schemes in the east,provided tse-tse is not a problem there and progress can be made onland tenure conflicts. But elaboration of such components may haveto await results of ongoing projects;

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(b) Specific, limited investments--for example, possible stock routesand poultry processing facilities;

(c) Vehicles, veterinary equipment, and operating expenses for theLivestock Service to make its agents more mobile and effective;

(d) National vaccination campaigns against major epidemic diseases;

(e) Research in trypanosomiasis drugs, applied and adaptiveresearch in animal husbandry and feeding, breeding selectioncriteria, fodder production and conservation, and control ofparasites, and field research on socio-economic issues;

(f) Training of agricultural extension agents (in animal husbandry) andlivestock agents (in individual animal health);

(g) Budget support to the government if proposals to raise productivityrequire that taxes on livestock be reduced or that compensation bepaid to farmers for land allocated to herding groups;

(h) Research--and possibly for production facilities--to improve thequality and availability of feedstuffs for pigs and poultry, if thefeed can be sold at full cost;

(i) Promotion of animal traction, probably through agriculturaldevelopment projects;

(j) Increased production and marketing of milk by mixed farmingoperations; and

(k) Improved and increased processing of hides and skins.

External assistance could also be directed to:

(a) Maintaining a dialogue with the government to help it elaboratea strategy for livestock development that is consistent withavailable means, including policies to favor land reform andremoval of subsidies in slaughter fees and feed prices;

(b) Encouraging better coordination between the Livestock Service and theAgricultural Service and ORDs;

(c) Encouraging a better coordination of donor programs and helping toassure longer-term financing of projects started; and

(d) Encouraging the government to rein in ONERA from being a commer-cial entity itself to a supporting role for private producers andmerchants and to refrain from further public investment in ventureslike slaughtering, meat exports and intensive feeding operations.

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II. COUNTRY BACKGROUND

2.01 Upper Volta covers some 275,000 km2 in the center of West Africa,with borders that are more than 600 km from ports on the Gulf of Guinea (seeMap IBRD 14895). There are three major drainage systems in the country: theVolta basin, the Comoe basin, and the Niger basin. The major rivers--theVolta Noire and the Comoe--rise together in the high rainfall area nearBanfora but flow in opposite directions. The Comoe flows directly toward theIvory Coast, and the Volta Noire reaches north only as far as Dedougou beforedescending toward Ghana. The other important, permanent watercourses are allnear the fringes of the country. Other rivers rise in lower rainfall areas andusually have only small, even intermittent flows. The topography is a rathermonotonous plain, lying between 250 and 350 m above sea level and inclinedslightly toward the south. Most of the country is covered by shallow, poorly-structured tropical ferruginous soils that are generally acidic and deficientin phosphorous, nitrogen, and organic matter. The richer vertisols andhydromorphic soils are largely limited largely to the valleys of the mainrivers--mostly in the western and southern portions of the country. Thereis one rainy season, lasting about 6 months in the center of the country butconcentrated during the period from June to September. Rainfall coincideswith the distribution of soils and creates 3 major zones of vegetation,ranging from sudano-guinean in the south and southwest (over 1,000 mm peryear) to Sahelian in the extreme northeast (less than 600 mm). Most ofthe vegetative cover outside of cultivated areas consists of open forests,savannahs, and bush land. Mineral resources which are known to exist includelarge deposits of manganese, rock phosphate, and massive sulfide (zinc-lead-silver), and small concentrations of gold. Only the gold and phosphates havebeen exploited to date, as the economic and financial costs of mineral devel-opment are very high.

2.02 For the purpose of the analysis in this review, the country can bedivided into four livestock zones, based on ecological conditions and densities.These are the Sahel, with low rainfall, low population and high livestockdensities; the Central Plateau, with a sudanian climate, moderate rainfall andhigh densities of human and livestock populations; the Eastern Savannah zone,with a climate similar to that on the central plateau but with low densitiesof both human and livestock populations; and the Southwest, with high rainfall,perennial grasses, tse-tse flies, fairly moderate population densities, andlow livestock densities. The Sahelian zone coincides with the Sahel ORD; theCentral Plateau coincides largely with the ORDs of Ouahigouya, Kaya, Koudougou,Ouagadougou, and Koupela, except that the southern portions of the latterthree are more like the southwest. The Eastern Savannah coincides largelywith the Fada ORD. The Southwest is represented by the Bougouriba, Banfora,Bobo-Dioulasso, and Dedougou ORDs, although the latter is similar to theCentral plateau in its northern part. Densities shown in Chart 5 are basedonly on data from the ORDs that fall fully within the zones.

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2.03 The resident population of Upper Volta is not accurately known buthas been estimated at 6.1 million for 1980. 1/ As many as 0.7 million personsborn in Upper Volta--generally young single men better educated than theirpeers--live and work in other countries, mainly Ivory Coast and Ghana, givingthe nation the highest rate of emigration in West Africa. The annual growthrate--estimated by the Bank as about 1.7% during 1960-80 --reflects this highrate of emigration. Over 90% of the population live in rural areas, but itsgeographic distribution is uneven and poorly correlated with geographic andclimatic resources. Almost three-fifths of the people inhabit the centralplateau--with its relatively poor, eroded soils and only moderate rainfall,giving a density of over 30 persons/km2, compared to only 12 for the rest ofthe country. Because of the unfavorable balance of population and resourceson the Central Plateau, most of the immigrants come from this area and settlein the relatively underpopulated south and southwest, in foreign countries, orin the main urban centers of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso, which containfour-fifths of the urban population. The increase in the urban population,which averaged about 6% per year during 1960-75 2/, would reduce recentrural po.pulation growth to only about 1.3% per year if the overall growthrate is accurate. Although there are some 60 ethnic groups in the country,the Mossi alone comprise almost half the population. The Peuhl--representingmost of the herding population--are the second largest group, with only 10%.

2.04 Economic data for the country are poor and much foreign trade goesunrecorded. 3/ However, certain observations are possible. During 1970-79,the growth rate of GDP as estimated by the Bank was 3.9% in real terms,despite fairly high rates of inflation and a decline in the terms of trade.By 1980 GDP at market prices was estimated at about CFAF 266 billion, and GNPper capita is estimated at about US$210. Trade represents a sizeable share ofthe country's economy; in recent years, imports--mostly equipment and consumergoods--have amounted to over one-third of GDP. Exports--almost entirelyagricultural commodities--are inadequate to pay the import bill; the tradedeficit averages more than one-fourth of GDP and has grown by more than 50%since the mid-1970s. This deficit is largely but not completely covered byearnings remitted by the substantial number of Voltaic emigrants and by

1/ This section is based on recent Government data compiled and analyzed bythe Population, Health, and Nutrition Department, Operations Policy Staffof the World Bank (1982). In addition, information has been taken fromJulien Conde, "Migration in Upper Volta" World Bank, Washington, June1978, (draft) as well as from the Atlas cited above.

2/ See Julien Conde, "Migration in Upper Volta", World Bank, June 1978,draft.

3/ The national accounts for 1970-81 have been revised and updated by theBank in the forthcoming Upper Volta Country Economic Memorandum (ReportNo. 4040-UV).

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inflows of foreign aid, furnished primarily by European agencies on con-cessional terms. Government spending amounts to more than 15% of GDP atfactor cost, and revenues--provided mostly by indirect taxes of which importduties are most important--have in the past been largely sufficient to balancethe budget. But since 1978, budgetary deficits have occurred and show aworsening trend as the result of significant increases in government spendingon personnel, defense, and general administration.

2.05 Upper Volta is primarily an agricultural country. The primarysector contributes nearly 40% to GDP of which about 25 percentage points aresupplied by crop cultivation and about 10 percentage points by livestock.Although the entire sector appears to be declining as a proportion of GDP,livestock seems to be declining more rapidly than crop cultivation. Agricul-ture is even more important in international trade, providing over 90% ofrecorded foreign exchange earnings. Livestock alone furnishes from one thirdto over two fifths of exports; most of the remainder comes from sales ofcotton fiber and sheanut butter. The country is largely self-sufficient inagricultural products, although cereal and milk commodities account for about10% of imports and much of these is food aid. Over 80% of cultivated land isused for cereals, almost entirely rainfed millet, sorghum, and maize. Rice isa very minor foodcrop, grown only in lowlands and in irrigation projects.

2.06 Cultivation is distributed spatially along with population; and evenin regions devoted mainly to livestock, cereal land per capita is roughly thesame as elsewhere. Owing to river blindness in many of the more fertile,wetter areas, most of cereal production takes place on the poorer soils whererainfall is uncertain and only marginally sufficient. Groundnuts are alsogrown in most regions, although they are clearly most important in the eastand west. The dominant cash crop is cotton, which climate and developmentefforts have restricted mostly to the southwest. Tree crops are important,but only mangoes, citrus, and cashews are planted in orchards. Sheanuts area major source of edible oils, and trees such as acacia albida and cayasenegalensis provide fodder for livestock. Vegetables, often a dry seasoncrop, claim little land yet are a non-neglible source of foreign exchange.Cultivation methods are almost entirely traditional and rely largely on themanual resources of small family farms. Chemical fertilizers are used on bothcotton and cereals, but only a very small share of the national production ofcereals can be attributed to fertilizers. Animal traction is used on lessthan 5% of the holdings--usually those growing cotton. There is, however,already a significant degree of integration between crop cultivation andlivestock production. Most farmers raise some livestock, and most herderscultivate their own fields. The value of manure in maintaining soil fertilityis generally appreciated, and crop residues--especially legume tops--arewidely used for livestock feed.

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III. LIVESTOCK RESOURCES

3.01 This chapter presents technical information about physical aspectsof the livestock subsector, including a description of the livestock herdsand how they are managed, a discussion of animal health, and an assessment offeed resources available for livestock.

Livestock Population

Cattle

3.02 Data on livestock numbers are poor, and any numbers cited are atbest indicative. The Livestock Department estimated in 1977 the cattlepopulation at 2.5 million of which the northern region (the Sahelian zone),accounted for about 20-25% of total cattle numbers. The central region (thenorthern and eastern sudanian zones), accounted for about 60% and the southernregion (the southwest sudanian zone) about 15%. The average cattle density inthe country is about 9 head/km2 (see Table 1). The north has about 15 head/km2,the center about 10 head/km2, and the south and east about 5 head/km2 (seeChart 5). 1/ The proportion of cattle in the central and southern regions isconsidered to have increased somewhat since the drought.

3.03 Zebu. The Voltaic cattle herd consists of two main types, Zebu andTaurin breeds, although crosses of the two breeds are common. Zebu cattle,which account for about two-thirds of total cattle numbers, are found in thenorthern part of the country. There are crossings between the main Sahelianbreeds with variation from one region to another and from one ethnic groupto another. The size of the cattle diminishes from north to south with anaverage mature liveweight of 300 kg. The Zebu is especially suited for draftpurposes but their lack of trypanotolerance limits their use to the northerntwo-thirds of the country. Productivity is low under existing managementconditions with calving rates about 50-60%, calf losses 30-35% (calves from0-1 year old), resulting in an annual offtake estimated at 11% and a herdgrowth estimated at 2.3% per year.

3.04 Azaouak. These cattle, which are a type of Zebu originally fromNiger, are found only in a few herds, numbering about 1,000 head. The breedis well adapted to a dry climate. The animals are larger than normal Zebu--having a liveweight of 350-400 kg, and are known for their fairly high milkyields. A small breeding herd is kept at the Markoye breeding station in theSahel, but efforts to introduce them into existing herds have not yet beenvery successful.

1/ Although not clear, these densities probably reflect herdsizes duringthose times when livestock are kept closest to the owners' homes. Exceptfor the Sahel, movements probably change overall regional densities verylittle because such movements are short distance.

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3.05 Taurin. These cattle are small with an average liveweight of200-250 kg. They are trypanotolerent and have an appreciable degree ofresistence to streptothrichosis. Like Zebus they respond to higher levelsof feeding and management, but under poor conditions--caused largely bytse-tse infestations in southern regions where they are found--productivityis low with calving rates about 55% and calf losses 30%, giving an annualofftake of only 9-10%. They are found in the southern parts of the countrymainly below the 12th parallel (below a line through Koudougou and Fada) andin an area almost identical with the area infested with tse-tse flies.

3.06 Cattle raising varies with regions and ethnic groups. In theSahelian and Sudano-Sahelian zones to the north, cattle are herded mainly byPeuhl families who practice a relatively short seasonal movement with pre-dominantly Zebu herds. These cattle are owned by both Peuhl and farminggroups. Cattle in the south of the country are mainly owned by sedentary cropfarmers who keep predominantly Taurin cattle or crosses near the villages.Some cattle are also kept near towns for supply of milk or beef.

3.07 Cattle move primarily in search of surface water and fodder as theseasons change. This pastoral system allows the best utilization of pas-tures at the right moment. In the Sahelian zone, in the beginning of therainy season, animals graze throughout the area. Cattle then make theirtranshumance to rainy season pastures. In the dry season, they gatheraround permanent watering points and graze dry season pastures.

3.08 In the Sudanian zone, in contrast, cattle usually stay near thevillages during most of the crop season and begin their transhumance near thestart of the dry season (September to December). Each area has its specifictranshumance pattern according to water and pasture resources. Trajectorieshere tend to be smaller (30-100 km). 1/ During transhumance, cattle graze onpastures in river valleys or on regrowth in the Savannah. Following theharvest, they also eat stovers on crop fields.

3.09 Cattle raising that is more sedentary takes place from the CentralPlateau to more southern areas, where perhaps two-thirds of the cattle areowned by farming groups. The distinction between farmers and herders isbecoming much less pronounced. For example, in a study near Kaya one-quarterof Mossi farmers own cattle, and a wider study of the central plateau andeastern savannah zones showed that virtually all the Peuhl have their ownfields. The practice of other groups entrusting their cattle to Peuhl herdersalso appears to be declining, ostensibly as the result of increasing distrustby farmers and growing difficulties faced by Peuhl. The same wider studyreports that two-thirds of the Mossi livestock owners herd their own cattle,even while on transhumance. Those that do entrust often consign their cattleto other Mossi, rather than to Peuhl. 2/ These cattle may be kept as much as

1/ See Richard Vengraff, Upper Volta: Environmental Uncertainty and Live-stock Production, International Center for Arid and Semi-Arid LandStudies, Lubbock, 1980, pp. 64ff.

2/ See Vengroff, cited above, pp. 21 and 60-62.

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a symbol and store of wealth as for production and draft purposes. For cattleherded by the Peuhl, methods are similar to those practiced for Peuhl cattle.For animals kept by farmers themselves, most cattle divagate or are sent ontranshumance during the dry season but are herded by children during the cropgrowing season. At night they are driven into small enclosures without accessto feed. The base for cattle feed is natural pastures, fallow land, bottom-land and crop residues of millet and sorghum. Both Taurin and Zebu cattleclean crop fields after harvest, but the shortage of feed during the long dryseason is one of the major constraints for further expansion of cattle produc-tion as the use of improved pastures is inexistant and little use is made ofagro-industrial byproducts.

Sheep and Goats

3.10 There are at present about 1.7 million sheep according to the Live-stock Department. There are several breeds such as the Peuhl sheep in thenorth, the Mossi sheep in the center and the Djalonke sheep in the south. ThePeuhl sheep is the biggest with a liveweight of about 25 kg, while the Mossiand Djalonke sheep have liveweights of about 17-20 kg. Offtake is around 25%or perhaps higher. Goat numbers are estimated at 2.5 million. There arethree goat breeds and numerous crossings; the biggest breed is the Saheliangoat to the north with a liveweight of about 25 kg, the Mossi goat on theCentral Plateau with a liveweight of about 19 kg and the West African Dwarfgoat in the south with a liveweight of about 15 kg.

3.11 Almost all rural families keep sheep and goats, and goats are a muchmore important economic activity than cattle for women. They are kept asscavengers without necessitating any particular care, except herding duringthe crop sesson and perhaps some feed supplements such as legume tops duringthe dry season or when being fattened for religious holidays, like Tabaski.They graze everywhere, including on leaves of trees. Goats, and to a lesserdegree, sheep are hardy and adapted to the environment and resist droughtbetter than cattle. The main constraint facing small ruminants is healthhazards such as pasteurellosis and gastro-intestinal parasites. Due to theirsmall size and restricted mobility small ruminants are often consumed locally,but their production and export for religious feasts is probably an importanteconomic activity.

Poultry

3.12 Poultry production exists in two separate production and marketingchannels, a dominant one within the village economy, and a small one withinthe peri-urban and commercial economy. Data on poultry numbers are poorbecause the livestock service up until the last few years has neglected allwork or development of the traditional poultry sector. In 1969 a SEDES studyestimated the national poultry flock at 10 million with an offtake of between100% and 120%. According to a recent FAO study, the actual poultry numbersare estimated at 19-20 million. This study claims a clear relationshipbetween the poultry flock and the human population, estimated to be of a ratiobetween 3 and 4 birds per rural inhabitant. However, figures provided by theLivestock Service show no growth in the national flock over the last decade.

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The size of the poultry flock fluctuates a great deal (up to 100%) accordingto the season. The numbers are highest from September to November followingthe hatching period during the rainy season and prior to the heavy mortalityperiod, which starts in the dry season. Crosses between local and importedvarieties of chickens make up about 60-70% of the national flock, and thebalance is made up of Guinea fowl. The greatest concentration of poultry isin the departments of Kaya, Ouagadougou, Dedougou and the south of Ouahigouya.

3.13 The modern poultry sector is very small and mainly found in theurban areas of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso. In 1978 the number of day-oldchicks distributed to poultry farmers was only about 60,000 of which abouthalf were produced at the poultry center and the other half imported. Mostchicks were layers for egg production.

3.14 Traditional poultry raising is an important activity as mostfamilies in the rural areas keep poultry. The village or traditional poultryproduction is characterized by a system where families on small-holdings keepindigenous chickens and Guinea fowls together in a semi-domesticated statewith little care, mainly as scavengers. Poultry raising (but not Guinea fowl)is the most common livestock activity for women. 1/ Local chickens are small,between 1.0-1.5 kg liveweight, very hardy, and lay 40-50 eggs per year. Mosteggs are hatched, a few sold at the local market and almost none are consumedby the family. Traditional poultry suffer high mortality, caused mainly byNewcastle disease, although Guinea fowl are more resistant than indigenouschickens. The mortality is seasonal and is alleged to reach 80% in the colddry season (December through March). Hatching takes place during the rainyseason (June through September). The traditional system could be considerablyimproved through better housing, feeding, and vaccination against the mostcommon diseases. Few improvements have been made, except for a FAC-financedvaccination campaign of village birds in the 3 departments of Koudougou,Ouagadougou and Kaya, started at the end of 1978. Where vaccinations havebeen accepted, the project has successfully combatted the Newcastle disease;and the mortality among birds vaccinated has been considerably reduced.Similar intervention in other parts of the country should be considered.

3.15 Modern poultry production is characterized by the use of foreignbreeds, proper housing, well-balanced feed rations, and adequate sanitaryconditions. Under good husbandry the performance can be much higher thanthe traditional poultry production. However, relatively high prices forfeed and cereals limit--but may not preclude--the prospects for commercialpoultry production in Upper Volta. 2/

1/ See Helen Henderson, "The Role of Women in Livestock Production: SomePreliminary Findings," in R. Vengroff, cited above. Based on a studynear Kaya.

2/ At a 2:1 feed conversion ratio, and if feed accounts for 40% of costs,chickens would have to sell, ex-producer, for CFAF 400 if feed costsCFAF 75/kg.

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Pigs

3.16 Data on pig numbers are unreliable, but the national pig population

is estimated by the Livestock Service at about 160,000. Compared to depart-mental estimates, this number seems far too small. In Koudougou ORD thenumber was estimated at about 100,000 in 1977, and Fada ORD recorded pignumbers for 1977 at about 300,000. Most pigs are found in a belt across thesouthern part of the country. Pigs in rural areas are of the indigenous type,long-bodied, and seldom reach more than 40-50 kg liveweight. There are a fewpiggeries around the cities with foreign breeds, mainly Large Whites with anaverage liveweight of 90-100 kg. Offtake is estimated at 60% for indigenouspigs and 80% for improved breeds. The average carcass weight of indigenouspigs is estimated at 25 kg and from improved breeds at 65-75 kg.

3.17 There are, as it is the case in most African countries, two typesof pig production: a traditional village type and modern type pig production.The majority of pigs are found in the traditional sector and only a few modernpiggeries are found around the few cities. Pigs are raised in the villagesin the traditional, rudimentary way where pigs are scavengers mainly eatinghousehold wastes and some byproducts. Most pigs raised under these poorsanitary and nutritional conditions are worm and measle infested and the porkis of low quality with a too heavy layer of fat. These pigs are slaughteredand consumed by the family or sold at the local market. Pig production couldbe increased if farmers were provided with better breeding stock, some con-centrated feed, veterinary drugs, technical advice and assistance in marketing.A small, commercial-type pig production is located near the few cities. Thisproduction is characterized by having a larger herd size, using proper housingwith cemented floors, keeping improved breeds, and purchasing most of the feedingredients, supplemented with brewers grain. The feed quality is often poorand most farmers mix their own feed as available commercial feed is expensiveand without any guarantee for quality. There is a reasonable scope forimprovement of this type of pig production through better management, higherquality feed, and better breeding stock. The Banankeledaga pig breedingstation might be reopened and stocked with breeding pigs from the Ivorian pigbreeding station in Korhogo.

Donkeys, Horses and Camels

3.18 The donkey population is estimated at 200,000. Donkeys, which aresensitive to trypanosomiasis, are widespread throughout the country exceptfor the furthermost southern areas. Donkeys are useful pack and draft animalsand are especially prized for small transport at the village and farm level.In fact, most of the carts sold for animal transport are designed for donkeys.Donkeys are not kept for meat production, but when culled after having workedas draft animals for four or five seasons their meat may be consumed. Horsenumbers are about 70,000 and, like donkeys, they are kept for transport,although primarily for persons rather than commodities. They may also providesome meat. Both donkeys and horses are major consumers of agriculturalbyproducts --especially legume tops and cereal stovers. The camel populationis low, estimated at 6,000 and mainly found in the Sahelian zone. Likedonkeys and horses, they serve as a means of transport. Except for donkeys,none of these appear to be important to either the livestock subsector or toagricultural production.

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Animal Health

3.19 With respect to epidemic diseases, the health of the Voltaic cattleherd might be considered precarious, even though government records (Tables18 and 19) show very few outbreaks of major cattle diseases. Even if thereis no underestimation of current mortality and morbidity--which is highlyunlikely given the weakness of the livestock field service--there is a higherrisk that Voltaic cattle will be contaminated with contagious diseases likerinderpest and CBPP by transhuming and commercial herds. Border control postsare inadequate, and there is little control of livestock movements. Nor areVoltaic cattle adequately protected, because vaccination coverage is both verylow (10-20% of the herd), even assuming the vaccines are always potent, andprobably skewed toward urban centers. As shown in Chart 4, vaccinationsagainst epidemic diseases have fallen steadily since 1974, and half or moreof those given are financed under the Bank-s first project in the southwest.Even there vaccinations are declining, however.

3.20 Rinderpest. During the inter-state JP-15 campaign in 1962-76rinderpest was brought under control. But outbreaks reappeared in the follow-ing years because follow-up measures were inadequate and recently the dangerof a new epidemic appears to be increasing. 1/ However, this threat couldbe totally eradicated by a well coordinated vaccination campaign in all WestAfrican countries. Meanwhile, annual vaccination campaigns need to be carriedout in Upper Volta.

3.21 CBPP was once widespread but the incidence decreased in the early1970s. The disease, which can cause heavy mortality in cattle, can be effec-tively controlled by annual vaccinations of all animals. 2/

3.22 Anthrax and Blackleg are two other infectious diseases that occur incattle, but their occurence is more sporadic than rinderpest and CBPP. Bothcan be controlled by vaccination confined to areas where outbreaks occur.

3.23 Pasteurellosis does occur. It can be controlled by blanket vaccina-tion of weanlings or by strategic vaccination in localized areas where out-breaks occur.

3.24 Tse-tse flies, which carry trypanosomiasis that is a major threat toZebu cattle, occur widely in the Sudanian and Guinean Zones. There are threespecies of tse-tse flies: Glossina palpalis, Glossina tachinoides and Glossinamorsitans. G. palpalis is abundant in forest galleries of the country.G. tachinoides is a riverine type found throughout the Sudanian zone with itsnorthern limit corresponding to the 800 mm isohyet. G. morsitans, a savannah

1/ See Communique of 27-28 October 1980 from the Office Internationaldes Epizooties, Reunion d'Urgence sur la Peste Bovine an Afriquede l'Ouest.

2/ At present the Ti freeze-dried vaccine from the Dakar laboratoryis used.

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fly, is found in the western part of Upper Volta, including the area of thefirst Bank project. The only available map of tse-tse distribution does notcover the eastern part of the country. In the southwest, recent work showsthat the northern tse-tse limit has moved southwards, which most likely iscaused by the recent drought and perhaps by increased migration to and settle-ment in the south. 1/ Chemotherapy is more and more used to protect Zebucattle going on transhumance or Zebu cattle raised in infested areas. Treat-ments are paid for by livestock owners at the cost of vaccines (about 90 CFAFper dose). Research on biological tse-tse control is carried out in Bobo-Doulasso.

3.25 The costs and benefits of trypanosomiasis control depend on themethod used. Chemical control of tse-tse flies in the Cameroon is estimatedto cost initially about CFAF 4,000/ha, with annual maintenance costs of CFAF1,000/ha. In southern Upper Volta, under extensive herding (4 ha/animal),output would be worth about CFAF 1000/ha per year, in gross terms. 2/ Sincemost of the value of production appears to accrue to herding labor, netreturns would be insufficient even to cover recurrent costs. Furthermore,experience in Africa with these programs has not been encouraging because ofthe stringent recurrent administrative demands. Biological control of tse-tseflies is not yet cost effective because of the high cost of producing sterilemales. Use of drugs appears to be more cost effective (CFAF 300-800 peranimal per year compared to a gross value of output of perhaps CFAF 4-5,000per animal), but there is the danger that the only available drugs (try-pamidium and Berenil) will eventually lose their effectiveness against mutanttrypanosomes, especially if treatments are only partially adequate.

3.26 Internal parasites are common in livestock and cause poor produc-tivity of Voltaic herds. An Entente Fund project financed by USAID fordeworming young stock has been carried out recently in some areas.

3.27 Poultry diseases are numerous and a main handicap for poultrydevelopment, both in the large traditional poultry sector and the smallcommercial sector. The most common poultry diseases are Newcastle disease(a virus disease), Fowl cholera (Cholera aviaire) and Gumboro disease. Allpoultry diseases can be controlled but the low management level, especially incommercial flocks, results in high losses. At present, yearly vaccinationcampaigns of village birds against Newcastle Disease are being carried out inthree departments, under a 4-year poultry project financed by France. Reportson the success of the campaign are mixed, but the project has scarcely begun.

1/ These limits are shown in the accompanying map. The first map wasprepared by Challier of ORSTOM, with 1977 updates. A new map is beingcharted for the southwest under German financing.

2/ Based on 11 kg of meat per animal per year, valued at CFAF 400/kg.

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Feed Resources

3.28 Unimproved natural pastures constitute by far the most importantfeed resource for the country's 2.5 million cattle and 4 million smallruminants. Also straw from fallow land and leaves from trees are importantfeeds for ruminants. The use of cereals and byproducts as feedstuffs issmall, except by cattle owners who are also farmers. Small stock probablydepend more on them for feed than do cattle.

3.29 Pastures. It is roughly estimated that half of the country-s landarea is covered with natural pastures of a quality which varies with thecountry's ecological zones. The other 40% not in current cultivation is infallow, which can also be grazed. A classification of the various pastureareas and a map have been established in a study by ORSTOM. 1/ In the classi-fication, the country has been divided into six types of rangelands by takinginto consideration the composition and quality of grasses, soil types, lengthof grazing period and the distinction between permanent and seasonal pastures.The different rangelands are shown on the attached map. Category 1 indicatesthe seasonal flooded grasslands (bourgoutieres), which only cover a small landarea, mainly the Sorou Valley in the northwestern part of the country. Itprovides the key survival link in the seasonally transhumant grazing cyclebecause of permanent watering sites and better dry season vegetation quality.Main grasses are Echinochloa species. Most likely, these important grazingareas will be lost when future irrigation schemes will be implemented. In theSahelian zone are found numbers of water pools where flooded grasslands mainlyconsist of Cyperacees and Vetiveria species. Category 2 indicates areas wherecrop farming by small-holders is important and more than 25% of the land areais cultivated. Large areas in the central part of the country, like theCentral plateau, are under this category. Pastures in this area are poor andmainly consist of grasses on fallow land; stovers from fields is an importantcattle feed. It lasts only a few months but creates an important link betweencrop farmers and livestock herders; it also requires better herding of cattle.The stocking rate of these areas is estimated at about 5 to 10 head of cattleper km2. Depending on the length of the fallow period the main grasses area combination of Loudetia, Andropogon and Cymbopogon species. In category 3,most of the pastures are of good quality, used all year round and also serveas fodder (standing hay) during the long dry season. The area lies in theSahelian zone with a low rainfall between 400mm and 600mm. Livestock popula-tion density is high, but human population density is low; cash crop opportuni-ties are limited and livestock exports are the principal source of revenue.Many range sites are severely degraded and severe desertification occurs invillage perimeters and near watering points. The area is tse-tse free. Maingrasses are Aristida species, Schonefeldia gracilis, Cenchrus biflorus andLoudetia. The area in Category 4 lies in the 600mm to 800mm rainfall beltin the Sudanian zone. Between 5 and 15% of the area is cultivated andgrasses are almost the same as under category 2, namely Loudetia, Aristidaand Andropogon species. The best arable soils are used for near permanentcultivation with fallow land, and marginal soils are used for grazing.

1/ Introduction a la geographie des aires pastorales soudaniennes deHaute-Volta by Michel Benoit. (Office de Recherche ScientifiqueTechnique Outre-Mer), Paris, 1977.

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Category 5 is a transitory area between category 4 and 6 with pastures of

annual grasses as under category 4 and with perennial Andropogon species asunder category 6. Rainfall is between 800mm and 900mm. Due to higher rain-

fall, (about 900mm) and deeper soils, the area in Category 6 has a high fodder

potential with good grasses which can be used year round due to regrowthduring the dry season. Trypanosomiasis lowers the Zebu cattle population and

overgrazing is unlikely. Main grasses are a combination of Andropogon species.

3.30 Although it is difficult to estimate carrying capacities of pastures,the densities in Table 1 and Chart 5 suggest that areas free of tse-tse flies

may already be fairly fully stocked with animals. In the Sahel ORD, there are

only 6 ha of all types of land--including cultivated and sterile areas--foreach head of cattle and 1-2 sheep and goats and yet the carrying capacity in

this area was assessed by the World Bank's Economic study in 1970 at 8-10ha/animal. In the two ORDs of the Central Plateaus that are entirely free of

tse-tse flies (Kaya and Ouahigouya), there are less than 8 ha of land for each

head of cattle and 1-2 sheep and goats. Despite its high livestock density,this region is also more heavily cultivated and populated than the Sahel,which reduces potential pasture. A recent CILSS study suggests that Upper

Volta has a potential carrying capacity of only 2.2 million tropical livestockunits if grazing is limited to assure adequate regeneration. It notes that

this level had nearly been reached in 1977. 1/ Other studies argue that there

is no shortage of pasture for the country as a whole, given its present herd

size. But the distribution of livestock and pasture are not in balance,resulting in overstocking in the Sahelian north and much under-exploitation in

the southwest and east. 2/ If these calculations are correct, most zoneswhere livestock can now be grown are already overstocked.

3.31 Stovers from millet and sorghum are an important fodder resource

for cattle. Following the harvest in the beginning of the dry season, cattlegraze on the fields, which benefit from the cattle manure. Stovers are often

collected to feed livestock, especially in mixed farming systems. Grass and

groundnut hay are more and more common, especially around larger towns wheresome steer fattening (boeuf de case) takes place. Research on fodder cropproduction is still in an early stage.

3.32 Fodder trees. Leaves and fruits from a number of trees are

important fodder reserves for livestock during the dry season. One of thebest known is acacia albida, whose leaves and pods are eaten by cattle, sheep,

goats and camels. The feeding value is high, especially for the fruits. 3/

1/ CILSS, "Strategie du Developpement de l'Elevage dans les Pays Sahelians",

by IEMVT, Maisons-Alfort, January 1980, draft. The estimated number of

tropical livestock units is based on 1.9 million cattle and 3.7 millionsmall ruminants, considerably fewer than the numbers furnished by the

Voltaics and used in this review.

2/ See P.N. de Leeuw, "Animal Nutrition and Livestock Development in

West African Savanna," Sahel Workshop - Boven Volta, Amsterdam, 1976.

3/ Three to four kg leaves and 1.1 kg of the fruit respectively per Feed

Unit (FU); one FU is equivalent to 1 kg of barley.

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Agricultural byproducts

3.33 Molasses is a good supplemental feed for cattle. It is produced atthe country's only sugarcane factory SOSUHV at Banfora. In 1979 the factoryproduced 13,000 tons of molasses (47% of the sugarcane crop); about 10,000tons were injected into the irrigation water and the remainder was exported tothe Ivory Coast or used locally. The ONERA feedlot at Banfora used 469 tons in1979. A feedlot created by SODEXPAD in collaboration with SOSUHV experimenteda few years ago with cattle fattening by using byproducts such as molasses,wheat bran and cottonseed. Projects might encourage the use of more molassesas a feed supplement for milk cows, work oxen, and steers. The costs oftransporting molasses would, however, probably limit such projects to thesouthwest, and even there costs may make it unattractive to producers. Atpresent, planning is underway to produce alcohol to be mixed with gasoline toreduce petroleum imports. If feasible, the project could utilize the entireproduction of molasses, thereby eliminating its use for livestock. The choicebetween using molasses for alcohol or for livestock depends in part on relativeprofitabilities. Under reasonable assumptions about beef production, molassescould be profitably used up to a cost of about 7 CFAF/Kg, although the pricewould have to be less if other nutrients were more expensive. 1/ However, thehigh price of imported gasoline (107 CFAF/l, c.i.f., 1980) probably means thatalcohol production will be more attractive than cattle feeding--especially ifmolasses must be transported very far, thereby raising the price to producers.The question needs further study.

3.34 Draff, which is a byproduct of breweries, is a fairly good feed forpigs although best for cattle. Total annual industrial production is about9,000 tons of wet grain (80% water) from the two breweries in Ouagadougou andBobo-Dioulasso. Only a small portion of the draff is used for livestock (5% inOuagadougou and perhaps 20% in Bobo-Dioulasso), but much is used for fertilizeron vegetable gardens. An animal traction project near Ouagadougou is success-fully making silage from draff. The price, nominally set at 1 CFAF per kg,barely covers local delivery costs. In addition, the draff from traditionallyproduced millet beer ("dolo") is probably used entirely for pig and donkey feed.

3.35 Cottonseed. Total production of seed cotton was about 75,000 tonsin 1979-80; the country's five ginneries 2/ produced over 30,000 tons of firstquality cottonseed that is processed for oil or used for seed and about 4,000tons of third quality cottonseed that is used for animal feed. 3/ The cotton-seed for livestock is from low-quality cotton damaged by insects, amounting toabout 10% of the total cottonseed production. ONERA has a monopoly on purchasingvarious ORDs and livestock projects. Actual prices (early 1980) are 6 CFAF

1/ These assumptions are: 1 kg of molasses equals 0.87 FU; export priceof cattle is 200 CFAF/kg, liveweight; a gain of 1 kg liveweight requires11 FU; and feed amounts to 40% of production costs.

2/ In Ouagadougou, Koudougou, Hounde and Bobo-Dioulasso (2 ginneries);managed by SOFITEX with its headquarters in Bobo-Dioulasso.

3/ Seeds contain about 16% digestible protein.

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per kg at the ginneries, including bags. At this price the demand by livestockowners is estimated at 10,000 tons annually. The cotton-seed currently usedfor oil would also make excellent cattle feed; it is currently allocated by

governmental policy to the local oil processing plant (CITEC) at 15 CFAF per kg,which is alleged to be competitive with export prices. 1/ At this price, thesefirst-quality seeds could probably be used efficiently for beef production,

especially in situations where supplemental feeding gives high marginal returns.Current governmental policy prevents this, however, by giving priority to the

production of edible oil. A change in this policy by allowing cottonseeds to be

sold to the highest bidder would require decontrol of oil prices and could mean

that production of cottonseed oil would no longer be profitable. It is likelythat rationing will continue, but there appear to be economic grounds for in-

creasing the allocation to livestock. The question requires further study.

3.36 Cottonseed Cake is an excellent protein rich feed supplement 2/ for

cattle and the only protein rich supplement available in the country in largequantities. In 1979 the CITEC oil mill in Bobo-Dioulasso processed about21,000 tons of cottonseed and about 7,000 tons of cotton cake were produced;

almost all of the cotton cake was exported, except for 150 tons that were soldlocally at about CFAF 30 per kg (including bags), which is the alleged exportprice. 3/ In principle, this cake could be used domestically as cattle feed

if purchased at export prices, but it is unlikely to be profitable at thisprice unless used as a marginal, high protein supplement.

3.37 Wheat Bran has a high feeding value. 4/ It is produced at the GrandMoulin flour mill in Banfora. Both in 1978 and 1979 annual production wasabout 4,000 tons, which was sold to various livestock owners. The demand in

1979 was especially high in the Sahelian zone. The price of CFAF 15 per kghas increased recently from CFAF 4 per kg. In a normal year the demand is

small and there are about 2,000 tons wheat bran available for livestock feed

at present price level. The flour mill exports excess stocks of wheat bran as

the storage period is limited to about one year by the small storage capacity(1,000 mt). Future production of wheat bran depends on Government's policy of

1/ This price is slightly lower than one calculated from 1979 European

import prices, but transport costs are only estimated.

2/ With a digestible protein content between 45% and 53% according to quality.

3/ This price may be too high. Information compiled in Upper Volta on exportprices of cottonseeds and cottonseed cake is not consistent with import

prices in Europe as reported in the Bank's commodity forecasts. First,import prices show the opposite price structure, with seeds costing some

20% more than cake, which contrasts to prices in Upper Volta that give

seeds half the value of cake. Second, 1979 import prices for cakesuggest an export price (fob) of 10-15 CFAF/kg--depending on transport

costs, which is less than the 30 CFAF charged in Upper Volta. Thus,world prices indicate that domestic use of cottonseed cake might be taxed

by as much as 100%.

4/ 0.71 Feed Units per kg.

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importing wheat grains or wheat flours. At present, owing to European subsidypolicies, imports of flour are cheaper than flour produced locally fromimported wheat.

3.38 Rice Bran is only available in small quantities, mainly from threerice mills 1/ near Bobo-Dioulsso, as most paddy is produced in the nearby KouValley (950 ha). Rice bran amounts to about 7% of paddy weight. Most ispurchased by local farmers 2/ and used as pig, poultry and cattle feeds; somerice bran in the Kou Valley is also used as fertilizer on fields.

3.39 Among other feed ingredients used in smaller quantities are ground-nut cake, fish meal and blood meal. Groundnut cake is produced at the CITECoil mill in Bobo-Dioulasso but the production is low because of small purchasesof groundnuts; in 1979 only 3,400 tons were treated at CITEC which gave about2,000 tons groundnut cake at an oil extraction rate of 40%. The fob exportprice of groundnut cake is the same as the cotton cake, CFAF 28-30 per kg.Local fish meal is not produced but small quantities are imported from Mali.Blood meal is produced in small quantities at the slaughterhouse in Ouagadougou,and the facility for drying blood is being rehabilitated.

3.40 Information on agricultural products and agro-industrial productsthat can be used for animal feedstuffs is summarized in Table 7. Severalobservations can be noted from this table. First, for the products for whichactual consumption by livestock is known, only 3rd quality cottonseeds arefully used. Thus there is scope for expanded use if profitable. Second, theprices (per Feed Unit) of the feedstuffs produced by the industrial sector andnot exported are clearly less than either those sold for export (cottonseedand groundnut cake) or those made available by farmers and the traditionalprocessing sector (stovers, legume hay, and sorghum and millet bran). Themanufactured complete feeds are extremely expensive because of the high costof cereals used. It is important to note that the modern feedlots have haddifficulty making a profit even with the cheapest byproducts, whereas theprivate feeding sector has managed with the more expensive ones. Third, thereal economic opportunity costs of these feed-stuffs are difficult to ascertain,except for exported oilseed cake and grains that can be imported. For these,the opportunity cost is CFAF 30-40 (per kg) and 65-85, respectively. With anexport value of meat at 400 CFAF per kg, Feed Units costing more than 15-20CFAF per kg are unlikely to be economic (assuming about 12 Feed Units per kgliveweight). 3/ The economic costs of brans and hay are more difficult todetermine because they are by-products of food production, but as a minimumthey must include costs of handling and transport. They also have alternate

1/ SOVOLCOM rice mill and a private rice mill are located south ofBobo-Doulasso; the third rice mill is located in the Kou Valley.

2/ At a price of CFAF 15-17 per kg.

3/ This same conclusion is reached by IEMVT in its study for the CILSS,"Strategie du Developpement de l'Elevage dans les Pays Saheliens,"Maisons-Alfort, January 1980, draft, p.86.

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local uses (stovers for fuel, legume hay to feed donkeys used for transport,and bran to feed chickens which are both more efficient at converting it intomeat and worth as much as or more than cattle per kg at export). It appears,then, that the value of most animal feedstuffs may exceed their worth asfeed to produce beef. The two exceptions may be cottonseed (of all qualities)and molasses.

3.41 The evaluation is, of course, more complex than simply comparingcosts per FU with the price of beef using the feed conversion rate based on aration mostly composed of these foodstuffs. Under these conditions, theaverage economic return appears too low to be justified. But if these high-quality feedstuffs are used merely as a supplement to extensive grazing duringcritical and limited periods, their marginal economic return can be quitehigh. The evidence that the demand for 3rd quality cottonseed rises duringdrought periods and that dry-season backyard fattening relies heavily on thesefeedstuffs indicates that livestock producers are well aware of the highmarginal return under such circumstances. Where grazing is not limited, as inareas like Bougouriba in the Southwest, use of these agro-industrial feedstuffsis less likely to be attractive. Unfortunately, most of the surplus feedstuffsare produced in exactly these areas.

Water

3.42 Water. Natural watering sites for livestock include rivers, smallstreams, and ponds. Many of these dry up after the rainy season, and theirgeographical distribution is not always well correlated with available pastures.To compensate for deficiencies in natural sources of water, a network of man-made watering points, such as dams, ponds, wells and bore holes, have beenbuilt over many years, primarily to supply potable water to villagers, not tolocal livestock. Although these dams generally provide a year-round supply ofwater, they are rather few in number and not evenly distributed for effectiveuse by livestock. Village wells, of which more than 3,000 wells were con-structed in the period 1964-1974, mainly supply potable water to the villagers,but are often the only source of water for livestock after the rains havestopped. Water is usually drawn from village wells by hand, which limits thenumber of animals that can be kept near the village during the dry season.However, village wells are important in supplying the rural population withwater.

3.43 Hydrogeological Conditions. Hydrologically, Upper Volta is dividedinto 3 main regions:

(a) the zone with a crystalline substratum which covers 80% of thecountry. Considerable quantities of underground water exist atvarying depths (which may vary by as much as 5 m according to theseason) according to the profile of the crystalline strata. Theinfiltration may reach several thousand cubic meters of water per sqkm. In comparison to the availability of water, village consumptionis negligible, and quantity of water is not a limiting factor.Factors that do limit the exploitation of the water table includethe permeability of the soil, the depth of wells, the means ofextraction but not the quantity of water.

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(b) the Sahel - above the 14th parallel and largely included in the zonewith the crystalline substratum, where the water table is no longerregularly supplied by infiltration because of low rainfall (lessthan 450 mm per year).

(c) the sedimentary zone - covering the rest (20%) of the country - theregion to the west of the sandstone plateau between Bobo-Dioulassoand Banfora which extends northward to Nouna and the Plain of Gondo.Exploitation of this water table is more assured with less localvariation, and output can achieve higher levels. Moreover, wateroutput can be determined in advance from baseline studies.

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IV. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION AND USE

Production

4.01 Voltaic livestock production can only be roughly estimated; therehas never been a census of herd size. The evolution of the national cattleherd is shown in Table 2 and Chart 1. Interpretation of the trends in cattleproduction requires a simultaneous look at growth rates in herd size andofftake rates. In very general terms, the annual growth rate now is con-sidered to be about 3% per year, with an offtake of 11%. There is someevidence of long-term trends in these rates, but the allocation of totalproduction between growth and offtake may vary considerably. For example,during 1948-54, annual growth rates for cattle were estimated at 4.4%, owingmostly to improvements in veterinarian services. 1/ But the average annualgrowth rate between 1965-73 was only 1.6%, rising to 2.2% during the latterpart of the period (1969-73). During the drought years (1972-74), numbersactual'ly declined by an estimated 300,000, mostly in the Sahelian zone wherecattle probably died of hunger of rather than thirst. Since the low point in1974, estimates show the herd growing by over 2% per year, and by 1978, theherd size had almost returned to the peak level in 1973. Recent growth ratesare now estimated to be back to 3%. The evolution of the sheep and goat herdappears to follow the same pattern as that of cattle although growth rates arehigher. During 1965-73, the herd appears to have grown by only 2.2% per year;but more recently the rate has been higher at 4.6%. What underlies thesedynamics must mainly be speculated, since there are only scattered data onpopulation parameters and changes in the geographic distribution. Thedrought surely caused a southern movement of cattle, pushed by the lack ofpasture in the north and encouraged by the southern descent of the tse-tselimit. But the overall decline in numbers indicates that the southern areaswere unable to absorb these cattle and may have themselves even suffered a netdecline in cattle population. Since the drought, the country has restocked,which is reflected in the low level of exports during this period. To someextent, these growth patterns probably reflect assumptions developed forplanning and for estimating national accounts. What is unclear is why thegrowth rate has not been higher, especially during the period of restockingafter the drought when offtake rates were presumably also low. The mostsweeping hypothesis is that the more northern, tse-tse free areas are nowsaturated, limiting expansion to the rate at which the tse-tse challenge isreduced in the south by clearing land for crops. For example, Herman andMakinen report stocking rates in the northern tier (ORDs of Sahel, Yatenga,and Kaya) to have been about double the estimated carrying capacity in 1969;in the south the grazing capacity was sometimes less than half utilized. 2/

1/ World Bank, The Economy of Upper Volta, Washington, 1964, p. 7.

2/ See Larry Herman and Marty Makinen, "Livestock and Meat Production,Marketing, and Exports in Upper Volta", in Livestock and Meat Mar-keting in West Africa, Vol. 1, "Synthesis; Upper Volta", by EdgarJ. Ariza-Nino, Larry Herman, Marty Makinen, and Charles Steedman,CRED, Ann Arbor, 1980, p. 52. See also para. 3.30.

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4.02 Production parameters have never been surveyed with any certainty.The figures discussed here are based on the following parameters.

Herdsize 1/ Annual offtake 2/ Carcass Fifth Quarter 4/Type of Livestock (000 head) (% of herd) weight (kg) 3/ (% of carcass)

Cattle 2,653 11 5/ 105 25Sheep and Goats 4,380 25 12 15Pigs 164 60 25 10Poultry 10,000 110 0.75 -

1/ Estimates for 1978; see Table 2.

2/ Offtake parameters are taken from the section describing the livestockpopulation.

3/ Carcass weights are subject to annual variations caused by fluctuationsin food supply and depend on both the composition of the herd and the ageand sex of animals slaughtered. The figures given here are based onestimates from several services, which usually draw upon data reported byslaughterhouses. The Institut National de la Statistique et de laDemographie (INSD) reports a carcass weight for cattle of 104 kg in 1978,although the figure ranges from 140 in 1969 to only 95 in 1973-75. The"Sous-Commission de la Production Animale - Programme de ProductionAnimale pour le 3eme Plan 1977-1981," (PLAN) uses a national average of95 kg, with a range of 75 kg for female taurin to 110 kg for male Zebu.The 1972 SCET study, "La Production Animale Voltaique - Perspectives deDeveloppement", (SCET), also used 95 kg as a national average. Forcattle, a carcass weight of 95 kg appears low, although it appears that alarge number of young cattle are being slaughtered. On the other hand,the largest cattle are usually exported live. Herman and Makinen,"Livestock and Meat Production, Marketing, and Exports in Upper Volta",in Livestock and Meat Marketing in West Africa, Vol. 1, "Synthesis-UpperVolta", CRED, Ann Arbor, 1980, use 112 kg for Zebu and 77 for Taurin,with a national average of 101 kg per animal in 1978. The carcass weightfor sheep and goats is taken from the SCET study, given a herd structurethat is 40% sheep and 60% goats. Weights for small ruminants raised inthe north are higher by about 1 kg.

4/ Taken from the SCET study. The fifth quarter includes the head, feet,stomach, intestines, heart, lungs, spleen, and liver.

5/ When account is taken of herd composition (70% Zebu and 30% taurin),the annual offtake amounts to only about 10.5%. In the interest ofsimplicity, and given the uncertainty of the estimates, this precision isignored here.

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Donkeys, horses and camels are ignored because they are quantitatively insig-nificant. Annual production of livestock products for both consumption andexport in 1978 thus amounted to about:

numbers meat fifth quarter milk 1/ eggs 1/Type of livestock (000 head) (000 mt) (000 mt) (000 mt) (millions)

cattle 292 30.7 7.7 47sheep and goats 1,095 13.1 2.0 27pigs 98 2.5 0.2 - -poultry 11,000 8.3 - - 10

TOTAL 12,485 54.6 9.9 74 10

Total output would also include herd growth--about 3% per year for cattle andover 4% for small ruminants since the drought.

4.03 The physical productivity of Voltaic livestock can be indicated bythe quantity of meat--excluding the fifth quarter--produced per animal in thenational herd. For cattle 11.6 kg beef were produced for cattle in 1979 andfor sheep and goats about 3 kg were produced. If herd growth is also included,the figures rise to 13.7 and 3.4 for cattle and small ruminants, respectively.Although these figures are estimates, they provide no evidence that cattleproductivity has increased over the last decade. 2/ The productivity isamong the lowest in West Africa and extremely low when compared to developedcountries. 3/

1/ Based on estimates contained in the SCET study, adjusted for herd sizesassumed for 1978. With a herd containing 40% cows, this estimate isequivalent to about 40-50 liters per cow per year. This is a conserva-tive estimate; on average, each adult Zebu cow may be able to provide100-120 1 per year for human consumption (assumes 300 1 for calves andtakes account of miscarriages and other losses of calves).

2/ In 1979: 30,700,000 kg beef for 2,650,000 head, or 11.6 kg; in 1969,according to the Bank-s Economic Report of November 1970, the compara-tive figures were: 28,315,000 kg beef for 2,500,000 head, or 11.3 kg.In fact, the governnment's own planning document (Sous-Commission de laProduction Animale, "Programme de Production Animale pour le 3eme Plan1977-1981") indicates that productivity has fallen from the level in1969 when offtake was estimated to be as high as 14%.

3/ The figures in 1969 were: 13 kg in Niger, 15 kg in Mali, and 44 kg inGreece. (From La Production Animale Voltaique - Perspective de Developpe-ment, Tome II, "Note de Synthese," by SCET, 1972.)

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Exports

4.04 Exports of animal products are perhaps known with slightly greateraccuracy than herd size and production, but available figures reflect onlyauthorized or declared exports and may themselves be subject to clericalerrors. To illustrate, data for cattle shipments from Upper Volta to theIvory Coast during 1970 and 1972-77 from three different sources show averageannual cattle exports of 46, 53, and 62 thousand head. 1/ There is alsoallegedly much clandestine trade. There are few firm data that could confirmor deny the importance of such trade, but it could amount to several thousandhead per year. In any case, the official estimates show that a large share ofnational livestock production is exported, except for pigs which appear to benearly all consumed locally. _2/

4.05 Cattle. As shown in Table 4, anywhere from 10-30% of the annualcattle production is exported, nine-tenths or more as live animals. Ifexports recover from the low levels following the drought -- and import data

1/ A comparison of 9 years of Ivorian customs data for Voltaic cattleexports to the Ivory Coast with data for Ivorian imports from UpperVolta indicates the great discrepancy in figures among sources.

Ivorian Imports Declared Voltaic Authorized VoltaicYear (000 head) Exports (000 head) Exports (000 head)

1970 51.2 38.9 59.21971 .... 41.2 59.61972 73.7 72.8 58.01973 73.1 59.2 48.61974 39.1 55.9 49.51975 58.4 71.7 57.91976 35.3 20.3 23.21977 38.3 112.6 24.71978 57.0 28.1 ....Average of1970 and1972-77 52.7 61.6 45.9

Ivorian data are from The Ministry of Animal Production, data fordeclared Voltaic exports are customs reports compiled by CENATRIN,and data for authorized exports are from the Livestock Service asreported by Larry Herman, "The Livestock and Meat Marketing Systemin Upper Volta: Summary of an Evaluation of Economic Efficiency",in Livestock Production and Marketing in the Entente States of WestAfrica: Summary Project, Kenneth H. Shapiro, ed., CRED, Ann Arbor,March 1979. The symbol ... " indicates data were unavailable.

2/ There are reports of substantial exports to Niger.

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from the Ivory Coast suggest they are, then up to 30% of the annual offtake

(or 80-90,000 head) may be considered a normal level of exports (assuming

changes in domestic consumption are matched by changes in cattle production). 1/

Most declared exports are shipped to the Ivory Coast and virtually noneare walked. About 70% are transported by rail and the rest by truck. Of the

500 tons of meat reportedly exported annually by ONERA, about 30% is shipped

to Abidjan and the rest to Cotonou (customs data show annual meat exports at

only about 100 mt).

4.06 The trend in cattle exports is difficult to assess. It is important

to note, however, that the decline in exports began in the mid-1960s, and that

the precipitous decline usually associated with the drought began for Upper

Volta in 1968-69--a fact masked by imports from other countries (see Chart 2).

The decline in exports--both absolutely and relative to crops--does not live

up to projections made by Bank reports in 1964 and 1970 that livestock exports

were expected to continue to rise and to remain more important than crops.

4.07 As a result of the drought, Voltaic exports no longer enjoy a

sheltered market in the coastal cities. The rupture of Sahelian supplies to

coastal countries during the drought prompted them to find new sources, and to

put into place the infrastructure and market for chilled meat. The drought-

induced shortage from the north also coincided with the appearance of cheap

meat imports from Latin America and Europe. In addition, the economic dif-

ficulties in Ghana have virtually eliminated the previously high level of

exports to that country. 2/ In any event, Voltaic exports appear to have

reached a nader in 1976, but more recent statistics indicate a recovery. TheIvory Coast estimates that cattle imports from Upper Volta alone amounted to

75,000 head in 1979. Even if exports to other countries were nil (in 1977,

about 7,000 head were exported to Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria), thisfigure implies a growth in cattle exports of more than 35% over the previous

year. What is clear is that future exports of Voltaic livestock will be

closely affected by their competitive position relative to beef from other

suppliers.

4.08 Sheep and goats. Roughly 30% of national annual sheep and goatproduction is also exported, or some 300,000 animals (see Table 4). Although

they account for less than one-third of national production, sheep comprisealmost two-thirds of the small ruminants exported. Thus, this shift in

relative proportions reflects the relatively higher value of sheep and means

1/ These are gross exports; during and immediately following the drought,

net exports were considerably less. In other years gross and net exports

were fairly similar.

2/ In the early 1960s, well over half of Voltaic cattle exports went to

Ghana.

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as well that the quantity of meat actually exported is somewhat higher thanlivestock numbers indicate in Table 4. As with cattle, most are exported tothe Ivory Coast, with about 25-40% arriving by truck and the rest by train.

4.09 Poultry. Poultry exports are estimated at 3.5-4.0 million birds,or over a third of estimated national production, but this figure is notknown with great certainty. 1/ Probably over 90% of exports are shipped tothe Ivory Coast, and as many as four-fifths of total exports are transportedby rail. The most striking aspect of poultry exports by rail is the high rateof loss -- estimated at 20-25% -- owing to poor facilities, over-crowding, andslow travel. Efforts either to improve transport of live animals or to exportcarcasses could reduce these losses and improve the profitability and competi-tiveness of Voltaic poultry exports.

4.10 Hides and Skins. Including those exported with live animals, fromone-half to two-thirds of the cattle hides appear to be shipped abroad, andvirtually all the sheep and goat skins are exported. 2/ Despite the govern-ment's policy to treat as many hides as possible before export, most are soldin raw form. The Centre de Tannage in Ouagadougou treats slightly more than200,000 goat skins per year, which are then exported as "wet-blues". Thisquantity amounts to only 10-20% of the declared exports of all hides. Exportsof hides and skins are eligible for compensation under the stabilizationscheme for export earnings established by the Common Market (STABEX), but nopayments have yet been made to Upper Volta.

Transit

4.11 Until the mid-1970s, Upper Volta was a major transit route forcattle coming from Mali and Niger. Northern herders often brought cattle tobe sold in Voltaic markets, from where they were re-exported to neighboringcountries in the south. During the decade 1965-74, an average of 58,000 headof cattle passed through the country yearly, more than half as many as Voltaicexports. Since then, declared transits are almost nonexistent, reflecting theefforts of neighboring countries to rebuild their herds (including the prohibi-tion of exports), shifts in markets from Ghana to Nigeria, and border conflicts

1/ See the report of Nicolas Gergely, "Commercialisation des Volailles deHaute Volta," FAO, Rome, 1980.

2/ The export figures for sheep and goat hides in 1978 show quantitiesalmost double those estimated for offtake. There is no good explanationfor this anomaly except that skins may be coming in from Mali and Niger.

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between Mali and Upper Volta in 1974-75. 1/ Transits still occur, however,but are seldom declared. 2/ The reduction in transits presumably has littleimpact on Votaic production, except perhaps to reduce the spread of conta-gious diseases from neighboring countries. In 1980, Upper Volta has loweredits import duties on live animals from 70.46% to 3.68% to encourage imports

of Malian cattle. However, to the extent that transiting cattle are de-clared to be Voltaic when they are re-exported, exports originating from

Voltaic production will be overestimated. Transits of sheep and goats havefollowed the same evolution as cattle, although quantities have been smallerthan cattle, both in absolute terms and relative to Voltaic exports.

Imports

4.12 To this national output must be added small quantities of imports

(see Table 5), which in 1978 are significant only for milk products. Inthat year, such imports amounted to over 80,000 mt of fresh milk equivalent,over four-fifths being food aid. This level is almost twice the estimatedlocal production. In the previous two years 1976-77, recorded imports of

milk products amounted to roughly 24,500 mt of fresh milk equivalent, orabout 50% of the national production of cow's milk. The much smallerquantity reflects the smaller level of food aid in those years. In 1978,the value of these milk imports amounted to about 3.3 billion CFAF, or morethan the value of all livestock exports in the same year. In the previousyear, milk imports amounted to over one-third the value of livestock exports.

Clearly there is scope to expand domestic milk production although thecomparison of local and foreign prices suggests profitability may be low; amilk scheme would probably require trade protection. Moreover, since mostfood aid is made available free of charge to schools and hospitals, it aug-ments demand; domestic production could substitute for it only if subsidized.

4.13 Recorded imports of livestock are shown in Table 5. Since 1975

the numbers have been insignificant, although in previous years they amountedto 30 - 50% of cattle exports and 10 - 20% of sheep and goat exports, asillustrated in Chart 2. The decline in imports probably reflects both theefforts of exporting countries to rebuild their herds after the drought andchanges in trading routes. In 1980, the Voltaic government virtuallyeliminated import duties on livestock in an effort to stimulate imports.

1/ There are two additional reasons: prohibition of transits throughUpper Volta in 1976 and increases in Voltaic export taxes. The CustomsDirectorate indicated that transits have never been banned. Moreover,the change in Voltaic export taxes would affect only imports, not offi-cial transits that pay no export taxes. See Larry Herman, "The Live-stock and Meat Marketing System in Upper Volta: Summary of an Evalua-tion of Economic Efficiency", in Livestock Production and Marketing inthe Entente States of West Africa: Summary Report, Kenneth H. Shapiro,ed., CRED, Ann Arbor, March 1979.

2/ On this point, see Herman.

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Consumption

4.14 Consumption of livestock products can be estimated as the resi-dual of offtake minus known exports, or on the basis of estimated intakeper capita. A rough estimate of domestic consumption for 1978 as a resi-dual of production in the late 1970s and a normal level of exports is shownbelow:

Numbers Meat, includingType of Livestock (000 head) Offal (000 mt) Per capita

Cattle 200 26.3 4.7Sheep and goats 800 11.0 1/ 2.0Poultry 7,000 5.3 0.9Pigs 100 2.7 0.5Total 8,100 45.3 8.1

4.15 The livestock numbers assume that net exports are at levels pre-vailing before the drought and that herd growth continues at recent rates.Meat quantities are based on parameters given above (see paragraph 4.02).Per capita consumption assumes a population of 5.6 million, the estimated1978 level. 2/ The resulting annual meat intake of 8.1 kg per capita comparesfavorably with the assumptions made by the Plan (7.0-8.5 kg per capita) 3/ andby the IEMVT/ CILSS study (8.3 kg per capita in 1977), 4/ but it is much lower

1/ Even though exports contain a relatively larger share of sheep (64%)than national production (40%), the change in average carcassweight is insignificant, given other errors.

2/ Population estimate used by the World Bank prior to 1982 revision, whichwould place 1978 resident population at about 5.9 million. For detailson revised population estimates see IBRD, Upper Volta Country EconomicMemorandum, (Report No. 4040-UV), forthcoming.

3/ See RHV, MDR, "Sous-Commission de la Production Animale - Programmede Production Animale pour le 3e Plan 1977-1981," Ouagadougou, 1976.

4/ CILSS, "Strategie du Developpement de l'Elevage dans les Pays Saheliens",by IEMVT, Maisons-Alfort, January 1980, draft. The 1970 World Bankstudy, The Economic Development of Upper Volta, Vol. 3, "Livestock",Washington, p. 10, uses 6.5 kg p.c. for rural areas and 25 for urbanareas, giving about 8-8.5 nationwide.

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than figures reported in other studies. 1/ In comparison, exports amount toroughly 18,000 mt of meat and offals, or 3.2 kg per capita.

4.16 It is clear that relatively small increases in domestic consump-tion might possibly eliminate any surplus for export, and this argument isoften used to buttress proposals to augment national production. However,under reasonable assumption about herd and population growth and changes

1/ The 1972 SCET study (La Production Animale Voltaique - Perspec-tives of Developpement, Tome II, "Note de Synthese") and the recentFAO poultry study (Nicolas Gergely, "Commercialisation des Volailles deHaute Volta," FAO, Rome 1980) give the following annual per capitafigures (by):

Type of meat rural urbanbeef 3.3 29.5mutton and goat 2.4 2.0poultry 1.0 6.0Total 6.7 37.5

With 90% rural population, the average intake is 9.8 kg, excludingpork.

Three recent consumption surveys give figures that suggest ruralconsumption may be somewhat higher and urban consumption somewhatlower. FAO studies near Kaya (1978) and Fada (1979) show annual percapita meat consumption of 1.5 and 12.0 kg per year, respectively. TheFada study covered 3 periods of the year -- although the hungry seasonwas excluded, whereas the Kaya study covered only the end of the dryseason when incomes are lower and meat prices are highest (see RHV,MDR, Direction des Services Agricoles, "Bilan Provisoire de la CampagneCerealiere 1979/80," Ouagadougou, October 1979). Thus annual rural percapita meat consumption may be higher than 6.7 kg. The InstitutNational de la Statistique et de la Demographie (INSD) studied theconsumption of workers in Ouagadougou during early 1980 to recalculatethe official minimum wage; results give an annual per capita 'neatconsumption of 21 kg. Since the respondents were minimum wage earners,average consumption levels may be higher than these results indicate.If rural consumption were 9 kgs and urban consumption were 30 kgs, thenational average would rise to about 11 kgs per capita per year.

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in consumption, the surplus available for export might be actually increase,as shown by the figures below: 1/

1978 1985 1990

Meat and offals (000 mt) 64.5 78.7 91.3Consumption (000 mt) 45.4 54.6 64.3Surplus for export (000 mt) 19.1 24.1 27.0

The consumption estimates for 1985 are broadly in accord with those ofHerman and Makinen, but production estimates for cattle and small ruminantsare higher by about 15%. 2/ But, if herd size, offtake rates and per capitaconsumption remain unchanged, while the resident population continues togrow at 1% annually--as projected by the Bank, it could take as long as 30years to absorb the surplus. On the other hand, if there is no herd growth

1/ The critical parameters are:

Annual growth rates (%): cattle 3.0sheep and goats 4.5pigs and poultry 0.0rural population 0.5urban population 5.7income 0.4

Income elasticity of demand: 0.751978 rural per capita consumption (kg): 5.71978 urban per capita consumption (kg): 30.0

The income elasticity is based on that in the Ivory Coast, whereincomes and meat consumption are higher. John Staatz ("Meat Supplyin Ivory Coast, 1967-1985," in Livestock and Meat Marketing in WestAfrica, Volume 3, Center for Research on Economic Development, Univer-sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1980) uses 0.6 - 0.7 as the range ofincome elasticities; the value for Abidjan alone was estimated at 0.55.The demand elasticity in Bamako has been estimated at 0.5 (a range of0.12 to 0.8), and for Abidjan it is considered somewhat less than 1.0(see William F. Beazer and J. Dirck Stryker, Financement des DepensesGouvernmentales Recurrentes pour l'Accroissement du Betail au Mali,USAID, Washington, May 1976). Herman and Makinen, "Livestock and MeatProduction, Marketing, and Exports in Upper Volta", pp. 132-133, use1.0-1.5 for red meat and 0.5-0.75 for offals.

2/ Larry Herman and Marty Makinen, "Livestock and Meat Production,Marketing, and Export in Upper Volta", in Livestock and MeatMarketing in West Africa, Vol. 1, "Synthesis - Upper Volta",Center for Research on Economic Development, University of Michigan,Ann Arbor, 1980, pp. 74, 77, and 132-33.

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while per capita meat consumption increases the surplus would be absorbedafter only about 10 years. Under somewhat different assumptions, the IEMVTstudy for CILSS estimates that the annual rate of growth (entirely fromhigher productivity, not herd expansion) in meat production of cattle andsmall ruminants must be at least 4.2 to 4.6%, respectively, in order tomaintain exports at the 1977 levels (defined as kg per capita) while allowingconsumption to grow in line with population growth and urbanization. Suchoutput growth rates even exceed European achievements.

4.17 Relative prices are probably the most critical factor, however,and more wealthy foreign consumers may continue to bid away livestockfrom domestic consumers despite growth in population, cities, and incomes.As shown later, evidence suggests that local livestock prices have risenat the rate of perhaps 9-10% per year since the early 1960s, which is abouttwice as high as general inflation. But given the poor quality of dataand the lack of knowledge about important parameters, it is impossible topredict trends in domestic consumption with much accuracy.

Processing

4.18 Most slaughterings are done traditionally by individual villagebutchers, often on concrete slabs and in hangars especially constructed forthis purpose. Approximately two-thirds to three-fourths of the cattleconsumed domestically are now slaughtered in this way; and from one-half totwo-thirds of the sheep and goats are slaughtered traditionally. In thecities with modern abattoirs, there are legal prohibitions against tradi-tional slaughtering, but there is little evidence that these prohibitionsare very effectively enforced. Slaughter fees are charged only by theabattoirs, but butchers are required to pay slaughter taxes on each animalkilled, according to the following schedule (CFAF per head) 1/:

Type of livestock Ouagadougou and OtherBobo-Dioulasso localities

cattle 150 75sheep and goats 15 8pigs 30 15donkeys 75 38

Slaughter fees in effect for 1980 for the abattoirs can be summarized (CFAFper head):

Type of livestock Ouagadougou Bobo-Dioulasso

cattle 2,000 2,000plus local delivery 300

sheep and goats 130 300pigs 1,000

1/ Two-thirds of this tax covers the income tax (Benefices Industriels etCommerciaux, or BIC) and the other third covers the butcher-s license.

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4.19 Ouagadougou Slaughterhouse. In 1974 a new slaughterhouse wasconstructed at a cost of 855 million CFAF, financed by European DevelopmentFund. It is operated by ONERA, employs about 150 workers, and has an annualcapacity of 13,000 tons of carcass. There are two slaughter lines forcattle (each with a daily capacity -- 1 shift -- of 150 animals) and oneline for small ruminants (with a daily capacity of 250 animals). Thepresent annual throughput is about 5,000 tons of carcass, equivalent to 90head of cattle, 300 small ruminants and 10 pigs daily. While the cattlelines are underutilized (only one is in operation), the small ruminants lineis overloaded and an extension of the small ruminants line is presentlybeing carried out by Dutch aid at a cost of CFAF 200 million. The slaughter-house was originally constructed for export of meat, and as such fits intothe government-s strategy to export animal products rather than live animals.The installation has ten cool rooms with a cold storage capacity of about300 tons, grossly underutilized. Only a small amount (probably less than10% at any one time) is used by ONERA and private local butchers. Exportsof chilled meat amount to about 9-10 tons per week, and butchers use thecold storage only one day a week (for 10-15 tons) since the slaughterhousedoes not operate on Sundays. Despite this unused capacity, the cold storageis being expanded.

4.20 Detailed accounts were not made available, but in 1979 the slaughter-house is reported to have had a deficit of CFAF 15-20 million on operating

costs alone (CFAF 600-700 per carcass, perhaps). To reduce this deficit,the slaughterhouse tax was raised to CFAF 2,000 per head of cattle in March1980 plus CFAF 300 for transport into Ouagadougou (about 3% of the purchaseprice). Fees were also raised from CFAF 115 to 130 for small stock and fromCFAF 500 to 1,000 for pigs. The cold storage fee was raised from CFAF 500to 1000 per beef carcass for 1-15 days. These higher fees, however, appa-rently cover only variable costs; capital costs have been financed byforeign aid.

4.21 Bobo-Dioulasso Slaughterhouse. The Bobo-Dioulasso slaughterhouse,which was built in 1961, has been renovated and equipped under the Bank-sFirst Livestock Project. The renovation was completed in September 1979and on January 1, 1980, ONERA took over management of the abattoir. Theslaughterhouse purchases no livestock itself, but merely performs theslaughter as a service. City butchers bring their animals, which arethen slaughtered by the 18 butchers employed by the abattoir and deliveredto the local butchers shops. At present about 60-70 head of cattle areslaughtered daily. Hides and skins are purchased by the Hide MarketingCompany (SCP). All the meat is consumed locally and none is currentlyexported. Only cattle of an inferior quality are slaughtered here asstronger animals are walked to the Ivory Coast where prices are more attrac-tive.

4.22 Hides and skins derive mainly from an annual slaughtering of some220,000 head of cattle, 550,000 goats and 250,000 sheep. An unknown quan-tity of skins may also cross the border from Mali. Hides and skins arecollected from slaughterhouses and slaughterslabs and sold to the two major

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hides and skins companies, SCP and SVCP, both located in Ouagadougou.SVCP was set up in 1968 as a mixed corporation with 49% Government sharesand 51% private shares (mostly foreign capital). The purpose of SVCP was tocollect, prepare, transport and buy from producers hides and skins in allstages of processing; it also establishes and operates depots, sales outletsand all types of installations relating to the treating of hides and skins.In 1978/79 SVCP handled about 80% of the hides and skins divided as:

cattle hides: 64,241goat skins 1,139,428sheep skins 469,758

4.23 Purchase prices for dried hides and skins are summarized below (inCFAF):

Type of hide Official purchaseprice kg per hide

Per hide Per kg

cattle 640 160 4.0sheep 385 700 0.55goats 315 900 0.35

Prices actually paid vary depending on the quality and purchase. Forexample, first and second quality sheep and goat skins were allegedlypurchased for CFAF 500 and 600 per skin in March 1980. Private marketprices for wet cattle hides at slaughterhouses ranged from CFAF 5-600 perhide in Bobo-Dioulasso to CFAF 700 in Ouagadougou.

4.24 Tanning. A state tanning company, Centre de Tannage, is locatedin Ouagadougou. It dates from 1964, and most of its machinery needs to bereplaced. The tannery has two lines of production; the main one is thetreatment, on a custom basis, of about 18,000 goatskins per month for SVCP.These are returned to SVCP as wet blues" and exported mainly to Europe.The tannery also treats about 1,000 cattle hides per month, which are soldlocally for the fabrication of leather goods. The tannery has experiencedserious financial difficulties over the years. A project for constructionof a new tannery has been under planning, but no investment has yet beenmade.

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V. ECONOMICS OF LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR

Production

5.01 The economic productivity of traditional production is difficultto calculate, in part because the costs of production in traditional systemshave not been well studied. But a few observations are possible for cattle,based on the figures below:

Number 1/ Unit Value 2/ Net WorthType of cattle (000 head) (000 CFAF) (billion CFAF)

Calves - female 382 30 11.5male 297 15 4.5

Young heifers 371 65 24.1Young bulls/steers 260 30 7.8

Adult cows 1,064 70 74.5Adult bulls/steers 279 70 19.5

TOTAL 2,653 53 141.9

At current prices, beef produced per head is worth about 5,000 CFAF, 3/to which must be added an additional 30% to account for herd growth, a valuefor milk, and a small sum for the fifth quarter. On this basis, the grossreturn on investment is in the neighborhood of 15%.

5.02 In the national accounts for 1972 and 1974, 4/ most of thisincome accrues to family labor, not to capital invested. Herding costs,

1/ Based on the herd structure reported in the SCET study "La Produc-tion Animale Voltaique - Perspectives de Developpement," 1972.

2/ Based on current market prices collected by the mission, exceptfor calves and cows, prices for which are assumed. See Table 8.

3/ 200-220 CFAF per kg liveweight, and a dressing percentage of about50%. To this could be added a few hundred francs to take accountof the fifth quarter. Including milk would raise returns evenmore.

4/ RHV, Ministere du Plan, INSD, Comptes Nationaux de la Haute Volta-1972 and 1974, April 1976, Ouagadougou.

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estimated on the basis of current commercial arrangements in many parts of thecountry, suggest that the value of labor can perhaps be taken at about 3,000CFAF, or about half the value of the meat produced (see Table 11). 1/ Asidefrom other, minor costs, net return on capital would be 5 - 10%, including thegrowth in herdsize. 2/ Because data are so uncertain, these figures shouldonly be considered illustrative.

5.03 There is also some indication that production costs are rising,although the evidence is largely circumstantial. Livestock owners complain ofthe difficulty of finding herding labor, while expanding crop fields increasethe need for herding labor either to guard fields or to extend the search forpasture. Expansion of agriculture also tends to increase litigations, whichseem usually to be resolved by fines assessed on herders. The apparentlylarge number of immature stock sold--often for slaughter--is an indication ofpossible financial difficulties in the sector. 3/

5.04 The economic viability of feedlots is difficult to ascertainbecause all data are not available, but some estimates can be made (in CFAFper animal): 4/

1/ Wage costs are difficult to ascertain because of varying arrangements,and differences in herdsizes. For example, a herdsize only half thatused in Table 11 would double returns to labor, which would then accountfor nearly all the gross return. On the other hand, all the elementsshown in the table are not always paid simultaneously. Payments withonly milk, grain, and cash give a labor cost of 1-2,000 CFAF.

2/ Given the high margins of error, this result compares to the 8% whichthe Bank currently assumes to be the opportunity cost of capital in UpperVolta. Returns in economic prices would also be higher, owing to the nettaxation of the sector. Delgado estimates that gross returns from buyingand selling male cattle fed on natural pasture or from producing calvesfrom cows entrusted to herders are in the neighborhood of about 20% peryear, or considerably higher than this estimate based on national figures.But Delgado's estimate does not take into account any payment for herdingcosts, except in manure and milk, and falls to 15% when male animals arekept for 3-4 years. See Christopher Delgado, "Livestock Versus FoodGrain Production in Southeastern Upper Volta: A Resource AllocationAnalysis," Ph. D. dissertation, Cornell University, 1978.

3/ For example, R. Vengroff reports that Peuhl in the center and east sellmale cattle that average only 4 years old (see Upper Volta: EnvironmentalUncertainty and Livestock Production, 1980, p. 82).

4/ These estimates are based on information in OUEDRAOGO Seydou, "l'EmboucheBovine au Ranch de la SODEXPAD Banfora", Memoire de Fin d'Etudes, Insti-tut Superieur Polytechnique, Universite de Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou,Mai 1979; GTZ, "Feedlot Banfora - Ergebnisse des Zweiten Wirtschaft-sjahres und Empfehlungen fur 1980," Eschborn, 1980; and on discussions atthe ONERA feedlot in Banfora.

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Banfora Feedlot (1979) SODEXPAD feedlot (1978)Cost Item Amount Remarks Amount Remarks

Purchase of animals 41,000 217 kg at CFAF 37,500 225 kg at CFAF189 per kg 167 per kg

Depreciation of 10,000 750 animals per 1,370 2,400 animalsinstallation year per year

Interest on investment (excluded) 750 8%

Interest on cattle 2,160 9 months at 8% 1,000 6 months at 8%

Feed 8,640 32 CFAF/day 7,650 42.5 CFAF/dayover 270 days over 180 days

Veteonary services 680 1,625

Wages 6,000 Partial 10,740

Operating Costs 3,000 Partial 3,090

Other costs (unknown) (unknown)

Losses 2,480 12% of gross 2,813 7.5% of purchaseprofits (sales costminus purchaseprice, food,veterinaryservice)

TOTAL COSTS 73,960 69,438

REVENUE 70,350 335 kg at CFAF 69,200 346 kg at CFAF210/kg 200/kg

NET PROFIT -3,610 238

(Average daily gain (0.44) (0.68)

These figures can be considered preliminary and indicative, and there isconsiderable variation between the results for the two feedlots. The SODEXPADexperience shows almost no profit, which is consistent with the decision toclose the operation; and the Banfora operation shows a loss even though somecosts are excluded. It is important to note that much of the gain in revenueresults simply from the increase in value per kg that comes with age, whichhas nothing to do with the feedlot operation. Feed costs for the SODEXPADoperation ranged from 5-7 CFAF/Feed Unit, with an average conversion rate of.

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12.6 Feed Units per kg liveweight. Feed costs and amount to about 25% oftotal costs and are equivalent to about 40% of the value of the weight gainachieved. As a result of the poor performance of the feedlots, ONERA and theLivestock Service are calling for monopoly control over feedstuffs as well assubsidized prices. Such a policy would not only hide the inefficiencies ofthe operations, but it is inconsistent with current market prices of mostagricultural by-products, as shown in Table 7.

5.05 The poor performance of the modern feedlots should be contrastedwith that of the small-scale fattening efforts of smallholders. Despite thehigh costs of feedstuffs, these operations appear to be profitable, judged bythe interest that producers show in them. Although a detailed accounting oftheir operation has not been undertaken, certain features appear to help makethem succssful. These include: operation during the dry season only, whichminimizes disease problems and allows maximum gain from the seasonal movementsin prices; use of family labor, which may have little or no private opportunitycost; insignificant infrastructure because family compounds are used; andhigher sale prices because of higher quality beef--although the market forsuch beef may be relatively thin.

Livestock Marketing 1/

5.06 The marketing system is highly decentralized and operates fairlyindependently of government interventions, except for minor infrastructuralimprovements in traditional market places and stock routes, usual commerciallicenses, and export fees and levies. Many sales are to other stock ownerswhen cattle are not yet ready for slaughter or are not to be used as draftoxen. Merchants often purchase cattle directly from herders (especially fromisolated farmers who sell only a few cattle), but most sales probably occur informal markets. 2/ Herders (or owners) present their cattle for sale througha local commission agent who is known to both buyers and sellers and whoguarantees title to the stock, may guard the stock, and verifies the transac-tion. For this service, the fee is usually 250 CFAF per head, paid by thepurchaser. 3/ Most sales are made for cash, except that butchers may purchase

1/ Much of this section is based on Larry Herman. "The Livestock andMeat Marketing System in Upper Volta: Summary of an Evaluation ofEconomic Efficiency", in Livestock Production and Marketing in theEntente States of West Africa: Summary Report, Kenneth H. Shapiro,ed., CRED, March 1979, and on Nicolas Gergely, "Commercialisation desVolailles de Haute Volta," FAO, Rome, March 1980.

2/ Vengroff's study of owners in the central and eastern zones revealedthat one-third sell to other owners and one-half sell to buyers that cometo the village.

3/ Herman reports slightly higher fees - 350 to 500 CFAF per head pertransaction, but the mission observed the lower fee.

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on short-term credit from major merchants. For cattle marketing, theobserved gross margin between the producer and the wholesale butcher isslightly less than 25% of the wholesale selling price, which probably meansthe actual margin on meat sales is less than the 25% between slaughter andconsumer that is allowed legally.

5.07 The poultry marketing system is distinct from that for otherlivestock, but it too is considered to be relatively flexible, efficient,and well adapted to traditional, extensive production of poultry. Theinitial stages are usually carried out by small merchants who travel onbicycles or mobylettes -- providing the name commonly given to Voltaicchickens -- "poulets de bicyclette". An intermediary merchant then purchasesthese fowl in small rural markets and either sells them directly to urbanconsumers, urban merchants, and exporters, or exports them himself. Forpoultry, the gross margin between producer and retailer is about 20% of thewholesale selling price. The retailer receives an additional margin that isabout the same absolute magnitude.

5.08 The livestock marketing system appears to function efficiently,and further control, probably to be exercised by ONERA, is more likely toraise total costs rather than bring real savings. Herman's recent study ofthe system shows virtually no evidence of collusion among buyers to fixprices, in part because of the relatively large number of intermediaries,buyers and sellers. Price information appears to be readily availablewithin markets and rapidly transmitted among markets -- even from majorexport markets in coastal cities. In general, Herman concludes that theVoltaic livestock marketing system performs well, citing its quick adapta-tion to radical changes in supplies and markets and the fact that grossmargins are fairly consistent with costs and reasonable returns to capital,risk, and management. The only evidence of monopolistic gains were forbutchers of high-quality meat in Ouagadougou -- reflecting the high cost ofentering this specialized trade -- and for cattle shippers regularly usingthe RAN -- reflecting imperfections in the way the RAN allocates rail cars.The study identifies three factors that could further lower marketing costs:reduction of export taxes, improved truck and rail transport infrastructure,and reduction of numerous unofficial charges merchants claim to have to pay.For poultry marketing, the same constraints exist as for other livestock:poor infrastructure and facilities for truck and rail transport. To theextent that monopolization occurs, it is probably due in part to governmen-tal regulations and other problems that are easier for larger merchants toovercome. For example, merchants interviewed by the mission suggest thatdelays (of over one year) and difficulties in remitting foreign exchangefrom sales in non-CFAF countries may be impeding exports. ONERA, however,feels this problem is not serious, given the special arrangements beingworked out between central banks.

5.09 Marketing regulations. The section on government taxes gives moredetails, but regulations affecting marketing are limited largely to exports.They deal mainly with health and tax revenue. Most markets, especiallythose improved and operated by ONERA, charge nominal market fees for each

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animal presented for sale. This fee appears to be standardized at 150 CFAFper head for cattle paid by the seller. Local merchants are also requiredto purchase a license each year, which costs 24,000 CFAF in Ouagadougou andBobo-Dioulasso, but only 18,000 CFAF elsewhere. Other than these formali-ties, there appears to be no control over local livestock marketing.

5.10 The export of livestock requires that the herd possess a validCEBV livestock passport, which contains some vital information about theherd and furnishes proof that the various fees and taxes have been paid. Inaddition to payment of export duties, the export of livestock requires anexport license, a health certificate (150 CFAF per head for cattle and 30 forsheep and goats), a certificate of origin and an export authorization (bothlevied at the rate of 100 CFAF per head). In addition, grazing or passagefees may have to be paid to local authorities but these are also fairlyinsignificant (e.g., 25 CFAF per head for cattle and 10 for small ruminants).The cost of an export license for livestock exporters varies depending onthe number of animals bought and sold and on the location. The followingtable summarizes the existing regulations (in 000 CFAF): 1/

Numbers of livestock 2/per year Ouagadougou Ouahigouya Fada Leo Other

Places

Less than 75 3.15 3.21 3.3 3.45 3.075-100 6.3 6.56 6.6 6.90 6.0150-300 12.6 12.84 13.2 13.8 12.0300-600 21.0 21.4 22.0 23.0 20.0600-1,000 52.5 53.5 55.0 57.5 50.0more than 1,000 105.0 107.5 110.5 115.0 100.0

5.11 Marketing Infrastructure. Except for road and rail transportfacilities, marketing facilities for livestock are largely unimproved.Stock routes and cattle markets depend on market flows, and they may developor fall in importance as markets change. In Upper Volta, the major stockroutes traditionally drain cattle from the northeast toward railheads andconsumer markets in Ouagadougou, Bobo-Dioulasso, and coastal cities. Untilthe mid to late 1970s, these routes also carried cattle from Niger and theinterior Delta in Mali. Since then, decline in Ghana as a consumer and thegrowth of the market in Nigeria have caused this foreign stock to bypassVoltaic channels. The routes between Dori and both Ouagadougou and Poueytenga,and between Bobo-Dioulasso and both Tougan and the Mali border (see attachedMap) have been improved by delimiting them with concrete posts. The delimi-tation apparently helps reduce land tenancy conflicts by clarifying the

1/ From the government's Ministry of Finances, Code des Impots Directset Indirects - Monopole des Tabacs, Ouagadougou, after 1975.

2/ For the purposes of measuring livestock numbers, 1 cow or bull equals1 horse equals 2 donkeys equals 6 small ruminants.

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herders rights of passage within the routes. Other improvements, such asregular watering points, grazing reserves, and veterinary posts, have notgenerally been included. The government has proposed that the existingstock route between Ouahigouya and both Koudougou and Ouagadougou be de-limited, but the project has not yet been funded. In general, the govern-ment opposes the improvement of routes from major cattle markets to thecountry-s southern frontiers because it wants to discourage exports of liveanimals. The short-term effect of this policy may be to raise the cost ofor to discourage cattle exports.

5.12 There are eleven major cattle markets in Upper Volta, of whichsix have been equipped with various modern facilities, including holdingpens, scales, and loading ramps (see attached Map). Investments in cattlemarkets have not been wholly satisfactory; none of the new facilities in twoof the six markets is used, and the scales and ramps in the other marketsare seldom if ever used. While improvements in the markets -- especiallyholding pens -- are probably useful, it is by no means clear that thesefacilities significantly improve the efficacy or reduce the costs of mar-keting. In part, the modern facilities are ill-designed, and in part theymiss the major constraints. Future market improvements probably should atleast assure that grazing reserves are available. Improvements in communi-cations, transport means, and banking facilities might also be considered.What is clear is that modern markets cannot simply be created for cattlemerchants.

5.13 Transportation facilities. Within the country, most cattle arewalked between producing regions and the major consuming and export markets.Sheep and goats are both walked and trucked. For exports of live animals,there is a small amount of trucking toward Togo, Benin, Ghana and Nigeria.Most are walked across the borders or shipped by rail to Abidjan. Meat isexported in small quantities by air and in refrigerated rail cars andtrucks.

5.14 With the exception of a few refrigerated trucks owned by ONERA,all the motorized transport facilities are either privately owned (in thecase of trucks and refrigerated rail cars) or belong to the RAN. There isno evidence that there is a shortage of trucks, but poor roads in UpperVolta and the availability of other, cheaper means of transport make truckinggenerally less competitive. The RAN has recently purchased 70 new cattlecars, each with a capacity of 40 cattle, bringing its total rolling stockfor livestock transport to about 250 cars. The older cars have a capacityof 27-35 cattle. In addition, ordinary railroad cars are sometimes used.Assuming all cars are used and the turn-around time is as slow as 2 weeks,the RAN has an annual capacity of about 200,000 head of cattle, and evenmore for small stock. Insufficient capacity no longer appears to be aconstraint. The major problems with rail transport appear to be poorlyorganized bulking of cattle for lot shipment and inadequate holding andloading/unloading facilities in Ouagadougou and Abidjan, creating delays andincreasing shrinkage and mortality. The scheduling of rail cars may also beinefficient.

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5.15 The costs of different types of transport between Ouagadougou andAbidjan for cattle are given below (in CFAF):l/

type of transport per head per kg per ton - kmliveweight carcass 2/

rail - transport only (1980) 8,000 23 3/ 20 4/ 40- other costs 5/ 10,250 29 25 50

trekking 6/ 4,500 13 15 30official truck transport rate 24 48refrigerated trucks 45-50 7/

Costs vary considerably, ranging from about 6% of the purchase price toalmost 25%, depending on the estimate and mode of transport. Althoughtrekking is clearly cheaper and in some ways not so risky, it has thedisadvantage of taking much longer than rail transport. As cultivation inthe coastal countries becomes more dense, trekking will also become lessattractive. Comparable information for truck transport is not available,but figures presented by Staatz for 1976-77 suggest it may cost more than

1/ Based on data reported by Herman (1976-77) and collected by the mission(1980). (See Larry Herman, "The Livestock and Meat Marketing System inUpper Volta: Summary of an Evaluation of Economic Efficiency," inLivestock Production and Marketing in the Entente States of West Africa,CRED, March 1979).

2/ At a 50% dressing weight.

3/ At 350 kg per animal.

4/ Based on 1,150 km.

5/ 10% shrinkage and 3% mortality figured on 75,000 CFAF per animal,plus 500 CFAF loading, unloading, and guarding costs. These must beadded to transport costs.

6/ Based on some of Herman-s costs inflated to 1980 for trekking betweenPoueytenga and Lome (865 km), plus 2.25% mortality and 8% annual interestover 2 months on 75,000 CFAF per animal. Data collected from merchantsby the mission in 1980 for shipments to Nigeria give costs of about4,600 CFAF per animal, including mortality and interest charges.

7/ Per kg of beef. ONERA estimates its costs at 45 CFAF per ton-km, basedon a 5-year truck life, which may be too long. Staatz reports that in1977 the truck transport between Bamako and Abidjan cost 50 CFAF perton-km (see "Meat supply in Ivory Coast, 1967-1985, "Livestock and MeatMarketing in West Africa, Volume 3, CRED, 1980).

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rail transport costs.1/ If the figures are correct, it is as economicalto use refrigerated transport for beef as to ship live animals by rail andtruck. Trekking remains, however, the most efficient.

Credit

5.16 Information on the amount of credit used for livestock productionis not available, but the value is small. Of the over CFAF 40 billionworth of credit owed to the formal banking sector in December 1978, onlyslightly more than 1% was allocated to agriculture, exclusive of short-termfinancing for purchasing crops. Most of this credit is used for cultiva-tion, such as financing purchases of fertilizers and investments in oxen andequipment for animal traction.

5.17 Credit for animal traction--which is virtually the only formalcredit made available to the livestock subsector--has been provided byseveral institutions under a variety of conditions. The first loans weremade by the National Development Bank (Banque Nationale de Developpementor BND) only for equipment on fairly hard terms: 8% interest, repayableover only two years, with 37% downpayment. This program largely failedbecause of poor reimbursement rates. Most of the development project have hadtheir own credit schemes, with various conditions. For example, the AVVprovides credit for animal traction at 6.2% interest for a duration of 7 yearswith no downpayments or grace period. The USAID-funded project in Fadaprovides a similar type of credit at 5.5% over 5 years with 1 year of graceand some downpayment. This program functions well, but administrative coststo pay for the functioning of the program and cover bad debts are as high as25%, in addition to interest. 2/ Beginning in 1980, the Caisse Nationale deCredit Agricole (CNCA, or National Agricultural Credit Bank) consolidatednumerous agricultural credit schemes. Medium-term interest rates were stan-dardized at 9%, which is below the rate of inflation, repaid over a period of3-5 years with no more than 1 year of grace for amortizing principal. Foroxen, a downpayment of 20-25% plus an extra charge for insurance againstmortality are usually required. As much as 25-40% of formal agriculturalcredit is expected to be allocated to animal traction in the near future.

5.18 No formal credit is made available to herders to facilitateor improve livestock production, and private credit is also unimportant inthe sector except perhaps what is extended to butchers by cattle merchants.

1/ John Staatz, "The Economics of Cattle and Meat Marketing in IvoryCoast - A Summary," in Livestock Production and Marketing in theEntente States of West Africa: Summary Report, Kenneth H. Shapiro,ed., CRED, March 1979.

2/ For example, see also, "Demande d'un Credit Relai pour le Develop-pement de la Culture Attele'e," Ministry of Rural Development, RHV.Administrative costs amount to about 15% of credit accorded andreimbursement rates (over 3 years) are about 91%.

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The CNCA will probably not provide credit for herders to purchase reproduc-tive animals and to postpone sales of young stock, for merchants to financecattle exports, or for entrepreneurs to finance cattle fattening schemes.This credit might make an important contribution to more efficient livestockproduction, but it is likely that the administrative costs of these newschemes will be high and that they will be particularly difficult to implementand assure high repayment rates. The mobility of herders, coupled with a weakextension service, makes it difficult to control the use and repayment ofloans. Exportation of cattle precludes their use as collateral by merchants.Thus, the lack of livestock credit may reflect technical difficulties as much

as lack of government commitment. In any case, an effective credit programfor herders may be inconsistent with the policy of regional stratification ifit enables herders to postpone sales of young stock.

Taxes and Subsidies

5.19 Taxes - In addition to the marketing and slaughtering fees andcommercial licenses described earlier taxes on the livestock sector can bedivided into direct and indirect taxes, of which indirect are by far the mostimportant. The revenue from indirect tax on exports is far more importantthan from import duties.

5.20 Direct Taxes - There are two types of direct taxes-- those leviedon livestock (e.g., cattle taxes) and those levied on livestock producers(head tax, or "impot forfaitaire"). Both are based on the number of live-stock owned. Tax rates and potential revenue from the first direct tax--that on livestock--are:

Type of livestock CFAF per head Potential revenue: 1978 3/__________________ ______________ (CFAF million)

Cattle (over 2 years old) 200 1/ 357Sheep and goats exempt 0Pigs 100 2/ 19Donkeys 50 10Horses (over 2 years old) 350 17

Total 403

1/ Except for Gaoua and Diebougou where the rate is 150.

2/ Except for Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso, where the rate is 150.

3/ Based on the 1978 livestock population given in Table 2 and its geo-graphic distribution given in Table 3. For cattle and horses, 70% ofthe herd is assumed to be 2 years of age or older. No reduction wasmade for horses owned by Government authorities, which are exempt.

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Draft oxen are exempt, reflecting the government's desire to encourage theadoption of animal traction, but donkeys--an important secondary source ofdraft power--are not exempt. Cattle are by far the most important potentialsource of revenue from the livestock tax.

5.21 Collection rates for this tax are very low. The national budgetgenerally estimates expected revenue at CFAF 137 million, of which aboutone third is actually collected (see Table 12). In comparison to thepotential revenue, only about 10% is recovered. Such tax fraud is hardlysurprising, in view of the extensive nature of most cattle herding and giventhat the penalty is a fine equal to only double the tax. It may be that thetax should be discontinued since its meager revenue may not warrant itsadministrative costs. Although difficult to quantify, such costs includecollecting expenses, inaccurate statistics of herd size, and perhaps adisincentive to more intensive cattle production in mixed farming systems.

5.22 The other direct tax--or head tax--is intended as an income tax onproducers, and the rate varies according to herd size:

Size of herd 1/ Tax per producer Tax per head of Tax per head of(or herd) (CFAF) cattle (CFAF) 2/ sheep or goats 1/2/

Less than 26 800 31-800 3-8026-50 3,500 70-135 7-1451-250 6,000 24-118 2-12More than 250 10,000 0-40 0-4

Per unit rates, as well as total taxes, vary by herd size. Although thevariation is not uniform, the tax is clearly regressive--small herders aretaxed more heavily than are large herders. The potential revenue from thistax is almost impossible to estimate, given the lack of information on thedistribution of herd sizes. Purely as an order of magnitude, if herd sizeswere universally 50 head, the 3.1 million cattle or cattle-equivalents in1978 would imply a revenue of about CFAF 200 million, which compares tototal estimated receipts for that year from all head taxes of CFAF 1.3billion. The amount actually recovered is also impossible to discern sincerevenue from the different types of head taxes are not reported separately.

5.23 Indirect taxes - Since the meat tax was suppressed in 1969, theonly indirect taxes are levied on livestock and livestock products whenthey enter or leave Upper Volta. The system of taxation generally relies onassessed values ("valeurs mercurials") instead of actual values, which both

1/ Herd size is measured by numbers of cattle. Ten small ruminants areconsidered equivalent to one head of cattle.

2/ These figures give the minima and maxima per unit rates. For verylarge herds, the minimum approaches zero.

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simplifies the process of collection and gives the Government two ways tochange the effective tax rate--altering the assessed value and adjusting thenominal rates. In the past, the Government has usually changed the assessed

value.

5.24 Export taxes - Export duties bring in the largest proportion ofrevenue from the subsector--perhaps over three fourths,l/ and revenues from

export duties on livestock constitute the bulk of income from all exporttaxes (see Table 12). 2/ Export duties consist of five categories of taxes:exit duty, research and conditioning tax ("taxe de recherche et conditionne-ment"), statistics tax, stamp duty (levied on the 3 previous taxes), and a

fee that is earmarked for the Conseil Voltaique de Chargeurs to strengthen

Voltaic commerce (the "COVOC" tax). These duties are summarized in Table14. For all goods the research and conditioning tax (0.5%), the statisticstax (3.0%), the stamp duty (6.0%), and the COVOC (0.5%) are identical. Only

the exit duty varies; it is 16-17% for livestock and 6-7% for poultry, meat,and hides. Because the tax is levied on an assessed value for all itemsexcept,meat, the nominal and real tax rates usually diverge. Nominal taxrates range from 11-22%, but effective rates are between 11-13%, except for

sheep and goats. For cattle, the assessed value is less than the realvalue, which lowers the effective rate. For sheep and goats--and to a

lesser extent for poultry--the real value may be less than the assessed value,which would raise the effective rate. Between 1975, when the last major

adjustment in assessed values was made, 3/ and 1980, the amounts of taxes onlivestock have increased by 250 to 600%, as shown below:

Type of Livestock Total increase Annual increase

(%) (%)

Cattle 261 29Sheep 623 49Goats 478 42Pigs 443 40Poultry 279 31

These increases have vastly exceeded the general rate of price increase, andthey reflect the Government's policy of taxing the export of livestock moreheavily to discourage their export. For meat and hides, however, there has

been almost no change in effective tax rates, and this stability is also

1/ Revenue from import duties on imported livestock products is notconsidered as income from the livestock subsector.

2/ Some government revenue from exports accrues through channels other

than export taxes (for example, SOFITEX profits paid into the Caissede Stabilisation).

3/ Nominal tax rates were the same, except that the COVOC did not exist

and the stamp duty was not instituted until the middle of that year; it

is excluded in calculating the tax in 1975.

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consistent with Government policies to encourage exports of livestock productsrather than animals. As a further incentive to export meat, ONERA is exemptfrom paying exit duties on its meat exports.

5.25 The effects of these export taxes have never been studied, but intheory they act to depress domestic prices--for both producers and consumers.These lower prices both encourage more domestic consumption of livestock, anddepress domestic production, thus tending to reduce the surplus available forexport. While helping the Government budget, the duties may on the margin beinjuring the country's foreign exchange earnings. Moreover, the shift inrelative prices represents a transfer of income from livestock producers tomeat consumers --more generally a deterioration in the rural-urban terms oftrade. These effects will occur at the margin, and their aggregate impact maybe small. For example, given a price elasticity of supply of 0.1, 1/ theelimination of the export tax on cattle would call forth an annual increase inoutput of only about 1%, or some 3,000 cattle, worth about one-third of theforegone revenue. On the other hand, export taxes from livestock are a smallshare of total Government revenues (2.5% during 1976-79; see Table 12). Thus,it is unclear whether the certain reduction in Government income would bejustified by a problematic increase in output.

5.26 These export taxes also tend to worsen the regional distributionon income to the extent that they depress producer prices and that the poorernortheast and central plateau rely more heavily on the sale of livestockproducts for income. To illustrate, the seven ORDs of Dori, Fada, Ouahigouya,Kaya, Koudougou, Ouagadougou and Koupela contain about three-fourths of thecattle and presumably supply about the same proportion of government revenuesfrom the livestock subsector. The Sahelian region alone appears to furnishabout one-fourth of export revenues from livestock.

5.27 It is also probable that the need to pay export duties encouragesclandestine exports. Undeclared exports reduce Government income, andreduce the reliability of statistics, but they do not reduce national incomeor foreign exchange earnings. The extent of unrecorded trade is unknown inany case, which makes it difficult to estimate the gain in Government revenuefrom the more stringent border control that is often proposed. 2/ Reductionof export duties would improve statistics, but at a cost of less in Governmentrevenue.

5.28 The recovery of potential export taxes through better control isalso difficult to estimate, both because of unrecorded trade and because

1/ The figure is mainly assumed, pending further study. In any case,the long-term elasticity is unlikely to be high if physical constraintsare important.

2/ The Customs Service is much less concerned about clandestine livestockexports than is the Livestock Service.

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revenues from all export taxes are combined in budgetary statistics. Esti-mates of potential revenue shown in Table 12 suggest that for declaredexports the non-recovery might be important (e.g., in 1976, estimated taxrevenues from livestock exports alone exceeded those actually recorded for

all exports by about 50%).

5.29 Export prohibitions - Since 1957, exports of steers and bulls less

than 5 years old and of productive cows less than 12 years old have beenbanned. The prohibition presumably was to protect herd productivity andassure maximum output from the national herd. In fact, it largely accordswith the realities of the cattle market and trade: the physical risk and

difficulty of exporting smaller, younger stock and the usual practice of

herders to keep cows until they reach an age of 11-12 years. However, the

slaughter of young animals for domestic consumption makes larger and olderanimals available for export. Even if enforced, the law probably has littlereal impact on Voltaic livestock production and herd structure. The export

of beef from slaughtered young animals--which other Government policies tend

to encourage--actually undermines the purpose of the prohibition.

5.30 Transit taxes - Traditionally, the Government has imposed a tax on

livestock transiting through Upper Volta, at the rate of CFAF 500 per head

of cattle and CFAF 50 per sheep or goat. Since the change in marketingroutes this tax has provided almost no revenue (see Table 12), and as of

1978 it is no longer inscribed in the provisional budget. In principle,

transiting livestock with a certificate of foreign origin pay no import or

export duties, only the transit tax. 1/ But because a foreign herd must payexport taxes in order to obtain a certificate of origin before leaving itsnative country, herders may be encouraged to leave neighboring countries

fraudulently and to pay Voltaic trade duties. Recent reductions in importtaxes on livestock and plans to open customs stations at Markoye and Deou

are meant to encourage the legitimate importation of foreign cattle rather

than their transit. When these cattle are re-exported, they would be chargedthe normal export tax. The scheme will increase Voltaic revenue at theexpense of neighboring countries depending on export duties in neighboring

countries and the physical advantages of passing through Upper Volta.There is also a tax on cattle making their transhumance, but this is col-

lected by local authorities. It probably corresponds to the grazing tax

("taxe de stationnement"), which is only CFAF 25 per head for cattle andCFAF 10 for sheep and goats.

5.31 Import taxes - For most livestock products, Government policy hasbeen protectionist. Through 1979, import duties on all types of animals

1/ There appears to be a confusion about transit taxes. Herman citesthe increase in transit duties as one reason for the shift in traderoutes, and customs officials sometimes claim that foreign herds pay

both import and export taxes. In fact, the transit tax has not been

altered, and foreign cattle pay Voltaic trade taxes only when they donot have a valid certificate of foreign origin.

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and meat were much higher than comparable export duties. Meat production

is especially protected--import duties are eight times higher than exportduties. A major change in policy was adopted in 1980 when import duties on

live ruminants were reduced from 37.68% to only 3.68%, a change explicitly

intended to encourage declared imports of cattle from northern countries.

In addition, the assessed value on imports of cattle was not augmented alongwith that of exports. As a result, total import duties now amount to only

one eighth of the export duties, and livestock production is no longer

protected as is meat production. An increase in livestock imports is probably

perceived as a means both to augment the size of the Voltaic productive herd

as well as a means to augment official exports and Government revenue from

them.

5.32 The importance of import duties to the Voltaic livestock economy

is probably not great. The high tax previously levied on cattle imports

(over CFAF 11,000 on animals worth perhaps only CFAF 50-60,000) is cited as

a major reason for changes in trade routes to skirt Upper Volta after themid-1970s. Cattle imports, at least those declared, can be expected to

increase now that this tax has been nearly eliminated. The earnings from

the import levy on milk may be important because of the quantity importedbut the amount of protection it offers to local producers is small (CFAF 3.5per liter, or about 5%). Furthermore, most milk imports are food aid, which

enter tax-free and distributed without charge. Any project to encourage localmilk production and distribution would probably require a change in policiesto increase the protection for local producers. Import duties on meat could

provide significant protection to local producers if foreign prices are tow

enough. At local retail beef prices of about CFAF 500 per kg and with a

commercial margin of 30%, the import duties mean that foreign meat must arrive

in Upper Volta at only about CFAF 200 if it is to be competitive. This price

implies a cost in Abidjan of about CFAF 150, whereas imports of chilled orfrozen beef there currently cost roughly twice this amount. If the import

duty did not exist, foreign meat could begin to be competitive. Although the

duties probably do not cause overall local prices to be much higher--given

the small amount of imported meat on the market and the importance of exports

in total production--they probably do limit foreign meat imports and thus

increase domestic consumption of Voltaic beef.

5.33 Subsidies - Although government policies sometimes cause the

transfer of income to livestock producers from other segments of the popu-

lation, the government budget provides direct subsidies to the subsector

only on the delivery of health services. Currently, all travel costs,equipment, and salaries of animal health (and extension) agents are fully

paid by the Government. In theory, vaccines are payable at cost, but the

gap between expected and actual receipts of the Livestock Service (see Table12) indicates that there is less than full cost recovery. Although willing

to charge producers for some travel costs, the Government firmly believes

that equipment and salaries should continue to be subsidized. In addition,feed produced by the two mills is sold to producers at subsidized prices,

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but quantities involved are negligible. Improvement in livestock watersupplies is also subsidized, but this is mostly an indirect result of thegovernment policy to improve village water sources.

5.34 In terms of total inflows and outflows, the livestock subsector istaxed by the government, although foreign aid more than redresses the balance.During 1976-79, fees and taxes levied directly on livestock provided between2.9% and 4.2% of central government revenues; consumption taxes paid byherders would raise the percentage even higher. Yet the sector received inreturn only about 1% of the operating budget (see Tables 12 and 16). Moreover,the degree of taxation has increased. In 1968-69, expenditures were one-thirdof receipts; 10 years later they were only one-fourth. 1/

5.35 Investment financed by foreign aid, however, more than offsetthe outflow of domestic public funds. During the period 1977-79, tax andservice receipts projected by the government averaged about CFAF 1 billionper year, 2/ while operating expenditures, subsidies to parastatals, andforeign aid to the subsector averaged about CFAF 1.6 billion annually.

5.36 Trends in domestic financing indicate a weakening ability ofthe government to finance the subsector. During the 10 years following1968-69, the real value of expenditure fell by 20%. During the four years1976-1980, the operating budget grew at the rate of 8.9%, while at the sametime civil servant salaries increased by almost 7% per year and annual GDPinflation was around 12%. Over the same period, livestock's shares inboth the total central budget and that of the Ministry of Rural Develop-ment also declined, as shown below:

1976 1980

livestock as % of total budget 1.3 1.0livestock as % of rural development budget 18.4 16.1

5.37 Furthermore, government trade policies now offer little or noprotection to the sector except for slaughtering and, by taxing exports,tend to transfer income to urban consumers from producers. The combinationof taxes on exports of animals and taxes on imports of meat act to encouragedomestic consumption of Voltaic beef, to the detriment of exports. It isunclear that this taxation has significantly depressed livestock production;and as a major economic sector, livestock should be expected to make a net

1/ Data for early years taken from World Bank, The Economic Developmentof Upper Volta," Vol. 3, "Livestock," Washington, 1970, p. 41.

2/ This figure excludes indirect consumption taxes paid by herders,which are proportionally probably less than the subsectors' 10-12% share in national income.

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contribution to government revenue. 1/ Subsidies provided on health services

have assuredly increased productivity, although the extremely low outputindicates that these subsidies may be insufficient or poorly used. In any

case, except for the control of epidemic cattle diseases--for which the socialgains generally exceed private gains, improvements in the productivity ofherds should be sufficiently profitable to private producers so that subsidiesare largely unnecessary.

Prices

5.38 Prices are one of the keys to understanding the livestock economy,and, in the absence of solid information on quantities, offer a valuablemeans for interpreting conditions affecting the subsector. The followingparagraphs discuss current prices, their evolution, and efforts by theGovernment to control them. In general, it should be noted that the Govern-ment has little effective control over prices, and that domestic livestockprices are strongly influenced by foreign prices. Thus, an analysis of theprice data, to the extent it can be accurately assembled, probably providesa good picture of the livestock subsector.

5.39 Price levels - Table 8 gives current prices for most livestockand livestock products and Table 7 gives similar information for livestock

feedstuffs. These prices are subject to considerable variation, and theones given represent modal values for the current period. In general, theycan be taken as the low end of the range. Sheep and goat prices especiallywill more than double during celebrations. In most cases, published pricesfor livestock appear to understate prices given by producers and merchants.To summarize livestock prices, oxen sell for CFAF 170-220 per kg liveweightdepending on age, and beef retails for about CFAF 500 per kg. An adult ox

thus sells for as much as CFAF 75,000. Small stock sell for much less--underCFAF 10,000.

5.40 With respect to cattle, a few important observations should bemade. In general, cattle prices rise with weight and age, the increase perkg between immature and adult stock being as much as CFAF 50, or one-fourthto one-third the price of young animals. This pattern is in marked contrastto the one in more developed countries, where young stock are paid moredearly to compensate for the higher risk and fixed costs of their production.The low prices for which young male stock are sold may mean such stock isconsidered a byproduct of a herding enterprise concerned with milk output andherd expansion, or that herders have insufficient resources to keep them. 2/

1/ If the indirect taxes paid on goods consumed by herders were includedas revenue from the sector, the sector would appear even more heavilytaxed.

2/ For example, both Vengroff and Herman report that the major reason

(about 70% of the responses) for selling cattle is to purchase grain;most of the other sales are for clothing and taxes. In Vengroff's study,80% of the sales are male stock averaging 5 years of age.

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Low price may also mean there is not much demand for them. In Upper Volta,this price pattern works at cross purposes: while making the use of draftoxen and cattle feeding more attractive--which is consistent with statedgovernment policy--it tends to discourage production and sale of feederstock by herders--which is essential to the Government's goal of regionalstratification of production.

5.41 It also appears that the prices of livestock often double in thecoastal markets, relative to Upper Volta. The differences in price areaccounted for partly by taxes (10-15%), the high costs of exports, and--insome cases--excess commercial profits, or rents (see para 5.08). Nonethe-less, these large differences suggest that Voltaic livestock are competi-tive. However, SODEPRA (Societe de Developpement de la Production Animale)in Ivory Coast has been selling slaughter oxen at CFAF 250-270 per kg, whichmay tend to undercut the market for Voltaic exports if Ivorian output expandssignificantly.

5.42 With respect to different meat prices, there do not appear to beconsistently large variations among the various types, given the poor qualityof the data. There is some evidence that pork and fish are cheaper meats,especially if most mutton and goat meat is eaten when prices are highest.Unlike prices in developed countries, poultry appears to be one of the mostexpensive sources of meat, reflecting in part the small scale of productionunits.

5.43 The fifth quarter of cattle appears to contribute at least 10% tothe value of the carcass (before commercial margins). However, the marketfor offals is fairly inelastic--ONERA's effort to export meat to Nigeria in1978/79 (equivalent to about 150-175 cattle per week) reportedly reduced thevalue of the fifth quarter by half. As Staatz, has shown, if meat exportscause the fifth quarter to fall in value in the exporting country, whileincreasing in value relative to meat in the importing country, meat exportsbecome less profitable. On the other hand, there is currently little dif-ference in the value of the fifth quarter in Upper Volta and Ivory Coast,which tends to make meat exports more attractive--at existing quantities.The problem needs to be carefully analyzed.

5.44 Trends in prices - As seen in Table 10, livestock producers--tothe extent their incomes are correlated with movements in consumer prices,have faired better than other sectors of the economy. Over the past decade,beef and mutton prices appear to have gone up more rapidly than both cereal(millet and sorghum) prices and general Voltaic consumer prices. As would beexpected, Voltaic beef prices have somewhat followed movements of world beefprices, although domestic prices continued to rise in the mid-1970s when worldprices were depressed (see Chart 3). The recent rise in world prices maybe one reason explaining why exports of Voltaic cattle have picked up again.More importantly, Ivorian retail beef and poultry prices rose by about190% between 1972 and 1978, compared to a rise of only about 140% for Voltaicbeef over the same period. Thus, prices in the major export market have beenrising more rapidly than either world or Voltaic beef prices. Milk priceshave fallen in real terms, reflecting the large world surpluses. Thus milkproducers will not have benefited from general price increases--although localmilk is often bartered in equal volume for millet and sorghum and will have

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maintained its terms of trade with cereals. Moreover, it appears that localmilk often sells for less than the official price for imported, condensedmilk, which may give scope for increasing returns to milk producers. On theother hand, high costs of collection may explain most of this differential,which implies that a milk scheme would have to reduce marketing costs, orincrease import taxes. Trends in actual producer prices are more difficultto discern owing to lack of reliable statistics, but some indications areavailable.

Average annual changeType of Livestock (percent) Period covered

Poultry 7 1970-80Live cattle, Ouagadougou market 11 1970-78

Ouahigouya market 17 1970-78Dori market 14 1970-78Bobo-Dioulasso market 19 1970-78

Draft Oxen 13 1972-79Live sheep, Ouagadougou market 8 1970-78Live goats, Ouagadougou market 9 1970-78

Compared to the inflation of general consumer prices over the same period(9% per year during 1970-78), it appears that livestock producers haveprobably at least held their own. Rising local demand will probably continueto cause local prices to rise, a phenomenon that could eventually force UpperVolta out of the export business.

5.45 Since the rupture in Sahelian supplies of livestock after thedrought and the coincidental increase in chilled beef imports from elsewhere,the West Africa coastal market is now fairly strongly influenced by world beefprices. The gap between world beef prices and Sahelian livestock, which havetraditionally fetched higher prices in coastal markets, is now diminishing.This suggests that in the future Voltaic export production will be affectednot only by trends in world prices but by their level as well, unless theConseil de l'Entente decides to impose a common external tariff to protect allproducers in the union. According to systematic price projections, prospectsfor world cattle prices are moderately bouyant--in real terms, the world priceof chilled beef during the next decade is expected to be slightly higher thanin the last half of the 1970s, which was a period of relatively low prices. 1/The CRED Study of livestock in West Africa concludes:

1/ World Bank, "Price Prospects for Major Primary Commodities", ReportNo. 814/80, Washington, January 1980, and Memorandum from EPDCE, "Com-modity Price Forecasts - Updating," Washington, July 12, 1982. Seealso Chart 3. Of course, these projections are sensitive to smallchanges in domestic policies of major producing and consuming countries,but they are not inconsistent with broad cyclical patterns.

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"The Sahelian countries may have a relatively goodcompetitive position for a few years and then beseverely challenged once again. Sahelian livestockexporters should expect keener competition in thefuture". 1/

However, others feel that livestock prices are bound to rise, owing to risingworld demand. Given the long gestation period for livestock development, itis these long term trends that are most important. If the subsector is toremain profitable, especially in the face of constant or rising costs in UpperVolta, it is imperative that herd productivity be raised.

5.46 Seasonality - There are clear seasonal patterns in livestock prices,although their causes vary by type of livestock. For cattle, prices per kgare lowest at the end of the rainy season, or harvest time (September-October)reflecting the abundant supply of well-fed cattle and efforts to get rid ofpoorer stock before the dry season. It is also at this period when the valueof cattle in terms of grain appears to be highest, and thus the time when mostcattle are sold. 2/ Prices peak near the beginning of the rains (May-June)reflecting both the shortage of well-fed stock and the higher demand of herdersseeking to rebuild herds in anticipation of better grazing. These pricemovements are important in making dry-season cattle fattening a profitableventure. For small ruminants, price movements are caused more by changes indemand, rather than changes in supply. Prices rise precipitously before majorMuslim feasts (primarily Ramadan and Tabaski). Changes in poultry prices arealso caused by similar factors, although the peaks seem to occur at differenttimes. There is less evidence of seasonal variations in prices of livestockproducts, such as milk and eggs. Feedstuffs (especially fodder) also vary inprice, being lowest during the rainy season and mounting steadily as the dryseason progresses.

5.47 Government price control - The Government undertakes directprice control by routinely setting official prices for most commodities, butit seldom has the wherewithal to enforce its regulations except when itemsare bought and sold by Government agencies. However, no livestock commodi-ties fall under the main price control agency--the Caisse Generale dePerequation des Prix des Produits et Marchandises de Grande Consommation.The Government also exercises indirect control by its taxation and subsidypolicies described above (see paragraphs 5.19 to 5.37). The official pricesreported to be currently in effect are given below:

1/ Edgar J. Ariza-Nino and Charles Steedman, "Synthesis Report", Livestockand Meat Marketing in West Africa, Vol. 1, "Synthesis - Upper Volta",CRED, Ann Arbor, 1980, p. 11. The study projects to the mid-1980s.

2/ See Vengroff, p. 99.

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Commodity Retail prices Date of adoption(CFAF per kg)

Beef-with bones 120 1979Beef-with no bones 150 1979Mutton/goat meat-with bones 150 1979Mutton/goat meat-with no bones 175 1979Cattle hides 160 1/ 1978 2/Sheep skins 700 1/ 1978 2/Goat skins 900 1/ 1978 2/Eggs 25 1978 2/Milk-fresh 3/ 130 4/ 1974Milk-reconstituted 3/ 95 4/5/ 1974

The official prices of skins, hides, and milk appear to be fairly close tomarket prices, probably because of the importance of milk imports andGovernment purchases of hides and skins for export. Those for meat andeggs are vastly beneath market prices (see Table 8), reflecting both strongdemand and the Government's inability to intervene successfully in thelivestock market to control prices.

1/ Producer prices paid at collection markets.

2/ These prices were paid in 1978-79. They may have been adopted earlier.

3/ For milk sold in plastic containers by the dairy at Koubri.

4/ Price per liter of whole milk.

5/ The price of condensed milk (both sweetened and unsweetened) is alsocontrolled, and its current price is virtually identical to this one,account taken of the sugar content.

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VI. INTEGRATION OF LIVESTOCK AND AGRICULTURE

6.01 Livestock and agriculture have been associated in most of UpperVolta for decades, but integration of livestock with agriculture -- in thesense of mixed farming -- has only reached an embryonic stage. However, thepossibility of further integrating livestock, in particular cattle, withcrop farming is very good because cattle are fairly well distributed through-out most agricultural areas (for example, the density of cattle around Kayais almost as great as near Dori -- see Table 1) providing a good basis for ajoint development of both animal and crop husbandry. Admittedly, the taskwill not be easy nor rapid, but the future of Voltaic livestock productionprobably depends in no small measure on achieving its real integration withagriculture. As the rural population expands, agricultural production willclaim an increasing share of the available land, and unless crops and cattleare integrated, it is likely that livestock production may be pushed to thefringes of areas with the best pastures and water. The association ofagriculture and livestock currently takes several forms, and the extent ofit is rather impressive.

Types of Integration

6.02 Cattle parking. The most commonly known, though not necessarilymost common type of association, is the interaction between crop farmers andmigratory herders on seasonal transhumance. In Upper Volta, there are fewtrue nomadic herders, except for the Sahelian zone, and much of the transhu-ments come from Niger and Mali during the dry season. A simple type ofassociation of cattle with crop farming takes place when transhumance herdseat crop residues on fields following the harvest. Farmers benefit becausethe dung left by the cattle fertilizes the fields. However, this associa-tion also leads increasingly to conflicts when migrants herds damage cropsor eat harvest stores. Ethnic differences as well as the continued exis-tence of transhumance rights make it difficult for the local inhabitants toresolve these differences by themselves. In any case, this type of live-stock production continues to be based on extensive grazing, and farmers andherders do little more than coexist.

6.03 Village herds. The second type of association involves villageherds, which are sometimes taken care of by the herding population (Peuhls)even though owned by crop farmers. Increasingly though, farmers take care oftheir own cattle (see section 3). It is estimated that perhaps 30% of thenational cattle herd is owned by farmers (a percentage that was probablygreatly increased during and after the 1968-73 drought). In this instance,the herders are usually permanent, or very long-term, residents in thevillage. They also cultivate crops -- although their primary activityremains herding. Because cattle are kept nearer the village, especiallyduring the crop season, the incidence of conflicts between herds and farmersare greater. Such conflicts usually result from livestock eating crops,from farmers restricting access to watering points by planting fields, andfrom disputes over whether bottomlands are to be cultivated or reserved for

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grazing. In the Sahelian zone, where herders predominate, efforts to avoidthese conflicts often involve fencing crop fields with thorn bushes to keepout cattle and leaving clearly defined paths to watering points. In thecropping zone, however, the solution has usually been for agricultural exten-sion agents to assess fines to be paid by herders, forcing them to keep cattlefarther from unprotected village fields. The struggle for access to pasturenear villages leads to continual conflicts between herders and cultivatorsover crop damages. The fact that the herders are usually charged and forcedto pay fines and adjust their herding practices reveals the dominance of thecropping sector in all but the northeast corner of the country. The factthat the conflicts continue to occur reflects in part the lack of a well-defined and enforced policy regarding land use, including the designation ofcertain areas as access corridors, pasture lands, and stock routes.

6.04 Draft Animals. 1/ The third type of association -- the use ofdraft animals -- is the only major form of integration between crops andlivestock. Farmers own draft oxen and donkeys for use in plowing, weedingand ridging and transport. Available data on draft livestock and salesof equipment indicate that some 50,000 adult male oxen are used for draftpurposes (see Table 1). This figure, probably a low estimate, representsabout 10% of all adult male (bulls and steers) oxen and 3% of all adultcattle. The use of animal traction (both oxen and donkey) has grown steadilysince the mid-1960s. The number of ox teams appear to have increased froma mere 1,000 nationwide in 1965 to at least 26,000 in 1979, which gives anannual growth rate of about 25%. 2/ Lack of credit may be a major constraintto expansion, but as much as 35-40% of credit from the newly formed CNCA isexpected to be used for animal traction.

6.05 Keeping draft animals obliges farmers to ensure a proper feedingof the livestock throughout the year, which is a first step toward mixedfarming. Some type of fodder cultivation and preservation is necessary inorder to keep the animals fit for work; feed supplements are usually re-quired during the working season, and careful veterinary care is needed. Asa direct result of the growth in the use of draft animals and feeding smallruminants, fodder (in the form of legume tops and cereal stalks) is now soldin all the major agricultural markets. Some farmers may be planting late-season sorghum expressly to sell or use as fodder, although many observersargue that farmers usually lack labor, and often land, to grow much fodder and

1/ A more detailed discussion of this issue is in the Agricultural IssuesStudy, World Bank, Washington, October 29, 1982 (Report No. 3296-UV).

2/ Based on data in Chapter 1 of the Agricultural Issues Study. Not allstudies are so optimistic however. See for example Christopher Delgado,"An investigation of the Lack of Mixed Farming in the West AfricanSavannah: A Farming Systems Approach for Tenkodogo, Upper Volta,"Discussion Paper No.74, Center for Research on Economic Development,University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, November 1978.

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that most efforts to encourage it have been negative. 1/ Other agriculturalby-products in the traditional sector -- such as cereal bran and draff frommillet beer (dolo) -- are already often being marketed as livestock feed. Theanimal traction center at, Bulbi, 2/ south of Ouagadougou, demonstrates how tostore and use forage crops and how to make silage out of brewers' grains.This initiative merits attention as it could furnish valuable information foran eventual cattle feeding and fattening project.

6.06 Cattle fattening. The fourth type of integration is intensivecattle feeding. This effort is part of of the strategy to stratify live-stock production, making the north the zone for raising feeder stock thatare then grown out in the south where feedstuffs are more plentiful (seeSection 9). Although fattening old draft oxen is a logical outcome ofusing draft animals, there is also a small but growing interest in growingout and finishing cattle during the dry season by small-holders, although noestimates of numbers are available. These household cattle (boeufs de case)are an entirely indigenous effort, carried out without either knowledge ofor support from the government. This activity has also been coupled withthe "manure stables" (etables fumiers) funded by the RDF. In contrast totraditional, dry-season feeding, the RDF program lasts for 1-2 years.ONERA currently operates one modern feedlot, which purchases rice strawand agro-industrial by-products, but its impact on the integration of farmingand livestock is both negligible and indirect.

6.07 Small Livestock. The fifth type of integration involves theownership and feeding of small stock by farmers. Ownership of sheep andgoats is almost universal, in part because small ruminants offer a firststage in a strategy for reinvesting profits from crop production. Someestimates place the average herd size at as many as 10 per farm family.Chickens and pigs are produced largely by farmers, although some urbanhouseholds also engage in this activity. While an important source offamily income, small stock are probably less important to mixed farming thanare cattle.

Advantages

6.08 There are numerous advantages to a shift from extensive to inten-sive livestock raising, for both the livestock and crop subsectors. Weightlosses during a long dry season would be turned to weight gains by a regular,daily feeding (for example, total annual gains could be as high as 100-125kg, compared to 25-30 kg estimated for traditional grazing). Elimination of

1/ For example, see R. Vengroff, Upper Volta: Environmental Uncertaintyand Livestock Production, International Center for Arid and Semi-aridLand Studies, Lubbock, 1980, pp. 74 and 140. He also notes, however,that one-fourth of farmers or herders providing such supplementaryfeeding buy a part of their feed supplies.

2/ Projet Assistance aux Cultures Attelee, a FAO-Danish supported projectfor animal traction.

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these dry seasons weight losses would appear to represent a net physical gainin national resources and could be an important step in raising the produc-tivity of the livestock subsector. It would also alleviate malnutrition,leading to better animal health and fewer losses from disease. However, thecosts of feed for the dry season are high (see Table 7), and the economicprofitability of dry season feeding must be carefully calculated. 1/ Theexistence of the activity in the traditional sector is some evidence, though,that the activity raises economic productivity as well as physical productivity.

6.09 The availability of manure would increase crop yields, and alreadythere is a nascent market in manure in some areas. A draft ox producesabout 2.5 tons of manure per year, or 50 kg of N -- worth over 10,000 CFAFat current world urea prices would and more than twice this amount at localmarket prices for manure. Although the evidence is ambiguous, cultivationwith ox-drawn equipment may help reduce soil erosion and increase cropyields.

6.10 Farm family labor could be better utilized throughout the year,because herding is a year-round activity. 2/ Although the evidence is againunclear, draft animals may save as much as 40 days of farm cultivation labor(plowing and weeding), worth perhaps 14,000 CFAF. In addition, transport iseasier and may even augment family income.

Promotion

6.11 Further integration of these activities requires that severalconstraints be overcome:

(a) Cost (in terms of labor time) of guarding animals, which risesas more areas are cultivated, and dry-season crops are increasinglygrown. Three specific actions may help cope with this problem:designating limited, crop-free areas--especially village cattlepaths; providing cheaper fencing materials (including plants likesisal) for corrals and fields; and encouraging use of animaltraction to reduce labor needed for weeding and for transport atharvest.

1/ For example, the compensatory weight gains that are put on quicklyafter the first rains bring forth new pastures cost very little,especially if pastures are abundant and dry-season feedstuffs areexpensive.

2/ Some observers argue that keeping oxen is too labor-intensive andnot worth the value of family labor -- especially during the croppingseason. For example, see Christopher L. Delgado, "The Southern FulaniFarming System in Upper Volta: A New Old Model for the Integrationof Crop and Livestock Production in the West Africa Savannah," CRED,Ann Arbor, September 1978.

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(b) Relatively low return on intensive cattle raising. To increaseproductivity, focus should be placed on the following:

(i) additional returns from ox traction (including higheryields, labor saved in weeding and harvesting and useof ox-drawn carts), as a way of offsetting higher herdingcosts;

(ii) trade-offs between herding cattle and other ruminants;(farmers already have herds of sheep and goats that theycare for);

(iii) extra value that can be realized from increased use andsale of cattle manure;

(iv) profitability of fattening or finishing cattle both withand without ox traction;

(v) prospects for expanded consumption and sale of milk, aswell as prospects for improving milk productivity of herds;and

(vi) viability and costs of forage production, as a principlecrop, as improved fallow, and as a by-product of cerealproduction (relevant issues include the need for and costof fencing, availability of suitable forage varieties,relative labor requirements of herding, collecting forageand cultivating fodder, and problems of conserving hay).

6.12 Except for the promotion of animal traction, the government hasno clearly formulated policy for associating animal husbandry with agricul-

ture. The livestock service is concerned mainly with prophylactic treatmentof cattle, and the ORDs concentrate on promoting crops and animal traction.There is currently no viable livestock extension service, and none of theagricultural projects is actively promoting a mixed farming system. Nor areexperiments and research dealing with aspects of mixed farming. However,

some attempts are undertaken by an ongoing FAO/CILSS project. The spread ofa mixed farming system, including farm fattening of cattle and perhapsdairying, can only be achieved through an efficient livestock extension

service with emphasis on training of livestock farmers. In addition,relative prices must be such to make intensive livestock production profit-able, and farmers must recognize the value of mixed farming in improved soil

fertility and reduced farm labor.

6.13 As more livestock are kept on farms, especially for growing out,fattening, and draft power, the livestock extension service must be re-oriented to provide both curative veterinary treatments and advice on animalhusbandry practices. There will also be a growing need to strengthen the

integration of livestock feeding with agriculture, by both improving the

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quality of forage on fallow land, maximizing the use of agricultural by-products and crop residues, and increasing the use of manure as fertilizer.

The agricultural extension service must also be reoriented to furnish theappropriate advice. Finally, the system of agricultural cooperatives needsto be altered to encourage the participation of herders.

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VII. SUPPORT SERVICES

Government Institutions

7.01 There are numerous governmental institutions that provide impor-

tant services to the livestock subsector. Some of these deal solely withlivestock, while others are primarily concerned with agricultural or ruraldevelopment. Most of them furnish services and inputs--such as extension and

veterinary services, training, research, and credit--that would probably notbe provided by the private sector. However, the national veterinary pharmacy

and the national livestock marketing office play roles that are larglycommercial and as such may compete with merchants and producers in theprivate sector. Although it is difficult to generalize, public institutionsand management are inexperienced and lack authority, funds, and information;their poor condition constitutes an important constraint to programs designedto improve livestock production in Upper Volta. Furthermore, some reorgani-zatioii of governmental livestock institutions will probably be necessary toadapt the services they provide to producers.

7.02 The National Livestock Service. The Department of Livestock Ser-

vices and Animal Industry, 1/ which is under the Ministry of Rural Development

and located in Ouagadougou, has been traditionally concerned with livestockdevelopment at the national level, but has dealt mainly with animal health--limited largely to the vaccination of cattle. The department contains

several services such as (see the organigram, Annex I):

- a secretrial and accounting service,

- a statistical and library service,

- a training and extension service,

- a planning and studies group,

- an animal health service,

- a diagnostic laboratory including veterinary research,

- a veterinary pharmacy (PHANAVET),

- an animal production and research service,

- a poultry development service,

- a trypanosomiasis research section,

1/ La Direction des Services de l'Elevage et des Industries Animales.

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- a service to carry out agro-pastoral and hydro-pastoral works, and

- a service to assure sanitary conditions in livestock industries.

The director of livestock executes instructions from the Minister of RuralDevelopment and has under him all the staff of the service. He is respon-sible for all relations with his ministry, the local administration, thenational technical services and international technical organizations. He

assumes the coordination on the national level of programs concerninglivestock research, animal production development, meat and food inspection,and animal diseases.

7.03 The livestock department also assists and helps supervise various

organizations that deal with animal production, such as the ORDs, AVV, thelivestock school, the poultry stations, the tannery, the hides and skincompanies, ONERA, the West Volta Livestock Project (the Bank's first live-stock project), and IEMVT.

7.04 Veterinary Field Service. The service is oriented towards pro-phylactic treatment of cattle and deals little with the other problems oflivestock production, which should include all species of domestic animals,their proper feeding, and the curative treatment of diseases. Although thepresent focus of the service is a natural outcome of its past concern with

controlling epidemic diseases, it is important to set up in the future anefficient livestock extension service dealing with all aspects and all speciesof domestic animals.

7.05 Before 1974, the veterinary field service was directly under the

national director of livestock services. The country was then divided intoseven veterinary districts ("circonscriptions"), which were headed mainly byassistant veterinarians. Each veterinary district comprised several veteri-

nary sectors which in turn comprised several posts headed by veterinarynurses (infirmiers veterinaires). Following the reorganization in 1974, theeleven ORDs took over the responsibility for the field services. The ORDswere to provide administrative and logistical support; and funds for the

operation of the veterinary service were to be channeled through the ORDs.

The national livestock service would continue to furnish the technicaldirection and supervision of the field services. This change was made inorder to bring the veterinary administration in line with the generaladministrative structure for rural development. The present veterinarydistricts, sectors and posts are shown in Table 17, and the distribution ofposts is also shown on the attached Map.

7.06 In mid-1980, the livestock service was again given direct respon-sibility for its veterinary field services, putting animal health care out-side the ORD system. Although the livestock service has responsibility fortechnical supervision of animal production and extension programs, thesewill, however, continue to be implemented through the ORDs.

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7.07 The quality of the livestock service under the ORD system has beendisappointing. It has been unable to produce either reliable statisticalinformation or annual reports that even describe the work of the service.It has had difficulty in creating an efficient service for livestock owners.Except for a few ORDs where rural development projects are financed by foreigndonors (e.g., Bobo-Dioulasso), the service probably has little impact onlivestock development other than through vaccinations. In some ORDs (e.g.,Fada) the service has not even been able to maintain adequate vaccinationcoverage of cattle and regular vaccination campaigns against contagiousdiseases have ceased. In addition, the integration of the livestock serviceinto the ORD system has apparently not been fully carried out, as the live-stock services remained separated from the other ORD services. The livestockfield services have alleged that fewer funds and resources were made availableto them after the responsibility for budgetary allocations was shifted fromthe national livestock director to the ORDs--with their bias toward cropcultivation.

7.08 Besides poor institutional arrangements--which have perhaps nowbeen ameliorated--there are other reasons for these deficiencies, includinginadequate funds, poorly trained staff, and inadequately developed techniques.Budgetary allocations to the livestock service have been disproportionatelysmall, and there are insufficient funds for investment and operating expenses.Between 1976 and 1979, total personnel increased by only 13 field agents, or6%; in 1980, the number declined. The government's policy of charging herdersonly for the vaccines--and not their delivery--means that investment in andoperation of all veterinary equipment must be wholly subsidized by the govern-ment. Except for foreign-financed investments, it has been unable to paythese costs. In most ORDs (or circumscriptions) the service lacks almosteverything needed for veterinary services, from vehicles to medical equipment.As a result, the present veterinary field staff is grossly under-employed.

7.09 Even if funds were available to improve the veterinary service,most field staff need retraining to carry out livestock extension work otherthan vaccinations. The staff lack diagnostic capability, are unfamiliar withmost animal production aspects, and have no knowledge of range management.Staff at higher levels (in veterinary medicine) are almost all concentrated inthe capital and only a few are based in livestock areas.

7.10 Even if funds and staff were not constraints, extension programswould probably be limited by the lack of past work on how to improve animalhusbandry in traditional settings and how to improve pastures. But at themargin, some improvements in curative treatments and animal husbandry would bebeneficial.

7.11 National Veterinary Laboratory. The laboratory--located inOuagadougou--was created in 1960 as a technical division of the LivestockService in order to diagnose animal and related human diseases and toproduce vaccine for rinderpest. Financial austerity measures introduced in1962 reduced both the autonomy of the laboratory and its ability to diagnosediseases. In addition, new vaccines against rinderpest were developed that

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the laboratory could not produce. Because its operating budget is insuffi-

cient, the laboratory can no longer carry out diagnoses in the field andmuch of its activity is now limited to analyzing samples sent from thehospital in Ouagadougou. A staff of fourteen includes 3 veterinarians and1 biologist. Major problems cited for the laboratory include its small andpoorly adapted facilities, its lack of a staff with a full range of compe-tencies, its low operating budget (estimated to be at only 10-20% of whatwould be needed to assure reasonable operations), and its lack of vehiclesto enable staff to travel where there are outbreaks of disease. In 1979,German aid financed a 2 year project (115 million CFAF) to equip a veteri-narian to study parasites in small ruminants. Another German project willimprove and enlarge the laboratory's physical facilities and provide twomore persons, making the staff complete except for a virus expert. Futureplans include the production of poultry vaccines, for which financing fromthe FED has been requested but not yet received. Despite recent aid, theproblems of inadequate operating funds and means of travel remain.

7.12 PHANAVET. German Aid gives support to the livestock departmentthrough a project at the national veterinary pharmacy, PHANAVET. The project,which started in mid-1978 and will last until April 1981, is headed by aGerman veterinarian. Total project costs, including an important stock ofdrugs, are CFAF 210 million. Each veterinary district (one per ORD) has beenprovided with a stock of veterinary drugs equivalent to CFAF 3 million. Later,it is intended to provide each veterinary post with a stock of drugs. Arevolving fund is supposed to be established by revenues from sales of theveterinary supplies. Because farmers and livestock owners are supposed to payfor drugs the veterinary pharmacy should operate in a sound business mannerat no cost to the Government. But there is little evidence that workablerevolving funds have been established or are being maintained--in part atleast because of poor management and funding pressures at local levels.

7.13 The Animal Production and Research Service. Although always partof the livestock service, the headquarters was located in Bobo-Dioulassobefore 1972-73, after which it was consolidated with the rest of the servicein Ouagadougou. The service has no separate extension agents of its own,relying on the personnel of the livestock health service. In general, theservice is charged to carry out the following activities:

- improving livestock breeding, husbandry and feeding practices;

- promoting feeding programs for ruminants;

- introducing foreign races of livestock;

- providing technical assistance to ORDs in animal productionprograms; and

- managing livestock research stations.

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Since the 1968-73 drought, the animal production service has been givengreater emphasis, and within the service itself the focus is much more onbetter feeding than on breeding improvement. The service is currentlyorganized into three subsections: cattle, small stock, and research. Theservice has several shortcomings. It does not have, nor is it expectedto have, subsections for animal traction. Without separate agents trainedin animal husbandry, it is unlikely to be able to carry out its statedactivities. Finally, because there are no funds to carry out research, theservice does little more than simply look after the herds on its researchstations.

7.14 The Poultry Development Service. The service is responsible forall aspects of both traditional and commercial poultry production. Theservice also has responsibility for the operation of the poultry stations inOuagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso.

Parastatals

7.15 The National Poultry Station, (Centre National Avicole), is locatedin the vicinity of Ouagadougou. The station was created in 1965 and given aparastatal status. The station's objective is to provide day-old chicks, feed-stuffs, and advice on modern poultry raising to farmers in the vicinity ofOuagadougou. The station also produces eggs and broilers for consumption. In1978 it produced about 32,000 day-old chicks. These were not enough, however,to satisfy the demand; and 43,000 more chicks were imported from France.The station also operates a feedmill which produced about 1,000 tons of con-centrates and feedstuffs in 1978. The feed is mainly for its own chickens andlayers, but an additional 375 tons were produced and sold to poultry farmers.The poultry station in Bobo-Dioulasso was rebuilt in 1979 with a hatchery, newpoultry houses, and a feed mill. The main purpose is to improve the geneticquality of poultry in the southwestern part of the country. The station alsoprovides day-old chicks to poultry farmers near Bobo-Dioulasso, and the staffadvises farmers on modern poultry techniques.

7.16 ONERA, an autonomous agency, responsible to the Minister of RuralDevelopment, was set up by Government in 1976 to regulate and develop live-stock and meat marketing nationwide. It deals with agricultural byproductsand animal feeds, studies the meat trade and prices and the market situationoutside Upper Volta, and gives assistance to cattle traders through trainingand information. It is responsible for the ownership and operation of themodern marketing infrastructure, modern processing facilities, and intensivefeeding operations. As such, ONERA manages stock routes, improved markets,and holding grounds. Recently it has taken over ownership and management ofthe Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso abattoirs and cold storage facilities,the Banfora feedlot that was started through a German-assisted project, and,since 1979, the feedmill in Bobo-Dioulasso. ONERA is divided into severaldivisions for animal production, industries and marketing. It has beengiven a legal monopoly on the distribution of agro-industrial byproducts--especially 3rd quality cotton seeds, which are in short supply. These aredistributed via its animal production division to various livestock projects

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and via the ORDs to livestock owners. ONERA receives technical assistancefrom Dutch and German aid; and the Dutch have financed a new headquarters inOuagadougou. Other studies undertaken recently by ONERA include an FAOpoultry marketing study and a dairy study.

7.17 It is important to note that ONERA increasingly appears to beplaying a more direct role in livestock production and marketing (ownershipof cattle) as well as duplicating the animal production functions of theGovernment Livestock Service. By competing with rather than working withthe private commercial sector, it is seen by some local merchants as goingbeyond its original primary mandate to assist livestock marketing. As aresult, ONERA is turning into a state enterprise with power to divert publicfunds (both budgetary and foreign aid) from the Livestock Service to itsown ends, which are not necessarily consistent with the livestock strategyelaborated by the government services. As a minimum, the role of ONERA in thelivestock sector should be clarified. Preferably, the Livestock Serviceshould retain responsibility for planning and coordinating the use of publicfunds for animal production, and ONERA's activities should be limited toimproving the existing private commercial sector.

7.18 Mineral Block Factory. A small factory (Atelier de Pierres a Lecher)for manufacturing mineral blocks for livestock has been built recently in Kayaunder a project financed by Belgium through the AIDR agency. The factory willbe handed over to the Government in 1980 and managed by ONERA. Total invest-ment costs were about CFAF 13 million (US$65,000). Daily production is 500 kgin one shift, and annual production in 1979 amounted to about 100 tons.Annual production could be doubled, but the production is still far below theannual demand of about 2,000 tons, which is met by importation of Dutchmineral blocks. The actual consumption only covers the need for mineralsalts for about 250,000-300,000 head of cattle, a small fraction of the totallivestock population. Two qualities of mineral blocks are produced and soldat cost (CFAF 110-130 per kg). Blocks are resold by ONERA at a small profit.The quality of the locally produced blocks has been inferior to the importedblocks due to some manufacturing problems that caused them to crumble; importedblocks seem to be preferred by herders even though they are more expensive(CFAF 160/kg). Data were unavailable to assess the profitability of theoperation. If domestic production of mineral blocs is to be expanded in thefuture, careful consideration must be given to the type of manufacturingfacility that can produce a high quality product without subsidies. Despitethe attractiveness of creating more decentralized small-scale workshops, asingle installation may be better for technical, as well as perhaps economic,reasons.

7.19 Feedlots. The one feedlot currently in operation near Banforawas established through a German financed project and is now managed byONERA. It has a capacity is 600 head of cattle 1/ and the average fatteningperiod is 6 to 7 months, although some animals are kept as long as 9 months.

1/ In four paddocks.

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In 1979 the feedlot was stocked with 300 to 320 head and the annual through-put about 750 head of cattle. ONERA intends to increase the annual through-put to 6,000 head. Cattle are fed molasses, cottonseed and rice straw. 1/The feedlot has only a small 500 ha pasture area, but the main feed supplyis agro-industrial byproducts. This operation has apparently had no problemsmarketing its finished steers.

7.20 Another modern feedlot with a theoretical capacity of 3,600 headper year was operated for a few years by SODEXPAD but is now closed. Theoperation allegedly failed because there was insufficient demand for fat-tened animals. Two other reasons provid,e more likely explanations for itsfailure. By attempting to operate through the rainy season, the feedlotsuffered higher losses, failed to achieve high daily rates of gain, and wasunable to benefit from seasonal price movements. The alleged marketingproblems resulted in part from offering animals for sale at the end of therainy season when there was an abundance of grassfed cattle on the market.

Other Agencies

7.21 Regional Development OrganizatLons (ORDs). Eleven ORDs were createdin 1965 as independent entities--paralleL to the government's political struc-ture--to promote rural development in their areas. At the central governmentlevel, the Ministry of Rural Development gives technical support to the ORDsand coordinates and supervises the main activity, which is the agriculturalextension service. In 1974, the focus oE ORDs was changed to communitydevelopment; and between 1975 and 1980 the ORDs had responsibility for carry-ing out the veterinary field services. The creation of the ORDs representedan effort to decentralize rural development efforts. They were designed to beself-financing through their marketing of crops at official prices. Bothbecause of poor financial control and because government price policies areestablished by the central government irrespective of ORD finances, thisprinciple of financial autonomy for the ORDs has not succeeded. Although theyreceive some funds from the central government budget to pay for basic facili-ties and administrative personnel, the ORDs usually try to supplement thesefunds with project financing to pay for equipment and operating costs.Because of the unpredictable nature of these various sources, most ORDscontinue to encounter severe financial d:Lfficulties which constrain theireffectiveness.

7.22 The Government has had under consideration for some time a reform ofthe ORD system to improve extension for agricultural production, to alleviateand prevent heavy indebtedness, and to control the existing bad management.The required reform has 3 major elements: (a) ORDs are to give unequivocalpriority to increasing both vegetable and animal production; (b) the legalstatus of ORDs is to be changed to one oi- public administration, eliminatingtheir financial autonomy; and (c) formal village groups are increasingly toprovide the link between producers and the ORD technical services. With

1/ Daily ration per animal is 2 kg cottonseed, 4 kg molasses and 4 kgrice straw.

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respect to livestock, veterinary services are to be completely separated fromthe ORDs by the recreation of the livestock circumscriptions that will bewholly controlled and financed by the central Livestock Service. Animalproduction will remain an activity of the ORDs, although the Livestock Servicewill be expected to provide programs and supervision to assure that targetsfor animal production are realized. At least 3 difficulties must be workedout before the reform can have much effect: (a) how to coordinate animalproduction programs with agricultural production programs; (b) whether theLivestock Service itself must be reorganized to handle the dual structureproposed for health services and animal production; and (c) how to providesufficient budgetary resources to carry out the ORD programms and to allow thecentral services to exercise adequate control.

7.23 The AVV was created in 1974 to organize settlement in the White,Black and Red Voltas in areas freed of onchocersiasis. At present about1,300-2,000 families have been settled, mainly in the White Volta area. AVVhas a livestock division which deals with livestock development among farmersinterested in livestock production, including animal traction and fattening;it receives technical assistance mainly from Holland and France. There arelivestock extension programs in various areas of the Voltas such as Linoghin(40 km south of Ouagadougou), Mogtedo (south of Koupela), Bane (south ofTenkodogo), Kaibo (near Manga) and in Bougouriba (10 km from Diebougou). InBougouriba there are 10 extension agents who look after 1,200 to 1,500 pair ofoxen. AVV's livestock service operates independently of the existing regionalveterinary services and it carries out all veterinary treatments includingvaccinations and deworming of cattle.

7.24 RDF. In the past few years, the Rural Development Fund hasprovided credit for constructing manure stables, usually at only 5% interest,repayable over 2-3 years. The goal of the RDF, however, has been less toprovide credit than to give technical assistance, and its envelope has notbeen large. In the future, most of its credit will be channelled throughthe CNCA.

7.25 CEBV, the Economic Community for Meat and Livestock, was createdin 1970 in Abidjan by the Heads of State of the Conseil de l'Entente coun-tries (Ivory Coast, Benin, Upper Volta, Niger and Togo). The main purposeof CEBV is to deal with all problems concerning production, processing andmarketing of livestock and meat within member countries, which finallyshould lead to a common market for livestock and meat. The member countrieswould provide the community with all statistical information on livestock,animal production, commercial movements of livestock across borders, theevolution of supply and demand, processing, and the animal health situation.The collected data would be used in formulation of programs for improvementof marketing conditions and the animal health situation in member states. Anumber of agreements on marketing, payments, and similar matters have beenset up between member states; and custom, health and tax legislations havebeen harmonized. The Executive Secretariat, which is located in Ouagadougou,is in charge of carrying out the community's work program. Main donoragencies are FAC and USAID.

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7.26 CILSS. Following the Sahelian drought, the CILSS was created in1973 to coordinate the development and drought control activities of its 8member states 1/. The Executive Secretariat of the organization is locatedin Ouagadougou; it is responsible for preparation and financing of projectsand programs. The secretariat has a number of divisions dealing with varioussubjects such as plant production, forestry and ecology, human resources,transport, livestock and fisheries. Later, in 1976 a "Club des Amis du Sahel"was created to support the work of the CILSS and to inform the internationalcommunity on the prospects and needs of Sahelian development. The CILSScurrently is receiving technical assistance from a number of countries, andtwo livestock specialists are working with livestock development projects.A FAO agrostologist is presently carrying out fodder crop research in theSahelian zone.

7.27 Liptako-Gourma Authority was created in 1970 as an interstateregional development authority for the 370,000 km2 in the Liptako-Gourmaarea. 2/ The entire region lacks all types of basic infrastructure, and theauthority has completed a number of studies for roads, railways, telecommuni-cations, agriculture and livestock. One of the main economic resources islivestock, and one study, "Developpement Integre de la Region Liptako-Gourma',deals in detail with livestock development. So far, no projects have beenfinanced.

Training

7.28 Training at the higher level is biased towards veterinary medicine.There are only a few livestock specialists (Ingenieur d'Elevage) and very fewanimal husbandry specialists. For example, in 1980 there was only one animalhusbandry expert among the 31 veterinarians and livestock specialists employedby the livestock service. Also, training in agrostology and range managementis almost nil. If productivity is to be increased--a goal of governmentstrategy--much more emphasis must be given to local and foreign training inanimal husbandry. And if pasture resources are to be resources are to bepreserved and improved, more training will be needed in agrostology.

7.29 In the past, livestock training at the lower level (InfirmierVeterinaire) has also been biased towards disease control, in particularprophylactic treatment of cattle. No aspects of animal husbandry or feedingwere included in their training. However, the agricultural extension workersfrom the Matourkou agricultural school received a polyvalent training that

1/ Cape Verde Islands, Chad, The Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegaland Upper Volta.

2/ The area is composed of parts of Upper Volta (the east), Mali andNiger. The Niger River forms the major portion of the drainage systemand the region extends from the Saharan zone (100 mm rainfall) to theSudanian-Guinean zone (1,100 mm rainfall) through the Sahelian andSudanian zones.

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included animal husbandry subjects. Despite the sufficient quantity of agentsthat are being trained, the impact on livestock husbandry has been negligible,in part because the training has been inadequate. Consequently all thepresent veterinary field staff need retraining to improve their competence inanimal husbandry, care, and feeding.

7.30 At present, there are 27 Voltaic veterinarians, all of whom weretrained abroad (mainly in Canada, France, Belguim, Bulgaria and Senegal).In 1980, about 5 new veterinarians will return from abroad (2 from Russia, 2from Senegal and 1 from Belgium), but the number will decline in the comingyears. There are a number of expatriate veterinarians working in the country,mainly in Bobo-Dioulasso, where they are involved in tse-tse research.

7.31 The Ecole Nationale de l-Elevage et des Industries Animales (ENESA),or Livestock School, dates back to 1957 when the school was created in Oua-gadougou under the name Ecole des Infirmiers Veterinaires. In the beginning,a one-year training course was given; it was later extended to a two-yeartraining course with 10 registered students. In 1968, the school was trans-ferred outside town and moved into new buildings which included a clinic forpractical training. In October 1979, the school was reorganized and renamedENESA; instead of training only livestock nurses (infirmiers veterinaires) theschool now has two divisions and trains Assistants d Elevage (formerly carriedout in Niamey) and Agents Techniques. Students for Assistant d'Elevage areenrolled directly when they receive a BEPC (Brevet Elementaire Premier Cycle)or are Agents Techniques with a 5-year practical training. Yearly enrollmentis 10 students, and the training lasts three years. Students for AgentsTechniques are enrolled from secondary schools when they receive a BEPC.There are 20 students enrolled annually and the training lasts two years.Training in animal husbandry subjects, which was formerly done at theMatourkou school, has now been transferred to ENESA. Due to the reorganiza-tion, the school is overcrowded; at present there are about 60 students in aschool originally constructed for 20 students.

7.32 The Institut Superieur Polytechnique, created in 1973, alsoteaches livestock subjects in a 5-year course leading to a degree asIngenieur d'Elevage. The training is more production-oriented than at ENESAand graduates may get jobs with ONERA and other development institutions.So far, only a few students have graduated; in 1980 the number is expectedto reach five, in 1981 only one, and in 1982 about 9 students.

7.33 The Matourkou agricultural school, "Centre Agricole Polyvalent deMatourkou" near Bobo-Dioulasso, has since its creation in 1963 given aninterdisciplinary training in agriculture and livestock. Its third yeartraining used to include livestock subjects, but training in livestock willbe phased out in 1980 owing to the reorganization of the livestock school inOuagadougou.

7.34 ELAT, the tse-tse control school in Bobo-Dioulasso, trains live-stock agents from francophone African countries in tse-tse control. Courseslast 9 months, and the first batch of 20 students began in 1977. The schoolis operated and financed jointly by France, Germany and Upper Volta at a

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yearly cost of about DM 1 million (CFAF 100 million). The curriculum includesclasses on theoretical subjects, as well as laboratory and practical fieldwork such as surveys and the organization of eradication campaigns.

Research

7.35 Total research effort for livestock in Upper Volta amounts to some215 million CFA francs per year (in 1980), over 90% foreign, and about 15professional researchers, of which four-fifths are foreign. 1/ Of all agri-cultural research in the country, livestock accounts for roughly 15%, somewhatless than its relative share in national income. Over the years much researchon improving animal breeds and forage was started by Government and variousaid agencies, but follow-up at the farm level is lacking and consequentlyimpact on farms has been small.

7.36 Markoye Livestock Station is located in the Sahel north of Dori.The 3,000 ha station was set up in 1966 with assistance from USAID at a highcost of CFAF 200 million. The purposes of the station included working withtraditional livestock owners in the area to improve their animal husbandrypractices and carrying out experiments on pasture management and fodder cropproduction. Due to lack of funds in recent years, all research on pasture andlivestock has ceased and most infrastructure has deteriorated. Current workis the multiplication and dissemination of breeding stock (Azaouak cattle andMaradi goats imported from Niger) to livestock owners. This initiative hasnot been very successful as only few livestock owners have purchased breedingstock from the station. Unless the stat:ion can be utilized for researchpurposes it should perhaps be abandoned;. its use as a breeding center alone isprobably not justified. In conjunction with a well-defined research program,it could also serve as a support for livestock extension in the area.

7.37 Samandeni Livestock Station, located north of Bobo-Doulasso, wasesablished to study the behavior of cattle in the southwestern part of thecountry, including a breeding program for N'Dama cattle. The station wasneither given sufficient funds nor adequate staff. At present, the station'strypanotolerant herd of N-Dama and West African shorthorn cattle serves theIEMVT trypanotolerance project.

7.38 Banankeledaga Pig Station, also located north of Bobo-Dioulasso,was once a pig breeding station for disseminating improved pig breeds (LargeWhites) to local pig farmers. In 1976 the station was closed by a brucellosisinfection that forced destruction of the herd. Lack of funds has preventedits reopening. There is a need for improving the feed conversion of Voltaicpig breeds. If research could be defined and funded, the station might bereopened, which would also enable it to serve the pig farmers in the Bobo-Dioulasso area.

1/ These figures cover the existing livestock stations, the veterinarylaboratory, the research on trypanosomiasis, and the CILSS/FAO fodderproject.

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7.39 Despite the underutilization of the three existing research stations,the government has proposed the creation of three new stations: one for animalhusbandry at Sonore-est and two for small ruminants, one each in northern andsouthern regions. Until present stations function adequately and long-termfinancing can be assured for these new stations, they should probably bediscouraged.

7.40 Biological Tse-tse Control. Since 1974 Upper Volta has been hostcountry for biological control of tse-tse flies, a program which started inthe Central African Republic. The program is located in Bobo-Dioulasso atthe Research Center for Animal Trypanosomiasis (CRTA) and carried out byIEMVT under financing by France and Germany (CFAF 900 millions over 5 years).The technique of releasing sterile males is environmentally acceptable butthe cost of producing sterile males on a large scale is still too high. Anew strategy that uses a combination of biological and chemical control isexpected to be tested in the context of a proposed pastoral development schemeat Sideradougou, beginning in 1980.

7.41 Trypanotolerance Project. A new four-year trypanotolerance project,financed by France and Germany (CFAF 500 millions) and carried out by IEMVT,was started in 1978 at CRTA in Bobo-Dioulasso. The purpose is to study thephenomenon of trypanotolerance and to find ways of enhancing it by immuniza-tion or breeding.

7.42 Fodder Crop Research. During many years, forage research hastaken place at the IRAT agricultural experimental station at Farako-Ba nearBobo-Dioulasso. Seeds of various leguminous plants and grasses are producedand sold to livestock projects throughout the country. Production in 1978included about 400 kg of Brachiaria seed and about 1,000 kg of Stylosanthesseed. Research with irrigated fodder crops is carried out by CERCI, basedat the experimental station with field experiments in the Kou valley. Feedtrials with work oxen have also taken place in the Kou valley where oxen,during the dry season, were grazed on improved pastures.

7.43 Fodder crop research in the Sahelian zone is at present carriedout by a FAO-supported CILSS project (CFAF 11 million over 1978-81 coveringMali, Upper Volta and Niger). The purpose of the project is to increase theavailability of forage, in quantity and quality, in the Sahelian zone by theintroduction of forage crops in the crop rotation on farms keeping cattleor work oxen. The project tests at the farm level the various species ofleguminous plants and grasses available nturally as well as from experimentstations. Selected varieties are then multiplied by farmers and introducedin the crop rotation. Similar efforts should be repeated throughout thecountry since future increases in livestock production will depend on theextent to which livestock and agriculture are integrated.

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VIII. PAST LIVESTOCK PROJECTS

8.01 Almost all investment in the subsector is financed by foreign funds.For the period 1977-81, CFAF 8.7 billion has been allocated to livestock, ofwhich 7.3%, or 84%, has been firmly committed by foreign donors (see Table 13).Of all planned investments, however, the livesock subsector receives less thanits share in the national economy and exports. Roughly 2.5-3% of commitmentsare allocated to livestock, even though the subsector accounts for over 10% ofGDP and from one-third to two-fifths of export revenues (see Tables 4 and 13).Of investments in the rural sector, roughly 15-20% go to livestock, a shareclearly beneath the subsector's one-third share in the primary sector.

Bank Projects

8.02 The Bank's first livestock project in Upper Volta (Cr. 557-UW)was passed by the board in May of 1975. The components provide customaryveterinary services--including vaccination yards--to livestock herders in thesouthwest part of the country, improve marketing and processing (constructionof cattle paths, a market, and holding grounds, as well as rehabilitationof an 'existing slaughterhouse), and promote the creation of group ranches,which were to improve the management of some 30,000 cattle. According tosupervision reports, the health component of this project has appeared toproceed satisfactorily, with most vaccinations and treatments largely exceedingappraisal estimates. The two exceptions are CBPP--now at 20-30% of appraisallevels--and anthrax at less than 10%. The absolute number of vaccinationshas fallen (see Chart 4)--a normal trend as more of the adult herd becomesimmunized. Earlier problems with trypanosomiasis now seem under control,owing both to better treatment and to adaptation of the herds. It has beenpossible to carry out two more vaccination campaigns that the 4 financed underthe project by using the counter-part funds generated from sales of drugsfurnished by the project. But it is unclear if these health services willbe maintained after the end of disbursements because the personnel and operat-ing costs of the animal health service may not be provided for adequately,although the government has recently decided to allocate 5 million CFAF toeach livestock circumscription. The abattoir has been fully operational sincethe beginning of 1980 and two of the stock routes have been delineated. Theaccess to and creation of the holding ground, which was part of a forestreserve, was an unsolved problem for a long time; however, a solution hasfinally been reached by a satisfactory agreement between the forest reserveand the project. The adjoining cattle market has been constructed and takenin use. Implementation of the group ranch scheme was slower than expectedalthough the situation appears to be improving now. There was an initialemphasis on the construction of buildings and other infrastructure needed tosupport the ranches; as the scheme expands, these works may not turn out to beexcessive, although they could have been simpler. Herders were initiallyreluctant to participate in the schemes; but now there is a waiting list.Trypanosomiasis appeared to be a problem; but that is now under control as the

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result of treatment, adaptation, and better management. Also, a new controltechnique, using screens treated with insecticide, has been tested and givengood results. There have been legal problems over ownership of ranch land;but there is now better cooperation between farmers and herders, and criticaldry-season pastures are being demarcated. As a result of initial problems,the scope of this scheme was reduced from 9 ranches to 3 in 1978, although twomore may soon be established with credit to herders. The project is scheduledto terminate in December 1982, but further support to the extension servicesfor the group ranches is being provided under the recently-approved Hauts-Bassins Agricultural Development Project (Credit 1285).

8.03 The group ranch scheme now appears to be functioning reasonablywell. There ranches--which are best thought of as a delimited area enclosingcamps of enrolled herding families--may now be in a position to deal directlywith their major objective: increased productivity of herds and pasture land.The bulk of investment (routes, watering points, and dipping tanks) on thethree ranches--covering almost 100,000 ha, or about three-fourths of the areaoriginally appraised--has finished. Over 75 families with 10,000 cattle areenrolled, which takes up all of the estimated stocking capacity on theseranches. At least 35-40 families have expressed interest in joining a groupranch, and they have indicated a willingness to pay for the required invest-ments themselves since the project cannot finance any additional ranches.It is expected that the National Development Bank (BND) could provide therequisite credit to these herders. These 5 ranches would bring the total areacovered to 200,000 ha, some 50% more than appraised. Thus, after a slow startand several modifications, the ranches appear to be functioning and to havethe support of the local herders, who seem primarily interested in formallyjoining the ranches because of the security of land tenure it provides them.But they also receive the benefits of better health protection for their herdsand of better herd management. There is some evidence that cattle on theranches can be marketed earlier at heavier weights and that fecundity ishigher while calf mortality is lower on the ranches. The critical test of themerits of this innovative component will be the ability of project authoritiesto work with traditional herders in improving animal husbandry and the manage-ment of herds, developing and managing pastures, and controlling typanosomiasis.First steps have been taken in these areas. Over the next several years, bothtechnical assistance and additional financing will be needed to help thescheme through its difficult gestation and to learn from the experience.Continued support of the Group Ranch Development Center would allow it toserve as a focus for further research and training. Only after more time willit be possible to judge fairly whether the concept is valid and the initialinvestment worthwhile.

8.04 There are, however, a number of lessons that could already be drawnfrom the first years of the project. The most important is that ranchingschemes, meant to substitute for traditional migratory herding, are difficultand time-consuming to implement because they require numerous social andinstitutional changes. Therefore, herders must be involved from the beginning

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in the design of the ranches, and their ability to manage their own herds inthis new setting must grow with the project--not be taught later as a replac-ement for departing technical assistants. Investments, especially early ones,should be small and simple--like watering places, dips, and squeeze chutes--that correspond to the immediate needs of the herders and are within theircapacity to finance and manage. At the same time, more fundamental changes insocial organization and regulation must be pursued, especially land tenurerights and procedures for controlling herd size and pasture use on the ranchesthat are created. Improvements in animal husbandry and pasture lands arelikely to be incremental, and they may demand additional technical researchbefore good approaches can be found. Discrete, but valuable components likeanimal health care and feedlots may not need the structure of group ranches atall in order to be implemented, although they can be complementary adjuncts.It is still unclear if these ranches can be economically justified or if theycan be replicated. This uncertainty and the inherent delays all indicate thatthe Bank should be prudent in pursuing this type of livestock project, althoughrecent positive signs also suggest that it would be premature to abandon theefforts already begun.

8.05 Livestock components--comprising animal husbandry activities--areincluded in all five of the agricultural projects approved by the Bank's Boardof Directors since early 1981. 1/ These components comprise general animalhealth measures, specific efforts to reduce calf mortality by dealing withparasites and diseases, provision of credit for purchase of animal tractionequipment, and/or actions by the extension service to improve the integra-tion of livestock with crop farming--including the use of feed supplements,minerals, fodder, and pasture management.

Other Aid Agencies

8.06 Other main aid donors in the livestock sector are Holland, Germany,France, FED and USA. Dutch aid is giving strong support to livestock market-ing through ONERA. Its activities include extension of the Ouagadougouabattoir, construction of the ONERA headquarters, and provision of technicalassistance for livestock marketing and processing. German aid includes thecreation of and assistance to a national veterinary pharmacy (PHANAVET), amodern cattle feedlot in Banfora, a project to study and delimit the areasinfested with tse-tse, other research on trypanosomiasis (eradication. immuni-zation, and training), and a feedmill in Bobo-Dioulasso. French aid includesa tse-tse eradication project (eradication, immunization, and training) carriedout by IEMVT, technical assistance to the national Livestock Service, andstudies (e.g., mapping pastures in the east and research on small ruminants).FED is carrying out projects in the Dori, Yatenga and Banfora ORDs. USAID hascompleted pilot village livestock projects in Kaya, Fada and Koupela ORDs.

1/ Projects include Bougouriba II, Hauts Bassins, and Volta Noire Agricul-tural Development Projects, Rural Development Fund III, and KoudougouPilot Agricultural Development Project.

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8.07 FED is by far the main aid donor in the livestock sector. Atpresent it is carrying out three livestock projects, two in the northernpart of the country and one in the southwest. The livestock project inthe Sahelian zone started at the end of 1979 and covers the northern part(5,000 km2) of Dori ORD. The project is concerned with regeneration ofpastures and with improving the livestock extension service, aiming atbetter balance between fodder resources and fodder requirements. The projectincludes a marketing component to reduce stock numbers. The project period isthree years and total project costs are US$2.0 million.

8.08 FED is also undertaking a four-year livestock development projectin Yatenga ORD mainly to give support to small stock, but the project alsowill construct wells and set up a workshop for manufacture of farm equipment.

8.09 Finally FED is carrying out a four-year livestock project in supportof traditional cattle raising in Banfora ORD, in the southwest. The projectincludes fattening of draft oxen, cattle marketing, and the creation of agrazing scheme for transhumant cattle.

8.10 The USAID Village Livestock Development Project aimed at developingthe capability of the national Livestock Service and three ORDs to plan andimplement village livestock management systems that can maintain the integrityof the environment. The project was implemented by a team of American con-sultants consisting of a rural sociologist, a livestock specialist, and a.range management specialist. The project area was restricted to a few selectedvillages. Of the total project costs of US$2.3 million, about US$1.5 millionwas a US grant, mainly to cover salaries of expatriate staff. The project wasoriginally conceived as the initial phase of a two-stage effort, but financingfor the follow-up has not yet been assured.

8.11 The BOAD (West Africain Development Bank) project is designed touse livestock to help regenerate abandoned rice fields in the Kou Valleyirrigation scheme. Two of its major components are the development of Irri-gated pastures using a mixture of grasses and legumes and trials for feedingand fattening steers. It is being implemented by the pasture division ofCERCI.

8.12 A general evaluation of these projects is beyond the scope of thisreview. Most are recent, thus any definitive evaluation would be premature,but indications appear to be that donors have not yet developed interventionsthat can have a significant, widespread input on either total production orproductivity in the livestock subsector. Except for the national vaccinationcampaigns against major epidemic diseases, it may be most appropriate to viewthese existing efforts more as pilot projects, with a large element of applied

research.

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IX. GOVERNMENT LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

Description of Current Strategy

9.01 Past Strategies. The Government's strategy for developing Voltaiclivestock is based mainly on the preparatory work for the 1977-81 Plancarried out by the livestock service. 1/ Although this document was heavilyinfluenced by conditions created by the 1968-73 drought, its major focusremains largely unchanged. The Livestock Service has reviewed its paststrategy and has produced two documents updating livestock strategy which havebeen communicated to the Bank. 2/ The following description of government

strategy draws heavily on these documents but is not limited to them.

9.02 As early as the interim plan of 1967-70, the three major goals hadbeen identified for the livestock sector: better animal health, higherproductivity, and maximum local processing of livestock products. By thesecond plan (1972-76) these goals had changed only slightly, although astronger emphasis was put on increasing total production--rather than simplyraising productivity--to recover from the losses of the drought and on promot-ing Voltaic processing of animal products. In particular, the governmentproposed a 2% annual growth rate in cattle numbers through 1985, with a 1%rate thereafter, to achieve a herdsize of 3 million animals by 1990. 3/To increase the production of cattle, three general orientations were pro-posed. (i) Regional stratification would use the Sahel for breeding andproducing calves and the Sudanian and Guinean zones for growing out andfattening them. This stratification would require an integration of cropcultivation and livestock in the south, which would be made possible byanimal traction and farm livestock raising and by modern, intensive feedlotsusing agro-industrial byproducts. (ii) Permanent animal health programswould combat major contagious diseases, with a growing awareness of theneed to treat illnesses in specific animals like draft oxen. (iii) Better

1/ Republique de Haute Volta, Ministere du Developpement Rural, Sous-Commission de la Production Animale, "Programme de Production Animalepour le 3eme Plan 1977-1981," Ouagadougou, probably 1976.

2/ These documents are: Republique de Haute Volta, Ministere du Devel-oppement Rural, Direction des Services de l'Elevage et des IndustriesAnimales, "Note a l'Intention de la Mission Banque Mondiale," Ouagadougou,1980; and "Note d'Observations Relative A l'Etude sur le Sous-Secteurde l'Elevage par la Banque Mondiale", December 1981.

3/ From FAO, Perspectives du Developpement Agricole a Long Terme dela Haute Volta, Rome, 1977 (?), p. 24.

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animal nutrition would be based on the use of agricultural byproducts,cultivation of fodder crops, and management of natural pastures. For poultry,the goal was to modernize and expand production, relying largely on improvedhealth measures and better feedstuffs. Interventions for small ruminants wereto be limited largely to controlling parasites.

9.03 To carry out this strategy, the plan proposed actions that can begrouped into six major categories: (i) an increase in the financial andmaterial resources for the government livestock service, including thenumber of agents and veterinary posts; (ii) border control to reduce clande-stine exports; (iii) land reform to transfer control to herders over someareas that are currently controlled exclusively by cultivators; (iv) bettermanagement of pastures; (v) provision of credit to herders; and (vi) reacti-vation and improvement of livestock research stations. The most importantwere considered to be increased resources for the livestock service, landreform, and livestock credit. In addition, the desire to increase livestockprocessing within the country has led to the creation of modern facilitiesto slaughter meat for export, as well as to the institution of a statemonopoly over the use of agro-industrial byproducts to aid intensive cattlefattening.

9.04 Updated Strategies. In recent efforts to update its livestockstrategy, the government has changed little from the major elements identi-

fied for the last plan, except that the problem of land tenancy is now seento be an extremely important constraint to further rational livestock devel-opment. In addition, there appears to be a growing recognition of the need anddesirability of integrating livestock into agriculture, including pastureimprovement and promotion of small ruminants and other small stock (chickens,pigs). In broad terms, emphasis is now placed on three elements: health,production, and exports. Improved animal health is considered a preconditionto increase both production and productivity. The government wants to main-tain permanent protection against the major contagious diseases, with par-ticipation by herders limited to the costs of vaccines and perhaps to thetransport component of delivery costs. In addition, the livestock servicecalls for more attention to be given to controlling parasites, combatingtrypanosomiasis, and improving veterinarian care of individual animals. Tobring about a better health program, the livestock service feels it needs morestaff and equipment, better structures such as laboratories, and increasedtraining of staff.

9.05 The second element of the updating focuses on animal production.In order to increase output, the government: (a) continues to adhere to thedoctrine of regionalization in order to improve extensive livestock herding;(b) wants to organize and equip pasture areas--viewed more as an administra-tive than an investment problem; (c) thinks that priority allocation ofagricultural byproducts must be given to livestock feeding--regardless oftheir alternative uses; (d) wants to adapt short-term credit to financelivestock feeding; and (e) stresses the need for a larger, more highlytrained and better equipped livestock service.

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9.06 The third element is a strong bias favoring exports of meat overlive animals, although the most recent statement of objectives conspicuouslyexcludes the promotion of meat exports and local livestock processing.

9.07 Views of Herders. In order to complement the views of the admini-

stration on livestock strategy, the mission contacted numerous herders andlivestock producers directly. 1/ Even though most of the views come fromherders in the east, they represent an important segment of livestockproduction in the Sudano-Guinean zone. From the herders points of view,their major problems include: (i) lack of water, which forces transhumanceduring the dry season; (ii) shortage of pasture, which is exacerbated bybush fires and the reported influx of cattle from the north since the1968-73 drought; (iii) and conflicts with cultivators over the placementof fields and destruction of crops by cattle. Disease problems are not feltto be severe, although they become worse--especially trypanosomiasis--whencattle are taken south.

9.08 There was general agreement that the drought had brought largenumbers of herders and cattle from the north, and that this influx hasperturbated the equilibrium of the herders already living in the area. Inmany cases, the shortage of water was attributed to the larger number ofcattle from the north that have to be accommodated. Localized migrationshave both turned more toward the south and increased in distance during thelast several years. The local populations express discontent at thischange--in part because the south is viewed as ridden with disease. Yetthey feel they should not try to stop the influx from the north. Lack ofpastures was sometimes attributed to influx of northern cattle, but mostherders eventually claimed that there would be no real shortage--even withthe larger cattle population--if bush fires could be controlled. No one had

suggestions of how to do this, although the incidence of bush fires tends todiminish as population density and cultivation increase.

9.09 The most immediate--and to some, the most serious--problem wasfelt to be the conflicts between farmers and herders. Such conflicts arisewhen cattle herded by Peuhl eat standing or harvested crops, and theirresolution usually means that the herder has to pay for damages as assessedby extension agents of the Agricultural Service. The farmers charge thePeuhl with negligence, and the herders charge the Gourmantche with failureto respect the herders- rights of access to the village and to wateringpoints. It appears that conflicts flare up only between ethnic groups, and

that punitive actions are taken only against the Peuhl.

9.10 A number of measures might be taken to reduce these conflicts, butthe most frequent have been to increase penalties for crop damage, so thatherders are encouraged to pasture their animals farther from the fields. In

1/ Herders were visited in Samorogouan, Nassougou, Matiakoali, Gayeri,Kantchari, and Diapagou. Livestock feeders were visited in Kaya andOuagadougou.

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addition, farmers sometimes give greater protection to grain stores. Amongthe herding populations in the Sahelian north, cultivated fields are commonlyenclosed using spiney bushes. Fields of high-value crops like fruits andvegetables are protected in the south, but only during the dry seasonwhen divagation is accepted. More careful herding is alleged to be in-

feasible by the Peuhl, presumably given the high cost of herders.

9.11 Despite the poor quality of veterinary services and infrastructurein the country, as well as the widespread incidence of disease and parasites(see Tables 17 and 18), herders do not seem to perceive animal health as themajor problem. Control of major epidemic diseases means that catastrophiclosses are unlikely, and the relationship between some illnesses and pro-ductivity is perhaps not well appreciated. However, there is a clear demandfor proper diagnosis and curative treatment of individual illnesses liketrypanosomiasis. The demand is great enough that herders are apparentlyoften willing to travel to Ouagadougou themselves to purchase medicinesunavailable in the regional livestock offices and to pay the travel costs ofveterinary assistants who come to treat their animals.

Evaluation of Government Strategy

9.12 In much of its general emphasis, the government's strategy issound and conforms to the major orientations identified by this review:integration of livestock and cultivation, diagnostic and curative veterinaryservices, and improvement in pastures and fodder. But as far as presentinga rational program of action, government planning could be improved. Thereneeds to be a clearer distinction between objectives and means, with morewell-defined and realistic objectives. For example, despite the unimpressiveperformance in the past, the Plan optimistically asserts that meat productionwould rise by 70% between 1977 and 1981. Moreover, it fails to make thecorrespondence between its general objectives and what steps must be taken toachieve them. There are virtually no estimates of how much various interven-

tions will raise productivity--the sine qua non of expanded Voltaic production.Hence there is no way to judge whether increased expenditures on research,training, staff and facilities will actually increase both physical andeconomic productivity. The few departures from themes established by thecolonial veterinary service have largely been forays into modern, self-contained parastatal facilities, such as feedlots, feedmills, and slaughter-houses. Besides not helping small livestock producers, who appear to berelatively efficient, these activities both waste investment funds and areprobably a recurrent drain of scarce public revenues. In general, if might besaid that the strategy is unduly composed of preconceived programs and notbased sufficiently on what producers want and actually do. The paragraphsthat follow assess specific elements of the government's strategy.

9.13 Stronger Livestock Service. Despite the strong priority accordedto a strengthening of the livestock services by the planning commission,adequate budgetary allocations have simply not been forthcoming. In termsof domestic public funds, the livestock subsector traditionally receivesless than it contributes to the national budget. Although foreign funds

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more than compensate for the outflow of government funds, the subsectorstill appears to receive less than its share of such investments. Moreover,the situation has deteriorated, not improved, since the commission's reportin 1976 that called for a stronger livestock service. Staffing remainsinadequate (less than 250 field agents), poorly distributed among regions,and limited largely to activities related to animal health (see Tables 14and 15). The government's goal that each of the arrondissements has alivestock post by 1982-83 is unrealistic in light of current staffing levelsand past performance.

9.14 The inadequacy of budgetary allocations could be partly offsetby increased participation of the herders and other producers in the costsof the livestock service. Despite the growth in the service, however, theproportion of receipts actually recovered appears to have declined (seeTable 12). The livestock service insists that animal owners should becharged only for veterinary products while the cost of delivering theseservices should be fully subsidized. Estimates based on figures from theBank's West Volta Livestock Project suggest that these delivery costs are3-4 times the cost of vaccines for major cattle diseases and one-half totwo-thirds the cost of treatments against trypanosomiasis (see Table 9).But because it is unable to finance the subsidies, it cannot provide many ofthe services demanded and needed by the herders. Material inadequacies andpoor financial management of the livestock field services mean that herdersmust already often bear substantial extra charges anyway in procuring vaccinesand arranging for agents to give the treatments. In light of the existingsituation, the government is considering augmenting vaccine costs by 10% tocover some of the costs of transport and travel. The establishment of aneffective revolving fund at the national level to cover the costs ofveterinary products and their delivery is a priority to improve animal healthservices.

9.15 The government's fear that higher treatment costs will driveherders into neighboring countries where vaccinations are often free isprobably overstated, except for areas near the borders. It seems unreason-able to expect that an additional few hundred francs per animal will causesubstantial shifts in cattle movements, especially when some herders alreadypay extra charges. Even if temporary movements were to occur, there may bea net gain for the country since animal health costs would be subsidized byneighboring governments.

9.16 The livestock service generally blames its poor performance on itsintegration with the agriculturally-dominated ORDs in 1975 and feels it willbe more effective if autonomous. Autonomy, however, in no way assures thatadequate budgetary support will be forthcoming. More seriously, it wouldignore the conclusion here that increases in the productivity of Voltaiclivestock can probably occur in the long run only if livestock and agricultureare integrated--not separated.

9.17 Regional Stratification. The government recognizes that thisconcept has been poorly realized, despite its investments in structures--like markets, stockroutes, feedlots and slaughterhouses--to handle cattlefrom the north. It blames this slow progress largely on the mentality ofherders who are considered reluctant to sell their stock--especially young

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stock, While the decision to sell cattle is affected by many factors--suchas the need for money, the use of cattle as a store of wealth and sign of

status, and sentimental attachment to animals, the existing structure ofprices also encourages herders to hold livestock until adult age, providingthey have sufficient funds and pasture. Available market data clearlyindicate that price per kg rises with the size and age of animals (see Table8). Given that the risk of mortality is fairly low once a calf reaches 1-2years of age, herders would probably maximize returns by keeping animalslonger so long as pastures, water, and herding labor are not constraints.

9.18 However, the evidence is fairly strong that young cattle are beingsold by herders despite what appear to be relatively low prices for them.For example, there are about 25% fewer male than female calves (see para5.01), and it may be that herders in the north just do not have much more of asurplus of young stock to sell. A large share of these are being slaughteredbefore the age of 3 years--despite the apparent attractiveness of growing out(and possibly fattening) cattle. This movement may be forced in part bydeteriorating economic conditions in the Sahelian north--reflecting a failureof herders' incomes to recover after the drought, and in part by the strong,growing demand for young oxen for animal traction and the demand for smaller,cheaper animals by local butchers. It is also consistent with the allegedpreference of Peuhls to produce milk rather than to grow out bulls or steersfor beef, although it conflicts with statements by herders that they prefernot to sell young stock. 1/

9.19 The fact that large numbers of these small animals are slaughtered--rather than grown out--further shows that the government has been unable toimplement its policy of regional stratification. There may be two principlereasons for this failure:

(a) the unprofitability of feeding out cattle, given the costsof feed and the buying and selling prices; and

(b) the lack of credit to finance feeding operations.

In any case, the government's modern feeding lots have had no significantimpact quantitatively; and the government has given little assistance toprivate producers who might undertake growing out and feeding.

9.20 Land Reform. Although the Livestock Service, along with herdersand cultivators, now consider this issue as perhaps the most severe con-straint to improving livestock production, virtually no action has beentaken--beyond radio proclamations against bush fires. The Livestock Serviceviews the first step as simply increasing awareness of the problem amongother government agencies and obtaining financing for a master plan of landuse potential. But the issue will not be simple to resolve, in part becauseit goes beyond the competency of the Livestock Service and the Ministry of

1/ As one put it, "A country without children is not a country."

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Rural Development, in part because it calls into question the existingpriority of land use given to cultivation over grazing, and in part becauseany reform will require some control over cattle movements which traditionallyhave been unfettered. Despite the recurring mention of land use as a problem,it may be that economic and demographic pressures are not yet strong enoughfor reforms to be accepted.

9.21 Until the mission's insistence in early 1980, there had apparentlybeen no collaborative effort among government agencies to define a land-usepolicy. Even now, the prospects that a policy will be elaborated are notgreat--in part given the reluctance of the officials to broach a sensitiveissue that will necessarily require a reallocation, of sorts, of resourcesamong groups. Even were a coherent policy to be elaborated, there is littleevidence to date that the government would have the commitment and means toenforce it. At the village level, farming and herding groups who coexistseem unable to reach mutually satisfactory accords, except insofar as farmingasserts its traditional dominance over herding by pushing it farther from thevillage. It may well be that effective land reform must largely await changesin economic, social, and demographic conditions that make more intensivelivestock production relatively more attractive than extensive herding.

9.22 Beyond the usual claim of the government that it owns all land,and therefore has the legal right to reallocate it, there is no stated landtenure or land use policy. Within the traditional legal system, however,all land seems to be owned or at least claimed by members of the residentpopulations--whether the land has ever been tilled or not. Since herders donot constitute a part of this resident population, except perhaps in theSahelian northeast corner of the country, farming always takes precedenceover grazing. Most conflicts appear to be judged in favor of farmers, andherders must adjust. A definitive reallocation of land in favor of live-stock, with accompanying restrictions on the decisions of the farmingpopulation, represents a departure from the traditional and de facto landtenure system. Even when the government has taken a legal position toreserve land for herders, as for the group ranches at Samorogouan, it hasoffered virtually no enforcement and has only reluctantly--if at all--backedup the efforts of herders to keep farmers off the land that the governmentitself has given to them.

9.23 A land use policy of some sort is probably a prerequisite for theimplementation of a grazing scheme--especially if it involves wateringpoints and improvements to pastures, in order to assure that the resourcesprovided to the herders are not over utilized. The policy will have toaddress two different problems: (a) control of the use of grazing land foragricultural purposes, because in almost all areas cultivation and herdingare intermingled (the problem of zoning); and (b) control of the use ofpasture and water by non-resident herders, because transhumance is a commonpractice for nearly all herders (the problem of ownership). Both herdersand farmers sense the need to organize their respective rights to land, andboth claim that outside support from the government will be necessary toestablish a system that will both preserve existing rights and reduce

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conflicts. Resident herders admit that the arrival of herders and livestockfrom the north, especially following the drought, has impinged on theirtraditional pastures and water, sometimes forcing them to migrate themselvesto less favorable areas in the south. But no herder wanted to limitforeigners' traditional rights of access, in part because they themselvesmigrate to other areas, and in part because of familial and commerciallinks.

9.24 Credit. Despite the government's belief that a shortage of creditconstrains the development of livestock production--especially growingout and fattening--it has not had the funds to improve the situation. TheNational Agricultural Credit Bank (CNCA) offered an opportunity for thegovernment to implement a major tenet of its livestock strategy, but the CNCAprovides virtually no credit to the livestock sector except for purchasingdraft oxen. The credit, as in the agricultural sector generally, is sub-sidized, and it is quite possible that livestock--as well as crops--wouldbe unable to support the real capital and administrative costs of ruralcredit. The Livestock Service has apparently not explored the feasibility ofa program for livestock credit.

9.25 Livestock Feedstuffs and Intensive Animal Production. While thisis a valuable component of a long-term development strategy for livestock,government's efforts at implementation are not always well-advised. The majorpart of the government's program has been focused on modern feedlots usingmostly agro-industrial byproducts. Because the operations--both cattlefattening and poultry and egg production--have been generally unprofitable,the Livestock Service and ONERA have tried to acquire monopsonistic controlover all agro-industrial feedstuffs. It argues that intensive feedingoperations are unprofitable because feedstuffs are too expensive; therefore,the government should control their use and make them available to thelivestock service at low or no cost. The Livestock Service's policy wouldforbid any alternative uses (including exports) of such byproducts andignores the fact that prices of some consumer goods (such as oil and flour)would have to rise if no longer offset by returns from the sale of byproducts.Finally, it overlooks the fact that private cattle feeders appear to make aprofit using feedstuffs that are available to them on local markets at muchhigher prices than the Livestock Service and ONERA now pay. Despite thepresence of backyard livestock fattening, the Livestock Service has donealmost nothing that could aid these private efforts, and there are onlyrecent, inadequate moves to include animal husbandry in livestock extensionactivities. Finally, the recent government approaches seem to miss thepoint that supplemental feeding, coupled with grazing, is probably thebest way to get marginal gains from feedstuffs that are high enough to supporttheir costs. For cottonseeds, however, there does appear to be a case forincreasing the share allocated to the livestock subsector in general.

9.26 Exports of Processed Livestock Products. One of the most stronglyexpressed and specific elements of the government's strategy has been theexport of processed products -- mainly beef and tanned hides. The governmentargues that local processing adds extra value to the products and thereby

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increases national income and export earnings. 1/ While seductive in prin-ciple, the strategy may not make economic sense because: (a) the processingindustries are capital-intensive, relying heavily on imported equipment andenergy; (b) installations are large and capacity tends to be underutilized(the case for the slaughterhouses, cold storage facilities, and tanningfacility); (c) transport costs are usually higher for processed goods (theexception may be poultry carcasses); and (d) valuable byproducts may be wastedowing to the inability of the local market to absorb them (the case of thefifth quarters of cattle). If the processing is inefficient -- and there isnot much evidence to the contrary -- implementation of this component couldactually reduce potential income and lower foreign earnings.

9.27 Border Control. The Livestock Service's desire to prevent unde-clared exports can be justified only if the increase in tax revenues justifiesthe additional administrative cost. This accounting has not been done. Inany case, investment in border control would have virtually no impact onnational income, livestock production, or productivity. Moreover, to theextent that it raises the effective tax rate on cattle exports, it lowersthe return to herders and could conceivably depress production. Given thepressing needs for productive investments, this element of strategy maybe an unwarranted luxury. In any case, it is not supported by the CustomsOffice.

9.28 Pasture improvement. Despite the government-s view that betterpastures are important to improve the livestock subsector, it has donelittle that reflects this interest. There is no separate division in theLivestock Service for pastures. There has been no agrostologist on thestaff of the Livestock Service, and there is no land-use policy that wouldencourage pasture improvement by either farmers or herders. But there aresome encouraging signs. Various foreign donors are financing some studiesand pilot schemes related to pasture improvement; and in 1980 the reorgani-zation of the Livestock Service included a separate division for pasture andwater development.

9.29 Research. Contrary to the Livestock Service-s stated belief thatmore research on livestock is vital, none of its three research stationscarries out any research. Despite the priority assigned to research byits strategy, the government has, in fact, watched the situation deterio-riate, not improve.

1/ Its argument that hide exports are an important source of STABEXrevenue is, however, false. For the four years 1976-79, hides andskins exports received no compensation.

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X. DISCUSSION

10.01 The purpose of this section is to discuss the options open forthe government and for donors to intervene in the livestock subsector. Giventhe lack of reliable data and the relatively limited experience with live-stock projects, recommendations are necessarily tentative; and in some casesonly pros and cons are considered. The following paragraphs set out themajor constraints in the subsector and discuss major orientations for govern-ment and donor action, including specific project ideas and appropriatechanges in policies.

10.02 The fundamental problem in the subsector is the low productivity ofthe herd, reflected in low offtake rates and low herd growth. 1/ Whatis unclear, even after this review, is why productivity and output are nothigher. Clearly, there are physical, technical constraints, including pooranimal health, lack of feed, and poor management. There are also economicconstraints resulting from what appears to be stable or perhaps fallingworld prices and rising costs of production. There are institutional andorganizational constraints that may retard changes. Finally there aredirect constraints on government action, the most important of which areshortages of funds. Perhaps most importantly, it is unclear that the govern-ment has the knowledge to attack these various constraints, even if ithad sufficient resources and power to do so.

Physical Constraints

10.03 Health. Loss of livestock from contagious diseases now appears tobe quite limited, reflecting the success of past major national vaccinationcampaigns. Thus, epidemic diseases are no longer an immediate constraint togreater livestock production. But because the threat of outbreaks continuesto exist--especially given large international movements of cattle and poorborder control, these vaccination campaigns should be maintained as apreventative measure. And since the actual gains to the nation from con-tinuing to suppress epidemics (e.g., from rinderpest and CBPP) usuallyexceed expected gains for private producers, these campaigns must usually besubsidized. Although current government policies, as well as the bulk ofthe livestock service, are designed to achieve this end, implementation isincreasingly constrained by the shortage of funds to pay for the vaccinesand the operation of the veterinary service.

10.04 Although major epidemic diseases are largely under control,poor animal health--including parasites and trypanosomiasis--is probably oneof the causes of low fecundity in cows and high calf mortality. There areprobably large potential gains still to be won in this area--especially in

1/ It is interesting that this same problem was pinpointed in 1964 bythe World Bank in The Economy of Upper Volta, Washington, p. 7.

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wetter regions where the tse-tse challenge is severe--but the animal healthservice must be somewhat reoriented to deliver necessary treatments. TheLivestock Service recognizes the need to provide health care for individualanimals, but to be able to do this, it may require certain assistance,including:

(a) funds for acquisition and operation of material (vehicles andveterinary equipment);

(b) retraining of veterinary nurses and livestock agents;

(c) financing for initial subsidies on some products to help encouragetheir use; and

(d) improvement of certain infrastructure necessary for health services.

Because improved health of herds should lead to greater wealth and higherincomes for producers, these services ought in principle to be self supporting.New approaches to providing these services must be considered, which couldinclude greater involvement by village groups and reliance on private vendors,with technical support from the Livestock Service.

10.05 Feed. In the short run (say 10-20 years), the quantity of theseresources and the efficiency of their use will probably increase very little,if at all. Despite existence of some unused pasture areas in the easternsudanian zone and southern tse-tse infested areas, available pasture isprobably a limiting resource and it may be that lack of feedstuffs meansthat few increases in herd size and output can be expected from these areas bysimply improving animal health.

10.06 There are some tse-tse free areas--notably the northern half ofthe Fada ORD--where pasture resources appear to be presently underutilizedbecause of water shortages. Grazing these pastures could be an initial stepin helping to feed more livestock. If cattle density could be doubled--making it about the same as on the central plateau--the cattle populationcould rise by some 300,000, or 10%. But cultivation in these areas isalready widespread, especially in the low-lying areas that would havemade the best dry-season pasture. Thus it may be too late to implement thisoption simply by reserving tracts of grazing land for pastoral associations--even if complex institutional problems could be overcome. Yet withoutthese associations, donors may be reluctant to improve water resources.

10.07 Additional livestock production in the zones currently infestedwith tse-tse flies may offer the greatest potential source for expandedoutput in the short-term. There are three basic approaches for achievingit: treatment of Zebu against trypanosomiasis, eradication or suppression oftse-tse flies, and multiplication and introduction of trypano-tolerantcattle. Only the first option both has significant scope for immediateimplementation and appears very attractive from economic and managerialperspectives at the present. But its future viability depends importantlyon continued research into drugs and vaccinations to prevent tryps frombuilding immunities. The group ranches currently supported by the Bank havebecome a test of the acceptability of this approach.

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10.08 Control of tse-tse flies by artificial means is usually consideredto be prohibitively expensive--both financially and administratively--initially as well as on a recurrent basis, except for highly intensive live-stock operations; and these operations are probably unlikely to be profitable(see the discussion on feedlots). It may be that real control of tse-tse mustawait the land clearing associated with higher population densities, whichalso implies that livestock may have to be produced in relatively moreintensive systems integrated with agriculture. On the other hand, it isalso possible that new techniques will soon be developed to combat tse-tsemore effectively and at lower costs--for example, sterilization of maleflies.

10.09 Greater use of trypano-tolerant taurin cattle is an alternativethat can be implemented only slowly, but it would appear to warrant in-creased attention, given the fact that 30% of the national herd alreadyconsists of these cattle. Since the major physical constraint to expansionis not the quality of the breed, but rather the small size of the taurinbreeding herd, active efforts to purchase taurin breeding stock from neigh-boring countries may be one immediate step that could be taken. Such aneffort would coincide with the component of the recently approved Guineanlivestock project aimed at exporting more taurin breeding stock. 1/

10.10 The objective of using existing feed resources more efficientlyis to obtain more livestock products from existing feedstuffs. Althoughbetter feed conversion may eventually require breed improvements, in thenear term it will depend essentially on improved herd management. It ishere that greater intensification may offer the potential for significantgains. The major questions are under what conditions will intensificationbe attractive to producers, and what constitutes better herd management?Population growth alone is probably the major impetus for intensificationbecause it makes extensive livestock herding more difficult and costly andincreases the attractiveness of more intensive crop cultivation that reliesin part on livestock activities.

10.11 Available feed resources might be increased by shipment of agro-industrial by-products from the more productive southern areas, by increasedutilization of agricultural by-products produced in the region as livestockfeed, and by expansion of fodder production. Although attractive in theory,there are problems with this approach. Agro-industrial products are limited,often have a fairly high value in alternate uses, and are expensive to trans-port. Increasing the cattle population in the south where more agro-industrialby-products are available is limited by tse-tse infestations and by the slowincrease in the taurin herd. Traditional agricultural by-products appear tobe already largely used for livestock. Methods that are attractive tofarmers for producing and conserving fodder are still in pilot stages,

1/ See World Bank, "Revolutionary People's Republic of Guinea - LivestockDevelopment Project - Staff Appraisal Report", Report No. 2959a-GUI,Washington, August 19, 1980, pp. 21-22.

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although in the long run this action might be very important. Institutionaldifficulties (rights to graze cultivated pasture) must be worked out and theeconomics needs to be examined. Thus, in the short run, none of thesetactics appears promising.

Economic Constraints

10.12 Principal economic constraints can be summarized:

(a) lack of any firm evidence that beef prices are likely torise in major export markets,

(b) high transport costs,

(c) high costs of feedstuffs and fattening stock,

(4) rising costs of herding labor, and

(e) cheap milk imports, including lack of tariff protection.

There appears to be little evidence that herders behave in ways that arenot economically rational--they respond to changes in prices, costs, andinvestment opportunities; the constraint is not, as sometimes suggested by thegovernment, the need to change mentalities, but rather to offer appropriateincentives.

10.13 Although Voltaic beef is currently competitive in coastal markets,world beef prices are expected to remain constant or even to decline in thenext 5-10 years. There is probably little scope for relying on new methods toexpand production if they raise costs, and major efforts should be directed atactions to reduce costs of production, marketing, and transport. Productionactivities have already been discussed under physical constraints above, andthe review finds little scope for reducing marketing costs other than someinstitutional arrangements to aid information exchanges and transfers ofmoney. There may be interventions to reduce transport costs, including:improved stock routes (demarcation posts, grazing reserves and holdinggrounds), refrigerated rolling stock to ship meat by rail, and slaughterfacilities for poultry. However, transporting meat rather than livestockinduces other costs that could offset gains, and data are not yet reliableenough to draw any firm conclusions. In the absence of cost reductions, andin the face of growing domestic demand, it could well be that prices in UpperVolta will rise, which will encourage more production but will tend to reduceexports. In short, there seems to be a conflict between paying higher pricesand maintaining exports.

10.14 The growing cost of herding labor and of litigations with farmersseems to be shifting the relative profitability of cattle production awayfrom extensive methods to move intensive activities. This trend is likelyto strengthen as social programs and agricultural expansion make herdingless attractive, and as better transport, better animal health, improved

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breeds, and more agricultural by-products make intensive production easier.The implication of this shift is that a major production input is becomingdearer and that livestock production will tend to become less attractiveunless these costs can be passed along or offset. Downward pressure on worldprices limits the scope for passing on costs. Interventions that might com-pensate for higher labor costs appear to require the availability of unusedpasture lands or the evolution of mixed farming.

10.15 Most feedstuffs other than pasture currently sell for prices thatmake it very difficult to convert them into beef except under special,somewhat restricted conditions where such feedstuffs are complements tograzing. They do, however, enable some producers to take advantage of sea-sonal price changes by feeding cattle during the dry season. The situationis unlikely to improve in the future, although the real costs of forageproduction have never been carefully estimated seriously. Changes ingovernment policies could also allocate more cottonseed to herders. Moreintensive feeding programs will probably succeed only if they produce high-quality beef and are very short-term to take advantage of seasonal priceincreases. Given past Voltaic experience, there appears to be no economicjustification for promoting large-scale feedlots, and there is not yet suf-ficient information to determine how to encourage small-scale finishing--although the activity is already occurring. In general, the high value offeedstuffs means they must be viewed as complementary feeds, not as a sub-stitute for grazing. Although the ratio of fattening stock prices to those ofslaughter cattle is still favorable, comparative information from othercountries and strong evidence of a growing demand for young stock--induced inpart by the lack of herd growth in the past--suggest that prices for fatteningstock are likely to rise significantly faster in the future. 1/ As a result,operations that rely on feeding alone are likely to become less profitable, atleast for export.

10.16 The high volume of cheap milk imports, mostly foreign food aid,limits scope for programs to expand domestic commercial milk production.Moreover, local fresh milk can neither be stored nor transported so easilyas imported condensed or powdered milk. To the extent that milk sales arevital to make the integration of livestock with agriculture profitable, lowmilk prices could pose difficulties and would require both a marketing programand trade protection. A program to increase milk production might also bejustified by increased consumption by producers themselves rather than bysubstituting for imports.

Institutional Constraints

10.17 Two major institutional problems appear to reduce the efficiencyof the sector: structural imperfections in marketing, and conflicts over

1/ The current relatively low prices for young stock may also reflectpressures on herders to sell, perhaps in part because grazing landscannot feed the new animals. The effect of this selling of young stockwill be to reduce herd offtake, leading to future increases in theirprice.

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land use. While trekking is well organized by traditional traders, it maybe possible to help it function better by improving the cooperation of localofficials along the routes, by investing in public facilities (resting placesand forage) along routes, and by regularizing (or rediscounting) monetaryclaims on importers outside the franc zone. Private trucking also appears tobe reasonably well organized, although poor roads increase costs and isolatesome areas during the rainy season. These problems cause difficulties mostlyin the market for small ruminants, since they cannot be walked long distances.Arrangements for rail transport may be the least satisfactory, in part becausemuch of the system is outside the control of traditional cattle merchants. Itmay be possible to encourage institutional changes that would improve railtransport, including better assembly operations--which might be aided byholding grounds near rail lines and by improved rail scheduling (lack ofrolling stock does not appear to be a problem but should be examined morecarefully).

10.18 Problems with land tenure arrangements are widely seen to con-strain both expansion of extensive herding and increased intensification ofcattle production. Livestock activities are seen to be at a disadvantagebecause grazing land is regarded as a communal, not individual asset. Theissue, then, is not one of zoning by the government but of conferringeffective control of land use to pastoralists who traditionally have theright to graze land only if it is not cultivated by resident farmers.Ownership, as such, would both guarantee to herding groups control over theuse of land and make them responsible for its good management. By clarifyingwho has the right to use what land, this approach would help reduce uncer-tainty and costs of livestock herding.

10.19 For such a scheme to work, several conditions probably haveto be met. First, the government must show a willingness to institutiona-lize and enforce the arrangements eventually worked out in the grazingareas. The review found a reluctance even to consider the issue, consistentwith the government's slow action in procuring titles to land needed for theBank's project. Even were the government solidly behind the reforms, itwould doubtlessly need an increased administrative capacity to carry outcadastral surveys, to help to assure that decisions are respected, and tohandle litigation.

10.20 Second, there must be a demand for land ownership by herders, andhere the evidence is confusing. Although herders often agreed they wouldrather not be nomadic, they also recognize the value both of their beingable to go elsewhere and of receiving others into the areas they customarilyuse. Thus, while settlement and control over one's own area is viewedfavorably, loss of migration rights is seen clearly as a disadvantage.Although it still seems premature to think of widely replicating ranches andgrazing associations, several factors are slowly converging that may makethese or other options feasible. These factors include the increased dif-ficulty of finding grazing during transhumance, the higher cost of herding(both labor and litigation costs), social pressures encouraging sedentarylivestock production (e.g., schools), and more efforts to provide stock waterin the dry season and to improve and to protect pastures--making migrationless necessary.

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10.21 Third, cultivating groups must be willing to relinquish theirstanding claims over land currently used for grazing. As livestock becomes

more closely integrated with farming--which is the trend and which is beingencouraged by the government's promotion of animal traction, cultivators

will have less need for symbiotic relationships with herders and more need

for pasture lands of their own. Perhaps more importantly, continued rural

population growth will increase the demand for crop land, which will steadily

eat into many grazing areas. It may be necessary to envisage paying compen-

sation to some groups before conferring ownership to herders. Herders are

also likely to rely more on farming--in fact, it is possible that they should

be the initial focus of efforts to promote mixed farming.

10.22 Fourth, organizational issues must be solved, including the type of

land ownership by herders (individual or cooperative), the size of the area

needed for each herd, and how to take and enforce decisions controlling

individual herd size and disposition. The Bank's current group ranch scheme

may eventually provide insights to resolutions for these issues.

Constraints on Government Action

10.23 If the problems discussed above are those that are primarilyresponsible for physically limiting herd expansion, what is preventing

public agencies from taking appropriate actions to overcome them? Given the

importance of livestock to the Voltaic economy and trade, it would bedifficult to argue very strongly that the government does not see the value

of increasing livestock production. Admittedly, it may give priority to

crop production, which is only consistent with the dominant importance of

crop cultivation. Lack of action by the government probably indicates the

presence of constraints other than low commitment.

10.24 There are three other major constraints on better action by the

government: insufficient funds, poor coordination, and conflicting policy

considerations. Even if past public expenditures on livestock have not beenout of line with the importance of the subsector in the economy, it does

appear that sufficient funds have not been directed at major constraints on

increased output. To illustrate, applied research, animal husbandry exten-sion, and operating costs of the veterinary service have been neglected

while funds have been spent on some investments that probably will have no

major impact on animal production such as commercial feedlots, slaughter-houses, cold storage facilities, and group ranches.

10.25 Part of the blame for insufficient funding rests squarely with thegovernment because it maintains unnecessary subsidies, its agencies are not

always very efficient, and funds are often misallocated to the wrong programs.

The government may also be simply unable to mobilize an adequate level ofdomestic public resources to fund livestock development at levels needed to

increase production in the face of constraints. It must therefore rely

heavily on foreign aid, which means that much of the blame for poor funding

must also rest with donors, who are responsible for starting ambitious

programs (e.g., the Markoye research station) or presently unprofitable

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ventures (e.g., feed mills) that require a level of recurrent public fi-nancing the government can scarcely be expected to maintain. Donors mayneed to accept a long-term obligation to provide continuing finance for theoperation of inherently deficient operations (like research, vaccinationsagainst epidemic diseases, and training). However it is important to noteas a final caveat that lack of public funds is a real constraint only to theextent that these funds could be productively used.

10.26 It appears that governmental arrangements have made it difficultto coordinate interventions in the livestock sector. For example:

(a) Until mid-1980, livestock agents were paid by the central live-stock service but supported logistically by ORDs;

(b) Units responsible for animal husbandry and development of forageproduction are separated from the agriculture service; and

(c) The parastatal ONERA, in addition to managing specific assets ofthe government (like slaughterhouses), is building a parallelstructure that increasingly duplicates and competes with the admin-istrative service.

This lack of coordination, illustrated by the fragmented, piecemeal programsof different foreign donors, reflects the difficulty that the government hashad to devise a workable strategy that contains clear priorities and addressesmajor constraints.

10.27 The subsector review did not really show that current publicfinance policies of the government significantly impede livestock develop-ment, in part because the most regressive are never implemented. Nor dothey aid it very much because expenditures called for by policies are seldommade. Subsidized prices on the delivery of veterinary services encouragetheir use, which is desirable, but the livestock service is not sufficientlyfunded to assure their delivery to meet demand. Price controls on meatcannot be enforced, mostly because the government has no way of affectingeither supply or demand. Large imports of milk do not directly compete withlocal production, largely because imported milk--especially food aid--meetsa demand that fresh local milk would not. The sector is clearly taxed bythe government--almost wholly through exports; under reasonable assumptionsit does not appear that such taxes have much impact on production despitetheir tendency to reduce producer incomes. Public investments more thancompensate for the tax outflow, but they do not always appear to be veryuseful. Such misallocation is often the fault of donors.

Actions to Consider

10.28 Since livestock has been and is a major economic sector in UpperVolta, the objective of donors' interventions should be to expand, or atleast maintain, output from the sector. In particular, if its importance inearning foreign exchange is to be maintained or improved, and if domestic

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consumption is allowed to increase with population and income growth,national production must rise. According to several projections, it isunlikely that livestock will continue to be an export sector unless actionsare taken to augment productivity and perhaps to restrain domestic demand.Owing to physical constraints on available feedstuffs, much of this growthmust come from increased productivity, not herd expansion. A reasonablegrowth target is perhaps no more than 1% per year.

10.29 Any action by donors is also constrained by two important factors.First, there is no clear indication of major programs--at best there are anumber of marginal, rather small investments that suggest themselves.There are also some ideas for limited pilot schemes as part of a search forviable interventions that could be widely expanded. Thus, the first stepwould be to help the government elaborate a strategy, which could be used toassign priorities to projects and to form the basis for proposing alternativesfor reorganizing the livestock service and forging links with related agencies.This might best be done in the context of a technical assistance project or asector loan coupled with various other components. Second, most of what isneeded cannot be directly financed by donors; actions focused on institutions,organizations, policies, and expenditure priorities demand a close, continuingdialogue with the livestock service, perhaps coupled with financing.

10.30 A few general orientations for future actions emerge from thisanalysis. There is only limited scope for expansion and improvement undertraditional, extensive techniques of herding, but two attractive possibili-ties are: (i) to strengthen curative animal health services (which would bemostly self-supporting) that will improve rates of growth and feed conver-sion; and (ii) to expand production in zones where the tse-tse challenge isstrong. In tse-tse free zones where agriculture is dominant, as well asperhaps in areas with trypanotolerant cattle, the long-term orientation mustbe intensification. The country is not ready for major actions becauserelative prices have probably not yet sufficiently changed to make itattractive except under certain conditions. But incentives should increase,and pilot schemes might help elaborate workable interventions, includingfodder production and conservation, better use of ox traction and manure,dairying, and fencing. It is unclear whether lack of credit is a bindingconstraint to intensification; technical factors and costs seem more critical.

10.31 There is a clear need for basic research in such areas as drugs tocontrol trypanosomiasis and for further applied research in areas such asanimal husbandry and feeding, production and conservation of fodder, andcontrol of animal parasites and other health problems in intensive opera-tions. Effort to improve local herds by breeding probably should have lowpriority--given the apparently under-used genetic potential of both Zebu andtaurin cattle; in any case they are long-term and might be limited in the nearfuture simply to developing better criteria for selection. However, in thelong-run, genetic improvements will be essential to raise herd productivityand improve prospects for dairying. Socio-economic research is needed toprovide more insights into methods for land reforms and more intensive live-stock production.

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10.32 The specific project ideas that might be financed are neitherabundant nor major. There may be a case for poultry processing and morestock routes as designated on the attached map. There is a need for moreresearch and although this does not necessarily imply simply reopening thedefunct stations. If nothing else, current research programs need to bebetter coordinated. There is clearly a need for training especially toteach agricultural extension agents about animal selection, feeding, andhusbandry, and about fodder cultivation and conservation. Veterinary agentsneed to be trained more in curative medicine, as well as in how to teachlivestock producers to treat their own herds with modern medicines. Planshave already been elaborated to expand ENESA.

10.33 Most of the interventions that directly affect livestock produc-tion--except for on-going national vaccination programs against epidemicdiseases--might best be carried out in agricultural development projects,given the large degree of integration between livestock production and cropcultivation. The focus of the livestock components would be to help supportveterinary services and to develop methods to assist and promote integratedfarming. 1/ Such pilot schemes might be first tried on the more denselypopulated Central Plateau and could include: (a) the elaboration of trainingprograms for existing agricultural extension agents to give them technicalknowledge about animal production; (b) continued experimentation to developbetter ways to cultivate fodder, to improve the pasture quality of fallowland, and to conserve hay; (c) financing for animal traction and, possibly,short-term feeding schemes for cattle and small ruminants; (d) efforts toencourage the use of manure as fertilizer; and (e) efforts to make feasiblethe production of more milk. Such a project would consist mostly of studies,training, and extension, but financing may be required for fencing, villagecattle paths, sheds, and credit funds.

10.34 Probably the most sweeping donor action would be a sector loan forlivestock. This type of loan would have three purposes: (a) to encourageinstitutional reorganization; (b) to finance inherent recurrent costs asso-ciated with research, training, and the delivery of veterinary servicesagainst major epidemic livestock diseases; and (c) to compensate for thebudgetary effects of policy adjustments that appear necessary to increaselivestock productivity and to maintain exports.

10.35 Such a sector loan could help the government to reorganize and tofinance its livestock services in such a way that:

(i) logistical means are adequate for the veterinary service tofunction, which may also require efforts to strengthen theaccountability for the livestock service for revolving funds(e.g., those furnished by PHANAVET);

1/ It is interesting to note that promotion of mixed farming was alsoone of the main recommendations of the Bank's 1970 economic study onUpper Volta.

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(ii) animal health services provided to livestock producers are nolonger subsidized, except for epidemic diseases;

(iii) livestock producers are taught increasingly to provide healthservices for their own animals;

(iv) animal production and husbandry is more closely tied to agricul-tural extension;

(v) fodder production programs are better integrated with the agricul-tural service;

(vi) livestock research is integrated with the national agriculturalresearch authorities; 1/

(vii) the role of ONERA is more narrowly limited to providing supportservices for livestock processing and marketing; and

(viii) various foreign-financed livestock programs are more closelycoordinated and placed in the framework of the development policyto be elaborated.

10.36 Donors could provide recurrent financing for the research programs,

training, and vaccinations against epidemic diseases. Such work is probablyvital for the future economic strength of the sector, but because the impact

is likely to be significant only on the long-term the government can hardly be

expected to finance it out of current budgetary revenue.

10.37 Finally, donors could help finance the consequences of some majorpolicy reforms that are considered necessary to rejuvenate the sector. Some

of the adjustments might include the following:

(a) Export taxes could be reduced to raise domestic livestockprices. The price rise would have two effects: an incentive toexpand production (which is unlikely to be very great) and adisincentive to local consumption. At the margin at least,foreign exchange earnings would be won by a sacrifice in govern-ment revenue, which the sector loan would offset. In addition,

the higher domestic prices might make some new, more intensivemethods of livestock more interesting, thereby encouraging their

adoption.

(b) Payments could be made to agricultural groups to encouragethem to relinquish their standing claims on land in favor of

herding groups. Such a transfer of effective ownership couldassist traditionally nomadic groups to adopt progressively the

1/ Such integration might be carried out under a separate research project.

- 101 -

more intensive techniques that physical and economic constraintscall for. It may also be necessary to expand cadastral servicesto implement and enforce the transfers. In addition, variousinvestments like fencing that could facilitate the reform mightneed to be subsidized.

10.38 There are specific areas that donors should avoid. These include:

(a) Additional group ranches, except whatever marginal recurrentfinancing may be required to allow the Samorogouan project tocontinue for a sufficiently long period (10-15 years, or until1990) in order to judge its efficacy;

(b) Commercial feedlots, because they are unlikely to be cost-effective--given the high value of feedstuffs--even underspecial conditions and with careful management neither ofwhich seems likely;

(c) Eradication of tse-tse flies, because high initial andrecurrent costs most likely make the endeavor worthwhileonly for intensive operations, the profitability of whichhas yet to be demonstrated;

(d) Market improvement, except perhaps designation of cattlepaths leading to the markets and creation of publicgrazing reserves if they can be self-financing;

(e) Most commercial processing facilities, until excess capacityis utilized and the case for exporting meat is clearlydemonstrated. One exception may be a poultry slaughter andpacking facility, although this requires further study;

(f) Support to parastatals like ONERA, which appears to be currentlyengaging in unprofitable commercial ventures and duplicatingor competing with the government service.

L'PPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR ItEVIEW

Table 1. C g-raphic Distribution on livTetoch Population and Agricul,tural products

4 5 5 1 6 78Orgsnisme Regional Are 2 Villages Population Lie-stock Cattle Sheep -d gosts Cotton - MlIlet,orghum.malze Rice Groundnuts Animal 9de DeveloPPament (OD) 000 k( (°°°) Owers 000 fkn /hab. 000 /fh 7hab. 000 ha 000 at 030 at 000 ha 000 Mt 000 ha 000 mt traction

1 2 (000) 10usgsdo.g.o (Centre) 22.0 994 762 3.7 237 10.8 0.3 311 14.1 0.4 2.8 0.4 385 i43 2.2 1.6 17.1 6.3 1,1800

Koudougou (Centre-o-uest) 26.3 647 740 4.3 184 7.0 0.2 259 9.8 0.4 5.2 2.3 282 140 1.4 1.3 14.4 3.4 4,240

lays (Centre-nord) 21.6 706 626 7.2 293 13.t 0.5 673 31.2 1.1 5.6 1.8 211 113 2.0 1.9 15.7 7.3 1,1001 2 12

Ou"hignoY (N8rd) 12.3 812 393 4.6 155 12.6 0.4 311 25.3 0.8 0.0 0.0 227 76 nil nil 9.6 4.1 2,364

Dadoogou (Volta Noire) 33.1 922 633 6.7 289 8.7 0.5 414 12.5 0.7 30.4 26.5 239 177 1.6 1.9 17.7 10.5 9,677

Koupls (Centre-emt) 11.3 550 402 3.0 107 9.5 0.3 104 9.2 0.3 nil nil 141 52 5.2 4.o 13.9 6.9 ? 13

oanfora (Csawo) 18.4 208 186 1.5 97 5.3 0.5 207 11.3 1.1 nil nil 74 71 6.2 3.7 10.1 6.3 22114

11Diebougo. (Sud-ouest) 17.5 1,116 358 0.9 130 7.4 o.4 207 11.8 0.6 5.1 3.6 132 71 2.8 2.0 5.9 2.4 226

Bobo-Dioul&sso (Routs 2seging) 24.8 373 270 3.4 163 6.6 o.6 362 14.6 1.3 20.6 23.7 110 123 5.7 10.8 13.6 8.2 4,276

Fads N'Gourm (got) 50.0 644 403 7.4 289 5.8 0.7 362 7.2 0.9 nil nil 130 84 10.2 9.1 24.7 '16.7 1,300

Dori (Sabel) 36.9 449 354 8.9 573 15.5 1.6 932 25.3 2.6 .0.0 0.0 161 66 0.0 0.0 1.8 0.5 t

Aei.age_nt des Vsltleesde Volta (AVV) - - - - - - - - - - 1.3 1.7 - - ail nl nil nil 1,500

Entire country 274.0 7,221 5.127 51.6 2,517 9.2 0.5 4,142 15.1 o.13 71.5 60.0 2,0903 1,116 37.5 3S.5 14443 72.73 26,084

Sourceo: Area and population are from Republique de Haute Volta (RHV), Ninist'ere du Plan et de la Coop4ration (MPC), InstitutNational de la Statietique et de la Derographie, Lee Eetimations des Agregate de Co ptea Natlonaux etIndicateurs Economi ues de 1 Haute Volta de 190 1 , Ousgadougou, *vril 1979, p. 22. Llvestock numbers arefromz BFN, liniet se do D veloppement Rural (MH), Drection de Jervice de l'Klivege et Industries Animalel,"Statiatique de lIndustrie Animale," 1978. Cotton figures are from RK, Compagnie FranSai4e de D4veloppement desFibres Tertiles (CFDT), Aseociation on Participation (AP), La C Pagno Cotonni;re 1979-1979 -- Rapport Anduel,Bobo-Dioulaseo, juillet 1979. Figures for millet, sorghum ad ! ize are provided by the M4DB Direction des ServicesAgricole, but printed in RHV, MHC, "Pmjet du Plan Quinquennal 1977-1901," Tome I. Figures for rice and groundnutoare from RltV, MDR, Section de Stmtiatiquee Agricoles, Annuaire te Statlstiqoe e AgrIcolea 1976, Ouagadougou, no date.Information on animal traction eomes largely from tha CFDT annutl report, euppleented with information from annualreporte of and discuasione with officials of ORDe and the AVV.

Notes: I Cntri plateau.2Theee figures vary me,what from those publiehed in RhV, MFC, 'Projet du Plan Qulnquennal 1977-81," Tome I, p. 24.3Figures may not add because of romunding.54

ural residents only.based on the 1975 population census.5Bstimated for 1977.6Actual production for 1978-79.7Bstimates for 1978-79.

9Figures for 1976-77.Airs of oxen.

101f accoumt is taken of single oxen. horses and donkeys. the total number of teams could be 9,000.1Based on oxen used fot ottbon produetite.12A 1976 census found 771 pair of oxen, esd the annual sale. of rlwos have been sbout 1,100 recently.of wDich sbout 107 wre for oxen. On this basis, there may hs.,e been 1,100 pair of oxen by 1979.31ocal officiasl suggested ss many as 10,500 psir of oxen, but this figure is inconsistent vith norereliable date from the CFDT in other regions.

4Ba*ed on CRD reports -- 1978 for the got, and 1972 for Camod'. The latter ws inreased by IO%/year to1 5 estimate a level for 1978.Unknown, but probably negligible.

6mis total ahould be conidered as a lower bound only. The Atelier Regional de la Construction desMateriales Agricoleo (ARCCOA) estimates there my be 30-40,000 pair of oxen in the country. Thees4_stom of donkeys my account for some of the discrepancy.

I/B1

UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 2. Evolution of Estimated Livestock Population(000 head)

Year

1 2Cattle Sheep Goats Hogs Horses Donkeys Camels Fowl

1978 2,653 1,748 2,632 164 70 200 5 10,0001977 2,601 1,697 2,556 159 70 200 5 10,0001976 2,500 1,600 2,400 150 70 200 5 10,0001975 2,500 1,600 2,400 150 70 200 5 10,0001974 2,435 1,854 2,782 150 70 200 5 10,0001973 2,732 1,836 2,754 150 70 200 5 10,0001972 2,617 1,774 2,661 150 70 200 5 10,0001971 2,613 1,714 2,571 150 70 200 5 10,0001970 2,556 1,656 2,484 150 70 200 5 10,0001969 2,500 1,600 2,400 150 70 200 5 10,0001968196719661965 2,400o / 3,850 3/ 131 66 1781964 2,000 3,000 110 60 1371963 2,000 3,000 110 60 1371962 1,840 2,730 89 60 1371961 1,840 2,545 86 60 1281960 1,800 2,600 93 60 i4o

Sources: 1969 and later: Direction de Service de 1'Elevage and Institut National de la Statistique et de laDemographie, RHV. 1965 and before: FAO, "Upper Volta - Animal Husbandry, Production and Health-Country Study - 1967," by Dr. Kassem, n.d., n.p.

Notes: 1/ Reliable data are not available, but hog numbers are probably much higher than indicated.

2/ Both chickens and guinea fowl; according to the FAO poultry study the national poultry flockis 19-20 million chickens and guinea fowl.

3/ The jump in herdsize between 1964 and 1965 reflects a statistical adjustment made before thestart of the joint rinderpest eradication program. See World Bank, The Economic Development ofUpper Volta, Vol. 3, "Livestock," Washington, 1970, p.7.

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Table 3. Geographic Distribution of Livestock Production

ExportsPopulation in 1977 - Livestock7Market- LiUestock Slaughtered Meat Livestock

ORD (000 head) in 1978 in 1978 (000 kg) (000 head)(000 head) (000 head) Sheep/ Sheep/

Cattle Sheep/Goats Cattle Sheep/Goats Cattle Sheep/Goats H Cattle Goats Hogs Cattle Goats

Ouagadougou 237 311 9 56 30 169 6 188 11 1 24 83

*Koudougou 184 259 6 15 4 13 4 - _ _ _ _

i1aya 293 673 35 142 4 36 2 _ _ _ _ _

Ouahigouya 155 311 11 17 3 28 - _ _ _ _ _

~Dedougou 289 414 26 86 2 26 1 _ _ _ _ _

Koupela 107 104 46 253 6 50 2 _ _ _ _ _ o

Banfora 97 207 5 6 4 4 _ _ _ _ _ _

Diebougou 130 207 3 2 2 7 3 _ _ _ _ _

Bobo-Dioulass 163 362 33 68 23 28 2 19 3 3 14 0ol

;Fada N'Gourma 289 362 7 21 3 14 1 - - - 11 13

Dori 573 932 47 248 2 41 - _ _ _ _ _

Total 2,517 4,142 228 937 83 424 21 207 14 4 49 197

Source: Direction Service Elevage et Industries Animal:Statistiques des Industries Animal.

LIVESTOCK S8SKECr0R VIEVIPW

Table 4. vlwottoo of Livestock Production

Year Gational eccocots Cross Exports C__ _s_tionVa-e of l-stock 7 of agricu Value i f r soboector I CeCat GDp' (MilMions exports (00 hbod) 6 7 (0O0) (0ON hoed) 7 (000 (Read)Year (.illions A _ CyAIl) _____ 40ttle Sheenftoat Cbhickens CeLt oats ttle Shee/of mta Cattle Sheep/ oacs

1978 t6 1 25 10 ,536 17 55.3 199.4 3.800 94.3 1,917.4 77.1 424.5 238 9611977 14.9 25 to 4,44z 33 40.2 145.7 3,300 77.2 1,108,0 72.5 374.0 251 9301976 14.3 30 12 1,e60 15 36.4 179.0 2,900 102.0 1,146.9 70.8 329.2 240 8151975 13.3 27 12 3,498 37 70.8 304.6 3,800 68.8 550.2 57.2 256.7 212 7051974 12.5 27 12 3,223 37 88.3 278.7 3,400 72.4 930.3 64.3 230.9 219 9331973 11.6 31 13 2,442 44 89.0 305.e 4,000 132.4 916.0 74.2 225,3 237 8751972 11.6 28 13 2,293 45 78.7 287.3 5,200 107.9 652.7 68.2 199.1 245 8831971 - - 1,950 44 89.4 248.7 4,700 82.5 373.3 75.2 164,2 228 8501970 _ 1,782 35 90.Z 242.3 4,000 78.7 343.4 68.8 133.6 214 8191969 - - - 2,301 43 90.0 228.5 3,500 95.8 205.2 58.1 87.6 - --t968 - - 2,881 54.5 107.7 313.4 2,300 40.9 230.7 73.6 44.11967 - 2,616 59 88.5 - 1,700 - - - - , ,-1966 _ _ 2,615 65 97.9 - 2,400 - - - -1965 - 135.2 283 2,93 t --1964 - - - - - l4.6 - - - _ _ _ _1963 - - -- - 112.2 1962 - - - - 102.7 - - - - - -1961 - - - - 92.8 -1960 - - - 86,9 - - - - - - - -

Sources: blta for national accounts (1972-78) cnd the value of etporets (1970- 3 come fries R;pubitque de Haute Volct (EO)V °Ntmastere du Plgn et de la Coopirgtion (HMC), Institut National de Ia Scatiatlque at de to tleiaographle (INSD),Le EatiraatLions des Agreoats de Comteca Nattonaux et Indileature Etonsoiquoa 4d la haute Volta de 1970 i 1978.Ouagedougou, April 1979. 1978 Export data coe from the Centre Nlational dc Tr4itement Informatique, INSD, and for lvestock Is the total for Chapter 1. The quantities of animalsand skins exported and the number of animals slaughtered (1968-78) are furnished by the INS4 based on Information fdrnlshed by the Direction des ServIces de IEIIlv-oeet Industries Anilsles In ehe ministry of Rural Developoe.ar Cattle export figureo for 1960-67 ere taken fromLarry Heruan, '"tivesetock god Neat Marketing System in Upper Volta: An Evaluatton of Economic Efficioncy," Inivestock Production and marketleg in the Enteate States of West Africa: Su ,ry Report, Knmeth H. Shapiro, ad_

Ann Arbor, march 1979, Nte ftgure are also booed on those furnaihed by tha Liveatock Servicea, but they are5-10,000 heAd leaI then those furnlihed by the 7N'ib for overtapping years. Export values for 1966-69 are takrnfrto La Production Animle Voltsipue - Perspectives do D&ve1oppe.eent, Toe 11, "Note de Synthese," by SCETlnternational, Perls, 1972. Chicken exports are estimated from data reported by 3crgerly, "Camercialt5stion desVolailes de Haute Volts," FAO, Reme, 1980; the figures are based on cuetoms date, supplemented by Information from the rel lway (Regle Anldjan-Nlger (IRAh)) augmented by 301 to zsopen-sate for systematic under reporting for exports by rall, plus 590,000 undeclared exports by truck, bityele and other means. The figures for 1976 and 1978 do not accord with datafurnished by the Cantre National de Traltesient lnforeatique (CENATRIN) for official trade flows., ,4.(ch woud give 1,500 and 6,400 respectively.Notes' I

2 Current value.At factor prices.

4 Thee inelude aniral equivateot of mat exports.Controlled; excludeg carcasses exported.

6 equal to annual offtake minus knaou exporta plus recorded Imports. Offtlale rateS are 11% for cattle and Z5% for sdheep end goatl.During 1968-78, exports of sheep and goats were coprised of 642 sheep and 36% goats.During 1968-78, slaughterings of aheep and gSots were comprised of 782 goate ond 222 sheep.

UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 5. Imports of Livestock Products

Year Cattle Sheep and goats Concentra-ed Milk Powdered Milk Food aid Milk

(000) (000) (ono mt) (imo mt) milk -(000 Mt)

1978 0.6 5.6 3.5 8.9 8.4

1977 4.7 12.6 2.5 2.4 1.6

1976 0.8 3.6 1.9 2.2 3.5

1975 8.0 10.4 3.1 2.2

1974 38.6 52.6 5.4 4.3

1973 24.7 32.6 1.7 2.6

1972 29.5 61.4 1.6 0.2

1971 29.9 28.1 1.5 1/ 3/

1970 23.4 25.5 1.5 1/

Source Official customs data furnished by the Centre National de Traitement Informatique (CENATRIN) Ouagadougou.

For 197176 ,--cd aid isfncluded. For 1973 and earlier, food aid is not included. Food aid data comes from FED,

Delegation de la Commission des Communautes Europeennes en Republique de Haute-Volta, "Apercu de l'Aide Publique

Exterieure accordee a la Haute-Volta", Ouagadougou, various years.

Motes :7- ~~~~~~2/ 3

- Total milk products. - Usually only powdered milk, _" . r.. r means not available

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LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW4

Table 6. Destination of Livestock Exports

DestinationIVORY COAST GHANA TOGO AND BENIN NIGERIA Yearly

Year Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent total

1960 16,406 19 64,648 74 5,895 7 86,9491961 12,280 13 78,427 84 2,128 2 92,8351962 34,397 33 67,803 66 509 1 102,7091963 43,852 39 68,382 61 - - 112,2341964 44,235 39 68,638 60 1,703 1 114,5761965 79,486 59 53,763 40 1,940 1 135,1891966 66,629 68 27,306 28 4,054 4 97,9291967 62,239 70 23,184 26 3,046 4 88,4691968 76,824 78 19,396 20 2,083 2 98,3031969 62,539 72 20,711 24 3,458 4 86,7081970 59,207 71 20,865 25 3,248 4 83,3201971 59,589 73 18,482 23 3,045 4 81,1161972 58,041 80 9,949 14 4,915 7 72,9051973 48,573 60 27,497 34 5,365 7 81,4351974 49,490 62 23,481 29 6,957 9 79,9291975 57,918 87 3,706 6 4,826 7 66,4501976 23,219 66 3,503 10 8,416 24 35,1381977 24,729 77 2,835 9 4,004 13 324 1 31,892

Source: Republique de Haute Volta, Statistiques de Service de 1'Elevage,Ouagadougou, as reported in Larry Herman, "The Livestock and MeatMarketing System in Upper Volta: Summary of an Evaluation of EconomicEfficiency," in Livestock Production and Marketing in the EntenteStates of West Africa: Summary Report, Kenneth H. Shapiro, ed., CRED,University of Michigan, March 1979, p. 353. These figures vary consi-derably from those based on actual customs data, but the general dis-tribution among countries remains relatively unchanged.

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UPPER VOLTALIVESTOCX SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 7 - Animal Yeedstuffs

Feedetuff Amount Amount consumed Feed Units Local Price Cost per Feedproduced by livestock, per kg 2/ (CFAP per kg) Unit (CFAF)(000 Mc) (000 Mt)

Agro-industrial

Cottonseed (lst/2nd quality) 39.2 22 0.0 1.0 15 15.0

Cottonseed (3rd quality) 4.4 22 4.4 1 0 6 6.0

Cottonseed cake 7.0 0.15 0.74 28-302 39 0

Wheat bran (cubed) 4.0 2.5 3 0.71 104 14.1

Rice bran 2.6 15 n.a 0.38 15-17 42 0

Croundnut cake 2 0 n a 0.87 28-302 33 0

Molasses 13.0 2.0 0.87 2. 5 2.9

Draff (breweries - wet) 9.0 2.03 0.15 16 6.7

Oraff (dolo) n.e n.e 0.15 2.5 16

Manufactured complete feeds n.a n.e 0.80 75 95

Mineral blocks O 1 0.1 0.0 110-1308 0

Salt n.a n.e 0.0 25-509 0

Agricultural

Millet grain ) n 89 7116 soSorghum grain 1,11600 .98 7016 71

Maize grain ) n.e 1.09 6716 61

Sorghum bran ) 150 n 0.75 .a n A

MiIlet br-n n.- 0.90 20-30 25-35

Sorghum stovers 1I0000 20 n.e 0.23i3 5-10 30-35

Millet stovers ) n.e 0.3113 5-10 20-30

Rice strev 150.02 n.9 0.39 n.a n.a

Legume tops - groundnuts 150 1n. 0.40 10-75 25-175

- cowpees n.e na. 0.5312 n 1 n 19Grass hay n.e n.e 0.34 25-50 75-150

Fodder tree. - green leaves nD. n&a 0.28 n.& n.-(acacia albida) - dried pods n.a n.e 0.80 n.a n_a

r- I.is lsion Iiote, mainly. Feed unite from Memento de l'Agronome. Niniatere de la CoopAration, Paris, 1980.Notes 2/ One feed unot equals 1 kg barley. Based or consumption by ruminants.

1/ Includes oargung (CFAF 2 per kg), ex-gin in 1979. Pricea on parallel market reported as 12-15. Esport price for !at quality is about 15.Z/ Export nrice, ex-factory. Delivery to the feedmill in Bobo-Dioulaseo apparently raises the price to 40.5j Approximate. Consumrtion may rise after reducing price from 15 (aee note 4).

Price ex-factory, 3anfora. In 1979, the price was CFAF 15 per kg, having been raised from 4. This is the current srice, follo.ing thereduction imnosea by the Ministry of Commerce.

5/ Based on exnorts to Ferk4es6dougou, Ivory Coast. Often free, ex-mill.E/ Local delivery. Often Eiven away.Z/ Price in January 1980 of the feedmill in Banfora for feed for laying hens, .hich makee ur 90! of current production. Pullet :eea sela :sor

6O CFAF per .%, ex-factory, although the Centre Avicole de Banforms claims it pays 65. The CENAC sella chicken fee^ for 50 CFAF per kg and"ecd coocentrates for 75.

</ For blocks manufactureO xn Kaya. Imported blocks cost CFAF 160 per kg.2/ 6ea salt frop Ghana. .alt slabs from the desert may cost CFAF 285-385 per kg.

L The sisn n5.. means not available.- After harvestinr i groundnuts.

IBaseo on otraw of ,cnuenefeldia Gracilis.Ansuse, all the stover la consumed. In fat, only leavea and unper tone are eaten.Assumes a ratio of grain to straw of 1.0.

15/ Nasea on total Production at 7o of paddy weight. Quantity actually produced in the 3 mills is probably less than 50 t.LG/ These are 'holeeale/retail consumer prices estimated by the misaion based on actual market observations. Published fiiures are hi;her, o0 ing

to observation errors. Official orices for all 3 cereals are 57.17/ Based on assumed milling rate of 65% and millet/sorghum output of 1 million tons.

The lou price seems to prevail in producing regions, the higher price in the large urban centers.Price of cownea tops is some%hat less than of groundnut tops, but the higher nutritional value probably gives the aame nrie. per feed unit.

20/ Asaumes 0.5 mt of stover per ha, or a ratio of straw to grain of 1.0. P.N. de Leauw ("Animal Nutrition and LivestockDevelopment in West African Savanna," Sahel Workshop - Boven Volta, Amsterdam, October 1976) reports a ratio of 2-4,given current yields of grain.

21/ Assumes a ratio of straw to grain of about 4.022/ 1979 Crop year.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 8. ESTIMATED MARKET PRICES FOR LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS

Upper Volta Foreign 1/Livestock Per head Per kg Per head Per kg

Yearlings 10-15,000 -- -- --

Calves - male 20-25,000 -- -- --

(2 years) - female 50,000 -- -- --

Cows (11-12 years) 10-15,000 -- --Slaughter oxen 60-75,000 220 -- 350

Draft oxen 30-35,000 160-170 25-50,000 2/ --Donkeys - draft 20-25,000 -- -- --

- slaughter 10-15,000 -- -- --Pigs 8-10,000 150-200 -- 500Sheep 4,000 -- 15-30,000 2/ --

Goats 3,000 -- -- --

Chickens 400 -- 750 --

Guinea fowl 450 -- 850 --

Livestock Products

Beef - retail with bones -- 370-550 -- 600-700- frozen (landed prices) -- -- -- 390-450

Mutton (retail) -- 380-420 -- 900-1,000

Pork -- 385 -- 500-525

Poultry (retail) 3/ -- 530 -- 1,200Fish (carp retail) -- 360 --

Fifth quarter (wholesale) 6,500-7,500 -- 7,500-10,000

Cattle hides 5-600 -- 2,000

Milk 4/ -- 75 --

Eggs 5/ -- 60-80

Manure 6/ -- 1.5

Sources: Mission notes from visits to markets and conversations with herders,as well as published series.

1/ Usually Abidjan.2/ The first figure is for Mali, the second for Ivory Coast.3/ Assumes 0.75 kg/head.4/ Per liter.5/ Local eggs may sell for CFAF 5-15 each.6/ Ranges are CFAF 1,000 to 2,500 per ton.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 9. PRICES OF VETERINARY PRODUCTS(in CFAF per treatment)

Medicines

Vaccines for cattle 15 1/Trypanosomiasis shots 90 2/Worm medicine 30/200 3/Livestock dip, insecticides 20 4/Vaccines for poultry 10 5/

Services and infrastructure

Giving shots 66 6/Dipping tanks 2 7/

1/ Official prices set by the Livestock Service for vaccinations againstrinderpest, anthrax, pasteurellosis, and blackleg. The price forvaccinations against contagious bovine pleuropneumonia is CFAF 20.

2/ This is the price given by PHANAVET and Project de Developpement del'Elevage Ouest-Volta (PEOV), Suivi du Projet, Volet Services Veteri-naires - Analyse des Depenses, Rapport Technique No. 1, Bobo-Dioulasso,July 1979. The Livestock Services at Kaya gives a price of CFAF 90.

3/ The first figure is for sheep and goats, the second for cattle. Basedon Tribanzol, which is most common. Costs of CFAF 25-75 might beadequate for Exhelm.

4/ Based on the official price for Ixogal, the most fequently used insecti-cide against ticks. Assumes one carton can treat 100 animals.

5/ Price charges in the FAC's Village Poultry Project. Includes CFAF 2paid to the village vaccinator.

6/ This figure is based on 1977-78 data in the PEOV report cited in note 2.It includes the cost of all personnel and operations, but excludes thecosts of vaccines, which are slightly subsidized at official prices, andof vaccinations parks. It also includes estimates for the annuities on(over 3 years) at 10% interest. Technical coefficients include 13 ServiceCenters or Veterinary Posts and 27 agents for about 900,000 vaccinations.The cost excluding annuities is estimated at about CFAF 46 per treatment.This figure compares favorably with the results of Joint Campaign againstrinderpest in the 1960s, which cost CFAF 46 per vaccination includingvaccines, or about CFAF 110 in comparable prices. See World Bank,The Economic Development of Upper Volta, Vol. 3, "Livestock," p.70.

7/ This figure is an estimate of the capital and maintenance charges for adipping tank. Parameters used are:

Investment cost - CFAF 2.5 millionLifetime - 15 yearsInterest - 10%Herd size - 6,500

Dips per year - 35Maintenance is estimated at 30% of the annuity. For the PEOV ranch atSamorogouan, costs are higher because the herd size is only 1,500-2,000cattle.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW4

Table 10. Price Trends

World World beef Voltaic OuagadougouInflation prices GDP deflator Consumer Cereals Beef Mutton Milk

pricesl _

1980 329.6 291.5 240.71979 298.5 266.o 224.5 217.9 284.1 336.7 140.11978 263.6 136.2 207.9 195.9 200.2 254.0 267.7 128.61977 227.5 119.1 193.0 182.9 200.2 241.8 288.9 128.61976 211.0 113.3 154.8 147.2 91.9 208.0 260.6 128.61975 207.2 96.3 141.7 156.2 72.5 195.5 241.1 128.61974 179.7 178.2 128.7 104.4 109.8 108.5 155.2 114.31973 144.2 213.3 119.1 100.8 96.7 93.2 108.1 lo0.o1972 120.0 144.9 111.5 101.8 66.2 105.4 113.5 100.01971 108.4 121.5 104.6 103.4 64.5 80.1 108.1 loo.01970 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

1965 93.4 99.7

1960 89.3 73.1

Sources: World Bank, Price Prospects for Major Primary Commodities, Washington, January 1980;IMF, "Upper Volta - Recent Economic Developments," Washington, October 1979, draft;Republique de Haute Volta (RHV), Ministere du Plan et de la Coop6ration,Institut National de la Statistique et de la Demographie (INSD), Les Estimations desAgr6gats de Comptes Nationaux et Indicateurs Economigues de la Haute Volta de 1970 'a1978, Ouagadougou, April 1979; and unpublished market price series collected by theINSD.

Notes: 1/ The index has been recalculated by INSD and is slightly different from versions publishedelsewhere.

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LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table ll. Value of Livestock Labor

type of payment Frequency Value AmounL Amount(000 CFAF) per year per animalL/

(ODO CFAF) (CFAF)

Wage payment to herder -/ month 2.5 30.0

Food (at 50 CFAF/day) month 1.5 18.0 300

Milk -/ annual 30.0 *0.O 500

Young bull -/ semi-annual 35.0 70.0 1,167

Heifer 21 annual 35.0 35.0 583

193.0 95Total annual _

Sources: Mission notes; as well as M.S. Dicko, "Report Annuel sur la Recherche en NutritionAnimale," ILCA, Programme 1979; Richard Vengroff, Upper Volta: Environmental

Uncertainty and Livestock Production, International Center for Arid and Semi-aridLand Studies, Lubbock, 1980; and Christopher Delgado, personal communication,

Washington, 11 December 1980.

Notes: 1/ Assumes 60 animals per herder, which is most consistent with information gathered

by the mission. Delgado reports 20 for Tenkadogo, although Dicko reports 50-200.

2/ Wages and payment with young stock seem common in the southwest and in southern Mali,

but not in the drier Sahelian areas. In the interior delta of Mali, herders get

CFAF 12,000 per year plus milk according to Dicko: Delgado reports CFAF 60,000 forthe cotton region of Mali. In the north and east of UDper Volta, cash payments do

not seem common. For the central plateau and the east, Vengroff reports payment in

the form of milk, plus "gifts" of grain, clothing, and possibly cash.

3/ Milk may add ;ignificantly to the return to herding, although it is difficult to

evaluate. If the herd is 40% cows that give 50 liters of milk per year, and if

such milk has a value at the herd of CFAF 25 per liter, the value would be CFAF

30,000 or 500 per year per animal. However, the amount of milk consumed is unknown.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 12. Estimated Government Revenues from the Livestock Sub-sector(Million CFAF)

Category 19801 9j 19781 19772 19762

Total livestock na3 1,032 1,o46 790 883Livestock head tax 137 137 137 137 1 37(Amount actually recovered) (na) (na) (44) (50) (55sLivestock transit tax 0 0 94 0' 0Livestock export tax - total 5 na 829 849 632 714export and statisticstaxes only na 759 778 578 652

Livestock service receipts 90 66 60 21 32(Amount actually recovered) (na) (na) (20) (16) (14)

Total government budget 40,223 35,704 30,580 23,124 21,123

Livestock as % of totalgovernment na 2.9 3.4 3.4 4.2

Total export and statisticstaxes 1,030 977 961 859 474

Livestock as % of export taxes na 78 81 67 ?7

Sources: Republique de Haute Volta (RHV), Ministere des Finances (MF), Budget del'Etat, various years. Amounts actually recovered are taken from the treasury'sfinal accounts. Livestock export taxes are estimated on the basis oflivestock exports as reported by the Livestock Service, declared or officialvalues, and tariff rates currently in effect. Livestock export taxescalculated on the basis of customs figures published by the Centre Nationalde Traitement Informatique (CENATRIN) are considerably different than theestimates given in the table, as shown below (million CFAF):

1978 1977 1976

total 4,191 1,312 342export and statisticstaxes only 3,850 1,205 314

Notes: 1 Provisional2 Actual3 Not available4 Less than 0.55 Exports of pigs and meat are excluded because tax revenues from them are

negligible. Export levels for 1979 are estimated, at slightly lowerlevels than in 1978.

6 Includes servicing of the public debt, current operating expenses (personneland material), equipment and investment, and transfers to internationalorganizations, public enterprises, and the AVW.

7 Estimates show livestock sector revenues exceeding totals for the budget.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 13. Government Investment(Million CFAF)

Category 1980 1979 1978 1977 Total

Total plan expenditures 94,415 80,262 40,873 37,892 354,268

Rural sector1 20,791 11,199 7,821 5,236 64,176Allocations to livestock' 2,888 2,126 1,060 845 8,702

% of total allocated tolivestockl 3.1 2.6 2.6 2.2 2.5

% of rural sector allocatedto livestock1 13.9 19.0 13.6 16.1 13.6

Foreign sources of financingfor livestock2 7,346

France 500West African Development Bank 483West Germany 1,201USAID 730EDF 1,340Economic Community of West Africa 143Pays Bas 1,590RDF 29EAS (Euro-Action Sahel) 30UNDP 50World Bank 1,250

Sources: Plan expenditures are taken from RHV, Ministere du Plan et de la Cooperation

(MPC), "Projet du Plan Quinquennal 1977-1981", Tomes I and IV, Ouagadougou,no date, drafts.

Notes: 1 Projected expenditures for period 1977-81.2 Financing committed for 1977-81 plan.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEWI

Table 14. Export Tax Rates for Livestock

Type of tax Cattle Sheep Goats Pigs Poultry Meat Hides____________ ______ _____ _____ ____ _______ _Cattle Sheep/Goats

Exit duty (%) 17.0 17.0 17.0 16.0 6.o 6.o 7.0 7.0Conditioning tax (%) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5Statistics tax (%) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0Stamp duty (%)2 6.o 6.o 6.o 6.0 6.o 6.o 6.o 6.oCOVOC 3 (%) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

TOTAL 22.23 22.23 22.23 21.17 10.57 10.57 11.63 11.63

Assessed value 40.0 10.0 8.0 10.0 0.5 actual 0.16 o.o69/o.044(000 CFAF) value

Amount of tax (CFAF) 8,892 2,223 1,778 2,117 53 42 19 8/5

Estimated real value 5 6(000 CFAF) 75.0 4.0 3.0 10.0 0.4 0.4 o.64 0.385/0.315

7 7

Effective tax rate (%) 12 56 59 21 13 11 3 2

Sources: Mission notes and Table 8

Notes: 1 Per kg.2 Levied on the value of the exit duty, the conditioning tax, and the statistics tax.3 Conseil Voltarque de Chargeurs.The first figure is for sheep, the second for goats. Based on following weights per hidE:

5 cattle - 4 kg; sheep - 0.55 kg; and goats - 0.35 kg.6 Low end of range.

Based on official prices.7 At holidays, when most of the sheep and goats are marketed, the rates would be much lower

(perhaps 10-20%).

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 15. Import Duties on Livestock Products

Type of tax CommodityCattle Sheep Goats Pigs Meat Milk Eggs

Fiscal duty (droit fiscal) (%) 0.0 0.0 0.0 52.0 64.o 8.0 74.oImport duty (droit de douane)

(%)1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 5.0 5.0Surtax (%) 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.o 6.o 6.o 6.oStatistics tax (%) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0Stamp duty (%)2 6.o 6.o 6.o 6.o 6.o 6.o 6.oCOVOC (%)3 0.5 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

TOTAL (%) 3.68 3.68 3.68 65.16 83.18 23.82 93.78

Assessed value (valeur 5mercuriale - 000 CFAF) 30.0 8.0 8.o 2.0 actual 11,5,6 actual

value 7 valuAmount of tax (CFAF) l,1o4 294 294 1,303 325vl 31,44,64 36

Notes: The import duty varies according to the country of origin. Until 1978, imports from,the European Common Market were exempt from this duty.'Levied on all the preceding taxes.3Conseil Voltalque de Chargeurs.4Before April 1980, the rate was 37.68.'Per 100 kg, for powdered milk, concentrated milk, and concentrated milk with sugar, respectively.6An indicative estimate, based on a cif price of about 400 CFAF per kg.7Per deca liter of reconstituted milk.

Based on 1977 cof cost of imported eggs of about 38 CFAF per egg.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 16. Operating Costs, Staffing, and Salaries of Government Livestock Services-(Million CFAF unless otherwise indicated)

Category 19801 19791 19781 19772 19762

Total operating expenses 27,393.7 25,014.0 20,591.2 16,912.0 14,381.3

Operating expenses for MRD3 1,634.o 1,434.7 1,302.0 1,035.0 1,015.64

Operating expenses for LS5 263.0 254.0 250.0 229.0 186.9of which personnel 238.7 231.7 228.3 207.9 166.4

% of total governmentoperating expenses 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.3

% of MDR operating expenseg 16.1 17.7 19.2 22.1 18.4Subsidies to public enterprises 0.0 . 21.6 21.0 15.5 10.0Total personnel (persons)7 8 260 258 239 252 245of which field staff (persons 229 235 219 222 222

Salaries (yearly per person)9

Veterinary doctors 1-09 (17)10African veterinarians 1.52 ( 4)Engineers of livestock works 0.77 ( 2)Livestock Assistants 0.87 (42)Veterinary Nurses 0°50(193)11Drivers 0.26 (35)

Laborers and herders 0.18 (67)Others varies(45)

Sources: Operating expenses are from Republique de Haute Volta (RHV), Ministere des Finances (MF),Budget de l'Etat, various years. Personnel figures and salaries are from RHV, Ministeredu Developpement Rural (MDR), Avant-ProJet de Budget - Exercise 1979, "Depenses," and fromthe MDR, Direction de l'Elevage.

Notes: lAuthorized.2Actual .3Ministry of Rural Development.4 Expenses estimated for MRD from Ministry of Plan, Rural Development, Environment, and Tourism.5Livestock Service. Expenses do not include pro rata shares for central services of the MRD.6 0ffice National d'Exploitation de Ressources Animales (ONERA) and the Abattoire Frigorifiquede Ouagadougou (beginning in 1977).

7Includes veterinarians, engineers, livestock assistants, and veterinary nurses.

8 Includes only livestock assistants and veterinary nurses.9 Includes salary, lodging, and family allocations.

10'These are the numbers of employees inscribed in the 1979 budget.1-1 Includes 28 apprentices.

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 17. Infrastructure and Personnel of Livestock Services

Infrastructure DensitiesORD 1 Veterinary Livestock Regional Livestock Livestock Veterinary kun-per Cattle Sheep and

posts sectors livestock centers research staff staff per staff goats percenters stations (OOO) (OOO) staff

(000)

Ouagadougou 9 1 1 1 1 14 1.57 16.93 22.21

Koudougou 6 1 - - - 10 2.63 18.40 25.90

Kaya 8 1 1 - - 16 1.35 18.31 42.o6

Ouahigouya 6 1 1 - - 12 1.03 12.92 25.92

D6dougou 8 3 1 - - 16 2.07 18.06 25.88

Koup6la 6 1 - - - 10 1.13 10.70 10.40

Banfora 4 1 - - 1 7 2.63 13.86 29.57

Di6bougou 5 1 - - - 7 2.50 18.57 29.57

Bobo-Dioulasso 4 1 1 1 3 13 1.91 12.54 27.85

Fada N'Gourma 4 1 1 - - 12 4.17 24.08 30.17

Dori 7 3 2 - 1 18 2.05 31.83 51.78

Entire Country 67 15 8 2 5 149 23.04 196.20 321.31

Source: Republique de Haute Volta, Service de l'Elevage, Statistiques, Ouagadougou.

Notes: lorganisme Regional de Developpement.2py 1980, there were 180 veterinary nurses plus 49 livestock agents. Their geographic distribution is not known.

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Table 18. Geographic Distribution of Vaccination and Treatment of Cattle in 1978

(numbers)

O.R.D.sl Rindepest Pasteurellosis Anthrax Blackleg CBPP2 Trypanosomiasis

Ouagadougou 51,444 17,754 4,721 71,916 3,624 147,337

Koudougou 6,837 17,409 180 41,774 719 62,178

Kaya 15,670 15,734 4,291 47,731 15,788 40,529

Ouahigouya 35,953 8,072 253 2,103 34,721 3,393

Dedougou 91,235 106,569 1,441 65,520 97,927 179,710

Koupela 74,399 52,196 940 60,171 - 61,098

Banfora 24,104 30,278 1,016 26,817 23,085 32,550

Diebougou 65,012 15,742 14,919 8,226 2,385 30,988

Bobo-Dioulasso 40,104 90,531 621 45,863 35,271 162,466

Fada N'Gourma 48,683 17,196 2,448 50,270 54,683 63,452

Dori 16,629 25,628 2,984 21,835 16,275 3,180

Entire Country 470,070 397,109 34,514 442,228 284,478 786,881

Source: B6Dubliaue de Haute Volta, Service de 1'Elevage, Statistiques, Ouagadougou.Notes: lOrganisme Regional de Developpement.

2 Ccntagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia,

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UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

Table 19. Evolution of Incidence, Vaccination and Treatment of Cattle Diseases

(numbers)

Disease1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

RinderpestOutbreaks - t4 44 25 31 2 - 2 na

Morbidity - 889 1,233 332 867 13 - _ _ sa. na

Mortality - 528 823 208 669 11 - - - -na

Vaccinations 30,881 578,539 539,425 414,147 1,221,433 1,245,635 782,T745 (4214 ja,) c44?49 23) (7go°8: ) (lOxxj)

(1st Livestock Project) 0Pasteurellosie

Outbreaks 28 35 51 31 25 31 45 90 44 1,991 na

Morbidity 416 415 l,OO 334 461 353 1,221 1,649 1,393 na na

Mogtality 367 197 1,017 245 416 328 663 951 695 407 na

Vaccinations-cattle 30,640 64.845 67,820 73,373 79,547 106,418 158,449 324,955 352,365Vaccinations-sheep/ 480,974 na

goats 933 14,728 22,613 48,283 76,548 61,120 117,132 116,517 77,407

AnthraxOutbreaks 20 23 17 19 17 11 9 12 28 100 na

Morbidity 38 127 131 137 87 54 60 59 234 na na

Mortality 90 126 129 91 86 54 60 59 140 100 r.a

Vaccinations-cattle 7,468 20,134 16,624 16,386 13,560 8,002 14,502 52,259 41,715Vaccinations-sheep 2,769 4,073 6,027 4,059_ af9 --4-,2o0 4,568 7,880 3, 206 39,300 r.a

Vaccinations-goats - 42 968 1.933 1.951 623 4,109 1,4 467(lst Livestock Project) (O1) (O) (3,000) (1,000)

BsarklegOutbreaks 55 59 115 109 37 45 54 79 28 424 na

MIorbidity 496 493 1,046 590 263 411 343 511 143 na -- na

Mortality - . 485 435 -98T 550 243 323 289 383 129 397 na.

Vaccinations 26 513 117,935 120,802 195,490 159,783 113,124 234,600 410,976 328,232 442,228 na

(1st Livestock Proiect (114,000) (103,000) (109,000) (99,000)

CBPP1

Outbreaks 90 64 35 36 58 13 8 6 8 6 na

Morbidity 2,576 1,029 594 490 1,056 153 41 23 92 na naMortality .1,03331/ 615 263 321 610 74 23 19 39 6 na

Vaccinations 20 926' 257,069 133,316 137,510 658,492 1,196,810 770,326 (43 J.861 ) (I3&g6o8) (284 478) (9,na(1st Livestock Project) (2198,o11o00o00

TryacnosomiasisOutbreaks 16 3 4 21 11 6 8 16 7 637 na

Morbidity 558 381 347 763 875 412 113 857 313 na na

Mortality 156 26 45 143 86 45 35 70 25 13 na

Preventativetreatment 146,746 303,498 462.568 697,409 651,433 436,641 366,181 594.103 663,639 792,637 na

Curative treatment 9,011 27,215 50,444 18.374 9,802 6,627 8,384 50,046 20,053

(lst Livestock Project) (162,000) (286,ooo) (339,000)(381,000)

Source: R6nubliaue de Haute Volta. Service de 1'Elevage, Statistiques, Ouagadougou. Data for 1st Livestock Project from World Bank,"Urner Yolta Livestock Development Project - Credit 557-UV - Full Superviaion Report," Washington, 12 June 1980, Annex 3.

Notes: 1/ Contagious Bovine P1europneumonia.Z/ Not available

I/ The 1970 IBRD economic report gives 179,840. See World Bank, The Econonmi Dexalnz;ent of Upper Vol 1e Vol. 3, "Livestock",Washington, 27 November 1470, p.30.

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CHART I .UPPER VOLTALIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

HERDGROWTH FOR CATTLE, SHEEP,AND GOATS

-CATTLE

- S *---- SHEEP AD GOATS

N ............ ........M ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.00*.

L 3 -,

0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

N - .. . 0 * ~ ~ N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

t@BO 1882 19B4 t888 tQ68 1970 1872 1974 1876 tQ78

YEA RS

- 122 -

CHART 2.UPPER VOLTALIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

CATTLE EXPORTS202-

- GROSS

MET

N

Ho9 te XUSA

ND

tiQe 1962 t964 t166 1988 t970 t172 1974 1976 1978YEARS

- 123 -

CHART 3.UPPER VOLTALIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

LIVESTOCK PRICE TRENDS30s

WORLD INDICATOR BEEF PRICE

. 50- UPPER VOLTA BEEF PRICE250-

R 200-

tsee

l 960 1 964 1 988 1Q72 t 971 1980 1984 1988

YEARS

- 124 -

CHART 4.UPPER VOLTALIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

LIVESTOCK VACCINATIONS2, 50-

RINDERPEST NATIONALFRINDERPEST IST PROJECT

- | ---- CPP NATIONAL

2,e0Q- . .... CBPP IST PROJECT

1 883 1 865 1 887 l 889 187 1 1 873 t 875 1 877 1 878

- BYERS

CHART 5.UPPER VOLTALIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

DENSITIES50-

48

30r

1*-n

20-

RURAL PERSONS PER KM210- 2 m CATTLE PER KM2

SHEEP AND GOATS PER KM2

CATTLE PER TEN PERSONS

0~__

0- _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ _

UPPER VOLTA

LIVESTOCK SUBSECTOR REVIEW

ORGANIGRAM OF LIVESTOCK SERVICE

| Minister of Rural Development e

|Direction of the _ iubi _ ____e __ _-h

Livestock Service I

| Planning and | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Adrainistration and

Accounting Centree i

S Dolumentation iural Arr t3 No. 2 tant Ar te and StaDtio sSees d l e snduetenion, '-1

Anotel T rarod o hm ot been ver erdnary t L VeteriTanry ngenLt er rnd thn oidsiand Researnh akise Pharmacy Servipe ivtt *ntst

(PHANAVET)

tiv o 8 3 1 | ~~~~~~~~Livestock CircumDscriptions (l)| k| oltyCetrs8 Slaughter house ILiesoc Rea IS' 1

9 | ~~~~~~LivestockScos|[ Q-T , |Mineral Block Factory

F Veterinary Posts

Source: 11publique de Haute Volts, Ministere du Developpement Rural, Arretg No. 029/DR portant Attribution :et Organisation de la Direction des Services de 1'Elevage et des Industries Animales, tc ote n _ ouagadougou, 19 May 1980; and misBion notes. etarkets IF r

Nlote :This organigra has not been verified by the Livestock Service. The Tanning Center and the hides _ 0Nand skins ecunpanies are partially owned by private inteore-sts.

l/81

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