Psychosocial Development The stages of psychosocial development articulated by Erik Erikson describes eight developmental stages through which a healthily developing human should pass from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person confronts, and hopefully masters, new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future.

StagesApproximate AgeImportant EventDescriptionRelatedPsychopathology

Trust vs. MistrustBirth to 12-18 monthsFeedingThe infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver or develop a sense of mistrust. Psychosis Addictions Depression

Autonomy vs.shame/doubt18 months to 3 yearsToilet trainingThe child's energies are directed toward the development of physical skills, including walking, grasping, controlling the sphincter. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well. Paranoia Obsessions Compulsions Impulsivity

Initiative vs. Guilt3 to 6 yearsIndependenceThe child continues to become more assertive and to make more initiative but may be too foreceful, which can lead to guilt feelings. Conversion disorder Phobia Psychosomatic disorder Inhibition

Industry vs. Inferiority6 to 12 yearsSchoolThe child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority, failure, and incompetence. Creative inhibition Inertia

Indentity vs. Role ConfusionAdolescencePeer relationshipsThe teenager must achieve identity in occupation, gender roles, politics, and religion. Delinquent behavior Gender-related identity disorders Borderline psychotic episodes

Intimacy vs. IsolationYoung adulthoodLove relationshipsThe young adult must develop intimate relationships of suffer feeling of isolation. Schizoid personality disorder Distantiation

Generativity vs. StagnationMiddle adulthoodParenting/MentoringEach adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation. Midlife crisis Premature invalidism

Ego integrity vs DespairLate adulthoodReflecting on and acceptance of one's lifeThe culmination is a sense of acceptance of oneself and a sense of fullfillment. Extreme alienation

Stages 1. Infancy (Birth -18 months) Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust Developing trust is the first task of the ego, and it is never complete. The child will not let its mother out of sight without anxiety and rage because she has become an inner certainty as well as an outer predictability. The balance of trust with mistrust depends largely on the quality of the maternal relationship. Main question asked: Is my environment trustworthy or not? Central Task: Receiving care Positive Outcome: Trust in people and the environment Ego Quality: Hope Definition: Enduring belief that one can attain ones deep and essential wishes Developmental Task: Social attachment; Maturation of sensory, perceptual, and motor functions; Primitive causality. Significant Relations: Maternal parent Erikson proposed that the concept of trust versus mistrust is present throughout an individuals entire life. Therefore if the concept is not addressed, taught and handled properly during infancy (when it is first introduced), the individual may be negatively affected and never fully immerse themselves in the world. For example, a person may hide themselves from the outside world and be unable to form healthy and long-lasting relationships with others, or even themselves. If an individual does not learn to trust themselves, others and the world around them then they may lose the virtue of hope, which is directly linked to this concept. If a person loses their belief in hope they will struggle with overcoming hard times and failures in their lives, and may never fully recover from them. This would prevent them from learning and maturing into a fully-developed person if the concept of trust versus mistrust was improperly learned, understood and used in all aspects of their lives. 2. Toddler (1 1/2 - 3 Years) Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt If denied independence, the child will turn against his/her urges to manipulate and discriminate. Shame develops with the child's self-consciousness. Doubt has to do with having a front and back -- a "behind" subject to its own rules. Left over doubt may become paranoia. The sense of autonomy fostered in the child and modified as life progresses serves the preservation in economic and political life of a sense of justice. Main question asked: Do I need help from others or not.? When a child reaches the age of one to the age of three, Erikson explains, the child is developing a sense of autonomy . During this age, the toddler discovers he/she is no longer attached to the primary caregiver but is a separate individual (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2004). Autonomy is the independence a toddler strives for from caregivers. Toddlers autonomous behavior is a way of forming their own identity away from their caregivers (Bigner, 2006). This stage is a time where a toddler has the will to become independent. Shame and doubt is likely to occur when the toddler is not given any choices or boundaries because the toddler is determined to become independent. The strong will of a toddler may cause conflict between child and caregiver. Many parents are unaware of how to properly handle difficult situations in which they find themselves. Parents who are assertive and too demanding may find themselves in a power struggle with their toddler (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2006). In addition, parents may be too demanding for only good behavior from their toddler. Gonzalez-Mena and Eyer (2004) explain that demanding good behavior will only cause frustration for the toddler; instead, "it is far better for the child to see you as a support and an aid rather as an obstacle to his or her own developing capabilities and independence." Autonomy can be gained for the toddler when given reasonable choices and proper guidance from the caregiver. Parents can give healthy and wise choices to assist their child to succeed at this stage. 3. Child (4-6 Years) Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, and attacking a task for the sake of being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around him or her, learning basic skills and principles of physics; things fall to the ground, not up; round things roll, how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage the child wants to begin and complete his or her own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a new emotion and is confusing to the child; he or she may feel guilty over things which are not logically guilt producing, and he or she will feel guilt when his or her initiative does not produce the desired results. Main question asked: How moral am I? The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups when Erik Erikson discussed his third psychosocial stage. Young children in this category, ranging between three to six years of age, face the challenge of initiative versus guilt (Boer, 1997). As described in Bee and Boyd (2004), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare him or herself towards roles of leadership and goal achievement. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street on his or her own or riding a bike without a helmet; both examples involving self-limits. The child defines his or her own boundaries when taking initiative in crossing a street or riding a bike with no helmet, such as deciding to cross a street without looking both ways or choosing to ride a bike at his or her own pace with no helmet. Within instances requiring initiative, such as those previously mentioned, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve his or her goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents; aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. With aggressive behaviors as a result of frustration, the child may progress towards developing a sense of guilt for not establishing initiative in the decisions he or she makes and/or not being able to follow through with a set goal. When guilt develops, the child becomes more assertive, aggressive, inhibited, and overly dependent. These characteristics can be seen as far from the norm since the child engages in behaviors that do not show a challenge and/or are comfortable for the child; thus, the child does not take on new situations unless assisted by an adult. In concordance with guilt, parents often misjudge the situation and punish or restrict the child too much. However, Bee and Boyd further state that children in this stage require some sense of guilt in order to guide their self-control and a healthy conscience. The relationship between parent and child must include a positive balance between helping the child develop guilt, of which will encourage self-control, and establishing independence for the goals the child chooses. Independence is significant to goal development and child development in that the child will learn to form a foundation for decision-making and in taking the steps required to set goals. As suggested by McDevitt and Ormrod (2002), children establish a positive ability to have self-initiative to set goals through the encouragement and support of their parents and/or teachers. Both parents and/or teachers are crucial aspects in helping a child develop self-initiative to set goals for two reasons: adults can model the self-control that is relevant to setting goals and assist the child with reasoning through making decisions. These components are necessary in that adults help the child establish the foundation of forming a self-initiative to set goals so that the child can progress forward on his or her own in future goal building. If a child decides to construct a large puzzle, the responsibility of reinforcing the childs capabilities lays upon the supervising adult since the child must take anothers perspective regarding his or her own capabilities; self-perspective may be different in the eyes of others and can produce more honesty than the self can see, especially with children. The adult should not impede instruction, but rather reassure the child through reinforcement that creates intrinsic motivation, such as through positive discussion about the childs capabilities and sense of worth. McDevitt and Ormrod claim that by observing his or her own accomplishments and/or through the development of self-efficacy, the child internalizes a sense of satisfaction that is necessary for maintaining initiative. However, the child will develop guilt regarding personal needs and desires when he or she, or a supervising adult discourages him or her from completing a goal independently. As a result, the child questions what he or she is actually capable of and may reshape future actions taking initiative and challenging goals, which in turn may not reflect the childs natural abilities but a more limited repetition. In order to promote a safe balance between initiative and guilt, parents must provide the child with achievable responsibility. Cramer, Flynn, and LaFave (1997) describe two different outcomes, both positive and negative, that may occur if a child is not given responsibilities, such as cleaning a room or walking a dog; all of which can create independence and dependability. For a healthy balance of initiative and guilt, the child should be able to accept feelings of guilt while understanding that certain activities and situations he or she chooses may or may not be permitted by others. Children should also be encouraged to use their imaginations when taking initiatives that are related to adult roles, ultimately not feeling guilty for thinking outside of the box and being different from the norm as a result. The child should not feel guilty in using imagination during play since it provides him or her with learning how to be creative and to reflecting upon personal capabilities. For example, the child may be imagining he is a police officer and will form his play around this role; this concept could later develop into a future profession, of which the child is willing to take initiative in facing the challenging steps in becoming an actual police officer. Therefore, parents need to provide students with chores and small jobs because it will strengthen skills that reflect responsibility and future adult roles, such as tending to a younger sibling or helping wash dishes. In contrast, children who are not allowed to complete tasks independently may learn that the activities and situations are beyond their ability and they are incapable of setting their own goals. The Child Development Institute LLC (1998) suggests that a child with no responsibility, whether given by an adult or produced by the child, grows fearful in most situations involving change, excessively depends on adults, and is restricted from imagination and active play; these characteristics are a result of the child being immobilized by guilt (i.e. low feelings of self-efficacy, confidence, and frustration in abilities when a personal goal has not been accomplished). In view of the fact that preschool children require skills necessary to become independent and responsible, parents and/or teachers should learn how to assist in the childs social development; this may include teaching the child how to be courageous, empathetic, self-disciplined, and loyal. Fittro (2003) suggests several ideas on how to create these types of values during a childs moral development. First, parents should respect the child in all aspects of his or her personality if they seek respect in return. For example, parents need to consider the childs opinions and perspectives before setting discipline and behavioral standards. Parents should stay firm on their expectations, yet remind themselves that the child is a human being and deserves to be treated with fairness in order to develop a positive self-concept. Parents also have the advantage of teaching good morality through discussion and example. By illustrating and discussing how to tolerate guilt, such as feelings of low self-efficacy, self-esteem, or self-confidence after taking initiative in accomplishing a goal, the child will learn that this type of behavior is acceptable. If the child is not given the opportunity to discuss how to accept these feelings that accompany guilt or if the child is simply dealing with guilt reactions, then several questions may arise, such as Can I do this?, How moral am I?, and posing the why question to understand how the world works. In asking numerous Why questions, the child learns about life by making up his or her own explanations for why things are the way they are, experimenting with adult roles through fantasy play, and seeking explanations for his or her surroundings from adults. Consistent with these ideas, the Mohonasen Central School District Board of Education (2005) suggests letting children take on small tasks that gradually increase in difficulty as they grow older. This may include helping prepare small meals, setting a table, or letting them choose their own clothing for the day; all of which builds confidence and assists in developing simple math skills (e.g. counting and sorting). Finally, allow children with downtime as their responsibilities expand. Parents and/or teachers should remember that children in this stage of Eriksons psychosocial development need and deserve a time to be free. 4. School Age (7-12 Years) Psychosocial Crisis: Industry vs. Inferiority To bring a productive situation to completion is an aim which gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. To lose the hope of such "industrious" association may pull the child back to the more isolated, less conscious familial rivalry of the oedipal time.

Main question asked: Am I good at what I do? According to Allen and Marotz (2003), "children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals." They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right." They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group: Children understand the concepts of space and time, in more logical, practical ways,beginning to grasp Piaget's concepts of conservation, gain better understanding of cause and effect and understand calendar time.At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal need and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen and Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by being disobedient, using back talk and being rebellious. Children in this stage have to learn the feeling of success. If the child is allowed too little success, he or she will develop a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Too much industry leads to narrow virtuosity (children who are not allowed to be children). A balance between industry and inferiority leads to competency. According to Robert Brooks (2001) parents can nurture self esteem and resilience in different ways: a. Understand and accept children's learning problems (highlight strengths) b. Teach children how to solve problems and make decisions c. Reinforce responsibility by having children contribute d. Learn from, rather than feeling defeated by mistakes e. Make the child feel special (create special times alone with them each week) 5. Adolescence (12-19 Years) Psychosocial Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant. 6. Young Adulthood (19-34 years) Psychosocial Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation Body and ego must be masters of organ modes and of the other nuclear conflicts in order to face the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon. The avoidance of these experiences leads to openness and self-absorption. According to Erik Erikson the young adult stage, Intimacy vs. Isolation, is emphasized around the ages of 19 to 34. At the start of the Intimacy vs. Isolation stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end and it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. When we arrive at stage six we should be prepared for intimacy, a close personal relationship, and isolation, the fact of being alone and separated from others. A balance between intimacy and isolation makes love possible as we must know how to be alone in order to learn to truly love. Having a balanced stage 6 will help tremendously later in the coming stages when unwelcome or unexpected isolation surfaces, for example, the death of a spouse or a loved one (Erikson, Erikson, Kivnick 1986). In stage six, one is ready for commitments, is able to handle real relationships to a certain extent (Erikson 1950), after all, establishing a real relationship takes practice and many of us do not marry our first love. Our ego should also be prepared for rejection, the challenge of break-ups, and isolation, being alone. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to the above. We are afraid of rejection; being turned down, our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is painful, our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of ones intimate relations (1950) 7. Adulthood (35-60 Years) Psychosocial Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation Generativity is the concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. Simply having or wanting children does not in and of itself achieve generativity. The great conflict at this stage is for an individual come up with something that society would remember them for. For some individuals, it goes to funding or finding NGOs(or different organizations), schools, families and maintain them. This is then generativity for them. 8. Late Adulthood (from 60 years) Psychosocial crisis: Integrity vs Despair One strength of Erikson's theory is that it acknowledges that development continues throughout the life cycle. According to Erikson, even older people are not finished developing. Older people who are coming to terms with their own mortality have a deep need to look over their whole lives. in a life review a person who can look back over their life history, on the good times with gladness and satisfaction, on hard times with self-respect, and on mistakes and regrets with forgiveness, and can find a new sense of integrity and a readiness for whatever life or death may bring. A person caught up in old sadness, unable to forgive themselves or others for perceived wrongs, and dissatisfied with the life they've led, will easily drift into depression and despair. The fundamental question is "what kind of life have I lived?

Bottom of FormKohlberg's Theory of Moral DevelopmentStages of Moral DevelopmentBottom of FormLevel 1. Preconventional Morality Stage 1 - Obedience and PunishmentThe earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment. Stage 2 - Individualism and ExchangeAt this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-served Heinzs needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.Level 2. Conventional Morality Stage 3 - Interpersonal RelationshipsOften referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships. Stage 4 - Maintaining Social OrderAt this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing ones duty and respecting authority.Level 3. Postconventional Morality Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual RightsAt this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. Stage 6 - Universal PrinciplesKohlbergs final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Learning Process and Theories of InstructionLearningTo learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or behavior. Children learn to identify objects at an early age; teenagers may learn to improve study habits; and adults can learn to solve complex problems. Understanding the Learning ProcessA priority in educational psychology is understanding the learning process, that is; the procedures and strategies that students use to acquire new information. Learning as a process task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learninglearning appearing as a process there is a concern with what happens when the learning takes place. In this way, learning could be thought of as a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience. One of the significant questions that arises is the extent to which people are conscious of what is going on. Are they aware that they are engaged in learning and what significance does it have if they are? Such questions have appeared in various guises over the years and have surfaced, for example, in debates around the rather confusing notion of informal learning.One particularly helpful way of approaching the area has been formulated by Alan Rogers . Drawing especially on the work of those who study the learning of language. Rogers sets out two contrasting approaches: task-conscious or acquisition learning and learning-conscious or formalized learning.Task-conscious or acquisition learning. Acquisition learning is seen as going on all the time. It is concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; it is not concerned with general principles Examples include much of the learning involved in parenting or with running a home. Some have referred to this kind of learning as unconscious or implicit. Rogers however, suggests that it might be better to speak of it as having a consciousness of the task. In other words, whilst the learner may not be conscious of learning, they are usually aware of the specific task in hand.Learning-conscious or formalized learning. Formalized learning arises from the process of facilitating learning. It is educative learning rather than the accumulation of experience. To this extent there is a consciousness of learning people are aware that the task they are engaged in entails learning. Learning itself is the task. What formalized learning does is to make learning more conscious in order to enhance it (Rogers 2003: 27). It involves guided episodes of learning.When approached in this way it becomes clear that these contrasting ways of learning can appear in the same context. Both are present in schools. Both are present in families. It is possible to think of the mix of acquisition and formalized learning as forming a continuum.At one extreme lie those unintentional and usually accidental learning events which occur continuously as we walk through life. Next comes incidental learning unconscious learning through acquisition methods which occurs in the course of some other activity Then there are various activities in which we are somewhat more more conscious of learning, experiential activities arising from immediate life-related concerns, though even here the focus is still on the task Then come more purposeful activities occasions where we set out to learn something in a more systematic way, using whatever comes to hand for that purpose, but often deliberately disregarding engagement with teachers and formal institutions of learning Further along the continuum lie the self-directed learning projects on which there is so much literature More formalized and generalized (and consequently less contextualized) forms of learning are the distance and open education programmes, where some elements of acquisition learning are often built into the designed learning programme. Towards the further extreme lie more formalized learning programmes of highly decontextualized learning, using material common to all the learners without paying any regard to their individual preferences, agendas or needs. There are of course no clear boundaries between each of these categories. Theories of Instructiona theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and develop. Instructional theories focus on how to structure material for promoting the education of human beings, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, instructional theory is typically influenced by three general influences in educational thought: the behaviorist, the cognitive, and the constructivist schools of thought. Instructional theory is heavily influenced by the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne, who in 1965 published Conditions of Learning for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.Instructional theory is different than learning theory. A learning theory describes how learning take place, and an instructional theory prescribes how to better help people learn.[1] Learning theories often inform instructional theory, and three general theoretical stances take part in this influence: behaviorism (learning as response acquisition), cognitivism (learning as knowledge acquisition), and constructivism (learning as knowledge construction).Instructional theory is a field of inquiry that is typically involved with researching and understanding how people learn, in order to make the process of instruction more beneficial for students. It often focuses on younger students and is applied to a number of different educational models and teaching pedagogies. There are two general schools of thought and inquiry with regard to instructional models and structures: cognitive models and behavioral models. Instructional theory is usually targeted toward understanding how information can be taught in a way that is effective. Though student comprehension is important, theories are usually centered more on how information can be taught rather than how it is learned.While easily confused with teaching pedagogies, instructional theory is not a particular method of teaching or school of thought with regard to how lessons can be taught. It is typically more involved with understanding the process of teaching and how instructions issued by one person can be more fully learned and understood by those who hear it. Teaching pedagogies often spring from and develop based upon various types of instructional theory, but they are not inherently synonymous.One of the best ways to understand instructional theory is to understand the two most common approaches to this discipline. Cognitive models of instruction typically regard the process of teaching and learning as principally occurring within the mind of the student. This makes any sort of scientific observation or critique of such theories difficult to execute, which can be considered a weakness for this type of instructional theory. While some work can be done to establish observable cognitive development, these studies are often more difficult to execute than others.Behavioral models, on the other hand, are typically easy to observe and verify through basic scientific inquiry. An instructional theory that utilizes behavioral patterns usually regards the process of teaching and learning as an adjustment to behavior that can be observed. What occurs within the mind of the student is unknown, and therefore can potentially be ignored in favor of what can be witnessed and documented.A number of different pedagogies have sprung from each type of model, and both have their strengths and weaknesses. One of the distinguishing aspects of a sound instructional theory, however, is that it deals primarily with the role of a teacher. While the student is important, these theories often seek to find the most effective ways for teachers to present information. Developments in such theories have led to some wide-ranging changes in education, including the idea of a teacher as a facilitator for the learning process.Constructivist model A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given". As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned. Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information. In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law. ApplicationBruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research .The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children. Note that Constructivism is a very broad conceptual framework in philosophy and science and Bruner's theory represents one particular perspective. For an overview of other Constructivist frameworks, Example"The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table , so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed mutiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized." Principles1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). 3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

Intelligence, thinking skills, problem-solving, creativityIntelligence One of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.

The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different "primary mental abilities." The abilities that he described were: Verbal comprehension Reasoning Perceptual speed Numerical ability Word fluency Associative memory Spatial visualizationHoward Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.The eight intelligences Gardner described are: Visual-spatial Intelligence Verbal-linguistic Intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence Logical-mathematical Intelligence Interpersonal Intelligence Musical Intelligence Intra personal Intelligence Naturalistic IntelligenceRobert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to ones life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are better viewed as individual talents.Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors: Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities. Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills. Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.What Factors Determine Intelligence?In addition to disagreements about the basic nature of intelligence, psychologists have spent a great amount of time and energy debating the various influences on individual intelligence. The debate focuses on one of the major questions in psychology: Which is more important - nature or nurture?Today, nearly all psychologists recognize that both genetics and the environment play a role in determining intelligence.It now becomes matter of determining exactly how much of an influence each factor has.First, it is important to note that genetics and the environment interact to determine exactly how inherited genes are expressed. For example, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the individual will also grow to be tall. However, the exact height the person reaches can be influenced by environmental factors such as nutrition and disease.Evidence of genetic influences: Twin studies suggest that identical twins IQ's are more similar than those of fraternal twins (Promin & Spinath, 2004). Siblings reared together in the same home have IQ's that are more similar than those of adopted children raised together in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993).Evidence of environmental influences: Identical twins reared apart have IQ's that are less similar than identical twins reared in the same environment (McGue & others, 1993). School attendance has an impact on IQ scores (Ceci, 2001). Children who are breastfed during the first three to five months of life score higher on IQ tests at age 6 than same-age children who were not breastfed (Reinberg, 2008).Thinking skillsThinking skills are the mental processes that we apply when we seek to make sense of experience. Thinking skills enable us to integrate each new experience into the schema that we are constructing of "how things are". It is apparent that better thinking will help us to learn more from our experience and to make better use of our intelligence.It has always been the central aim of education to improve the quality of thinking because better thinking will not only enable us to become more successful at learning but will also equip us for life, enabling us to realise our own potential and to contribute to the development of society.

Higher-order thinking is when we use the brain for more than storing and retrieving factual knowledge. So, learning to reel off the kings and queens of England wouldn't involve higher-order skills, but devising a mnemonic to help you remember them would. Broadly speaking, thinking skills fall into two categories - those rooted in philosophy, such as reasoning and logic, and those rooted in psychology, such as creative thinking and problem-solving. Problem-solvingIn cognitive psychology, the term problem-solving refers to the mental process that people go through to discover, analyze and solve problems. This involves all of the steps in the problem process, including the discovery of the problem, the decision to tackle the issue, understanding the problem, researching the available options and taking actions to achieve your goals.Before problem-solving can occur, it is important to first understand the exact nature of the problem itself. If your understanding of the issue if faulty, your attempts to resolve it will also be incorrect or flawed.There are a number of different mental process at work during problem-solving. These include: Perceptually recognizing a problem Representing the problem in memory Considering relevant information that applies to the current problem Identify different aspects of the problem Labeling and describing the problemProblem-Solving Strategies Algorithms: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce a correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example of a problem-solving algorithm. While an algorithm guarantees an accurate answer, it is not always the best approach to problem solving. This strategy is not practical for many situations because it can be so time-consuming. For example, if you were trying to figure out all of the possible number combinations to a lock using an algorithm, it would take a very long time! Heuristics: A heuristic is a mental rule-of-thumb strategy that may or may not work in certain situations. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not always guarantee a correct solution. However, using this problem-solving strategy does allow people to simplify complex problems and reduce the total number of possible solutions to a more manageable set. Trial-and-Error: A trial-and-error approach to problem-solving involves trying a number of different solutions and ruling out those that do not work. This approach can be a good option if you have a very limited number of options available. If there are many different choices, you are better off narrowing down the possible options using another problem-solving technique before attempting trial-and-error. Insight: In some cases, the solution to a problem can appear as a sudden insight. According to researchers, insight can occur because you realize that the problem is actually similar to something that you have dealt with in the past, but in most cases the underlying mental processes that lead to insight happen outside of awareness.Problems and Obstacles in Problem-SolvingOf course, problem-solving is not a flawless process. There are a number of different obstacles that can interfere with our ability to solve a problem quickly and efficiently. Researchers have described a number of these mental obstacles, which include functional fixedness, irrelevant information and assumptions. Functional Fixedness: This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in their customary manner. Functional fixedness prevents people from fully seeing all of the different options that might be available to find a solution. Irrelevant or Misleading Information: When you are trying to solve a problem, it is important to distinguish between information that is relevant to the issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions. When a problem is very complex, the easier it becomes to focus on misleading or irrelevant information. Assumptions: When dealing with a problem, people often make assumptions about the constraints and obstacles that prevent certain solutions. Mental Set: Another common problem-solving obstacle is known as a mental set, which is the tendency people have to only use solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool. However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making it more difficult to find effective solutions.

CreativityDefinitionIn a summary of scientific research into creativity, Michael Mumford suggested: "Over the course of the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a general agreement that creativity involves the production of novel, useful products", or, in Robert Sternberg's words, the production of "something original and worthwhile". Authors have diverged dramatically in their precise definitions beyond these general commonalities: Peter Meusburger reckons that over a hundred different analyses can be found in the literature.[3] As an illustration, one definition given by Dr. E. Paul Torrance described it as "a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for solutions, making guesses, or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies: testing and retesting these hypotheses and possibly modifying and retesting them; and finally communicating the results. AspectsTheories of creativity (particularly investigation of why some people are more creative than others) have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identified as "the four Ps" process, product, person and place (according to Mel Rhodes). A focus on process is shown in cognitive approaches that try to describe thought mechanisms and techniques for creative thinking. Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent thinking (such as Guilford), or those describing the staging of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily theories of creative process. A focus on creative product usually appears in attempts to measure creativity (psychometrics, see below) and in creative ideas framed as successful memes. The psychometric approach to creativity reveals that it also involves the ability to produce more. A focus on the nature of the creative person considers more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise, exploratory behavior and so on. A focus on place considers the circumstances in which creativity flourishes, such as degrees of autonomy, access to resources and the nature of gatekeepers. Creative lifestyles are characterized by nonconforming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.

Educational approach to individual differencesDefinition: Individual differences are the variations from one person to another on variables such as self-esteem, rate of cognitive development or degree of agreeableness. Historically, psychological science has overlooked individual differences in favour of focusing on average behavior.All in all, the study of individual differences helps us to understand not only what makes humans similar to one another, but also what makes them different. By considering the variations that can occur from one person to another, we can best understand the full range of human behaviour. We can also come to understand what constitutes normal variation-such as starting puberty at 9 years of age instead of 10.5 years-and which developmental rates may be red flags for intervention, such as in the case of learning disorders.There are a variety of individual differences that must be of concern to classroom teachers. Some of the most prominent are academic ability (or intelligence), achievement level, gender, learning style, and ethnicity and culture.In general, there are three different approaches for dealing with individual differences among students. First, you can develop events of instruction that take them into account as part of the instructional process. This is the approach used by Bernice McCarthy, developer of the 4MAT system. The second approach is to provide some sort of grouping, either between classes or within the classroom itself, in order to reduce or accomodate for the variability with respect to student background, achievement, ability or some other characteristic. Leveling or tracking, classroom grouping, cooperative learning, and individualized instruction are examples of this approach. Third, you can modify the conditions within which instruction is taking place. This is the approach used in mastery learning.Modifying Events of InstructionOne strategy for dealing with individual differences is to develop or modify the events of instruction so that they specifically address individual differences. This is exemplified by the 4MAT system developed by Bernice McCarthy. The 4MAT system is a direct instruction approach to teaching that utilizes research on brain lateralization dominance and learning style to identify specific instructional events that will be attractive to a specific type of student. The 4MAT system seems to have considerable face validity, although there is not a widespread research base to support it.GroupingThere are four major approaches to grouping: between-class ability grouping (often referred to as leveling or tracking), within-class ability grouping, cooperative learning, and individualized instruction.Between-class Ability Grouping. With respect to between-class ability grouping, research does not support this strategy in terms of learning for all students. Students assigned to the top level (perhaps the top 10 to 15%) seem to benefit from this type of grouping, but middle- and lower-ability students do not. And although this is still a popular practice in Ameican education, some school systems are opting to eliminate it. You might ask the question "Why do we use an educational practice that only benefits a small number of students but is detrimental for most?" The answer probably lies more within the realm of politics and expediency and therefore most likely will need to be dealt with on those terms.The major problem with between-class ability grouping may lie more with the method of grouping than with the concept itself. For the most part, ability groups are determined by a composite score on a standardized test of basic skills or on the subtest scores for reading/language arts and mathematics. However, student knowledge and aptitude may not be uniform across all areas of the content being studied. Perhaps multiple regroupings based on specific prerequisite skills might provide a different picture of the viability for between-class grouping.Another problem that research has found with between-class grouping is that teacher expectations and the quality of instruction are often lower for lower-track groups. Researchers have observed the same teachers in both lower- and upper-level groups and have observed a measurable difference in the performance in these classes. Teachers are generally not as well organized and they use different strategies for questioning when they have entire classrooms composed of lower-ability students.A final problem with between-class grouping is that students may begin to lower their own expectations when they are placed in a lower-level class. This in turn impacts there achievement which in turn impacts their self-concepts with respect to academic achievement (particularly in that specific class) which consequently negatively impacts the teacher's expectations and so on. It is this cyclical nature of the impact of ability-grouping that may be most detrimental.Within-class Ability Grouping. On the whole, research tends to support within-class ability grouping as beneficial to the learning of most students. It seems to be more flexible and, consequently, less stigmatizing. However, this research is based on a small sample of classes (mostly mathematics) and, therefore, needs considerable additional research. In addition, the specific method seems to be important. The ability-grouped active teaching (AGAT) discussed by Slavin (1994, pp. 319, 323) is an example of an effective method. In general, if within-class ability grouping is going to be considered, the teacher may want to have only two groups since it will make the grouping process easier to manage.Cooperative Learning. Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy in which students are placed in heterogeneous groups. In my opinion, cooperative learning is one of the best researched educational innovations of the last two decades. When implemented properly, it can have dramatic effects on student achievement.Individualized Instruction. While individualized instruction is logically the best way to deal with individual differences, in practice it is very difficult to accomplish. One innovation that may change that is computer-assisted instruction (CAI). On the whole, CAI has not yet delivered on its promise to revolutionize teaching and instruction. However, my expectations are that with the more powerful computers now available at reasonable prices we will begin to see an impact on achievement in the near future.Mastery Learning. A third strategy for dealing with individual differences among students is to change the system within which instruction is provided. This is the strategy used by mastery learning. In mastery learning, the teaching environment is structured so that students develop mastery of prerequisite skills before they begin a new lesson. In practice, mastery learning has not demonstrated any superiority over traditional instruction when it is implemented on an individual classroom basis. However, it has been shown to dramatically improve student achievement when it is successfully implemented on a school- or district-wide basis.

Prepared by:Jonalyn H. Bejare

foundations of nursing education

Submitted By : Bejare, Jonalyn H.Submitted To: Dr. Ayonayon